patterns of organization comparison and contrast essay

Writing based on Texts

Structuring support: patterns of organization.

Some basic patterns—and ways of ordering support in an essay—include the following:

You often think in terms of pros and cons when you analyze the merits or characteristics of a thing, person, or idea (e.g., buying a new refrigerator, whom to vote for, whether you’re in favor of or against an increase in school taxes). An essay using a pro/con structure does not necessarily just have two topic sentences, one for pro and one for con. Instead, you may need to structure multiple pro/con topic sentences and units of support to fit your needs. You may want to present pros and cons equally, with multiple topic sentences and units of support for each side. You may opt to focus more fully on either pros or cons, and so would have many topic sentences for the side you emphasize. You may want to address particular points and alternate between pros and cons. Organize your topic sentences and units of support in a way that makes sense given your thesis and purpose.

Problem/Solution

Articulating a problem and offering a solution/s is also a common human thought process (e.g., how to keep the deer from eating out of your garden, how to juggle working from home and homeschooling your children during a pandemic). An essay using a problem/solution pattern usually starts with a topic sentence and unit of support that presents the problem. Then there may be many topic sentences and units of support that analyze and evaluate different possible solutions or that present many aspects of one overall solution.

An essay using a process pattern is often straightforward, as it usually presents a series of steps in chronological order. However, a college essay that uses a process pattern needs to offer more than a list of steps. College writing about a process needs to make a point about that process (e.g., Baking bread, while relatively simple, still involves a number of complexities, variables, and just plain things that can go wrong.). And each topic sentence needs to make a point about that portion of the process. Ideally, a college essay that uses process analysis should emphasize “analysis” as well as “process” by explaining the importance of the steps, their relationship to one another, and/or their use in solving a problem. Process analysis in college essays, while using a relatively simple organizational structure, should involve some depth of thought.

Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and contrast is a thought process that you most likely have gone through many times (e.g., how do these two makes of car compare? which dessert is the best to bring to the party? how can my two children be so different?) In college writing, you may be asked to compare or contrast two theories, concepts, approaches, etc. in order to show similarities or differences and evaluate each. Note the repetition of the word “two.” Comparison and contrast pattern evaluates two things against one another. Also note the repetition of the word “evaluate.” As you compare and contrast, you’ll be expected not only to describe the characteristics of the two things, theories, concepts, or approaches, but also to offer some assessment or analysis, as part of your thesis’ and topic sentences’ angles and supporting evidence.

There are two different, equally useful, organizational patterns for comparison and contrast:

• Side by side – Offer all of the information for one thing first before moving to the second. However, within each side, structure the points of comparison/contrast in the same order. With side by side structure, you may end up with only two topic sentences, or you may end up with general topic sentences to introduce each side, and then a series of more specific topic sentences for each point.
• Point by point – Deal with each point of the comparison/contrast in an order that makes sense given the two things being compared. However, under each point, the same side always needs to come first.

Division and Classification

When you divide and classify, you break something down into its component parts, offering an insight or analysis into the thing you’re breaking down. You actually use division and classification thinking a lot, perhaps without realizing it (e.g., different personality types of the people you know, different types of cars, different types of activities for your children). Remember that when using this pattern of organization, you still have to create a thesis sentence that offers an analytical insight (e.g., Of all the sixteen personality types that Myers-Briggs identify, the ___ type is the best to hire in a ___ type of job, for a number of reasons.) Your then have topic sentences and units of support for each group or class. The topic sentences themselves should have angles that relate back to the main angle in the thesis.

Cause and Effect

Cause and effect is just what it says. Writing about causes and effects deals with identifying “reasons why” and/or “results.” The important thing to remember is that this pattern calls for logical inference in dealing with causes, and logical probabilities in explaining effects. Don’t fall into a logical fallacy by assuming simple and/or incorrect causation. Instead, make sure that you link causes and effects carefully, considering both evidence and probability. As usual, your thesis, topic sentences, and units of support should show some complexity and offer insights into causes and/or effects, insights which you developed based on your reading.

View the following video for a good summary of patterns of organization. Toward the end, the video includes five sample paragraphs so that you can self-test your ability to recognize different patterns of organization as a reader. Considering patterns of organization as a reader will also give you insight into how to apply them as a writer.

Final Thoughts on Structuring Support/Patterns of Organization

• Sometimes understanding a pattern can help you circle back and develop support. For example, if you’re comparing two items in a side by side comparison, you may realize that you do not have parallel information for each side and need to circle back to developing additional support.
• It’s important to remember, though, that you should not force-fit your thoughts and your support into a pattern. Patterns should be organic to your thesis and purpose for writing.
• A clear organizational structure helps your reader follow and understand your thoughts, whether or not the reader is conscious of the structure you used. You experienced that yourself as a reader when you read articles in which ideas were presented clearly and logically.
• Finally and most importantly, keep in mind that you need to review your topic sentences and units of support and make conscious choices about their order. You should be able to articulate your rationale for structuring your support in a certain way.

Review the short article “ How Crisco Toppled Lard .”

• What overall pattern of organization does the author use for the whole article?
• What pattern/s of organization does the author use specifically in the section on King Crisco ?
• The overall pattern of organization for the whole article is sequential, like a process pattern.  The author takes a historical, chronological approach.
• The section on King Crisco uses comparison and contrast, showing similarities and differences between Crisco and other products. Certain words cue you, as a reader, to expect a comparison and contrast pattern: “differently,” “like, ” “in contrast,” and “unlike.”  The section on King Crisco also uses cause and effect, presenting reasons why Crisco hid its ingredients.
• Structuring Support: Patterns of Organization, includes information adapted from College Writing; attribution below. Authored by : Susan Oaks. Project : Introduction to College Reading & Writing. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• College Writing, pages on Patterns of Development Overview, Process Analysis, Comparison and Contrast, Classification and Division, Cause and Effect. Authored by : Susan Oaks. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-esc-wm-englishcomposition1/ . Project : College Writing. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• image of puzzle pieces fitting together in a pattern. Authored by : drvr. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : https://pixabay.com/photos/puzzle-icon-blue-sky-ecology-2198142/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• video Organizational Patterns - Text Structure. Authored by : M Ehlers. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8XZK8-SJ-XQ . License : Other . License Terms : YouTube video

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17 Rhetorical Modes for Paragraphs & Essays

Questions to Ponder

Before you read this chapter, discuss with partners:

• What are rhetorical modes (also called “patterns of organization” and “methods of development”)? Can you list some examples?
• Why are rhetorical modes important in writing? Jot down your ideas.

Now read the graphic below. Can you add to the list of rhetorical modes that you created with your partners?

Rhetorical Modes

Rhetorical modes are also called patterns of organization or methods of development ; they are the ways that authors and speakers organize their ideas to communicate effectively. The rhetorical modes that are covered here are best used as ways to look at what’s already happening in your draft and to consider how you might emphasize or expand on any existing patterns. You might already be familiar with some of these patterns because instructors will sometimes assign them as the purpose for writing an essay. For example, you might have been asked to write a cause and effect essay or a comparison and contrast essay.

Patterns of organization or methods of developing content usually happen naturally as a consequence of the way the writer engages with and organizes information while writing. That is to say, most writers don’t sit down and say, “I think I’ll write a cause and effect essay today.”  Instead, a writer might be more likely to be interested in a topic, say, the state of drinking water in the local community, and as the writer begins to explore the topic, certain cause and effect relationships between environmental pollutants and the community water supply may begin to emerge . And in fact, many times, one essay may incorporate two or more rhetorical modes, as the author makes an argument for their point of view.

Activity A ~ Brainstorming Rhetorical Modes

Pause here to brainstorm ideas with your partner. Using the chart above (“ Choosing Paragraph Patterns “), discuss some of the topics below. Which mode(s) might you use in an essay about these topics? Would you need to explore more than one rhetorical mode for each topic?

• Gender roles
• Race in America
• The value of art in society
• Travel as part of a well-rounded education
• Drugs and alcohol
• Advice to new parents
• Advice to teachers
• The value of making mistakes
• How you’d spend a million dollars
• What a tough day at work taught you about yourself or others
• My family history
• Your idea: ___________

Keep reading to consider some of the ways that these strategies can help you as you revise a draft.

