phd in psychology 2021

PhD Program Rankings (Adapted from US News and World Report)

Below are reputation scores and ranks of the top 27 PhD programs in Psychology, including top-ranked schools in each of six subspecialties. From US News and World Report, “America’s Best Graduate Schools” rank/school average reputation score.

Rank                                      School Average reputation score

1                                 Stanford Univ.                                                         4.8

2                                 Univ. of California-Berkeley                                       4.6

2                                 Univ. of Michigan-Ann Arbor                                     4.6

4                                 Univ. of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign                         4.5

4                                 Yale Univ.                                                                 4.5

6                                 Harvard Univ.                                                        4.4

6                                 Univ. of California-Los Angeles                             4.4

6                                 Univ. of Minnesota-Twin Cities                             4.4

9                                 Carnegie Mellon Univ.                                             4.2

9                                 Princeton Univ.                                                          4.2

9                                 Univ. of Pennsylvania                                                4.2

9                                 Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison                                        4.2

13                               Indiana Univ.-Bloomington                                          4.1

13                               Univ. of California-San Diego                                         4.1

13                               Univ. of North Carolina-Chapel Hill                               4.1

16                               Johns Hopkins Univ.                                                       4.0

16                               Univ. of Colorado-Boulder                                              4.0

16                               Univ. of Texas-Austin                                                  4.0

19                               Cornell Univ.                                                               3.9

19                               Duke Univ.                                                                   3.9

19                               Northwestern Univ.                                                  3.9

19                               Univ. of Chicago                                                      3.9

19                               Univ. of Washington                                                    3.9

24                               Columbia Univ.                                                             3.8

24                               Ohio State Univ.                                                             3.8

24                               Univ. of California-Irvine                                                 3.8

24                               Univ. of Virginia                                                              3.8

Top Specialty Programs

C linical Psychology

1. Univ. of Minnesota-Twin Cities

2. Univ. of Illinois-Urban a-Champaign

3. Univ. of Michigan-Ann Arbor

4. Univ. of California-Los Angeles

5. Univ. of Washington

Co unseling Psychology

1. Univ. of Maryland-College Park

2. Ohio State Univ.

3. Univ. of Minnesota-Twin Cities

4. Univ. of Missouri-Columbia

5. Univ. of Iowa

Developme n tal

2. Univ. of Virginia

2. Stanford Univ.

4. Univ. of Michigan-Ann Arbor

5. Univ. of Illinois-Urban a-Champaign

5. Univ. of California-Berkeley

Expe ri menta l P sychology

1. Stanford Univ.

2. Univ. of Michigan-Ann Arbor

3. Univ. of California-Berkeley

4. Univ. of Illinois-Urban a-Champaign

5. Carnegie Mellon Univ.

I ndustrial / Organizational

2. Univ. of Maryland-College Park

3. Michigan State Univ.

4. Ohio State Univ.

5. Bowling Green State Univ.

5. Univ. of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign

Schoo l Psychology

1. Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison

2. Univ. of Texas-Austin

3. Univ. of South Carolina-Columbia

3. Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln

3. Columbia Univ.

(The response rate for psychology was 34%, the lowest response rate for the six PhD fields surveyed. Political Science had the highest response rate, at 54%.)

Reprinted with permission from US News and World Report. Copyright, 1995, US News and World Report.

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Getting a Ph.D. in Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

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Ph.D. vs. Psy.D.

Job opportunities, earning a degree, specialty areas, alternatives.

Getting a Ph.D. in psychology can open up a whole new world of career opportunities. For many careers paths in psychology-related career paths, a doctoral degree is necessary to obtain work and certification. A Ph.D. is one option, but it is not the only educational path that's available to reach some of these goals.

A Ph.D., or doctor of philosophy, is one of the highest level degrees you can earn in the field of psychology . If you're considering pursuing a graduate degree, you might be wondering how long it takes to earn a Ph.D. in psychology . Generally, a bachelor's degree takes four years of study. While a master's degree requires an additional two to three years of study beyond the bachelor's, a doctoral degree can take between four to six years of additional graduate study after earning your bachelor's degree.

Recently, a new degree option known as the Psy.D. , or doctor of psychology, has grown in popularity as an alternative to the Ph.D. The type of degree you decide to pursue depends on a variety of factors, including your own interests and your career aspirations.

Before deciding which is right for you, research your options and decide if graduate school in psychology is even the best choice for you. Depending on your career goals, you might need to earn a master's or doctoral degree in psychology in order to practice in your chosen field. In other instances, a degree in a similar subject such as counseling or social work may be more appropriate.

A doctorate in psychology is required if you want to open your own private practice.

If you want to become a licensed psychologist, you must earn either a Ph.D. or a Psy.D. in clinical or counseling psychology.

In most cases, you will also need a doctorate if you want to teach and conduct research at the college or university level. While there are some opportunities available for people with a master's degree in various specialty fields, such as industrial-organizational psychology and health psychology , those with a doctorate will generally find higher pay, greater job demand, and more opportunity for growth.

In order to earn a Ph.D. in psychology, you need to first begin by earning your bachelor's degree. While earning your undergraduate degree in psychology can be helpful, students with bachelor's degrees in other subjects can also apply their knowledge to psychology Ph.D. programs . Some students in doctorate programs may have a master's degree in psychology , but most doctorate programs do not require it.

After you’ve been admitted to a graduate program, it generally takes at least four years to earn a Ph.D. and another year to complete an internship. Once these requirements have been fulfilled, you can take state and national exams to become licensed to practice psychology in the state where you wish to work.

Once you enter the graduate level of psychology, you will need to choose an area of specialization, such as clinical psychology , counseling psychology, health psychology, or cognitive psychology . The American Psychological Association (APA) accredits graduate programs in three areas: clinical, counseling, and school psychology.   If you are interested in going into one of these specialty areas, it's important to choose a school that has received accreditation through the APA.

For many students, the choice may come down to a clinical psychology program versus a counseling psychology program. There are many similarities between these two Ph.D. options, but there are important distinctions that students should consider. Clinical programs may have more of a research focus while counseling programs tend to focus more on professional practice. The path you choose will depend largely on what you plan to do after you complete your degree.

Of course, the Ph.D. in psychology is not the only graduate degree option. The Psy.D. is a doctorate degree option that you might also want to consider. While there are many similarities between these two degrees, traditional Ph.D. programs tend to be more research-oriented while Psy.D. programs are often more practice-oriented.

The Ph.D. option may be your top choice if you want to mix professional practice with teaching and research, while the Psy.D. option may be preferred if you want to open your own private psychology practice.

In the book "An Insider's Guide to Graduate Programs in Clinical and Counseling Psychology," authors John C. Norcross and Michael A. Sayette suggest that one of the key differences between the two-degree options is that the Ph.D. programs train producers of research while Psy.D. programs train consumers of research. However, professional opportunities for practice are very similar with both degree types.

Research suggests that there are few discernible differences in terms of professional recognition, employment opportunities, or clinical skills between students trained in the Ph.D. or Psy.D. models. One of the few differences is that those with a Ph.D. degree are far more likely to be employed in academic settings and medical schools.

Social work, counseling, education, and the health sciences are other graduate options that you may want to consider if you decide that a doctorate degree is not the best fit for your interests and career goals.

A Word From Verywell

If you are considering a Ph.D. in psychology, spend some time carefully researching your options and thinking about your future goals. A doctoral degree is a major commitment of time, resources, and effort, so it is worth it to take time to consider the right option for your goals. The Ph.D. in psychology can be a great choice if you are interested in being a scientist-practitioner in the field and want to combine doing research with professional practice. It's also great training if you're interested in working at a university where you would teach classes and conduct research on psychological topics.

University of Pennsylvania; School of Arts and Sciences. Information for applicants .

American Psychological Association. Doctoral degrees in psychology: How are they different, or not so different?

U.S. Department of Labor.  Psychologists . Occupational Outlook Handbook .

Norcross JC, Sayette MA. An Insider's Guide to Graduate Programs in Clinical and Counseling Psychology (2020/2021 ed.) . New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2020.

Davis SF, Giordano PJ, Licht CA. Your Career in Psychology: Putting Your Graduate Degree to Work . John Wiley & Sons; 2012. doi:10.1002/9781444315929

US Department of Education. Bachelor's, master's, and doctor's degrees conferred by postsecondary institutions, by sex of student and discipline division: 2016-17 .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

• Utility Menu

Psychology Graduate Program

• Psychology Department
• Resources for Applicants

PPREP  (Prospective Ph.D. & RA Event in Psychology) - an informational event for individuals interested in pursuing research positions and/or doctorates in psychology

PRO-TiP  (PhD Resources and Online Tips Page) - provides insight into what constitutes a strong application and address questions that frequently come up each year  

GENERAL RESOURCES

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Graduate study in psychology .

Psychology Grad School Wiki for Prospective Psych Grad Students. (n.d.). 2021 psychology grad school positions .

GRE RESOURCES 

Educational Testing Service. (n.d.). GRE fee reduction program . 

Educational Testing Service. (n.d.). GRE General Test at home . 

Educational Testing Service. (n.d.). Prepare for the GRE General Test .  

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY-SPECIFIC RESOURCES

Prinstein, M. (2017). Mitch’s uncensored advice for applying to graduate school in clinical psychology .

US and Canada Clinical/Counseling Psych PhD GRE Requirements (Google Sheet)

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PhD Admission FAQ

General Information

When is the application due and how do i apply .

NOW CLOSED- The application is due on  November 30, 2023  at 11:59 PM Pacific Time. 

Apply using the  application portal .

How long does it take to get a PhD in Psychology at Stanford?

The PhD program is designed to be completed in five years of full-time study. Actual time will depend on students' prior background, progress, and research requirements. The minimum residency requirement for the PhD degree is 135 units of completed coursework and research units.

What are the requirements for the PhD degree in Psychology?

Please consult the  PhD Requirements page .

What are the different subfields within the graduate program in Psychology?

• Affective Science
• Cognitive Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Neuroscience
• Social Psychology

What is the Department's teaching requirement?

PhD students must complete at least five quarters of teaching assistantship (TA) under the supervision of a faculty member. Students are required to attend a TA training workshop in their second year. In addition, students are encouraged to take advantage of department and university teacher training programs. Students for whom English is a second language are expected to acquire sufficient fluency in English. All international students must be approved by  Stanford’s EFS department . 

How many students apply to the Stanford Psychology PhD? How many are admitted? What are the demographics?

Stanford provides public reports with summary data about graduate programs and graduate admissions. Please consult the public dashboards published by Stanford's office of Institutional Research & Decision Support on  doctoral admissions ,  doctoral enrollment and demographics , and  doctoral completion and time-to-degree . 

Is there a standalone Master of Arts program in Psychology?

The Department of Psychology does not offer a terminal Master’s degree program. Current doctoral students within the Department or in another Stanford graduate program may apply to be awarded a Master of Arts in Psychology during the course of their PhD program.

Does your department have a program in Clinical Psychology? Are you accredited by the APA?

No. Our department does not have a program in Clinical Psychology. As such, we are not accredited by the APA.

Do you have any advice about getting into grad school?

The Stanford School of Humanities and Sciences offers an online resource for prospective graduate school applicants:  Guide on Getting Into Grad School . We encourage applicants to take advantage of this resource.

Financial Support

What is the annual cost of attending your program.

All students admitted to the Psychology PhD program receive five years of 12-month funding. Financial support is provided through a combination of fellowship stipend and salary, and assistantship salary and tuition allowance. Information about the cost of attendance and funding options are available from the  Financial Aid Office .

What type of financial support do you offer?

All students admitted to the Psychology PhD program receive five years of 12-month funding. Financial support is provided through a combination of fellowship stipend and salary, and assistantship salary and tuition allowance. Funding is contingent upon satisfactory academic progress. Students are encouraged to pursue fellowships offered by the University and by national organizations, such as the National Science Foundation.

Stanford University also offers the  Knight-Hennessy Scholars  program, designed to build a multidisciplinary community of Stanford graduate students dedicated to finding creative solutions to the world's greatest challenges. The program awards up to 100 high-achieving students every year with full funding to pursue graduate education at Stanford, including the PhD in Psychology. To be considered, you must apply to Knight-Hennessy Scholars and separately apply to the Psychology Department. Note that the Knight-Hennessy Scholars program application deadline is in the spring  before  the autumn application cycle.

Do you offer support for the summer months?

Yes, funding is offered for 12 months a year for 5 full years, including 5 summers.

Preparing for Admission

Am i eligible to apply if my undergraduate major is not in psychology.

An undergraduate major in Psychology is not required; applicants from other backgrounds can apply and be admitted. All applicants should have sufficient foundational knowledge and research experience prior to the program to allow them to go straight into graduate-level coursework and conduct research.

My undergraduate degree was completed outside the United States. Is my degree eligible? 

Please refer to the Stanford Graduate Admission Office's table of  minimum level requirements for international academic credentials . These credential requirements are set by the University and nonnegotiable.

If I have prior graduate work, can it be transferred to the PhD program?

No, the Department of Psychology does not allow the transfer of unit credits from your previous program.