Cause/Effect

Do you see a potential cause-and-effect relationship developing in your draft?  The cause/effect pattern may be used to identify one or more causes followed by one or more effects or results. Or you may reverse this sequence and describe effects first and then the cause or causes. For example, the causes of water pollution might be followed by its effects on both humans and animals. Use the signal words cause ,  effect , and  result , to cue the reader about your about the relationships that you’re establishing.

Here’s an example article from T he New York Times , “ Rough Times Take Bloom Off a New Year’s Rite, the Rose Parade ,” that explores the cause and effect relationship (from 2011) between Pasadena’s budgetary challenges and the ability of their Rose Parade floats to deck themselves out in full bloom.

Problem/Solution

At some point does your essay explore a problem or suggest a solution? The problem/solution pattern is commonly used in identifying something that’s wrong and in contemplating what might be done to remedy the situation. For example, the problem of water pollution could be described, followed by ideas of new ways to solve the problem. There are probably more ways to organize a problem/solution approach, but here are three possibilities:

• Describe the problem, followed by the solution
• Propose the solution first and then describe the problems that motivated it
• Explain a problem, followed by several solutions, and select one solution as the best

Emphasize the words problem  and  solution  to signal these sections of your paper for your reader.

Here’s an example article from T he New York Times , “ Monks Embrace Web to Reach Recruits ,” that highlights an unexpected approach by a group of Benedictine monks in Rhode Island; they’ve turned to social media to grow their dwindling membership.

Compare/Contrast

Are you trying to define something? Do you need your readers to understand what something is and what it is not? The compare-and-contrast method of development is particularly useful in extending a definition, or anywhere you need to show how a subject is like or unlike another subject. For example, the statement is often made that drug abuse is a medical problem instead of a criminal justice issue. An author might attempt to prove this point by comparing drug addiction to AIDS, cancer, or heart disease to redefine the term “addiction” as a medical problem. A statement in opposition to this idea could just as easily establish contrast by explaining all the ways that addiction is different from what we traditionally understand as an illness. In seeking to establish comparison or contrast in your writing, some words or terms that might be useful are by contrast ,  in comparison ,  while ,  some , and  others .

Here’s an example article from T he New York Times “ Who Wants to Shop in a Big Box Store, Anyway? ” The author explores some interesting differences between the average American and average Indian consumer to contemplate the potential success of big box stores in India and also to contemplate why these giant big box corporations, like Walmart or Target, might have to rethink their business model.

These three methods of development—cause/effect, problem/solution, and compare/contrast—are just a few ways to organize and develop ideas and content in your essays. It’s important to note that they should not be a starting point for writers who want to write something authentic, to discuss something that they care deeply about. Instead, they can be a great way to help you look for what’s already happening with your topic or in a draft, to help you to write more, or to help you reorganize some parts of an essay that seem to lack connection or feel disjointed.

Sometimes writers incorporate a variety of modes in any one essay. For example, under the umbrella of an argument essay, and author might choose to write paragraphs showing cause and effect, description, and narrative. The rhetorical mode writers choose depends on the purpose for writing. Rhetorical modes are a set of tools that will give you greater flexibility and effectiveness in communicating with your audience and expressing ideas.

In addition to cause/effect , problem/solution , and compare/contrast , there are many other types of rhetorical modes:

• Classification and division , often used in science, takes large ideas and divides them into manageable chunks of information, classifying and organizing them into types and parts.
• Definition  clarifies the meaning of terms and concepts, providing context and description for deeper understanding of those ideas.
• Description  provides detailed information using adjectives that appeal to the five senses (what people see, hear, smell, taste, and touch) as well as other vivid details that help readers visualize or understand an item or concept.
• Evaluation  analyzes and judges the value and merit of an essay, a concept, or topic.
• Illustration  provides examples and evidence in detail to support, explain, and analyze a main point or idea.
• Narrative  uses fictional or nonfictional stories in a chronological sequence of events, often including detailed descriptions and appeals to the senses and emotions of readers while storytelling to reveal a theme or moment.
• Persuasion  (i.e., argumentation) logically attempts to convince readers to agree with an opinion or take an action; the argument also acknowledges opposing viewpoints and accommodates and/or refutes them with diplomatic and respectful language, as well as provides precise and accurate evidence and other expert supporting details.
• Process analysis  describes and explains, step by step, chronologically, in detail, and with precision and accuracy, how to do something or how something works.

Assignment prompts for college essays may require a specific rhetorical mode, or you may be able to choose the best mode(s) to express your ideas clearly. Either way, be sure to ask your instructor if you are not sure which rhetorical mode(s) to use.

Key Takeaways

Why are rhetorical modes important?

• As readers, understanding an author’s rhetorical mode helps us to understand the text, and to read and think critically.
• Knowing the rhetorical mode helps us to identify the author’s main ideas, which helps us to summarize the author’s work.
• As writers, we use rhetorical modes to make our writing clearer; they help us signal our topic and direction to our readers.
• Rhetorical modes also help us to develop support and keep our readers interested.

Activity B ~ Identifying Rhetorical Modes

• Read a printed or online essay or article. A letter to the editor or an editorial from a newspaper would be perfect. Then, with a partner, identify the modes of writing found in the article. (Use the lists above to help.) Analyze the different choices the writer has made about language and organization to express a point of view. Notice how the author may combine rhetorical modes (for example, a problem-solution article that uses cause-and-effect organization in some paragraphs, or a definition pattern that uses narrative or compare and contrast paragraphs to develop similarities or differences).
• Select, read, and annotate a sample student essay in a specific style as provided in “ Readings: Examples of Essays ” from Saylor Academy . Note in the margins or on another sheet of paper what rhetorical mode each paragraph uses, how those modes and paragraphs support the overall rhetorical mode of the essay, and whether each paragraph does so successfully or not. Discuss in small groups and summarize your findings to report to the rest of the class.

If you want to learn more about three common rhetorical modes, read what the New York Times  has to say in their learning blog article, “ Compare-Contrast, Cause-Effect, Problem Solution: Common ‘Text Types’ in The Times .”

Note: links open in new tabs.

This chapter was modified from the following Open Educational Resources:

“Patterns of Organization and Methods of Development ” from The Word on College Reading and Writing by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

“ Introduction ” from  English Composition   by Karyl Garland, Ann Inoshita, Jeanne K. Tsutsui Keuma, Kate Sims, and Tasha Williams, is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

“ Chapter 10: The Rhetorical Modes ” and “ Chapter 15: Readings: Examples of Essays ,” from  Writing for Success from Saylor Academy, which is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0.

to think about

to write quickly

to come out, to be revealed

to decorate themselves

to fix; to make right

getting smaller

ENGLISH 087: Academic Advanced Writing Copyright © 2020 by Nancy Hutchison is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Essay Pattern: Compare & Contrast

Compare & contrast essays are a popular organizational option. Here are some techniques to make this kind of essay truly sing.

Necessary Compare & Contrast Steps: An Overview

In a comparison/contrast essay, a writer must do the following:

• Identify and explain three or more key points that two or more subjects have in common.
• Show the similarities and differences between these points.
• Develop a thesis, indicating his or her position regarding the two subjects. The thesis may indicate that one subject is stronger than the other and that both subjects have strengths, or that both subjects possess noteworthy flaws.

There are two ways to organize a comparison/contrast essay.

Subject By Subject

This organizational pattern is most effective when used on short essays, such as in-class essays. The body of such an essay is organized by discussing one subject, point by point, in complete detail before moving on to the next subject. The writer should select points by which both subjects can be examined. The number of body paragraphs will be determined by the number of points discussed in the essay.  Here is an example:

Point By Point

This organizational pattern is most effective when used on longer essays, such as a comparison of two articles, short stories, or novels. The body of such an essay is organized by discussing one point at a time and how it applies to each subject before moving on to the next point. For long works, at least three points should be examined if not more.

Once you’ve drafted a comparison essay, ask someone else to look over your draft and tell you how effective he or she finds your basic comparison— and why. Then read it over yourself, too, with a critical eye.

Some Questions to Keep in Mind When Checking a Comparison

SUBJECTS OF COMPARISON. What specific subjects does this essay compare? Are those subjects similar enough to justify the comparison? On what basis are they compared? Does the text emphasize the similarities or the differences between them? Or does it give equal weight to both?

PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE. Who are the intended readers, and what is the general purpose of the comparison—to inform? to evaluate? some other purpose? Does the comparison achieve this purpose? If not, what changes might help? What background information is included, and is it sufficient for the intended readers to fully understand the text? Are there any key terms that readers might need to have defined?

THE POINT. What is the main point of the essay? Has it been made clear to the reader? Is there an explicit thesis statement? If not, should there be

ORGANIZATION. How is the essay organized? Where does it use the point-by-point method of organization? The subject-by-subject method? When comparing subjects point by point, does the essay give more or less equal weight to each subject? When treating first one subject and then the other, does the essay follow more or less the same order in laying out the points of comparison for each subject?

POINTS OF COMPARISON. What are the specific points of comparison in the essay? Are they sufficient to convince the reader that the comparison is valid? Do they cover the same elements in both subjects? Have any important points been omitted—and if so, what are they?

OTHER METHODS. What other methods are used besides comparison and contrast? Does the essay classify subjects? Define them? Make an argument about them? What other methods might support the comparison?

Kaylan | 2019

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.

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30 Patterns of Organization and Methods of Development

Patterns of organization can help your readers follow the ideas within your essay and your paragraphs, but they can also work as methods of development to help you recognize and further develop ideas and relationships in your writing. Here are some strategies that can help you with both organization and development in your essays.

Major Patterns of Organization

• Now take the pie out of the oven and let it cool on the stovetop.
• Mix the dry ingredients with the liquid ingredients.
• Set the pie crust aside while you make the filling.

How did it feel to read the above list? A bit confusing, I would guess. That’s because the steps for making a pie were not well organized, and the steps don’t include enough detail for us to know exactly what we should do. (Like what are the dry and liquid ingredients?) We all know that starting instructions from the beginning and giving each detailed step in the order it should happen is vital to having a good outcome, in this case a yummy pie! But it’s not always so simple to know how to organize or develop ideas, and sometimes there’s more than one way, which complicates things even further.

First, let’s take a look at a couple of ways to think about organization.

General to Specific or Specific to General

It might be useful to think about organizing your topic like a triangle:

The first triangle represents starting with the most general, big picture information first, moving then to more detailed and often more personal information later in the paper. The second triangle represents an organizational structure that starts with the specific, small scale information first and then moves to the more global, big picture stuff.

For example, if your topic is traffic in Vancouver, British Columbia, an essay that uses the general-to-specific organizational structure might begin this way:

Many people consider Vancouver, British Columbia, to be a relaxed place to live. They would be shocked to know how bad the traffic is traveling major arteries into the city and even driving around the city itself.

An essay that uses the specific-to-general structure might start like this:

Transit is crowded, parking is expensive, and vehicles stop and go through the main streets of the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, and that is just once travelers brave the crowded arteries to enter the city; Vancouver’s traffic problem does not lend itself to the relaxed atmosphere many believe the city to have.

What’s the difference between these two introductions? And how might they appeal to the intended audience for this essay in different ways? The first introduction is looking at the big picture of the problem and mentions pollution’s impact on all citizens in Portland, while the second introduction focuses on one specific family. The first helps readers see how vast the problem really is, and the second helps connect readers to a real family, making an emotional appeal from the very beginning. Neither introduction is necessarily better. You’ll choose one over the other based on the kind of tone you’d like to create and how you’d like to affect your audience. It’s completely up to you to make this decision.

Does the Triangle Mean the Essay Keeps Getting More Specific or More Broad until the Very End?

The triangle is kind of a general guide, meaning you’re allowed to move around within it all you want. For example, it’s possible that each of your paragraphs will be its own triangle, starting with the general or specific and moving out or in. However, if you begin very broadly, it might be effective to end your essay in a more specific, personal way. And if you begin with a personal story, consider ending your essay by touching on the global impact and importance of your topic.

Are There Other Ways to Think about Organizing My Ideas?

Yes! Rather than thinking about which of your ideas are most specific or personal or which are more broad or universal, you might consider one of the following ways of organizing your ideas:

• Most important information first (consider what you want readers to focus on first)
• Chronological order (the order in time that events take place)
• Compare and contrast (ideas are organized together because of their relationship to each other)

The section on Methods of Development, below, offers more detail about some of these organizational patterns, along with some others.

Choose one of the following topics, and practice writing a few opening sentences like we did above, once using the general-to-specific format and once using the specific-to-general. Which do you like better? What audience would be attracted to which one? Share with peers to see how others tackled this challenge. How would you rewrite their sentences? Why? Discuss your changes and listen to how your peers have revised your sentences. Taking in other people’s ideas will help you see new ways to approach your own writing and thinking. Topics:

• Facing fears
• Safety in sports
• Community policing
• Educating prisoners
• Sex education

Methods of Development

The methods of development covered here are best used as ways to look at what’s already happening in your draft and to consider how you might emphasize or expand on any existing patterns. You might already be familiar with some of these patterns because teachers will sometimes assign them as the purpose for writing an essay. For example, you might have been asked to write a cause-and-effect essay or a comparison-and-contrast essay.

It’s important to emphasize here that patterns of organization or methods of developing content usually happen naturally as a consequence of the way the writer engages with and organizes information while writing. That is to say, most writers don’t sit down and say, “I think I’ll write a cause-and-effect essay today.”  Instead, a writer might be more likely to be interested in a topic, say, the state of drinking water in the local community, and as the writer begins to explore the topic, certain cause-and-effect relationships between environmental pollutants and the community water supply may begin to emerge.

So if these patterns just occur naturally in writing, what’s the use in knowing about them? Well, sometimes you might be revising a draft and notice that some of your paragraphs are a bit underdeveloped. Maybe they lack a clear topic, or maybe they lack support. In either case, you can look to these common methods of development to find ways to sharpen those vague topics or to add support where needed. Do you have a clear cause statement somewhere but you haven’t explored the effects?  Are you lacking detail somewhere where a narrative story or historical chronology can help build reader interest and add support?  Are you struggling to define an idea that might benefit from some comparison or contrast?  Read on to consider some of the ways that these strategies can help you in revision.

Cause and Effect (or Effect and Cause)

Do you see a potential cause-and-effect relationship developing in your draft?  The cause-and-effect pattern may be used to identify one or more causes followed by one or more effects or results. Or you may reverse this sequence and describe effects first and then the cause or causes. For example, the causes of water pollution might be followed by its effects on both humans and animals. You may use obvious transitions to clarify cause and effect, such as “What are the results? Here are some of them…” or you might simply use the words cause , effect , and result , to cue the reader about your about the relationships that you’re establishing.

Problem-Solution

At some point does your essay explore a problem or suggest a solution? The problem-solution pattern is commonly used in identifying something that’s wrong and in contemplating what might be done to remedy the situation. There are probably more ways to organize a problem-solution approach, but but here are three possibilities:

• Describe the problem, followed by the solution.
• Propose the solution first and then describe the problems that motivated it.
• Or a problem may be followed by several solutions, one of which is selected as the best.

When the solution is stated at the end of the paper, the pattern is sometimes called the delayed proposal. For a hostile audience, it may be effective to describe the problem, show why other solutions do not work, and finally suggest the favored solution. You can emphasize the words problem and solution to signal these sections of your paper for your reader.

Chronology or Narrative

Do you need to develop support for a topic where telling a story can illustrate some important concept for your readers? Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. A chronological or narrative method of development might help you find a way to add both interest and content to your essay. Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. This pattern may be used to establish what has happened. Chronology or narrative can be a great way to introduce your essay by providing a background or history behind your topic. Or you may want to tell a story to develop one or more points in the body of your essay. You can use transitional words like then , next , and finally to make the parts of the chronology clear.

Comparison and Contrast

Are you trying to define something? Do you need your readers to understand what something is and what it is not? The comparison-and-contrast method of development is particularly useful in extending a definition, or anywhere you need to show how a subject is like or unlike another subject. For example, the statement is often made that drug abuse is a medical problem instead of a criminal justice issue. An author might attempt to prove this point by comparing drug addiction to AIDS, cancer, or heart disease to redefine the term “addiction” as a medical problem. A statement in opposition to this idea could just as easily establish contrast by explaining all the ways that addiction is different from what we traditionally understand as an illness. In seeking to establish comparison or contrast in your writing, some words or terms that might be useful are by contrast , in comparison , while , some , and others .