How competitive is admission to the PhD program?

Admission to our program is highly competitive. About 10-15 admits enter the program each year and are chosen from a pool of over 600 applicants. These students are selected on the basis of a strong academic background as demonstrated by previous coursework, research experience, and letters of recommendation. Please be assured that the Department reviews each application very carefully and makes decisions on an individual basis.

The Application Process

How do i apply.

Please visit the  PhD Admissions page  for instructions on how to apply to the Psychology PhD Program, graduate application requirements, and the link to the online application. 

Is there an application fee? If so, can I apply for a fee waiver?

The fee to apply for graduate study at Stanford is $125, see  Application Fee . Fee waivers are available for some applicants. Please visit Graduate Admissions for information on applying for an  Application Fee Waiver .

Can I submit another application to a different department within the University?

You may only apply to one degree program per academic year. However, you may apply concurrently to one departmental program and to a professional school program (law, medicine, or business).

I'm interested in the joint JD/PhD in Law and Psychology - how does it work?

Students interested in the JD/Ph.D. joint degree must apply and gain entrance separately to the School of Law and the Psychology Ph.D. program. Additionally, students must secure permission from each degree program to pursue the joint degree. Interest in both degrees should be noted on the student’s admissions applications and may be considered by the admissions committee of each program. Alternatively, an enrolled student in either the Law School or the Psychology department may apply to add the other degree and undertake the joint degree program, preferably during their first year of study. Students participating in the JD/Ph.D. joint degree program are not eligible to transfer and receive credit for a masters, or other degree, towards the Psychology Ph.D.

Students interested in the MPP/Ph.D. joint degree must apply and gain entrance to the Public Policy program’s MPP degree and the Psychology Ph.D. program. Students should note their interest in both degrees on their graduate admissions applications. Additionally, students must secure permission from each degree program to pursue the joint degree

Which faculty are accepting new students this year?

All active faculty are potentially accepting new students each year. In your application, we ask you to list the top 3 faculty you are most interested in working with. Multiple readers will review your application in full regardless of who you list. 

My institution does not report GPAs on a 4.0 grading scale. How should I report my GPA on the application?

Please do not convert your GPA to a 4.0 grading scale. You should enter “0.00” for the GPA and use the “Unconverted GPA” and “Unconverted GPA System” fields instead. A link to detailed instructions for reporting GPA is located near these fields on the application.

I attended multiple undergraduate institutions. In what order should I list them on the application?

The institution where you earned or expect to earn your Bachelor's degree should be listed as "Post-Secondary Institution 1." The remaining institutions don’t have to follow a particular order. List all institutions that were attended for at least one full academic year. Please note that you must submit a transcript for all courses taken towards your undergraduate degree, including those from your nonprimary institutions.

When should I submit my transcripts if my degree will still be in progress at the time of the application deadline?

The most current version of your unofficial transcript must be submitted as part of your electronic application, even if the grades from your fall term are not available. The absence of these grades will have no impact on the review of your application. If you are admitted and enrolled, we will ask you to submit your final transcript showing all grades and proof of degree conferral.

Should I submit official transcripts?

At the time of your initial application, please only submit your unofficial transcripts. Submit the unofficial transcripts as part of your electronic application, per the instructions in the application portal. A short list of applicants who move forward to the next stage of the review process will be contacted with instructions for submitting official transcripts at a later stage. 

It may be helpful to understand the difference.  Unofficial transcripts  are transcripts issued by your college or university directly to you, the student, which you then submit to Stanford for review. Official transcripts  are transcripts issued by your college or university directly to Stanford University, usually by secure electronic transfer and sometimes in hard copy in signed and sealed envelopes. The key difference is that an  official transcript  has never been directly handled by the applicant.

Do you have a minimum GPA score?

We do not require applicants to have a minimum GPA for consideration, and we do not release information about the average GPAs of accepted students. As a guideline, successful applicants typically earn undergraduate cumulative GPAs among the top of their class. However, please keep in mind that admission to our graduate program depends on a combination of factors, and all areas of a student’s application are weighed similarly when applications are reviewed. If our research areas meet your educational goals, we encourage you to submit an application. 

May I contact the faculty directly during the application process?

Applicants are not prohibited from reaching out to faculty directly during the application cycle. However, please understand that our faculty are extremely busy, and it is quite possible that you will receive either a very short response or no response at all. This does not mean the faculty are not interested in your application. All applications will be read and reviewed in full during the formal review process. Note that per Department policy, all faculty are potentially accepting graduate students in any given cycle, so you do not need to contact faculty in advance to see if that specific mentor is accepting students for the coming year.

Can I meet with Department staff either by phone or email before I apply to discuss my application materials or ask general questions about the program?

No, the Department staff do not have meetings with or provide individualized advising for prospective applicants. Please understand that this is a matter of bandwidth and equity. We do not have the ability to offer personalized service to all interested applicants, so we do not offer them at all. By Department policy, our staff do not provide any evaluative feedback on prospective applicants' materials, so please do not contact us with CVs, academic histories, etc to request feedback or ask about odds for acceptance. For support in crafting your application, we recommend that you turn to your existing network of mentors (e.g., your letter writers) and/or the resources offered by your current or prior academic institution(s).

TOEFL and GRE

Is the general gre required is the subject gre required.

No, the Stanford Psychology PhD program does not require the general GRE or the subject GRE. We will not be collecting any information related to GRE exam scores on the application. Please do not submit GRE scores to Stanford for our program.

What is the TOEFL exam, and am I required to take it?

The TOEFL is a standardized test of English language proficiency. Per University policy, the TOEFL exam is required for international, non-native English speakers who apply to any Stanford graduate program. 

The TOEFL score requirements are waived for international non-native English speakers who have received a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree from an institution in the United States or another English-speaking country. Therefore, applicants with these degrees from the U.S., Australia, Canada (except Quebec), New Zealand, Singapore, Ireland, and the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales) are exempt from taking the TOEFL and do not need to submit the TOEFL waiver request form.

When should I take the TOEFL?

The TOEFL must be taken by the published application deadline. 

What is the minimum TOEFL score required for admission?

Please visit the website of  Stanford's Office of Graduate Admissions  for more information on the University’s minimum requirements.

If my TOEFL score falls below the University’s minimum, am I still eligible to apply?

Yes, you may still apply. If your TOEFL scores fall below the University's minimum requirements and you are admitted, Stanford may require you to take an English placement exam and/or English classes.

May I submit the IELTS instead of the TOEFL to demonstrate English proficiency?

The IELTS is not accepted at Stanford University; only the TOEFL is accepted to provide proof of proficiency in English.

How do I request a TOEFL exemption or waiver?

For all questions related to TOEFL exemptions or waivers please refer to the website of  Stanford’s Office of Graduate Admissions . Please note that the central office makes all final decisions regarding TOEFL waivers; the Department of Psychology is not involved in the approval of TOEFL waivers.

How do I check the status of my TOEFL scores?

Log in to your application account. It may take up to two weeks after submitting your application or sending the scores (whichever occurs later) for your official scores to show as received. Processing may be delayed or halted if the name or birthdate on the score report does not exactly match the information on your application.

Why does my TOEFL status show as “Not Applicable” even though I submitted a TOEFL score?

This may be because you listed English as your first language in the application. Please note that “first language” refers to your native language.

Is there a department code for ETS to use in order to send in my scores?

No, there are no individual department code. Use the Stanford University score recipient code  4704  to send your TOEFL scores.

Statements of Purpose

How long should my statement of purpose be.

We strongly recommend that your statement of purpose be around two pages in length.

What should I include in my statement of purpose?

Please consult the Stanford Graduate Admissions  FAQ page  for more information on the Statement of Purpose.

Letters of Recommendation

When are the letters of recommendation due.

The letters of recommendation have the same deadline as the rest of the application. This year, the deadline is  November 30, 2023.

How many recommendations do I need, and who should I ask to be my recommenders?

Applicants need three recommendations from faculty or others qualified to evaluate your potential for graduate study. At least one evaluation and letter should be from a faculty member at the last school you attended as a full-time student (unless you have been out of school for more than five years). Substitutions for faculty recommendations may include work associates or others who can comment on your academic potential for graduate work.

My recommender will not be able to submit his/her letter by the application deadline. Will my application still be considered?

Letters of recommendation must be submitted by the application deadline. As such, we strongly encourage you to contact your recommenders directly to remind them of our deadline. If your recommender misses the deadline, please contact  psych-admissions [at] stanford.edu (psych-admissions[at]stanford[dot]edu) . Depending on the circumstances, Department staff may collect the letter via email and forward it to the faculty to add to your file. That said, the program expects applicants to do everything possible to ensure that letters are submitted on time via the secure online system.

Can my recommenders submit their letters via email, fax, or postal service?

No. Recommenders must submit their letters via Stanford’s online recommender system.

My recommenders are having technical difficulties with the online letters of recommendation process. Who should they contact?

Should any of your recommenders experience technical difficulties with the online letters of recommendation process, please refer them to our application database provider's letters of recommendation help page or have them submit a Help Request Form directly to our application database provider.

Additional Materials and Updates

I realized i made a mistake on my application and/or uploaded the wrong version of my documents. what do i do.

Depending on the timing and the nature of the error, our staff may be able to correct your application. Please send an email to  psych-admissions [at] stanford.edu (psych-admissions[at]stanford[dot]edu) . Include your full name, a complete description of the error, and attach the correct version of the file (if applicable). The Department reserves the right to decline to update your application after the deadline has passed. Requests will be reviewed on a case-by-case basis.

If you need to change your recommenders, please use the Activity Status Page. Note: The order of recommenders cannot be changed.

May I submit a resume/CV, list of publications, etc. as part of my application?

Applicants are permitted to upload one additional document to the online application, under the “Document Uploads” section.

Is there an interview process? 

Yes, our faculty interview prospective students before making final admission decisions. 

When are the interviews?

The interviews for the current admissions cycle are likely to be in February 2021. We anticipate that all interviews will take place virtually.

When can I expect to find out the decision on my application?

The Department of Psychology aims to issue all offers of admission to PhD degree applicants by the end of March.

I applied in a prior cycle and was not admitted. Can I apply again?

Applicants who applied in prior cycles and were previously not admitted are welcome to reapply if they can demonstrate significant progress made since they last applied. We encourage you to use your Statement of Purpose to explain this progress.

All documents must be resubmitted with a new application. We do not keep records from past applications.

I still have questions!

If you have questions that are not answered on this page or the Stanford Graduate Admissions  FAQ page , please email  psych-admissions [at] stanford.edu (psych-admissions[at]stanford[dot]edu) . If your questions are already covered on this page, your email may not receive a response.

Note that our Department staff are experts on the logistics and administration of the application, but do not answer questions related to research topics or faculty fit. Per Department policy, Department staff will not offer any evaluative feedback on application materials or applicants' academic background. Unfortunately, due to the extremely high volume of inquiries, we cannot provide individual status updates for applicants at any point in the process.

The Best Online Doctorate in Psychology Programs

Staff Writers

Contributing Writer

Learn about our editorial process .

Updated April 19, 2024

thebestschools.org is an advertising-supported site. Featured or trusted partner programs and all school search, finder, or match results are for schools that compensate us. This compensation does not influence our school rankings, resource guides, or other editorially-independent information published on this site.

Are you ready to discover your college program?

A Ph.D in psychology prepares graduates for careers as licensed psychologists, research psychologists, and psychology professors. Doctoral students examine human behavior, social interactions, and mental health treatments. The degree also incorporates practical training through a supervised internship or practicum, helping students develop the skills needed for careers in psychology.

With a psychology degree , graduates can work many different psychology jobs . For example, psychologists earn a median annual salary of over $92,740, and a doctorate meets the requirements for most careers in this field.

Our list includes the top psychology programs offering some online coursework. It is important to note that while several doctorate in psychology programs offer online courses, there are no fully online psychology doctoral programs accredited by the American Psychological Association (APA). Thus, rather than ranking schools, we list these programs alphabetically to help prospective applicants find the program that best matches their needs.

This article also explores the differences between Ph.D. and Psy.D. degrees, common courses and specialization options, and careers for graduates who earn doctorates in psychology.

Featured Online Schools

The best doctoral psychology programs available online.

We use trusted sources like Peterson's Data and the National Center for Education Statistics to inform the data for these schools. TheBestSchools.org is an advertising-supported site. Featured or trusted partner programs and all school search, finder, or match results are for schools that compensate us. This compensation does not influence our school rankings, resource guides, or other editorially-independent information published on this site. from our partners appear among these rankings and are indicated as such.

#1 The Best Online Doctorate in Psychology Programs

California Southern University

• Costa Mesa, CA

The doctor of psychology program at California Southern University offers an online option for doctoral students. Degree-seekers benefit from flexible course options through the private institution. Doctoral students conduct research and participate in academic conferences.

The 66-credit doctoral program incorporates advanced psychology coursework. After passing comprehensive examinations, doctoral candidates spend 1-2 years researching and writing their dissertation. With a doctorate in psychology, professionals work in academia, research, and leadership roles.

Doctoral students pay for the program with federal financial aid, fellowships, and scholarships. Contact the psychology program to learn more about doctoral admission requirements.