These four methods of development—cause and effect, problem-solution, chronology or narrative, and comparison and contrast—are just a few ways to organize and develop ideas and content in your essays. It’s important to note that they should not be a starting point for writers who want to write something authentic—something that they care deeply about. Instead, they can be a great way to help you look for what’s already happening with your topic or in a draft, to help you to write more, or to help you reorganize some parts of an essay that seem to lack connection or feel disjointed. Look for organizational patterns when you’re reading work by professional writers. Notice where they combine strategies (e.g., a problem-solution pattern that uses cause-and-effect organization, or a comparison-contrast pattern that uses narrative or chronology to develop similarities or differences). Pay attention to how different writers emphasize and develop their main ideas, and use what you find to inspire you in your own writing. Better yet, work on developing  completely new patterns of your own.

Text Attributions

• This chapter was adapted from “ Patterns of Organization and Methods of Development ” in The Word on College Reading and Writing by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 Licence . Adapted by Allison Kilgannon.

Media Attributions

• “ Peach and lavender pie ” by Heather Joan is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Licence .
• “General to Specific vs. Specific to General Triangles” by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 Licence .

Advanced English Copyright © 2021 by Allison Kilgannon is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Comparing and Contrasting: Picturing an Organizational Pattern

• Resources & Preparation
• Instructional Plan
• Related Resources

Students investigate picture books organized in comparison/contrast structures to discover methods of organization (usually a combination of the point-by-point, whole-to-whole, or similarities-to-differences patterns) and the ways authors use transitions to guide readers. Students can then decide what organizational patterns and transitional words work best to accomplish their individual purposes in writing and apply those to their papers. This lesson is designed to be used during a unit when students are writing a comparison/contrast paper. It will be most helpful prior to drafting, but it could also be useful during revision.

Featured Resources

Comparison and Contrast Rubric : Use this rubric to evaluate the purpose and supporting details; organization; transitions; and conventions of students' comparison and contrast papers. Comparison and Contrast Guide : This online tool provides students with information about and resources for using comparison and contrast structures in their writing. Interactive Venn Diagram : Students use this online tool to compare and contrast the details of two books. The tool can also be used to organize ideas for a compare and contrast essay.

From Theory to Practice

In Strategic Writing , Dean makes an argument and provides strategies for using model texts to help students develop structures for writing. Research into reading-writing connections supports that argument and those strategies: "reading like a writer allows one to actually become a writer" (Langer and Flihan, 118). In fact, in the conclusion to Children Reading and Writing , Judith Langer maintains that "models of more complex forms need to permeate the children's environment" (139). Teaching students how to access models to acquire writing strategies is an important part of learning to read and write effectively. Such strategic instruction can stay with students well beyond a specific assignment. Although many prose texts use comparison/contrast structures in passages, picture books are often perceived as more accessible to students, and therefore function better as mentor texts, as Carr et al. note: "Often students who are struggling with the length and complexity of an assigned novel miss the subtleties of the author's craft" (148). Further Reading

Common Core Standards

This resource has been aligned to the Common Core State Standards for states in which they have been adopted. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, CCSS alignments are forthcoming.

State Standards

This lesson has been aligned to standards in the following states. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, standard alignments are not currently available for that state.

NCTE/IRA National Standards for the English Language Arts

• 1. Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction, classic and contemporary works.
• 3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics).
• 5. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes.
• 6. Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss print and nonprint texts.
• 8. Students use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge.
• 12. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information).

Materials and Technology

• T he Yellow House: Vincent Van Gogh & Paul Gauguin Side by Side by Susan Goldman Rubin (Harry Abrams: 2001)
• The Journey: Stories of Migration by Cynthia Rylant (Blue Sky Press (Scholastic Imprint): 2006)
• George vs. George: The American Revolution as seen from Both Sides by Rosalyn Schanzer (Scholastic: 2004)
• John, Paul, George, & Ben by Lane Smith. (Hyperion: 2006)
• Board or chart paper and writing instruments

Comparison and Contrast Rubric

Preparation

• Preview the Sample Mentor Texts .
• Have copies of the books available for students to review in small groups.
• Prepare Venn Diagram or Compare and Contrast Chart Graphic Organizer handouts for students’ use.
• Make sure students have completed most of the inquiry stage of the writing process on a comparison/contrast paper and are ready to begin drafting.
• Test the ReadWriteThink Comparison and Contrast Guide and Interactive Venn Diagram on your computers to familiarize yourself with the tools and ensure that you have the Flash plug-in installed. You can download the plug-in from the technical support page.
• (optional) Consider teaching ReadWriteThink’s lessons Creative Communication Frames: Discovering Similarities between Writing and Art and/or Exploring Compare and Contrast Structure in Expository Texts in preparation for this lesson.

Student Objectives

Students will

• recognize textual patterns in picture books.
• organize similar and different information about two topics to make a point.
• recognize and use transitional devices in writing.

Session One

• Since students should have already conducted the inquiry into their topics, begin the lesson by having students transfer what they know about their topics onto the Compare and Contrast Chart Graphic Organizer . Or choose to use the Venn Diagram , if that is more applicable. Completing this activity now will refresh the information in students’ minds and prepare them for choosing an organizational pattern for their drafting.
• Introduce the basics of comparison/contrast organization with the ReadWriteThink Comparison and Contrast Guide . If the examples seem too simple for students, supplement with more pertinent examples that apply to the specific assignment students are working on.
• When the Guide brings up the point of comparing for a purpose, stop and have students decide what point they want to make with their comparison—and ask them to write the point on the bottom of the graphic organizer . This step will emphasize that writers don’t compare and contrast simply as an exercise, i.e. this is how these two things are alike and here’s how they’re different. A conclusion must be drawn from the comparison, just as is done in life when we compare.
• Continue with the ReadWriteThink Comparison and Contrast Guide at the section titled “Organizing a Paper.” It introduces the basic options of organizing a comparison/contrast paper. The background is important for students to know before they read the mentor texts .
• Prepare students to understand, though, that published texts are often combinations of these basic patterns rather than strict adherents to them.
• Next, help students understand how to look for the organization in mentor texts by working through one with the class. The Lane Smith text, John, Paul, George, & Ben , is best for this portion as the text is short.
• Tell students that they should look for how the author organizes the ideas, especially noting when he is talking about how the topics are alike and how they are different—and making a map of that.
• After reading the text to the students, compare student comments about organization to the default patterns from the minilesson. This text uses a version of the whole-to-whole because it begins by introducing the individual men and their unique traits (in a humorous way). Then it tells how they each brought those unique traits to a common goal—the revolution—and explains how each man’s traits contributed to that common goal. What is compared (or similar) is the goal they had in common. What is different is the talent or trait each person brought to that common goal.
• After students have worked through this text with the teacher, they can consider if this pattern would work for their own ideas or not.
• Next, share with the students the section titled "Transitions" in the ReadWriteThink Comparison and Contrast Guide . Tell them that they are going to look at picture books in small groups to identify other organizational patterns and transition words authors use, so they need to keep a watch for these words and any others that do the same job.
• Put students into small groups. It works best if you have two versions of each picture book so that two different small groups can work on the same text.
• Ask students to read the text through once to get the idea of it and then to go through it carefully a second time to determine the organizational pattern. As they do this, a scribe should take notes on organization and another scribe should take notes on the transitional words that students note. Students should look for times the author is comparing (showing similarities) and times he/she is contrasting (showing differences)—how these are organized and how they alternate. Additionally, they should note what is the point of the comparison.