California Southern University at a Glance:

Accepts Transfer Credits: Accepted

#2 The Best Online Doctorate in Psychology Programs

Fielding Graduate University

• Santa Barbara, CA
• Online + Campus

Doctoral students seeking an online psychology program benefit from the Ph.D. in clinical psychology program at Fielding Graduate University. The private university provides flexible enrollment options to meet the needs of diverse degree-seekers. Doctoral students conduct research and participate in academic conferences.

The doctoral program includes a rigorous curriculum in psychology. Doctoral candidates advance in the program by passing comprehensive exams and writing an original dissertation. Graduates with a doctorate pursue roles in research, academia, and leadership.

Online doctoral students can pay for their degree with scholarships, fellowships, and other forms of financial aid. Reach out to the program to learn more about the application process and start dates.

Fielding Graduate University at a Glance:

Online Student Enrollment: 944

Online Master's Programs: 2

Graduate Tuition Rate: $17,292

#3 The Best Online Doctorate in Psychology Programs

Southern California Seminary

• El Cajon, CA

The doctor of psychology program at Southern California Seminary offers an online option for doctoral students. At the private university, degree-seekers participate in virtual classrooms to earn a doctorate. Doctoral students work closely with faculty mentors and career advisors.

In the online psychology program, graduate learners complete advanced classes. After passing comprehensive examinations, doctoral candidates begin working on an original dissertation project. A doctorate in psychology prepares graduates for careers in academia, research, and leadership.

Online doctoral students at the accredited institution qualify for several forms of financial aid. Prospective applicants can contact the program to learn more about the enrollment process and start dates.

Southern California Seminary at a Glance:

Online Student Enrollment: 130

Student-to-Faculty Ratio: 8-to-1

Graduate Tuition Rate: $15,588

#4 The Best Online Doctorate in Psychology Programs

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

• Chicago, IL

The online Ph.D. in international psychology program at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology ranks among the best in the field. At the private university, degree-seekers participate in virtual classrooms to earn a doctorate. Doctoral students receive library access, research support, and career services.

During the online program, learners take doctoral courses to earn their degree. The psychology program also requires passing scores on a comprehensive examination and the successful defense of an original dissertation project. With a doctorate in psychology, professionals work in academia, research, and leadership roles.

Doctoral students attending the accredited institution online qualify for several forms of financial aid. Reach out to the program to learn more about transfer credit policies, research support, and admission requirements.

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology at a Glance:

Student-to-Faculty Ratio: 4-to-1

Graduate Tuition Rate: $20,610

#5 The Best Online Doctorate in Psychology Programs

Touro University Worldwide

• Los Alamitos, CA

The doctor of psychology in human and organizational psychology program at Touro University Worldwide offers an online option for doctoral students. Thanks to a flexible format, the private institution makes it easier to complete a doctorate. Doctoral students benefit from support services like career advising.

The online program requires doctoral coursework. After passing comprehensive examinations, doctoral candidates conduct research for their dissertation. As the terminal degree in psychology, the doctoral program trains graduates for roles in academia, research, and industry.

At the accredited institution, online doctoral students qualify for scholarships, federal loans, and other forms of financial aid. Reach out to the program to learn more about transfer credit policies, research support, and admission requirements.

Touro University Worldwide at a Glance:

Online Student Enrollment: 1,903

Online Master's Programs: 8

Online Doctoral Programs: 1

Student-to-Faculty Ratio: 11-to-1

Graduate Tuition Rate: $9,000

Online Doctorate in Psychology Programs Ranking Guidelines

We selected these degree programs based on quality, curricula, school awards, rankings, and reputation.

What Is an Online Ph.D. in Psychology?

Doctoral degrees in psychology cannot be conducted completely online. However, some programs do make some coursework available to learners online, helping them complete their graduate studies from anywhere.

The typical curricula for a Ph.D. in psychology emphasizes research and prepares graduates for academic and research roles. Doctoral students take courses in research design and methods, psychology statistics, and cognitive development. Ph.D. programs also offer specialized coursework in neuroscience and affective science.

A Ph.D. in psychology builds strong research and analytical skills. In addition to coursework, each doctoral student must pass a comprehensive examination and conduct research within their specialization. The degree culminates in an original doctoral dissertation that contributes to the field of psychology. After graduation, professionals with Ph.D. degrees in psychology typically work as psychology professors or researchers.

Earning a Ph.D in psychology typically takes 5-7 years, depending on the program and whether the doctoral student completes an internship. Applicants generally need a master's degree in psychology and a strong GPA to gain admission. Some Ph.D. programs in psychology offer fellowships and other forms of funding for doctoral students.

What Is an Online Psy.D. in Psychology?

As with the online Ph.D. in psychology, an online Psy.D. in psychology refers to a doctorate in psychology program where some but not all coursework is offered online. A Psy.D. degree trains graduates for clinical roles and licensure as psychologists. Common courses include psychology research methods, psychopharmacology, and psychological testing. Doctoral students also examine research in evidence-based practice. Online Psy.D. programs also incorporate supervised internships to strengthen clinical skills.

Within a Psy.D. program, graduate students focus on specialty areas such as counseling psychology, child psychology , or behavioral psychology. After completing coursework requirements and passing a comprehensive examination, doctoral candidates conduct clinical research in their specialization areas. Degree-seekers analyze clinical problems or examine topics based on original research, then write research-based dissertations.

Earning a Psy.D. typically takes 4-6 years for full-time students. Some programs offer accelerated or part-time enrollment options. Applicant often need a master's in psychology to gain admission to a Psy.D. program.

What's the Difference Between a Psy.D. and a Ph.D. in Psychology?

At the doctoral level, psychology offers Psy.D. and Ph.D. degrees. The two pathways offer different coursework and prepare graduates for different careers.

A Psy.D. emphasizes clinical training for careers in psychology, while a Ph.D. focuses on research and academic training. Licensed psychologists who work directly with patients often hold Psy.D. degrees, while psychology professors typically have Ph.D. degrees. In addition, a Ph.D. typically takes more time than a Psy.D.; while a Psy.D. can take as little as four years, a Ph.D. often requires 5-7 years.

When comparing Ph.D. and Psy.D. programs, prospective psychologists should consider their professional goals. Those seeking research or academic positions may prefer a Ph.D., while those considering careers as licensed psychologists should pursue Psy.D. degrees.

Choosing an Online Doctoral Psychology Program

When choosing a partially online doctoral program, prospective students must weigh several factors. For many, program cost, specialization options, and program length rank among the most important concerns.

Ph.D. and Psy.D. degrees prepare psychologists for different career paths, so applicants should also consider which degree aligns best with their goals. Candidates should also consider enrollment options, course delivery methods, internship options, and tuition discounts when evaluating partially online doctorates in psychology.

By examining these factors, future psychologists can ensure that they find the best fit for their unique needs and career aspirations.

Accreditation for Online Psychology Degree Programs

Prospective applicants should always research program and university accreditation when choosing a partially online doctorate in psychology. Accredited programs follow best practices for educating psychologists, and only graduates of APA-accredited programs qualify for licensure as psychologists. Applicants should also research other state licensure requirements before choosing a program.

What Else Can I Expect From a Doctoral Psychology Program?

Doctoral-level psychology students take courses in areas like counseling psychology, evidence-based practice, human development, and psychopharmacology. These courses build advanced knowledge and skills in psychology. Doctoral students often further specialize their training by choosing concentrations like clinical psych, school psychology, or developmental psychology.

After completing coursework requirements, doctoral candidates must pass examinations and meet any internship requirements. Most programs also require a research-based doctoral dissertation in the candidate's specialization.

Common Courses for an Online Doctorate in Psychology

• Child and Adolescent Therapy: In this class, psychology students strengthen their counseling and treatment skills for children and adolescents. The coursework emphasizes clinical practice and diagnostic approaches for professionals in clinical, child, counseling, and school psychology.
• Clinical Supervision and Consultation: Students practice their supervision skills and learn how to oversee less experienced workers in the field. The course also trains psychology graduates for consultation and mediation roles.
• Community Psychology and Social Justice: The course examines psychology during times of social change. Learners explore social justice in a mental health context and its impact on society more broadly.
• Evidence-Based Practice: Doctoral students examine current research in psychology to identify applications in clinical practice. The course covers topics like evaluating evidence and applying practical research.
• Intellectual and Personality Testing: Psychology students learn to administer and interpret personality assessments. The course covers the theoretical foundations of personality testing and how to perform clinical diagnoses based on those tests.
• Psychopharmacology: In this course, doctoral students learn about the human body and its interactions with drugs. The course emphasizes mental health needs, pharmacological approaches to treating mental health issues, and drug abuse and addiction.

Psychology Specializations

• Collapse All

Clinical Psychology

A clinical psychology specialty emphasizes mental healthcare and research-based practice. Within clinical psychology, doctoral students specialize in demographics, like child psychology and geriatric mental health. The specialty trains learners to apply psychology research in diverse clinical settings.

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology examines human growth and development across the lifespan. Doctoral students in this specialty conduct research on childhood development, social and emotional development, and information processing. The specialty prepares graduates for careers in research and academia.

School Psychology

A school psychology specialty emphasizes mental health in young learners. Doctoral students explore learning and behavior, including challenges to academic and social development. These psychologists work with children, families, and schools to help students thrive in education.

Social Psychology

Social psychology examines individual behavior in social settings. This specialty focuses on human interactions and their impact on people's beliefs and feelings. Social psychologists can apply their skills in several settings, including workplaces.

How Long Does It Take to Complete an Online Doctorate in Psychology Program?

No psychology doctorate program is fully online, but earning a partially online doctorate in psychology takes around five years, depending on the program. Many Ph.D. programs require at least five years to complete coursework, research, and a dissertation, and some also require an internship. A Psy.D. program typically takes 4-6 years, including internship requirements.

Some programs offer accelerated or part-time options, which can change degree timelines. Enrollees may also complete coursework faster through a self-paced, asynchronous model, though only online courses are offered asynchronously. Because the length varies, prospective doctoral students should be sure to research prospective programs' requirements and enrollment options before applying.

Psychology Jobs

With a doctorate in psychology, graduates can pursue careers as psychologists and psychology professors. In these career paths, psychologists can conduct research, educate students, and provide clinical services. A psychology doctorate also prepares graduates for supervisory roles, such as healthcare executive.

Other psychology careers include school or educational psychologist, industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologist, and clinical social worker. This section explores common psychology jobs, including the earning potential, licensure requirements, and projected job growth for each career.

Postsecondary Psychology Teachers

Postsecondary psychology teachers, also known as psychology professors, teach at the college level. They educate undergraduate and graduate students on different topics in psychology, including research, behavioral psychology, and human development. In addition to developing syllabi, psychology professors create assignments and exams to assess student learning. These professors also conduct research and publish their work.

A tenure-track psychology professor typically needs a Ph.D., though some colleges hire candidates with Psy.D. degrees to teach clinical psychology or for adjunct positions. Psychology professors may need special licensure, depending on their research and teaching areas.

Median Annual Salary

Projected Growth Rate

Psychologists

Psychologists research behavior and the decision-making process. In specializations like clinical or counseling psychology, they work with individuals and groups managing emotional or behavioral problems. Psychologists also conduct research into human development, identify organizational dynamics, and test neurological responses, often publishing their research.

Most psychologist jobs require a doctorate, though a school psychologist or I/O psychologist may hold only a master's degree. A Psy.D. prepares psychologists for clinical roles and professional licensure. A licensed psychologist typically needs a doctorate, passing scores on a national exam, and supervised professional experience. Psychologists can also pursue specialty certification.

Medical and Health Services Managers

Medical and health services managers, also known as healthcare executives, coordinate services in hospitals, medical practices, and other healthcare organizations. They set policy for their units, analyze data on quality, and implement plans to improve efficiency and effectiveness. Healthcare executives also ensure their organizations follow laws and regulations.

With psychology training, healthcare executives can work for community health and behavioral health facilities, including inpatient treatment centers. They also need administrative training in management and budgeting, and medical and health services managers often hold graduate degrees. The career path does not require a professional license.

Psychology Professional Organizations

Professional organizations help doctoral students expand their professional networks and prepare to transition into clinical practice, research roles, or other psychology careers. These organizations offer career resources, scholarships, and professional development support for doctoral candidates. They may also offer discounted student memberships.

APA represents over 122,000 researchers, clinicians, educators, and students in psychology. The association promotes psychology as a discipline, accredits psychology programs, and offers career resources for students. Members can visit the psychology help center for clinical support or read APA publications to stay current with the field. The association also awards scholarships and fellowships.

Since its founding in 1941, ICP has connected psychologists around the world. Members benefit from annual conferences and newsletters, mentorship opportunities, and professional development resources, such as webinars. This organization also offers travel and recognition awards for members.

AASP dates back to 1985 and represents sports and performance psychology professionals. Members work with athletes, business professionals, and military personnel to improve their physical and mental performance. The association offers professional certifications, hosts an annual conference with networking opportunities, and provides webinars and publications to help practitioners stay current in the field. AASP also offers grants and a student center.

Paying for Your Online Doctorate in Psychology Degree

Doctoral programs typically cost tens of thousands in tuition and fees, even when courses are offered partially online. Fortunately, doctoral students qualify for many forms of financial aid to pay for their degrees.

To start, students should fill out the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), which qualifies filers for federal student loans and work-study programs. In addition to federal loans, students can also use private loans to cover costs. Many states also support degree-seekers with grants or scholarships.

Institutional support helps many graduate students earn psychology degrees. Universities often award fellowships, scholarships, and other forms of financial aid to help recruit and retain students. Some doctoral fellowships include tuition waivers and stipends. To learn about the options at your school, check with the student assistance or finance office.

Finally, psychology degree-seekers qualify for scholarships offered by professional associations, private foundations, and private donors. For example, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology offers both scholarships and fellowships. The APA also offers scholarships and fellowships for psychology doctoral students.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can you become a psychologist with an online degree.

Yes, though there are no accredited psychology doctorates that are available fully online. Instead, programs offer a mix of online and in-person coursework. Psychologists who earn APA-accredited degrees partially online qualify for a professional license in most states. Some career paths, including academia and research, may not require a license.

Are Online Psy.D. Programs APA Accredited?

The APA does not currently accredit any fully online Psy.D. programs. However, the APA does accredit hybrid programs. Always check local state requirements for psychologist licensure before enrolling in a psychology doctoral program to ensure that it meets specifications.

Can You Earn a Doctorate in Psychology Completely Online?

No. As of 2021, the APA — the only agency authorized to accredit psychology doctoral programs — does not accredit any fully online programs.

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Clinical Psychology

Mission statement.

Our mission is to advance knowledge that promotes psychological well-being and reduces the burden of mental illness and problems in living and to develop leading clinical scientists whose skills and knowledge will have a substantial impact on the field of psychology and the lives of those in need. Our faculty and graduate students promote critical thinking, innovation, and discovery, and strive to be leaders in their field, engaging in and influencing research, practice, policy, and education. Our pursuit of these goals is guided by the values of collaboration, mutual respect, and fairness, our commitment to diversity, and the highest ethical standards.

Information about the Clinical Psychology Graduate Major

UCLA’s Clinical Psychology program is one of the largest, most selective, and most highly regarded in the country and aims to produce future faculty, researchers, and leaders in clinical science, who influence research, policy development, and practice. Clinical science is a field of psychology that strives to generate and disseminate the best possible knowledge, whether basic or applied, to reduce suffering and to advance public health and wellness. Rather than viewing research and intervention as separable, clinical science construes these activities as part of a single, broad domain of expertise and action. Students in the program are immersed in an empirical, research-based approach to clinical training. This, in turn, informs their research endeavors with a strong understanding of associated psychological phenomena. The UCLA Clinical Science Training Programs employs rigorous methods and theories from multiple perspectives, in the context of human diversity. Our goal is to develop the next generation of clinical scientists who will advance and share knowledge related to the origins, development, assessment, treatment, and prevention of mental health problems.

Admissions decisions are based on applicants’ research interests and experiences, formal coursework in psychology and associated fields, academic performance, letters of recommendation, dedication to and suitability for a career as a clinical scientist, program fit, and contributions to an intellectually rich, diverse class. Once admitted, students engage with faculty in research activities addressing critical issues that impact psychological well-being and the burden of mental illness, using a wide range of approaches and at varying levels of analysis. Their integrated training is facilitated by on-campus resources including the departmental Psychology Clinic, the Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, and the David Geffen School of Medicine.

Our program philosophy is embodied in, and our goals are achieved through, a series of training activities that prepare students for increasingly complex, demanding, and independent roles as clinical scientists. These training activities expose students to the reciprocal relationship between scientific research and provision of clinical services, and to various systems and methods of intervention, assessment, and other clinical services with demographically and clinically diverse populations. The curriculum is designed to produce scientifically-minded scholars who are well-trained in research and practice, who use data to develop and refine the knowledge base in their field, and who bring a reasoned empirical perspective to positions of leadership in research and service delivery.

The program’s individualized supervision of each student in integrated research and practice roles provides considerable flexibility. Within the parameters set by faculty interests and practicum resources, there are specializations in child psychopathology and treatment, cognitive-behavior therapy, clinical assessment, adult psychopathology and treatment, family processes, assessment and intervention with distressed couples, community psychology, stress and coping, cognitive and affective neuroscience, minority mental health, and health psychology and behavioral medicine. The faculty and other research resources of the Department make possible an intensive concentration in particular areas of clinical psychology, while at the same time ensuring breadth of training.

Clinical psychology at UCLA is a six-year program including a full-time one-year internship, at least four years of which must be completed in residence at UCLA. The curriculum in clinical psychology is based on a twelve-month academic year. The program includes a mixture of coursework, clinical practicum training, teaching, and continuous involvement in research. Many of the twenty clinical area faculty, along with numerous clinical psychologists from other campus departments, community clinics, and hospitals settings, contribute to clinical supervision.  Clinical training experiences typically include four and a half years of part-time practicum placements in the Psychology Clinic and local agencies. The required one-year full-time internship is undertaken after the student has passed the clinical qualifying examinations and the dissertation preliminary orals. The student receives the Ph.D. degree when both the dissertation and an approved internship are completed.

Accreditation

PCSAS – Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System

The Graduate Program in Clinical Psychology at UCLA was accredited in 2012 by the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (PCSAS). PCSAS was created to promote science-centered education and training in clinical psychology, to increase the quality and quantity of clinical scientists contributing to the advancement of public health, and to enhance the scientific knowledge base for mental and behavioral health care. The UCLA program is deeply committed to these goals and proud to be a member of the PCSAS Founder’s Circle and one of the group of programs accredited by PCSAS.  (Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System, 1800 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Suite 402, Washington, DC 20036-1218. Telephone: 301-455-8046). Website:  https://www.pcsas.org

APA CoA – American Psychological Association Commission on Accreditation

The Graduate Program in Clinical Psychology at UCLA has been accredited by the American Psychological Association Commission on Accreditation since 1949. (Office of Program Consultation and Accreditation, American Psychological Association, 750 First Street NE. Washington, DC 20002-4242. Telephone:  202-336-5979 .) Website:  http://www.apa.org/ed/accreditation/

Future Accreditation Plans:  

Against the backdrop of distressing evidence that mental health problems are increasingly prevalent and burdensome, the field of psychological clinical science must think innovatively to address the unmet mental health needs of vulnerable populations. UCLA’s clinical psychology program remains committed to training clinical psychological scientists who will become leaders in research, dissemination, and implementation of knowledge, policy development, and evidence-based clinical practice. This commitment is firmly rooted in our overall mission of promoting equity and inclusion, adhering to ethical standards, and developing collaborations in all aspects of clinical psychology.

Increasingly, we believe that significant aspects of the academic and clinical-service requirements of accreditation by the American Psychological Association (APA) obstruct our training mission. Too often, APA requirements limit our ability to flexibly adapt our program to evolving scientific evidence, student needs, and global trends in mental health. Like many other top clinical science doctoral programs, we see our longstanding accreditation by the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (PCSAS) as better aligned with our core values, including advancement of scientifically-based training.

Accordingly, we are unlikely to seek renewal of our program’s accreditation by APA, which is set to expire in 2028. The ultimate decision about re-accreditation will be made with the best interests and well-being of current and future students in our program in mind. To that end, we will continue to monitor important criteria that will determine the career prospects of students completing a doctoral degree in clinical psychology from programs accredited only by PCSAS. For example, we are working to understand the potential implications for securing excellent predoctoral internships and eligibility for professional licensure across jurisdictions in North America. Although the UCLA clinical psychology program has no direct influence over these external organizations, we are excited to continue to work to shape this evolving training landscape with the Academy of Psychological Clinical Science (APCS) and leaders from other clinical science programs.

Our ongoing monitoring of trends in clinical psychology training is encouraging for PCSAS-accredited programs. However, evolving circumstances could result in our program changing its opinion with respect to seeking APA re-accreditation in the future. In the spirit of transparency and empowering potential applicants to make informed choices for their own professional development, we are pleased to share our thinking on these important issues.

Notice to Students re: Professional Licensure and Certification

University of California programs for professions that require licensure or certification are intended to prepare the student for California licensure and certification requirements. Admission into programs for professions that require licensure and certification does not guarantee that students will obtain a license or certificate. Licensure and certification requirements are set by agencies that are not controlled by or affiliated with the University of California and licensure and certification requirements can change at any time.

The University of California has not determined whether its programs meet other states’ educational or professional requirements for licensure and certification. Students planning to pursue licensure or certification in other states are responsible for determining whether, if they complete a University of California program, they will meet their state’s requirements for licensure or certification. This disclosure is made pursuant to 34 CFR §668.43(a)(5)(v)(C).

NOTE:  Although the UCLA Clinical Psychology Program is not designed to ensure license eligibility, the majority of our graduates do go on to become professionally licensed.  For more information, please see  https://www.ucop.edu/institutional-research-academic-planning/content-analysis/academic-planning/licensure-and-certification-disclosures.html .

Clinical Program Policy on Diversity-Related Training 

In light of our guiding values of collaboration, respect, and fairness, this statement is to inform prospective and current trainees, faculty, and supervisors, as well as the public, that our trainees are required to (a) attain an understanding of cultural and individual diversity as related to both the science and practice of psychology and (b) provide competent and ethical services to diverse individuals.  Our primary consideration is always the welfare of the client.  Should such a conflict arise in which the trainee’s beliefs, values, worldview, or culture limits their ability to meet this requirement, as determined by either the student or the supervisor, it should be reported to the Clinic and Placements Committee, either directly or through a supervisor or clinical area faculty member.  The Committee will take a developmental view, such that if the competency to deliver services cannot be sufficiently developed in time to protect and serve a potentially impacted client, the committee will (a) consider a reassignment of the client so as to protect the client’s immediate interests, and (b) request from the student a plan to reach the above-stated competencies, to be developed and implemented in consultation with both the trainee’s supervisor and the Clinic Director.  There should be no reasonable expectation of a trainee being exempted from having clients with any particular background or characteristics assigned to them for the duration of their training.

Clinical Program Grievance Policies & Procedures

Unfortunately, conflicts between students and faculty or with other students will occur, and the following policies and procedures are provided in an effort to achieve the best solution. The first step in addressing these conflicts is for the student to consult with their academic advisor. If this option is not feasible (e.g. the conflict is with the advisor) or the conflict is not resolved to their satisfaction, then the issue should be brought to the attention of the Director of Clinical Training. If in the unlikely event that an effective solution is not achieved at this level, then the student has the option of consulting with the Department’s Vice Chair for Graduate Studies. Students also have the option of seeking assistance from the campus Office of Ombuds Services and the Office of the Dean of Students. It is expected that all such conflicts are to be addressed first within the program, then within the Department, before seeking a resolution outside of the department.

More Clinical Psychology Information

• For a list of Required Courses please see the  Psychology Handbook
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Graduate Program

History and overview of the program.

The San Diego campus of the University of California was formally established in 1958 around the nucleus of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. It has since become one of the most renowned research universities in the United States. The Department of Psychology was formed in 1965 and first admitted graduate students in 1966. For the 2021/2022 academic year, there are 79 graduate students in the Department's doctoral program. As of June 30, 2021, 426 doctoral degrees have been awarded.

The Department remains committed to the belief that the best training for a career in psychology, even one in clinical psychology, is a strong background in Experimental Psychology . As such, conducting experimental research is the primary activity of graduate students in our program.

Each graduate student in our Department works closely with one or more faculty advisor(s) throughout their graduate career, in an apprenticeship system that distinguishes our Department from others. Our graduate students are actively involved in research design, implementation, analysis, and publication processes, and they are treated more like colleagues than students. 

Graduate students in our program start off by conducting a year-long independent research project, which serves as a major criterion in the evaluation of our first year students. In addition to conducting well-supervised, original research in their respective labs, our students take classes (seminars and proseminars), teach and mentor undergraduate students, participate in lab meetings and journal clubs, and attend Department-sponsored events, such as Brown Bag meetings and our Colloquium Speaker Series .

Our Department and the greater University are committed to providing a safe and supportive environment for all our members. Click on the following links to read our Department Climate Statement , and the UC San Diego Principles of Community .

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25 Most Affordable Online Doctoral Programs in Psychology for 2021

Are you passionate about the field of psychology and looking to earn an advanced degree? If you have a master’s degree in psychology, it’s time to pursue a doctoral degree and grow as a clinical, counseling, or research psychologist. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, psychologists’ jobs will increase by 14 percent through 2026, faster than other professions. To stay ahead of this demand, opting for a doctoral program now is the right career choice. 

How can an online doctorate in psychology help?

An online doctorate in psychology equips students with the knowledge and skills to qualify for a range of professional opportunities. They are prepared to practice in different branches of psychology based on their specialization. It also prepares students for state licensures. Doctorate graduates work in various settings, including Mental health centers, Government agencies, Social service agencies, and Healthcare organizations. What does the online doctorate in psychology curricula entail? Online psychology Ph.D. classes vary by school. The curricula are a mix of core course requirements, electives, specializations, a clinical internship, or supervised practicum. The blend of these formats teaches students to apply the scientific method towards research and daily work. They learn to investigate the elements behind mental illness and treatment. Students gain an understanding of the research ethics and the American Psychological Association (APA) citation.