Session Two

• Students may need to continue and complete the small group work during the second session.
• The Yellow House uses a story as the overriding frame for the comparison that is largely a point-by-point pattern. The author alternates general similarities (they shared supplies, they had favorite colors, they painted the same subjects) with more noticeable differences (they used supplies differently—and then this difference is explained with details or one liked red and the other yellow, etc.). The contrasts, though, are not evenly balanced. Sometimes they alternate Van Gogh/Gauguin/Van Gogh/Gauguin and sometimes they are Van Gogh/Gauguin/Gauguin/Van Gogh or Van Gogh/Gauguin/Van Gogh. Help students to notice this, since it is true of many comparison pieces, and students sometimes feel constrained by the idea that everything has to be equal and in the same pattern. Variety, in examples like this, can help them use flow more than the pattern as a guide for organizing their own papers.
• The Journey uses one broad similarity as the frame for the book: all these animals migrate. Then, the key point of each section is the unique aspect of that particular migration: So, this book uses a whole-to-whole pattern. The introduction is a common point. After that, the individual sections show contrast: Locusts migrate in unusual circumstances of too many eggs being laid; the gray whale migrates farther than any other mammal; the Arctic tern migrates farther than any other creature. Then the conclusion brings up three points in common that have been made in the text of each section: “That they understand when to travel and where to go and how to get there is one of the planet’s marvels.” Even with the whole-to-whole pattern, there are comparisons within the sections, as students should notice when they look for transitions “As most migrating animals miraculously do. . . . ” “Migrating animals sometimes face many dangers as they travel, and this is especially true for the majestic antlered caribou.” These comparisons provide a nice cohesive device most students can understand and use instead of seeing each section of the paper as separate from the others, which often happens when they choose a whole-to-whole pattern.
• George vs. George may be the most complex (Because of that, teachers might have students only use part of the book, skipping pages 36–51). It uses an overall similarities-to-differences pattern, but blended with a point-by-point pattern in places too. In the first section, Schanzer specifically brings out the similarities between the two Georges and their countries and peoples. Then, within the frame of the story of the revolution, the author uses a point-by-point contrast of the different perspectives on the events, playing into the overall similarity-to-differences pattern. The conclusion shows the two men again, after the revolution. Despite a few similarities, the conclusion suggests more important differences, again leading to the overall similarity-to-difference pattern for the book.
• When students have gone over what they found with their partner groups, they should briefly present what they found to the class.
• Make a list on the board or chart paper of the transitional devices they name and help students see how the transitional devices reflect the specific patterns as they guide readers in how to connect one idea to another. It might also be helpful to have students recognize that the patterns they saw in the Guide are much more subtle when applied effectively to real texts. They are not simply fill-in-the-blank forms. Despite this, some students will use the templates as default strategies while others will understand the subtleties of texts that use the natural flow of ideas within a general pattern rather than pattern as form.
• Have students consider which pattern (or combination of patterns) will best serve their purposes for their own comparison/contrast papers. Then have them use the pattern to group their ideas from the graphic organizer and also select possible transitions from the list on the board that they can use as they draft.
• Once they choose a organizational pattern, students can use the Compare and Contrast Map to organize their ideas further.
• Using this prewriting, have students begin drafting.
• During revision, peer evaluators can try to identify which pattern or combination of patterns a writer uses in organizing his/her paper. If the peer evaluator can’t tell, the author should reconsider organization or the effective use of transitions to help the reader follow the pattern of organization more effectively.
• Teachers can use the "Says-Does" strategy for questioning textual patterns in other books or sections of text. This strategy is explained in Dean’s book on pages 65–68.

Student Assessment / Reflections

Teachers will have their own rubrics for grading the essays students write, or they can use this rubric assessing comparison and contrast essays. Students should also reflect on how the mentor texts helped them organize their ideas for drafting as part of the overall reflection for the paper. Reflection questions can include:

• Which organizational pattern from the mentor texts did you use for writing your own paper? Why did you choose it?
• How did reading and discussing the mentor texts help you find an effective organizational pattern and appropriate transition words for your own writing?
• In future writing, when you need possibilities for organizing the ideas, how might you use the strategy of mentor texts to help you?
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This interactive tool allows students to create Venn diagrams that contain two or three overlapping circles, enabling them to organize their information logically.

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We are thankful to be welcome on these lands in friendship. The lands we are situated on are covered by the Williams Treaties and are the traditional territory of the Mississaugas, a branch of the greater Anishinaabeg Nation, including Algonquin, Ojibway, Odawa and Pottawatomi. These lands remain home to many Indigenous nations and peoples.

We acknowledge this land out of respect for the Indigenous nations who have cared for Turtle Island, also called North America, from before the arrival of settler peoples until this day. Most importantly, we acknowledge that the history of these lands has been tainted by poor treatment and a lack of friendship with the First Nations who call them home.

This history is something we are all affected by because we are all treaty people in Canada. We all have a shared history to reflect on, and each of us is affected by this history in different ways. Our past defines our present, but if we move forward as friends and allies, then it does not have to define our future.

Learn more about Indigenous Education and Cultural Services

• The Writing Process
• Stage 2: Drafting/Writing
• Paragraph Structure

Therefore, there are several organizational patterns to know in order to find the one that best fits the written work.

Chronological

A chronological pattern organizes information according to the sequence of time. Each section or paragraph represents a certain moment in time and the sub-points can explain the important events that occurred within that moment. This pattern is especially beneficial when writing a historical essay or a biography.

Sequential/Process

A sequential or process pattern arranges the ideas in a step-by-step process. Each sentence or section represents a different step. This is beneficial when giving instructions or explaining the steps taken to conduct an experiment.

When it is necessary to articulate how things fit together, a spatial pattern of organization would help. This pattern will help the reader to visualize how something appears physically; for example, it would be beneficial to use this pattern to describe a physical space.

Cause-Effect

Sometimes, if you are writing about a particular problem, you might find that your argument is pointing out the particular root causes of that problem. You might even be identifying the effects. If this is what you find, then the pattern of organization to use would be cause-effect. There are two main ways to structure this kind of pattern. You can have two main sections identifying all of the causes in one section and all of the effects in the other. Alternatively, you could separate each section or paragraph by the cause and its subsequent effect.

Problem-Solution

Much like the cause-effect pattern, the problem-solution pattern describes a problem and its solution(s). Commonly used in persuasive writing, this pattern can convince the reader to form an opinion on a particular problem and take action towards the solution(s). This pattern can be organized with two main sections identifying all of the problems in one section and all of the solutions in the other. On the other hand, it could have one section or paragraph designated for each problem and its subsequent solution(s).

Compare and Contrast

When you are comparing-contrasting two or more items or ideas, this pattern will obviously work the best. You can separate each item and describe each in detail, leaving the reader to identify the similarities and/or differences. Alternatively, you can separate each section/paragraph by each similarity and/or difference you identify. If you choose the latter, all items should be discussed under each particular similarity or difference.

For additional help on writing compare-contrast papers, download the Compare-Contrast Paper tip sheet.

Advantages-Disadvantages

When illuminating the advantages and disadvantages of two or more things, this pattern of organization will help the reader to understand both sides of an issue. There are a variety of ways to organize this pattern; however, the most effective would be to separate the advantages from the disadvantages.

Most of the time, when writing does not fit into the above-mentioned categories, it requires a topical organizational pattern. With this pattern, writers arrange the sections or paragraphs according to different topics, keeping in mind what would make the most sense to the reader. If you remember these patterns during the planning stages of your writing, your decision about how to structure your written assignment should become easier.

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10.7 Comparison and Contrast

Learning objectives.

• Determine the purpose and structure of comparison and contrast in writing.
• Explain organizational methods used when comparing and contrasting.
• Understand how to write a compare-and-contrast essay.

The Purpose of Comparison and Contrast in Writing

Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar, while contrast in writing discusses elements that are different. A compare-and-contrast essay , then, analyzes two subjects by comparing them, contrasting them, or both.

The key to a good compare-and-contrast essay is to choose two or more subjects that connect in a meaningful way. The purpose of conducting the comparison or contrast is not to state the obvious but rather to illuminate subtle differences or unexpected similarities. For example, if you wanted to focus on contrasting two subjects you would not pick apples and oranges; rather, you might choose to compare and contrast two types of oranges or two types of apples to highlight subtle differences. For example, Red Delicious apples are sweet, while Granny Smiths are tart and acidic. Drawing distinctions between elements in a similar category will increase the audience’s understanding of that category, which is the purpose of the compare-and-contrast essay.

Similarly, to focus on comparison, choose two subjects that seem at first to be unrelated. For a comparison essay, you likely would not choose two apples or two oranges because they share so many of the same properties already. Rather, you might try to compare how apples and oranges are quite similar. The more divergent the two subjects initially seem, the more interesting a comparison essay will be.