What can you do with an online doctorate in psychology?

• Clinical psychologist
• Forensic psychologist 
• Research psychologist
• Political strategist
• Educational consultant
• Academician/Professor
• Private practice psychologist 

Here we have shortlisted the top 25 schools that offer affordable online doctoral programs in Psychology. These programs are designed for working professionals who are looking to gain penultimate degrees in their field. They offer flexibility and self-paced formats to allow students to balance their work-life commitments as they study. They follow the same rigorous curricula as the traditional campus programs. We have considered the schools’ accreditation, rankings, faculty, tuition, student support systems, and curricula. Schools have been ranked based on the affordability of their programs.

Rating and Ranking Methodology

Tuition  

• Net Price Below $10,000: 4 points 
• Net Price Below $15,000: 3 points 
• Net Price Below $18,000: 2 points 
• Net Price Below $20,000: 1 point

Program Flexibility (asynchronous course delivery, hybrid options, part-time/full-time schedule, etc. ) – 1 point per item Online Student Support Network (faculty mentors/advisors, etc.)— 1 point per item Accreditation (School-Wide and Program-Specific) – 1 point per item “Wow” Factor – 1 point.

#25 New York University Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development

New york, ny.

Doctor of Occupational Therapy Online  

Visit Website   Points: 5

NYU Steinhardt offers an online The Online Doctor of Occupational Therapy program. Students can customize their degree through an individualized curriculum and a wide variety of elective and clinical specialization courses. It helps them become well-rounded clinicians and grow as a leader in the field. Elective courses include:

• Leadership in Occupational Therapy 
• Promoting Family Resilience and Family-Centered Services 
• Disability in a Global Context 
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Theory and Application 
• Marketing Strategy, Analysis, and Development 

Graduates become knowledgeable, compassionate leaders who can address society’s ever-changing healthcare needs. 

Fast facts:

• Offered through: Department of Occupational Therapy
• Accreditation:  Middle States Commission on Higher Education
• Tuition per credit: $1,867

#24 The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

Chicago, il .

Counseling Psychology Ph.D. Online  

Visit Website  Points: 6

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology offers an online Ph.D. in International Psychology. It prepares graduates to assume leadership positions in multinational organizations. They gain a firm understanding of the interconnectivity of global systems. Students enjoy real-world training opportunities, along with the necessary field experience. Concentration options include:

• Organizations & Systems
• Trauma Services

Students gain knowledge of acculturation, global organizations and systems. They examine the principle intervention strategies suitable for an international trauma setting. Graduates work in varied settings like Government agencies, Nonprofit organizations, and Embassies.

• Accreditation:  Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) 
• Tuition per credit: $1,492

#23 Saybrook University

Pasadena, ca.

Psychology Ph.D. Online  

Visit Website   Points: 6

Saybrook University offers an online Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Psychology. All students take part in two five-day long required Saybrook Residential Conferences (RCs) per year. The program combines online learning with periodic in-person residential conferences. Choice of specializations include: 

• Consciousness, Spirituality, and Integrative Health 
• Creativity Studies 
• Existential, Humanistic, and Transpersonal Psychology 
• Psychophysiology 

Graduates use their understanding of human behavior to improve their local communities and the world as a whole. They work in varied settings like education, community health centers, prisons, the juvenile justice system, corporate offices, and non-profit organizations.

• Offered through: College of Social Sciences
• Accreditation:  Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC)
• Tuition per credit: $ 1,470

#22 California Institute of Integral Studies

San francisco, ca.

Integral and Transpersonal Psychology Ph.D. Online  

Visit Website   Points: 7

California Institute of Integral Studies offers an online Integral and Transpersonal Psychology Ph.D. It emphasizes a blended approach that includes learning and research with professional goals. Students have the choice of focus areas like:

• Somatic Studies
• Integral and Transpersonal Psychology
• Consciousness Studies and Contemplative Neuroscience

The program includes peer-reviewed journals produced in part by student interns and collaboration with senior scholars in the field. The affiliations with planned research laboratories help in hands-on learning. The online program is supplemented by residential intensives. It is a good fit for students looking to deepen their skills and enhance their credentials. 

• Tuition per credit: $1,393

#21 Northcentral University 

San diego, ca.

Psychology Ph.D. Online

Visit Website   Points: 8

Northcentral University offers an online Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology. The flexible format is designed for busy adults looking for advanced degrees in psychology. The program emphasizes applied experiential learning. It includes case studies, scenarios, vignettes, and sometimes real-life situations. Choice of specializations include: 

• Addictions; Gerontology
• Psychology of Gender and Sexual Fluidity
• Counseling Psychology; General Psychology
• Health Psychology; Trauma and Disaster Relief
• Industrial-Organizational Psychology
• Mental Health Policy and Practice
• Counseling Psychology, California Licensure Track

The program helps students hone their critical thinking skills. It also helps them transition from doctoral students to independent scholars. 

• Offered through: School of Social & Behavioral Sciences
• Accreditation:  WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC)
• Tuition per credit: $1,131

#20 Ashford University

Ashford University offers an online Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology. Students build their knowledge base in the history and systems of psychology. They can customize their degree by selecting a specialization that aligns with their career and research goals. Choice of the 21 credits specializations include: 

• Criminology and Justice Studies 
• Educational Leadership 
• Health and Wellness Psychology 
• Industrial-Organizational Psychology 
• Mediation and Conflict Resolution 
• Sport and Performance Psychology

The program is designed to help students become practitioner-scholars. It blends theoretical knowledge, research, and evidence-based practice in their specializations. The program culminates with the Applied Doctoral Project. 

• Offered through: College of Arts & Sciences
• Tuition per credit: $1,082

#19 Sofia University 

Palo alto, ca.

Transpersonal Psychology Ph.D. Online  

Visit Website   Points: 9

Sofia University offers an online Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Transpersonal Psychology. The three-year program covers exciting and unique transpersonal psychology theories and practices. It combines transpersonal insights and research for many chosen professional fields. Concentration options include: 

• Applied Transpersonal Psychology in Business and Organizations
• Consciousness and Creativity Studies
• Whole Systems Approach to Health and Wellbeing
• Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience

Students work closely with faculty members and get robust student support. They hone their social and emotional learning, cultivate mindfulness, and encourage meaningful research. Graduates apply transpersonal principles to help foster transformation individually, professionally, and socially. 

• Tuition: $71,250 

#18 Loyola University Chicago  

EdD in School Psychology Online  

Loyola University Chicago offers an online Doctor of Education degree in School Psychology. It helps professionals become more informed professionals and leaders within the educational community. The program teaches students to:

• Analyze and interpret systems-level data 
• Think systematically within the education system
• Implement and evaluate evidence-based practices

Practicing school psychologists interested in obtaining a doctoral degree with a focus in District Administration may find this a good fit. Students looking for a Director of Special Education endorsement or an LPC/LCPC certification may also be interested. 

  Fast facts:

• 72 graduate semester hours
• Offered through: School of Education
• Accreditation:  Higher Learning Commission
• Tuition per credit: $949

#17 Boston University 

Occupational Therapy, Doctorate Online  

Visit Website   Points: 10

Boston University offers an online Doctorate in Occupational Therapy. It is designed for practitioners in the field who have a professional degree in occupational therapy. Students enjoy a collaborative learning environment and mentorship from acclaimed faculty. The key features of the program are:

• Critical evaluation of theory and evidence in a specialized area of practice
• Identification of gaps in current intervention methods and programs
• Designing innovative responses to fill those gaps

Students gain advanced knowledge to create innovative responses to the current and future needs of individuals, communities, and populations. 

• Offered through: Sargent College
• Accreditation:  New England Commission of Higher Education
• Tuition per credit: $895

#16 Alaska Pacific University

Anchorage, ak  .

Alaska Pacific University offers an online Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) in Counseling Psychology. It is designed for students seeking work as licensed psychologists in Alaska. The program emphasizes the application of psychology knowledge across varied psychological functioning. Graduates show competence in:

• Evidence-Based Practice in Intervention and Assessment
• Knowledge and application of Ethical and Legal Standards
• Professional Values and Attitudes
• Communication and Interpersonal Skills
• Interdisciplinary Consultation

The program meets the State of Alaska requirements for Licensed Psychologists. 

• Offered through: Institute of Health & Wellness
• Accreditation:  Northwest Commission of Colleges and Universities
• Tuition per credit: $840

#15 Michigan State University 

East lansing, michigan.

EPET Ph.D. Online  

Michigan State University offers an online/hybrid Doctoral Program in Counseling, Educational Psychology & Special Education. It aims to develop the next generation of educational leaders. Students focus their studies in one or both of the following emphasis areas:

• Educational Psychology- Processes of human learning and development in natural settings 
• Educational Technology – Research and development to understand the pedagogy, policy, and design of media and technologies 

Students have the opportunity to blend their current work as educators with the richness of the Michigan State University experience.

• Offered through: College of Education
• Tuition per credit: $818.75

#14 Southern California Seminary

El cajon, ca .

Visit Website   Points: 11

Southern California Seminary offers an online Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) program. It is a non-licensure program that provides students with a biblically-based training. It integrates psychology and theology to impact individuals, families, and communities positively. Students gain counseling skills and psychological tools encompassed in a genuine spiritual environment. Coursework includes:

Featured Programs

• Advanced Therapeutic Interventions
• Advanced Physiological Psychology
• Psychosocial Basis of Behavior
• Crisis Response and Intervention Techniques
• Psychology of Multicultural and Ethnic Diversity

Students are equipped for ministry opportunities in the local churches. They may also work in organizational and institutional settings or private practice counseling.

• Accreditation:  Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools (TRACS)
• Tuition per unit: $779

#13 Regent University

Virginia beach, va .

Ed.D. – Educational Psychology Online  

Regent University offers an online Doctor of Education – Educational Psychology. It equips students to use the best theories and research to improve academic and behavioral success. Key features of the program include: 

• Understanding the significant theories in developmental psychology using select criteria
• Encouraging a broad area of academic inquiry and continuous learning
• Examining and identifying influences and shifts in cultural practices
• Conducting guided research in school psychology, social work, and general counseling 

Students learn about various cognitive strategies for learning in children and adults. They are trained to create environments conducive to learning, teacher education, and brain research. 

• Offered through: School of Education 
• Accreditation:  Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges 
• Tuition per credit: $775

#12 Fielding Graduate University 

Santa barbara, ca .

Clinical Psychology Ph.D. Online  

Fielding Graduate University offers an online Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology. The learning model blends in-person learning opportunities with digital formats. Concentration options include: 

• Forensic Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Health Psychology
• Parent-Infant Mental Health
• Social Justice and Diversity

Students develop doctoral-level competencies. They learn to apply theory and research for case conceptualizations, treatment plans, and interventions. The program is accredited by the American Psychological Association. Graduates become leaders in their chosen professions. They work as executives, educators, consultants, and leaders in health care, and nonprofits.

• Total Semester Credits: 179
• Offered through: School of Psychology 
• Accreditation: APA; WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC)
• Tuition per term: $9,700

#11 Touro University Worldwide

Los alamitos, ca .

Visit Website   Points: 12

Touro University Worldwide offers an online Doctor of Psychology in Human and Organizational Psychology. The program blends courses in theory, research, and putting theory to practice. It teaches them to translate theory into practice. Key features: 

• Students gain skills and tools to design evidence-based solutions 
• A doctoral-level academic environment 
• A support system dedicated to student success 
• Choice of topics to focus their research activities and personalize their educational journey

Students focus their studies in the fields of organizational psychology, leadership psychology, and industrial psychology. Most students complete their degree in three years. 

• Accreditation: WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC)
• Tuition per credit: $700 

#10 Keiser University

Fort lauderdale, fl.

Visit Website  Points: 12

Keiser University offers an online Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology. It focuses on career advancement in consulting, teaching, administration, or institutional research. Students of this research-based program: 

• Develop an advanced understanding of general psychological principles and theories 
• Learn to apply principles of effective research methods and evaluate problems
• Designing and conduct psychological research
• Interpret data, and formulate grounded conclusions to add to the body of knowledge
• Build the foundation for the study of personality, motivation, learning, emotion, and behavior
• Evaluate educational and social services program designs 

The program prepares innovative scholars, researchers, and educators. 

• Offered through: Graduate School
• Accreditation:  Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges
• Tuition per year: $21,008

#9 Grand Canyon University 

Phoenix, az.

Grand Canyon University offers an online Doctor of Philosophy in General Psychology: Cognition and Instruction (Qualitative Research). It is designed for students looking to work with economically and culturally diverse communities. Students learn to:

• Analyze the impacts of nature and nurture on cognitive development
• Study of social cognition and assessments
• Use theoretical and empirical approaches to understand mental processes
• Create psychometrically sound measures
• Apply cognitive psychology to learning and instruction

Graduates investigate how cognitive processes can inform the best instructional method. 

• Offered through: College of Doctoral Studies
• Accreditation:  Higher Learning Commission (HLC) 
• Tuition per credit: $695

#8 Meridian University

Petaluma, ca  .

Visit Website   Points: 13

Meridian University offers an online Doctor of Psychology (PsyD). It emphasizes research, theory, clinical, and cultural praxis skills. The coursework prepares students for the completion of an original research dissertation. Concentrations available:

• Transformative Leadership; Transformative Learning
• Developmental Coaching; Health Coaching
• Social Artistry; Expressive and Movement Arts
• Clinical Psychology; Depth Psychology
• Transpersonal Psychology; Integral Psychology
• Yoga and Psychology; Somatic Psychology
• Organizational Development

The program meets the educational requirements for the state of California Psychologist license. Graduates are prepared to work in varied settings. 

• 133 credits
• Tuition per credit: $676

#7 Liberty University  

Lynchburg, va.

Psychology Ph.D. Online 

Liberty University offers an online Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology. It provides rigorous research training to prepare students for a career in academia and research. They learn to use research to contribute to the field of understanding human behavior. The program uses science and biblical values to help students understand the full breadth of the human experience. Choice of specializations include: 

• General Track 
• Developmental Psychology 
• Industrial/Organizational 
• Social Psychology

Students learn to explore new ways to help people heal, grow, and thrive. Students have the option of face-to-face on-campus intensives. 

• Offered through: School of Behavioral Sciences
• Accreditation:  SACSCOC
• Tuition per credit: $595

#6 Winona State University 

Winona, mn .

EdD Online 

Winona State University offers an online Doctor of Education degree. It emphasizes the application of theoretical knowledge and applied research in education. Students learn about advanced practice in the field of education for schools and colleges. Emphases in this practitioner-focused and solutions-driven program include:

• Curriculum and instruction
• Higher education
• Technology education
• Indigenous studies
• Special education
• Organizational administration

The program develops practitioner-scholars in education who can strategically enhance teaching. Graduates learn to address the challenges of practice and apply research-based strategies to improve student outcomes.

• 30 semester credits
• Accreditation:  CACREP; NCATE; Higher Learning Commission
• Tuition per year: $8,698

#5 California Southern University 

Costa mesa, ca.

Visit Website  Points: 14

California Southern University offers an online Doctor of Psychology (PsyD). It is a great fit for students interested in clinical issues in psychology. It helps them explore practical applications of this knowledge. The comprehensive curriculum blends theoretical and practical methodologies within the field. Students have to complete core coursework with electives and internships. Elective options include: 

• Advanced Physiology and Pharmacology of Addiction 
• Advanced Personal and Professional Wellness for the Substance Abuse Counselor 
• Psychology of Learning 
• Applied Sport Psychology 
• Advanced Human Sexuality 

The curriculum meets the licensure requirements for a clinical psychologist in the State of California. 

• Tuition per credit: $545

#4 Capella University

Minneapolis, minnesota.

Visit Website   Points:  14

Capella University offers an online Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology. The program helps students gain a deeper understanding of human behavior. Students gain comprehensive knowledge to make a positive impact on patients and help them reach their potential. It is professionally aligned and prepares students to get state license eligibility. Key features:

• Online and in-person
• 14 Core course
• 30 Max transfer credits
• 2 Elective courses
• 6 Residency courses
• 3 Practicum courses
• 4 Internship courses
• 1 Dissertation Preparation course
• Clinical dissertation

The curriculum blends coursework, face-to-face residencies, clinical practicum, internships, and research. A dedicated support team guides and advises students throughout the program. 

• 135 total quarter credits
• Accreditation:  Higher Learning Commission
• Tuition per credit: $555

#3 University of North Dakota 

Grand forks, nd .

Visit Website   Points: 15

The University of North Dakota offers an online Doctorate in Occupational Therapy. Students develop the knowledge, skills, and adaptive capacity needed to address occupational challenges. The program teaches students to: 

• Conduct performance skills assessments and treatment
• Customize and install treatment programs to improve an individual’s ability to perform daily activities
• Provide comprehensive home and job site evaluations with adaptation recommendations
• Guide family members and caregivers
• Make adaptive equipment and splints with recommendations and usage training

Students develop critical thinking and reflective skills that are essential to this profession.  

• 124 credits
• Offered through: School of Medicine & Health Sciences
• Tuition per credit: $355.85

#2 University of South Dakota

Vermillion, sd.

Visit Website Points: 15

The University of South Dakota offers an online Doctorate in Occupational Therapy. Students are trained to assist people in achieving their living goals. They help patients maintain or rebuild their independence and participate in everyday activities. The purpose of the program is to empower individuals to reach goals and maximize their independence. Students can choose from one of five available specializations: 

• Nonspecialization
• Mental Health specialization
• Neuroscience & Rehabilitation 
• Pediatrics specialization
• Rural/Underserved specialization

The program is science-driven and evidence-based that trains graduates to help people of all ages. 

• 117 credits
• Offered through:  School of Health Sciences
•  Accreditation:  ACOTE; Higher Learning Commission
• Tuition per credit: $336.80

#1 California Coast University

Santa ana, ca.

Educational Psychology Ed.D. Online  

Visit Website   Points: 16

California Coast University offers an online Doctor of Education in Educational Psychology. The coursework challenges students to demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of best practices, theories, and research in the educational psychology field. Specialization options include: 

• Group Dynamics
• Motivation and Learning
• Educational Measurement 
• Advanced Educational Psychology

Along with the above specializations, students have to complete core coursework, research, and dissertation and a comprehensive examination.  The 100% online, flexible, and self-paced program is designed for busy working professionals. 

• 66 semester units 
• Accreditation:  Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC)
• Tuition per unit of credit: $290

Related Rankings:

• Top 30 Public Universities for Master’s Degrees in Counseling
• Top 30 Affordable Online Master’s in Psychology Degree Programs
• Top 30 Online Doctorate in Psychology Programs

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

Attachment Styles, Research Methods, Psychology Theories

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. Saul has a knack for breaking down complex information into easily digestible pieces.

His main areas of teaching responsibility included:

• Teaching A-level psychology, psychology BSc. tutorial and seminar classes, and supporting the teaching of lab lectures and statistics.
• Assessing assignments and giving constructive feedback to students across a range of A-level and undergraduate psychology modules.
• Curriculum development of psychology modules through applying an appropriate pedagogical and instructional design framework to the course development and delivery process.

In 2021, Dr. Mcleod obtained a Ph.D. in Psychology from The University of Manchester, examining the relationship between romantic attachment and social support.

Contact : [email protected]

Publications

• McLeod, S., Berry, K., Hodgson, C., & Wearden, A. (2020). Attachment and social support in romantic dyads: A systematic review . Journal of Clinical Psychology, 76 (1), 59-101.
• McLeod, S., Berry, K., Taylor, P., & Wearden, A. (2021). Romantic attachment and support preferences in new mothers: The moderating role of stress . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38 (5), 1535-1552.
• Mcleod, S., Berry, K., Taylor, P., & Wearden, A. (2021). Romantic attachment and support adequacy in new mothers . The Journal of Social Psychology , 1-24.

His articles on Simply Psychology have been referenced by numerous media outlets and publications, including:

• The New York Times
• The Telegraph
• Washington Post

According to Google Scholar , his articles have collectively been cited more than 8000 times during the past 5 years in academic journal papers.

Professional Experience

• Founder, content writer, and editor-in-chief for Simply Psychology (2007-present).
• International Affiliate Member of the (APA) American Psychological Association (2023).
• Chartered Member of The British Psychological Society: CPsychol (2022).
• Graduate Teaching Assistant on the Undergraduate Psychology degree at The University of Manchester (2014-2020).
• Lecturer at Wigan and Leigh College, primarily teaching A-level psychology (2003-2013).
• Lecturer at Edge Hill University College, during PGCE work placement (2001-2002).
• He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology, and the Journal of Social and Personal Relationships.
• PhD in Psychology, The University of Manchester (2021)
• MRes in Experimental Psychology with Data Science, The University of Manchester (2012)
• PGCE in Further, Higher and Adult Education, University of Bolton (2002)
• Psychology BSc. (Hons), University of Bolton (2002)

Jack N. Averitt College of Graduate Studies

Doctor of Clinical Psychology, Psy.D.

About the program.

Format : In person on the Statesboro Campus Credit Hours : 114-124 Entry Term : Fall

The APA-accredited doctorate program in clinical psychology at Georgia Southern University (GS) is a full time, day program offering a course of study leading to the Doctor of Clinical Psychology degree. The program’s curriculum prepares graduates for the practice of psychology with a special focus on practice in rural areas. Coursework and training prepare students for licensure as a psychologist, with an emphasis on educating emerging psychologists for the underserved areas in the state of Georgia and adjacent regions in the Southeast.

The Psy.D. program originated from a longstanding and dire need for licensed psychologists in rural, underserved areas of the United States, most specifically in the rural south. This mission is consistent with Georgia Southern University’s commitment to serve the needs of the southeastern region of the country. The program trains students according to the practitioner-scholar model. Students are taught to become generalists who will be effective in the delivery of psychotherapy, psychological assessment, and psychological consultation services in rural areas. Consistent with the framework of a generalist approach, the curriculum, beginning with foundational courses, strives to create and maintain a dynamic and integrative program, emphasizing behavioral, cognitive, existential, family systems, humanistic, and psychodynamic orientations.

The program is designed to foster the intrapersonal and professional development of students. This process is aimed at helping the students cultivate balance within their personal and professional growth. In addition to academic requirements, students are encouraged to take initiative and responsibility for personal and professional growth through independent readings, interaction with fellow students and faculty, attendance at colloquia, and additional elective research and practica opportunities. The PsyD is a professional degree, and focuses on the development of applied practice skills. Because the program is an integral part of the College of Behavioral and Social Sciences in a regional university, doctoral students engage in all aspects of scholarly inquiry, including substantive qualitative and quantitative research, and professional membership and discourse in state, regional, and national organizations.

Ready to Apply?

Request information, visit campus, or, you can :, regular admission requirements.

A committee of faculty will determine admission based on the following:

• Grade Point Average (GPA): A minimum undergraduate GPA of 3.30 is required for consideration. The average undergraduate GPA of successful applicants for the Fall 2022 class was 3.76 (on a 4.0 scale).
• A minimum grade of B in the following undergraduate courses: Psychological Statistics, Research Design, Abnormal Psychology
• Record of having taken at least two of the following courses: Personality, Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Learning and/or Cognition, Health Psychology, Tests and Measurement, Theories of Psychotherapy, Psychology of Substance Abuse.
• Three letters of recommendation from former professors or appropriate employers/advisors.
• A written statement of professional goals. Please describe why you want to pursue doctoral training in clinical psychology. Also, describe how Georgia Southern University’s program is a good fit. Finally, please list three (3) Statesboro campus psychology faculty whose research interests are a match to your own. Of these three, please include at least one clinical faculty member and one faculty member who is not clinical.  This statement should be 500 words or less in length.
• A current Curriculum Vitae or Resume.
• Optional: Submission of a writing sample of past work provides an opportunity to showcase your writing skills, tone, and style. The sample should be no longer than two double-spaced pages. Consider submitting an excerpt or passage from a research paper or writing assignment for class, a manuscript, or other relevant works.

Based on a review of the application materials, the Admissions Committee will select top candidates for an on-campus interview. Interviews are mandatory for admission into the program. The Admissions Committee will contact top candidates with details regarding on-campus interview dates and procedures.

The PsyD program seeks a diverse applicant pool. We welcome applications from under-represented ethnic minorities, women, applicants with disabilities, first-generation college graduates, and non-traditional students.

*International transcripts must be evaluated by a NACES accredited evaluation service  and must be a course by course evaluation and include a GPA. ( www.naces.org )

December 15 *

Does not admit

*The application and all ​​required documents listed on the “admissions requirements” tab​ for the program must be received by the deadline.  If all required documents are not received by the deadline your application will not be considered for admission.

Program Contact Information

C. Thresa Yancey, Ph.D. Director of Clinical Training, Professor of Psychology [email protected] 912-478-5704

Questions related to the program’s accreditation status should be directed to the Commission on Accreditation: Office of Program Consultation and Accreditation American Psychological Association 750 1st St., NE, Washington, DC 20002 202-336-5979 [email protected] APA Accreditation Site

Last updated: 2/9/2024

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Office of Graduate Admissions Physical Address: 261 Forest Drive PO Box 8113 Statesboro, GA 30460 Georgia Southern University Phone: 912-478-5384 Fax: 912-478-0740 gradadmissions @georgiasouthern.edu

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Current clinical psychology phd students.

Carmen Bango (she/hers) Mentors: Amy Holley, Ph.D., Anna Wilson, Ph.D., and Bonnie Nagel, Ph.D.