Writing at Work

Comparing and contrasting is also an evaluative tool. In order to make accurate evaluations about a given topic, you must first know the critical points of similarity and difference. Comparing and contrasting is a primary tool for many workplace assessments. You have likely compared and contrasted yourself to other colleagues. Employee advancements, pay raises, hiring, and firing are typically conducted using comparison and contrast. Comparison and contrast could be used to evaluate companies, departments, or individuals.

Brainstorm an essay that leans toward contrast. Choose one of the following three categories. Pick two examples from each. Then come up with one similarity and three differences between the examples.

• Romantic comedies
• Internet search engines
• Cell phones

Brainstorm an essay that leans toward comparison. Choose one of the following three items. Then come up with one difference and three similarities.

• Department stores and discount retail stores
• Fast food chains and fine dining restaurants
• Dogs and cats

The Structure of a Comparison and Contrast Essay

The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so. The thesis could lean more toward comparing, contrasting, or both. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting is to provide useful knowledge to the reader. Take the following thesis as an example that leans more toward contrasting.

Thesis statement: Organic vegetables may cost more than those that are conventionally grown, but when put to the test, they are definitely worth every extra penny.

Here the thesis sets up the two subjects to be compared and contrasted (organic versus conventional vegetables), and it makes a claim about the results that might prove useful to the reader.

You may organize compare-and-contrast essays in one of the following two ways:

• According to the subjects themselves, discussing one then the other
• According to individual points, discussing each subject in relation to each point

See Figure 10.1 “Comparison and Contrast Diagram” , which diagrams the ways to organize our organic versus conventional vegetables thesis.

Figure 10.1 Comparison and Contrast Diagram

The organizational structure you choose depends on the nature of the topic, your purpose, and your audience.

Given that compare-and-contrast essays analyze the relationship between two subjects, it is helpful to have some phrases on hand that will cue the reader to such analysis. See Table 10.3 “Phrases of Comparison and Contrast” for examples.

Table 10.3 Phrases of Comparison and Contrast

Create an outline for each of the items you chose in Note 10.72 “Exercise 1” and Note 10.73 “Exercise 2” . Use the point-by-point organizing strategy for one of them, and use the subject organizing strategy for the other.

Writing a Comparison and Contrast Essay

First choose whether you want to compare seemingly disparate subjects, contrast seemingly similar subjects, or compare and contrast subjects. Once you have decided on a topic, introduce it with an engaging opening paragraph. Your thesis should come at the end of the introduction, and it should establish the subjects you will compare, contrast, or both as well as state what can be learned from doing so.

The body of the essay can be organized in one of two ways: by subject or by individual points. The organizing strategy that you choose will depend on, as always, your audience and your purpose. You may also consider your particular approach to the subjects as well as the nature of the subjects themselves; some subjects might better lend themselves to one structure or the other. Make sure to use comparison and contrast phrases to cue the reader to the ways in which you are analyzing the relationship between the subjects.

After you finish analyzing the subjects, write a conclusion that summarizes the main points of the essay and reinforces your thesis. See Chapter 15 “Readings: Examples of Essays” to read a sample compare-and-contrast essay.

Many business presentations are conducted using comparison and contrast. The organizing strategies—by subject or individual points—could also be used for organizing a presentation. Keep this in mind as a way of organizing your content the next time you or a colleague have to present something at work.

Choose one of the outlines you created in Note 10.75 “Exercise 3” , and write a full compare-and-contrast essay. Be sure to include an engaging introduction, a clear thesis, well-defined and detailed paragraphs, and a fitting conclusion that ties everything together.

Key Takeaways

• A compare-and-contrast essay analyzes two subjects by either comparing them, contrasting them, or both.
• The purpose of writing a comparison or contrast essay is not to state the obvious but rather to illuminate subtle differences or unexpected similarities between two subjects.
• The thesis should clearly state the subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both, and it should state what is to be learned from doing so.

There are two main organizing strategies for compare-and-contrast essays.

• Organize by the subjects themselves, one then the other.
• Organize by individual points, in which you discuss each subject in relation to each point.
• Use phrases of comparison or phrases of contrast to signal to readers how exactly the two subjects are being analyzed.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing effective comparison/contrast essays, 1. brainstorming and prewriting.

Recall that a comparison/contrast essay serves the purpose of examining the similarities and/or differences between two subjects. When you compare things, you show their similarities; when you contrast things, you show their differences.

The first step in writing a comparison/contrast essay is to brainstorm ideas and decide upon a topic. It's important that you find two things that have enough similarities or differences in order to be able to effectively compare or contrast them. If you choose two things that are too similar, you’ll struggle to find meaningful differences. If you choose two things that are too different, you’ll struggle to find meaningful comparisons.

During the brainstorming stage of the writing process, you can use a variety of activities to help you generate ideas for your topic. It can be helpful to make a list of similarities and differences between your two subjects, then choose the ones that are most important to use in your comparison/contrast essay.

This will help you to see the multitude of similarities and differences, and then focus in on the most important ones to use in your essay:

Clustering, or mapping, is another way to generate ideas using words, shapes, and lines that show the connections between those ideas.

• There are unending things that you can compare/contrast, and choosing two might seem overwhelming. Some common themes for a comparison/contrast essay may include events (Battle of Fort Sumter versus Battle of Sewell’s Point), situations (riding the bus versus driving to work), people (a CEO versus a CFO of a company), and places (London versus Tokyo).
• A good approach for beginner writers can be to pick two things that are in the same overarching category (foods, animals, locations, people, events, etc.) but differ in some significant ways. This can make it easier to see the similarities as well as the differences.
• Don’t forget to consider the "So what?" question when deciding on your topic. Why are you choosing this topic? Why should anyone care? Is it at all meaningful? You should be able to explain to your readers why it is useful that they understand the similarities or differences between these two topics.
• Ghandi and Martin Luther King Jr. (historical figures)
• The 1960s and today (two eras in time)
• Pop music and country music (genres of music)
• Oprah Winfrey and Ellen DeGeneres (talk show hosts)
• Online college courses and in-person college courses (ways to take college courses)
• Communism and socialism (belief systems)
• Solar power and wind energy (energy types)

As you narrow your focus, you will need to determine which points of comparison or contrast are most important. The number of points of comparison or contrast that you settle on will be driven by the topic you choose. However, for the comparison/contrast essay you’ll be writing for this course, you will need to focus in on two or three main points of comparison or contrast.

As you know, an outline can be a useful tool during prewriting to help you further develop the ideas and organization of your essay. Creating an outline will help you plan the way in which you want to organize your body paragraphs, and which details you want to include in each. This will help you to produce a sort of roadmap for your essay.

2. Drafting a Thesis Statement

A good thesis statement is the cornerstone of any academic essay. During the brainstorming and prewriting steps, you will have selected a topic and chosen your strongest main points to either compare or contrast within your essay. This will help you further develop your thesis statement.

A good thesis statement should convey the main points of your essay and should avoid being overly generic.

Instead, a good thesis statement should provide more information on which points of comparison or contrast will be discussed in the essay. Below are some templates you can consider as you begin to draft your thesis statement. A good thesis statement is not required to follow one of these patterns, but as a beginning writer, you may find that they provide a helpful starting point.

For an essay contrasting two subjects, your thesis statement may look something like this:

{Subject 1} and {Subject 2} may appear similar, but they differ in {first point of contrast}, {second point of contrast}, and {third point of contrast}.

Or, if you are comparing two subjects, your thesis statement might look something like this:

{Subject 1} and {Subject 2} do not appear to have a lot in common, but they are very similar in {first point of comparison}, {second point of comparison}, and {third point of comparison}.

A thesis statement might meaningfully contrast two subjects using the template above, like this:

Paris and Tokyo are both large metropolitan cities, but they differ in terms of their job opportunities, average income, and living expenses.

Notice how the primary emphasis in the above thesis is about how the two cities differ based on the three points the author chose to focus on: job opportunities, income, and living expenses. This thesis statement gives the reader a clear idea of the specific points of contrast that will be covered within the body of the essay.

3. Methods of Organization

Now that you have your working thesis statement, you’re ready to begin thinking about how to organize the body paragraphs within your essay.

• The point-by-point method
• The block method

You may also consider your particular approach to the subjects as well as the nature of the subjects themselves; some subjects might better lend themselves to one structure or the other.

3a. Point-by-Point Method

The point-by-point method, also known as the alternating format method, is one method of paragraph development and organization for a comparison/contrast essay.

When you use the point-by-point method, you are choosing one point of comparison and then writing one paragraph about each of your subjects that shows how they are similar or different.

IN CONTEXT If you are comparing two fast-food restaurants, McDonalds and Burger King, you would first determine your points of comparison. Let’s say you're going to focus on similarities in costs, menus, and taste. Your first body paragraph would consider the costs at McDonalds, and your second body paragraph would consider the costs at Burger King. Your third and fourth body paragraphs would consider the menus at McDonalds and Burger King, and your final two body paragraphs would consider the taste of the food at both restaurants.

This method of organizing is usually easier for the reader to follow, as the main points of the body paragraphs alternate in sequence between subjects.

To demonstrate this method, let’s take the thesis statement, "Paris and Tokyo are both large metropolitan cities, but they differ in terms of their job opportunities, average income, and living expenses." In this case, the author is focusing on the differences between the two cities in regard to three main points.

• Introduction + thesis statement
• Body paragraph 1: Job opportunities in Paris
• Body paragraph 2: Job opportunities in Tokyo
• Body paragraph 3: Average income in Paris
• Body paragraph 4: Average income in Tokyo
• Body paragraph 5: Living expenses in Paris
• Body paragraph 6: Living expenses in Tokyo

3b. Block Method

The block method, also known as the subject-by-subject method, is another method of paragraph development and organization in a comparison/contrast essay.

As the name implies, if you choose the block method, you will consider all of your points of comparison or contrast for one subject in the first two or three body paragraphs of your essay, and then discuss the same main points for the second subject in the remaining body paragraphs.

IN CONTEXT If you're contrasting your local grocery store with the giant superstore outside of town, you would first determine your points for contrast. You might choose to focus on the differences in prices, convenience, and atmosphere. You would begin the body of the essay by devoting one paragraph each to these three points about your local grocery store; then, you would write three paragraphs that show how the superstore is different according to those same points.

hint If you choose this method, pay special attention to transition use to help guide your reader.

To demonstrate this method, let’s again take the thesis statement, "Paris and Tokyo are both large metropolitan cities, but they differ in terms of their job opportunities, average income, and living expenses."

• Body paragraph 2: Average income in Paris
• Body paragraph 3: Living expenses in Paris
• Body paragraph 4: Job opportunities in Tokyo
• Body paragraph 5: Average income in Tokyo

4. Using Transitions

Given that comparison/contrast essays analyze the relationship between two subjects, it is also helpful to have some transitions on hand that will cue the reader to such analysis.

These words and phrases help to highlight the points you are trying to make by signaling the relationships between the subjects in a clear way.

Below are some sample transitional words and phrases that you may use to indicate a comparison or contrast.

summary In this lesson, you learned how to begin putting your comparison/contrast essay together by first starting with brainstorming and prewriting, then moving on to drafting a thesis statement . There are two methods of organization for the body of a comparison/contrast essay that you can choose from: the point-by-point method and the block method . The specific way in which you organize your body paragraphs will be largely determined by your topic and subjects, your audience, and your purpose. Whichever method you choose, using transitions effectively can help readers follow along with your main points. Best of luck in your learning!

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9.7: Patterns of Organization and Methods of Development

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• Page ID 22367

• Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear
• Clackamas Community & Portland State University via OpenOregon

Patterns of organization can help your readers follow the ideas within your essay and your paragraphs, but they can also work as methods of development to help you recognize and further develop ideas and relationships in your writing. Here are some strategies that can help you with both organization and development in your essays.

Major Patterns of Organization

Read the following sentences:

• Now take the pie out of the oven and let it cool on the stovetop.
• Mix the dry ingredients with the liquid ingredients.
• Set the pie crust aside while you make the filling.

How did it feel to read the above list? A bit confusing, I would guess. That’s because the steps for making a pie were not well organized, and the steps don’t include enough detail for us to know exactly what we should do. (Like what are the dry and liquid ingredients?) We all know that starting instructions from the beginning and giving each detailed step in the order it should happen is vital to having a good outcome, in this case a yummy pie! But it’s not always so simple to know how to organize or develop ideas, and sometimes there’s more than one way, which complicates things even further.

First, let’s take a look at a couple of ways to think about organization.

General to Specific or Specific to General

It might be useful to think about organizing your topic like a triangle:

The first triangle represents starting with the most general, big picture information first, moving then to more detailed and often more personal information later in the paper. The second triangle represents an organizational structure that starts with the specific, small scale information first and then moves to the more global, big picture stuff.

For example, if your topic is air pollution in Portland, Oregon, an essay that uses the general-to-specific organizational structure might begin this way:

Many people consider Portland, Oregon, to be an environmentally friendly, pollution-free place to live. They would be shocked to know how many pollutants are in the air causing a multitude of health problems in Portland’s citizens.

An essay that uses the specific-to-general structure might start like this:

When Nancy moved to Portland, Oregon, with her husband and two kids, she expected to find a clean, pollution-free city. She was shocked and angered when her daughter was diagnosed with asthma caused by air pollution.

What’s the difference between these two introductions? And how might they appeal to the intended audience for this essay (Portland voters) in different ways? The first introduction is looking at the big picture of the problem and mentions pollution’s impact on all citizens in Portland, while the second introduction focuses on one specific family. The first helps readers see how vast the problem really is, and the second helps connect readers to a real family, making an emotional appeal from the very beginning. Neither introduction is necessarily better. You’ll choose one over the other based on the kind of tone you’d like to create and how you’d like to affect your audience. It’s completely up to you to make this decision.

Does the Triangle Mean the Essay Keeps Getting More Specific or More Broad until the Very End?

The triangle is kind of a general guide, meaning you’re allowed to move around within it all you want. For example, it’s possible that each of your paragraphs will be its own triangle, starting with the general or specific and moving out or in. However, if you begin very broadly, it might be effective to end your essay in a more specific, personal way. And if you begin with a personal story, consider ending your essay by touching on the global impact and importance of your topic.

Are There Other Ways to Think about Organizing My Ideas?

Yes! Rather than thinking about which of your ideas are most specific or personal or which are more broad or universal, you might consider one of the following ways of organizing your ideas:

• Most important information first (consider what you want readers to focus on first)
• Chronological order (the order in time that events take place)
• Compare and contrast (ideas are organized together because of their relationship to each other)

The section on Methods of Development, below, offers more detail about some of these organizational patterns, along with some others.

Choose one of the following topics, and practice writing a few opening sentences like we did above, once using the general-to-specific format and once using the specific-to-general. Which do you like better? What audience would be attracted to which one? Share with peers to see how others tackled this challenge. How would you rewrite their sentences? Why? Discuss your changes and listen to how your peers have revised your sentences. Taking in other people’s ideas will help you see new ways to approach your own writing and thinking.

• Facing fears
• Safety in sports
• Community policing
• Educating prisoners
• Sex education
• A book or movie that impacted you
• One thing you would change about your community
• Beauty standards
• Toxic masculinity
• How the media affects identity formation
• Gender roles
• Race in America
• The value of art in society
• Travel as part of a well-rounded education
• Drugs and alcohol
• Advice to new parents
• Advice to teachers
• The value of making mistakes
• How you’d spend a million dollars
• What a tough day at work taught you about yourself or others.

Methods of Development

The methods of development covered here are best used as ways to look at what’s already happening in your draft and to consider how you might emphasize or expand on any existing patterns. You might already be familiar with some of these patterns because teachers will sometimes assign them as the purpose for writing an essay. For example, you might have been asked to write a cause-and-effect essay or a comparison-and-contrast essay.

It’s important to emphasize here that patterns of organization or methods of developing content usually happen naturally as a consequence of the way the writer engages with and organizes information while writing. That is to say, most writers don’t sit down and say, “I think I’ll write a cause-and-effect essay today.” Instead, a writer might be more likely to be interested in a topic, say, the state of drinking water in the local community, and as the writer begins to explore the topic, certain cause-and-effect relationships between environmental pollutants and the community water supply may begin to emerge.