Carmen was born in Washington D.C. and grew up primarily in Vermont. She graduated from Williams College with a B.A. in psychology and a concentration in neuroscience. At Williams, she worked in the lab of Dr. Shivon Robinson researching neonatal opioid exposure in animal models. She also assisted on the EMPOWER (Effective Management of Pain and Opioid-Free Ways to Enhance Relief) project, a clinical trial directed by Dr. Beth Darnall at Stanford that compares different protocols for chronic pain treatment and opioid reduction. After graduation, she worked for two years at Dartmouth College in the lab of Dr. Tor D. Wager on projects investigating the neural and genetic correlates of pain and placebo. Her research interests include: Biopsychosocial predictors of chronic pain and their clinical translation, the effects of prolonged stress on nervous and immune systems, gut-brain axis influence on mood and health, and addressing research biases contributing to health disparities in medicine. In her free time, Carmen is an avid mountain adventurer, podcast-listener, short-story reader, and hot chocolate with whipped cream drinker.

Philip Bouleh (he/him) Mentor: Christopher Stauffer, M.D.

Philip is currently a Clinical Psychology PhD student at OHSU under the mentorship of Dr. Chris Stauffer. He was born in Amman, Jordan and grew up in Lebanon before immigrating to the United States in 2004 with his family. He graduated in 2020 from Portland State University with a B.S. in philosophy/psychology. His passion is to help individuals who have experienced life in conflict-affected settings (e.g., Refugees, Veterans) build resilience and find healing. Philip is involved in multiple research projects such as MDMA-assisted group therapy for PTSD and psilocybin-enhanced psychotherapy for methamphetamine use disorder in Veterans. Broadly, Philip is interested in the role of epistemic trust, attachment security and spirituality/metaphysical beliefs in the context of psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy — including how any changes in these domains may relate to psychological well-being and psychopathology.

Kate Pierce (she/they) Mentors: Lauren Denneson, Ph.D.

Kate earned a B.S. in psychology from the University of Iowa in 2015. After graduating, she became a psychiatric nursing assistant at the University of Iowa Hospital working with children/adolescents in an inpatient setting, teaching dialectical behavioral therapy skills and providing compassionate direct patient care for patients of diverse psychiatric acuity. This experience inspired their journey towards graduate school and in 2018, Katie moved to Portland to work as a research coordinator at the Portland VA’s Center to Improve Veteran Involvement in Care. For the past five years she has been involved in suicide prevention research studying suicide risk and resilience factors and identifying gender differences to inform gender-tailored care. She has worked on various suicide prevention projects including a national, mixed-methods survey study, a suicide prevention trials database, and a randomized controlled trial for an experimental behavioral treatment. Katie is interested in suicide risk and resilience among women and folks who identify as part of the LGBTQ+ community with the hope that her work can improve suicide prevention efforts, community mental health access, and evidence-based therapies for this unique population. In their spare time you can find Katie somewhere in nature with her Bernese Mountain Dog Riker, reading under a tree.

Daniel Schriemer (he/him) Mentors: Benjamin Morasco, Ph.D. and Travis Lovejoy, Ph.D.

Daniel is from Michigan and graduated with a B.A. in Philosophy and International Studies from Hope College in Holland, MI. Following his experience as a Community Health Worker in St. Paul, MN, he earned an MPH in Community Health Promotion from the University of Minnesota School of Public Health, where he subsequently worked for several years as a Research Coordinator. His research areas of interest include chronic pain, substance use, and program evaluation. He enjoys running, hiking, reading, and cooking in his free time.

Lea-Tereza Tenekedjieva (she/her) Mentor: Bonnie Nagel, Ph.D.

Lea received her B.S. in Human Biology with a focus in Brain Science and Psychopathology and minor in Symbolic Systems from Stanford University. For three years, Lea was the Research Lab Manager at a clinical neuroscience lab at Stanford University School of Medicine and VA Palo Alto, where she worked on defining the neural mechanisms of alcohol use disorder and investigating novel brain stimulation methods in addiction. Her past research has focused on transdiagnostic approaches to understanding trauma, mood, and anxiety symptoms in addiction and their neural correlates. Lea will be joining the Developmental Brain Imaging Lab under the mentorship of Dr. Bonnie Nagel. Lea is primarily interested in the neural mechanisms of traumatic stress and how it impacts the development of transdiagnostic psychopathology, specifically affective circuit dysfunction, emotion regulation and substance use. Lea’s ultimate goal is to contribute to precision psychiatry efforts and inform novel brain-based treatments and policies for individuals with trauma and substance use disorders.

Ayanna Bell (she/her) Mentor: Kathleen Carlson, Ph.D.

Ayanna was born in Hawai’i and raised in Georgia. She earned her B.S. in Neuroscience with a minor in Artificial Intelligence at Agnes Scott College. There she was an undergraduate research assistant in numerous labs exploring novel methods to treat neurological diseases and psychiatric disorders. Her research interests include providing culturally competent care to those seeking psychiatric treatment, sociobehavioral impacts on human health, innovative initiatives for health, and exploring psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. In her free time, she enjoys watching movies and tv shows, trying new foods, and cuddling with her furbaby Pluto.

Aaron Brah Mentor: Suzanne Mitchell, Ph.D.

Aaron received his Bachelors of Psychological Science in 2016 from La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia and went on to work as a therapist and lecturer at Australia’s Malvern Private Hospital specializing in substance use interventions for individuals and families. In 2018, Aaron moved to Seattle where he pursued a Masters in Psychology at Seattle University. He was trained as an existential-phenomenological psychotherapist, worked at a residential substance use treatment facility and also as a research assistant at University of Washington’s (UW) Harm Reduction Research and Training (HaRRT) laboratory. There he studied patient-driven goal selection processes for individuals with alcohol use disorder in Seattle’s housing-crisis population. 

Aaron then spent 2 years as a Research Coordinator at UW’s Department of Medicine, coordinating a multi-site, international R01 grant between Seattle, Atlanta, and Kenya. Aaron worked alongside a team of health economists, clinical psychologists, and epidemiologists to perform a Discrete Choice Experiment which sought to understand medical decision-making processes for people living with HIV (PLWH). Aaron will be conducting research on how past temporal discounting processes may impact impulsivity in those recovering from severe substance and alcohol use disorders. 

In his free time, Aaron enjoys skateboarding, meditation, and playing with his Rottweiler-German Shepherd puppy

Maria D. Hayes (she/her) Mentor: Elinor Sullivan, Ph.D.

Maria D. Hayes (she/her) graduated Summa Cum Laude with a Bachelor of Science in Psychology from Portland State University in June of 2019. During her time at Portland State she was recognized with an Academic Achievement Excellence and Leadership Award, and served as the President of the Black Student Union during the 2018-2019 academic year. Her background includes investigating discrimination as a social stressor in African Americans as an undergraduate McNair scholar, and applied clinical work administering TMS therapy. Prior to joining the Clinical Psychology Program, Maria was a Postbaccalaureate Research Education Program (PREP) scholar at OHSU where she conducted an independent study examining the relationship between maternal perceived discrimination and infant negative affect behavioral outcomes. She has deep interest in further investigating the mechanisms by which social-emotional adversity transmits intergenerationally, and affects child behavior, affect and development. Her professional goals include using her unique perspective and voice to advocate for and provide mental health resources to underrepresented communities, and to conduct empirically-based research that is informed by patient care to address the adversity faced by those with marginalized identities, and to understand factors that protect some members of these communities from the consequences of the adversity that they face. In her free time Maria enjoys reading/writing poetry, traveling, concerts and a good suspenseful series.

Kristen Torres (she/her) Mentor: David Wagner, Ph.D. 

Kristen is from Colorado and received her B.S. in Clinical/Counseling Psychology at Colorado State University. During her undergraduate career, she was a research assistant at Children’s Hospital Colorado in several labs examining underlying mechanisms in childhood behavioral health. During her post-baccalaureate studies, Kristen worked in the Pulmonary Sciences & Critical Care Medicine Department at University of Colorado researching psychological distress in ICU survivors and creative arts therapy for healthcare worker burnout. Kristen’s interests include pediatric health psychology and health disparities in children with chronic illness. Under mentorship from Dr. David Wagner, Kristen will be a part of the Novel Interventions in Children’s Healthcare project focused on pediatric health psychology. In her free time, you can usually find Kristen spending time with friends and family, running, listening to Taylor Swift, or training her rescue dog, Scout.  

Joren Adams Mentors: Maya O'Neil, Ph.D. and Dr. Lauren Denneson, Ph.D.

Joren received his B.S. in Biopsychology from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2017. During his time as an undergraduate, Joren was awarded a University Award of Distinction for his contributions to campus mental health in relation to his work as a mental health peer counselor. After receiving his bachelor's degree, Joren moved on to the University of California, Irvine where he worked as a research specialist in a neuroimaging lab. At UCI, Joren primarily worked on two studies exploring major depressive disorder and enduring maternal grief. These experiences cemented Joren’s interest in clinical work and led him to develop broad research interests in neuropsychology, affective disorders, and the relationship between emotional dysregulation and cognitive functioning. At OHSU Joren works with his advisors Dr. Maya O’Neil and Dr. Lauren Denneson on a variety of projects related to suicide prevention, evidence synthesis, and cognitive rehabilitation in Veteran populations. His dissertation work focuses on Compensatory Cognitive Training for Veterans with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)-related cognitive functioning deficits. In his spare time, Joren enjoys movie nights, board games, and cuddling his two cats.

Jenna Kachmarik (she/her) Mentors: Christopher Stauffer, M.D. and Jennifer Loftis, Ph.D.

Jenna is from North Carolina and earned her B.A. in Chemistry and B.S. in Psychology at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. There, she was also a research associate in the StressWAVES Biobehavioral Research Lab, which explored relationships between stress and health. She also has several years of experience as a pharmacy technician. Her interests broadly include health psychology and psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. She is deeply curious about the potential of psychedelics (e.g., psilocybin, MDMA) to improve chronic mental and physical health conditions and mechanisms therein. Guided by Dr. Chris Stauffer and Dr. Jennifer Loftis, she will investigate outcomes of psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy from a psychoneuroimmunological lens. In her free time, she enjoys reading, hiking, hula hoop dancing, and snuggling with her 11-year old dog, Luca.

Taylor Levine Mentor: Travis Lovejoy, Ph.D.

Originally from Arizona, Taylor moved to Pennsylvania where she earned a B.S. in psychology and neuroscience from Haverford College in 2018. Following graduation, she worked as a clinical research coordinator at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, studying novel interventions for treatment-resistant depression. In her most recent role, as field guide for a psychiatric residential treatment center, Taylor guided groups of teens through a 3-month wilderness therapy program in the backcountry of Vermont. Taylor is thrilled to be mentored by Dr. Travis Lovejoy and explore comorbid chronic illness, substance use disorders, and mood disorders. She is passionate about creating broad scale treatment plans and implementing practices that better serve those who might otherwise fall through the cracks in our healthcare system. In her free time, Taylor loves to cook, spend time in the woods, and watch YouTube videos to learn how to build her future tiny home.

Deborah  Sevigny-Resetco (she/her) Mentors: Suzanne H. Mitchell, Ph.D.

Deborah was born and raised in San Diego, California. She graduated from the University of Puget Sound with a B.A. in Psychology, with an emphasis in Neuroscience. As an undergraduate student and in the years to follow, she pursued a career in mental health services in various settings, including an acute psychiatric rehabilitation facility, a board and care center, and within the juvenile dependency system. In 2017 she moved to Oregon, where she worked as a domestic violence advocate for the YWCA of Greater Portland and took on a role as a research assistant working with abuse cases for vulnerable adults. Prior to entering OHSU’s Clinical Psychology Ph.D. program, she worked as a research assistant in the Translational Neuroeconomics Lab with Dr. Suzanne Mitchell on two projects focused on decision-making: a translational rodent model for delay discounting and a cognitive effort discounting study in an ADHD adolescent population. Her research interests include the cognitive and neurobiological impacts of trauma on decision-making, with a particular interest in the role of neuroplasticity in trauma-centered recovery.

Diana Vazquez Duque Mentors: Elinor Sullivan Ph.D. and Joel Nigg Ph.D.

Diana received her B.A. in Psychology and Political Science at Linfield College in 2019. She graduated from Pacific University with a n M.A. in Applied Psychological Science in 2021. Her clinical background includes providing individual and group therapy to children with ADHD, Autism, trauma, and behavioral challenges, as well as leading psychoeducational groups and delivering individual counseling to Spanish-speaking survivors of domestic violence. Her research experiences include assisting with a study on the interaction between emotions and racial biases, as an interviewer on a longitudinal study about media and child identity formation, and as first author on a project exploring advertisements and self-objectification in young women which was presented at the 2019 WPA conference. Diana's clinical and research interests include developmental disorders such as Autism and ADHD, as well as the development of culturally adaptive treatments for historically underserved populations, primarily Latinos. 

David Cameron Mentor: Maya O'Neil, Ph.D.