So if these patterns just occur naturally in writing, what’s the use in knowing about them? Well, sometimes you might be revising a draft and notice that some of your paragraphs are a bit underdeveloped. Maybe they lack a clear topic, or maybe they lack support. In either case, you can look to these common methods of development to find ways to sharpen those vague topics or to add support where needed. Do you have a clear cause statement somewhere but you haven’t explored the effects? Are you lacking detail somewhere where a narrative story or historical chronology can help build reader interest and add support? Are you struggling to define an idea that might benefit from some comparison or contrast? Read on to consider some of the ways that these strategies can help you in revision. And if you want to learn more, check out what the New York Times has to say in their learning blog article, “Compare-Contrast, Cause-Effect, Problem Solution: Common ‘Text Types’ in The Times.”

Cause and Effect (or Effect and Cause)

Do you see a potential cause-and-effect relationship developing in your draft? The cause-and-effect pattern may be used to identify one or more causes followed by one or more effects or results. Or you may reverse this sequence and describe effects first and then the cause or causes. For example, the causes of water pollution might be followed by its effects on both humans and animals. You may use obvious transitions to clarify cause and effect, such as “What are the results? Here are some of them…” or you might simply use the words cause , effect , and result , to cue the reader about your about the relationships that you’re establishing.

Here’s an example article from the New York times, “ Rough Times Take Bloom Off a New Year’s Rite, the Rose Parade ,” that explores the cause and effect relationship (from 2011) between Pasadena’s budgetary challenges and the ability of their Rose Parade floats to deck themselves out in full bloom.

Problem-Solution

At some point does your essay explore a problem or suggest a solution? The problem-solution pattern is commonly used in identifying something that’s wrong and in contemplating what might be done to remedy the situation. There are probably more ways to organize a problem-solution approach, but but here are three possibilities:

• Describe the problem, followed by the solution.
• Propose the solution first and then describe the problems that motivated it.
• Or a problem may be followed by several solutions, one of which is selected as the best.

When the solution is stated at the end of the paper, the pattern is sometimes called the delayed proposal. For a hostile audience, it may be effective to describe the problem, show why other solutions do not work, and finally suggest the favored solution. You can emphasize the words problem and solution to signal these sections of your paper for your reader.

Here’s an example article from the New York times, “ Monks Embrace Web to Reach Recruits ,” that highlights an unexpected approach by a group of Benedictine monks in Rhode Island; they’ve turned to social media to grow their dwindling membership. Monks on Facebook? Who knew?

Chronology or Narrative

Do you need to develop support for a topic where telling a story can illustrate some important concept for your readers? Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. A chronological or narrative method of development might help you find a way to add both interest and content to your essay. Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. This pattern may be used to establish what has happened. Chronology or narrative can be a great way to introduce your essay by providing a background or history behind your topic. Or you may want to tell a story to develop one or more points in the body of your essay. You can use transitional words like then , next , and finally to make the parts of the chronology clear.

Here’s an example article from the Center for Media Literacy (originally published in the journal Media & Values ): “ From Savers to Spenders: How Children Became a Consumer Market .” To encourage his readers to think about why and how children are being marketed to by advertisers, the author uses a historical chronology of how the spending habits of children changed over a number of decades.

Comparison and Contrast

Are you trying to define something? Do you need your readers to understand what something is and what it is not? The comparison-and-contrast method of development is particularly useful in extending a definition, or anywhere you need to show how a subject is like or unlike another subject. For example, the statement is often made that drug abuse is a medical problem instead of a criminal justice issue. An author might attempt to prove this point by comparing drug addiction to AIDS, cancer, or heart disease to redefine the term “addiction” as a medical problem. A statement in opposition to this idea could just as easily establish contrast by explaining all the ways that addiction is different from what we traditionally understand as an illness. In seeking to establish comparison or contrast in your writing, some words or terms that might be useful are by contrast , in comparison , while , some , and others .

Here’s an example article from the New York times: “Who Wants to Shop in a Big Box Store, Anyway?” The author explores some interesting differences between the average American and average Indian consumer to contemplate the potential success of big box stores in India and also to contemplate why these giant big box corporations, like Walmart or Target, might have to rethink their business model.

These four methods of development—cause and effect, problem-solution, chronology or narrative, and comparison and contrast—are just a few ways to organize and develop ideas and content in your essays. It’s important to note that they should not be a starting point for writers who want to write something authentic—something that they care deeply about. Instead, they can be a great way to help you look for what’s already happening with your topic or in a draft, to help you to write more, or to help you reorganize some parts of an essay that seem to lack connection or feel disjointed. Look for organizational patterns when you’re reading work by professional writers. Notice where they combine strategies (e.g a problem-solution pattern that uses cause-and-effect organization, or a comparison-contrast pattern that uses narrative or chronology to develop similarities or differences). Pay attention to how different writers emphasize and develop their main ideas, and use what you find to inspire you in your own writing. Better yet, work on developing completely new patterns of your own.

Organizing Compare-Contrast Paragraphs

Comparing Two Subjects in Two Paragraphs

• Teaching Resources
• An Introduction to Teaching
• Tips & Strategies
• Policies & Discipline
• Community Involvement
• School Administration
• Technology in the Classroom
• Teaching Adult Learners
• Issues In Education
• Becoming A Teacher
• Assessments & Tests
• Elementary Education
• Secondary Education
• Special Education
• Homeschooling
• M.Ed., Curriculum and Instruction, University of Florida
• B.A., History, University of Florida

Organizing two compare-and-contrast paragraphs is just a mini version of creating a compare-and-contrast essay . This kind of essay examines two or more subjects by comparing their similarities and contrasting their differences. In the same way, compare-contrast paragraphs compare and contrast two things in two separate paragraphs. There are two basic methods for organizing compare-contrast paragraphs: the block format and a format where the writer separates similarities and differences.

Block Format

When using the block format for a two-paragraph comparison, discuss one subject in the first paragraph and the other in the second, as follows:

Paragraph 1: The opening sentence names the two subjects and states that they are very similar, very different or have many important (or interesting) similarities and differences. The remainder of the paragraph describes the features of the first subject without referring to the second subject.

Paragraph 2: The opening sentence must contain a transition showing you are comparing the second subject to the first, such as: "Unlike (or similar to) subject No. 1, subject No. 2..." Discuss all the features of subject No. 2 in relation to subject No. 1 using compare-contrast cue words such as "like," "similar to," "also," "unlike," and "on the other hand," for each comparison. End this paragraph with a personal statement, a prediction or another enlightening conclusion.

Separating Similarities and Differences

When using this format, discuss only the similarities in the first paragraph and only the differences in the next. This format requires careful use of many compare-contrast cue words and is, therefore, more difficult to write well. Create the paragraphs as follows:

Paragraph 1: The opening sentence names the two subjects and states that they are very similar, very different or have many important (or interesting) similarities and differences. Continue discussing similarities only using compare-contrast cue words such as "like," "similar to" and "also," for each comparison.

Paragraph 2: The opening sentence must contain a transition showing that you are pivoting to discussing differences, such as: "Despite all these similarities, (these two subjects) differ in significant ways." Then describe all the differences, using compare-contrast cue words such as "differs," "unlike," and "on the other hand," for each comparison. End the paragraph with a personal statement, a prediction, or another compelling conclusion.

Create a Pre-Writing Chart

In organizing compare-contrast paragraphs , using either of the above methods, students may find it helpful to create a compare-contrast-prewriting chart . To create this chart, students would create a three-column table or chart with the following headers topping each column: "Subject 1," "Features," and "Subject 2." Students then list the subjects and features in the appropriate columns.

For example, a student might compare life in the city (Subject No. 1) vs. the country (Subject No. 2) . To start, the student would list "Entertainment," "Culture," and "Food," in the rows under the "Features" header. Then, next "Entertainment," the student could list "theaters, clubs" under the "City" header and "festivals, bonfires" under the "Country" header.

Next might be "Culture" in the "Features" column. Next to "Culture," the student would list "museums" in the "City" column and "historic places" under the "Country" column, and so on. After compiling about seven or eight rows, the student can cross out the rows that seem least relevant. Crafting such a chart helps the student create an easy visual aid to help write the compare-contrast paragraphs for either of the previously discussed methods.

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