David was born in Seattle and grew up in Portland before attending Macalester College in St. Paul, MN where he received a B.A. in Anthropology. After graduating David moved back to Portland and joined OHSU’s Department of Family Medicine as a Qualitative Senior Research Assistant. In 2017, David moved to Cambridge, MA and went back to school to obtain a Master’s in Public Health from Boston University School of Public Health. After graduating from BU, he again returned to Portland and joined the Portland VA Center to Improve Veterans Involvement in Care working with Dr. Maya O’Neil as a study coordinator and research associate. David is excited to continuing building on his experiencing studying PTSD and TBI with Dr. O’Neil and begin learning to provide evidence-based holistic mental health care. David has played competitive soccer his entire life and has been a youth soccer coach with the Portland Timbers. He is a diehard Timbers and Blazers fan and enjoys watching sports, working on restoring his 1986 BMW, and playing with his new English Bulldog puppy Franklin in his free time.

Olivia Doyle Mentor: Kristen Mackiewicz-Seghete, Ph.D.

Olivia is currently enrolled in the Clinical Psychology Ph.D. program. She earned her B.A. in Psychology with a minor in Neuroscience from Lewis and Clark College. Most recently she worked as a research assistant in the DCAN lab where she helped coordinate multiple clinical trials on maternal well-being and infant brain development. Her research interests include the impacts of trauma on development of psychopathology and emotional well-being during periods of high neural plasticity. When not at work she is usually training her cat, bouldering, or making homemade pasta.

Kate Shirley (she/her) Mentors: Maya O'Neil, Ph.D. and Jennifer Loftis, Ph.D.

Kate received a B.A. in psychology and gender/sexuality studies from the University of North Carolina Asheville and a M.A. in counseling psychology from Lewis & Clark College. Prior to entering OHSU’s CPP, Kate was active in research and clinical work at OHSU and the Portland VA within the ADHD Lab, Compensatory Cognitive Training Research Program, and the Psychoneuroimmunology Lab. Kate’s research and clinical interests include normal aging, cognitive impairment, and dementia; substance use and addiction; social determinants of health and health disparities; and psychotherapy processes and outcomes. As a student, Kate will work with Dr. Maya O'Neil and Dr. Jennifer Loftis in the Compensatory Cognitive Training Research Program and the Psychoneuroimmunology Lab. Kate is a runner, biker, dog enthusiast, and coffee drinker. Her dog, Dodger, is very happy to have her at home so much right now.

Kat Selah (they/them) Mentor: Joel Nigg, Ph.D.

Kat was born and raised in New York City, and has lived in beautiful Oregon for the past six years. They did their undergraduate degree at the University of Southern California, and their master's degree at Columbia University, studying Clinical Psychology. They started their professional career at New York State Psychiatric Institute, working under Dr. Yuval Neria at the PTSD and Trauma Lab, working as the research coordinator on both MRI and Attention Bias Modification Treatment (ABMT) studies. Before joining the team at OHSU, they worked as a private consultant as part of a PTSD expert witness team. In 2019, they began working at the ADHD lab with Dr. Joel Nigg, who will be their mentor for the program. Kat's research interests include expressed emotion and criticism as predictors of ADHD and adolescent self-perception, as well as improving diagnostics and assessment of ADHD for late adolescents to young adults. Outside of their work and studies, Kat is a parent to two young children, and enjoys hiking, reading, making visual art, advocacy for the LGBTQIA+ community, and playing really terrible guitar.

Madeleine Allen (she/her) Mentor: Alice Graham, Ph.D.

Madeleine’s research broadly focuses on how the gestational environment and parental history influences fetal brain development, under the mentorship of Alice Graham, Ph.D. Specifically, she is interested in the mechanisms by which stress and substance use during pregnancy and parental early life trauma may affect offspring brain development. She is currently assisting in comprehensive child evaluations with an emphasis on ADHD and learning disorders under the supervision of Darren Janzen, Psy.D. at the Child Development and Rehabilitation Center. Before beginning in the CPP program, Madeleine worked as a research assistant in the Moghaddam Lab at OHSU after graduating from Oberlin College in 2017 with a B.A. in neuroscience.

Eleanor Battison, MS, LPC (she/her) Mentors: Amy Holley, Ph.D. and Anna Wilson, Ph.D.

Eleanor Battison grew up in Stockholm, Sweden, and received her BA in Psychology from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC, Canada. She earned her MS in Counseling Psychology from Lewis and Clark College. She has several years of experience working in both direct clinical service and research in Portland, OR. She is a doctoral student in the Advancing Research in Pediatric Pain lab (ARPP), under the guidance of Amy Holley, Ph.D. and Anna Wilson, Ph.D. Her current interests include health and pain psychology, with an emphasis on trauma, health disparities and underserved populations.

Amanda Del Giacco (she/her) Mentor: Bonnie Nagel, Ph.D.

Amanda Del Giacco received her bachelor's degree in psychology from the University of California, Los Angeles. After completing her bachelor's, she worked as a registered behavioral technician assisting children and adolescents with neurodevelopmental disorders. Amanda then completed a two-year post-baccalaureate fellowship at the National Institute of Mental Health working on fMRI/MEG studies investigating visual perception and affective processing. She is a doctoral student in the Developmental Brain Imaging Lab (DBIL) under the guidance of Dr. Bonnie Nagel. Amanda is interested in gaining a comprehensive understanding of the underlying neural mechanisms and behavioral implications for identifying early risk factors of psychopathology in children and adolescents.

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How the American middle class has changed in the past five decades

The middle class, once the economic stratum of a clear majority of American adults, has steadily contracted in the past five decades. The share of adults who live in middle-class households fell from 61% in 1971 to 50% in 2021, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of government data.

From 2020: Are you in the American middle class? Find out with our income calculator

The shrinking of the middle class has been accompanied by an increase in the share of adults in the upper-income tier – from 14% in 1971 to 21% in 2021 – as well as an increase in the share who are in the lower-income tier, from 25% to 29%. These changes have occurred gradually, as the share of adults in the middle class decreased in each decade from 1971 to 2011, but then held steady through 2021.

The analysis below presents seven facts about how the economic status of the U.S. middle class and that of America’s major demographic groups have changed since 1971. A related analysis examines the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the financial well-being of households in the lower-, middle- and upper-income tiers, with comparisons to the Great Recession era. (In the source data for both analyses, demographic figures refer to the 1971-2021 period, while income figures refer to the 1970-2020 period. Thus, the shares of adults in an income tier are based on their household incomes in the previous year.)

This report analyzes data from the Annual Social and Economic Supplements (ASEC) of the Current Population Survey (CPS) to study how the economic status of the American middle class has changed since 1971. It also examines the movement of demographic groups in and out of the American middle class and across lower- and upper-income tiers from 1971 to 2021.

The CPS is the U.S. government’s official source for monthly estimates of unemployment ; the ASEC, conducted in March each year, is the official source for its estimates of income and poverty . The COVID-19 outbreak has affected data collection efforts by the U.S. government in its surveys, limiting in-person data collection and affecting the response rate. It is possible that some measures of economic outcomes and how they vary across demographic groups are affected by these changes in data collection. This report makes use of updated weights released by the Census Bureau to correct for nonresponse in 2019, 2020 and 2021.

In this analysis, “middle-income” adults in 2021 are those with an annual household income that was two-thirds to double the national median income in 2020, after incomes have been adjusted for household size, or about $52,000 to $156,000 annually in 2020 dollars for a household of three. “Lower-income” adults have household incomes less than $52,000 and “upper-income” adults have household incomes greater than $156,000.

The income it takes to be middle income varies by household size, with smaller households requiring less to support the same lifestyle as larger households. The boundaries of the income tiers also vary across years with changes in the national median income. Read the methodology for more details.

The terms “middle income” and “middle class” are used interchangeably in this analysis for the sake of exposition. But being middle class can refer to more than just income, be it the level of education, the type of profession, economic security, home ownership, or one’s social and political values. Class also could simply be a matter of self-identification.

Household incomes have risen considerably since 1970, but those of middle-class households have not climbed nearly as much as those of upper-income households. The median income of middle-class households in 2020 was 50% greater than in 1970 ($90,131 vs. $59,934), as measured in 2020 dollars. These gains were realized slowly, but for the most part steadily, with the exception of the period from 2000 to 2010, the so-called “ lost decade ,” when incomes fell across the board.

The median income for lower-income households grew more slowly than that of middle-class households, increasing from $20,604 in 1970 to $29,963 in 2020, or 45%.

The rise in income from 1970 to 2020 was steepest for upper-income households. Their median income increased 69% during that timespan, from $130,008 to $219,572.

As a result of these changes, the gap in the incomes of upper-income and other households also increased. In 2020, the median income of upper-income households was 7.3 times that of lower-income households, up from 6.3 in 1970. The median income of upper-income households was 2.4 times that of middle-income households in 2020, up from 2.2 in 1970.

The share of aggregate U.S. household income held by the middle class has fallen steadily since 1970. The widening of the income gap and the shrinking of the middle class has led to a steady decrease in the share of U.S. aggregate income held by middle-class households. In 1970, adults in middle-income households accounted for 62% of aggregate income, a share that fell to 42% in 2020.

Meanwhile, the share of aggregate income accounted for by upper-income households has increased steadily, from 29% in 1970 to 50% in 2020. Part of this increase reflects the rising share of adults who are in the upper-income tier.

The share of U.S. aggregate income held by lower-income households edged down from 10% to 8% over these five decades, even though the proportion of adults living in lower-income households increased over this period.

Older Americans and Black adults made the greatest progress up the income ladder from 1971 to 2021. Among adults overall, the share who were in the upper-income tier increased from 14% in 1971 to 21% in 2021, or by 7 percentage points. Meanwhile, the share in the lower-income tier increased from 25% to 29%, or by 4 points. On balance, this represented a net gain of 3 percentage points in income status for all adults.

Those ages 65 and older made the most notable progress up the income ladder from 1971 to 2021. They increased their share in the upper-income tier while reducing their share in the lower-income tier, resulting in a net gain of 25 points. Progress among adults 65 and older was likely driven by an increase in labor force participation , rising educational levels and by the role of Social Security payments in reducing poverty.

Black adults, as well as married men and women, were also among the biggest gainers from 1971 to 2021, with net increases ranging from 12 to 14 percentage points.

On the other hand, not having at least a bachelor’s degree resulted in a notable degree of economic regression over this period. Adults with a high school diploma or less education, as well as those with some college experience but no degree, saw sizable increases in their shares in the lower-income tier in the past five decades. Although no single group of adults by education category moved up the income ladder from 1971 to 2021, adults overall realized gains by boosting their education levels . The share of adults 25 and older who had completed at least four years of college stood at 38% in 2021, compared with only 11% in 1971.

Progress up the income ladder for a demographic group does not necessarily signal its economic status in comparison with other groups at a given point in time. For example, in 2021, adults ages 65 and older and Black adults were still more likely than many other groups to be lower income, and less likely to be middle or upper income.

Married adults and those in multi-earner households made more progress up the income ladder from 1971 to 2021 than their immediate counterparts. Generally, partnered adults have better outcomes on a range of economic outcomes than the unpartnered. One reason is that marriage is increasingly linked to educational attainment , which bears fruit in terms of higher incomes.

Married men and women were distributed across the income tiers identically to each other in both 1971 and 2021. Both groups nearly doubled their shares in the upper-income tier in the past five decades, from 14% in 1971 to 27% in 2021. And neither group experienced an increase in the share in the lower-income tier.

Unmarried men and women were much more likely than their married counterparts to be in the lower-income tier in 2021. And unmarried men, in particular, experienced a sizable increase in their share in the lower-income tier from 1971 t0 2021 and a similarly large decrease in their share in the middle-income tier. Nonetheless, unmarried men are less likely than unmarried women to be lower income and more likely to be middle income.

Adults in households with more than one earner fare much better economically than adults in households with only one earner. In 2021, some 20% of adults in multi-earner households were in the lower-income tier, compared with 53% of adults in single-earner households. Also, adults in multi-earner households were more than twice as likely as adults in single-earner households to be in the upper-income tier in 2021. In the long haul, adults in single-earner households are among the groups who slid down the income ladder the most from 1971 to 2021.

Despite progress, Black and Hispanic adults trail behind other groups in their economic status. Although Black adults made some of the biggest strides up the income tiers from 1971 to 2021, they, along with Hispanic adults, are more likely to be in the lower-income tier than are White or Asian adults. About 40% of both Black and Hispanic adults were lower income in 2021, compared with 24% of White adults and 22% of Asian adults.

Black adults are the only major racial and ethnic group that did not experience a decrease in its middle-class share, which stood at 47% in 2021, about the same as in 1971. White adults are the only group in which more than half (52%) lived in middle-class households in 2021, albeit after declining from 63% in 1971. At the top end, only about one-in-ten Black and Hispanic adults were upper income in 2021, compared with one-in-four or more White and Asian adults.

The relative economic status of men and women has changed little from 1971 to 2021. Both experienced similar percentage point increases in the shares in the lower- and upper-income tiers, and both saw double-digit decreases in the shares who are middle class. Women remained more likely than men to live in lower-income households in 2021 (31% vs. 26%).

Adults 65 and older continue to lag economically, despite decades of progress. The share of adults ages 65 and older in the lower-income tier fell from 54% in 1971 to 37% in 2021. Their share in the middle class rose from 39% to 47% and their share in the upper-income tier increased from 7% to 16%. However, adults 65 and older are the only age group in which more than one-in-three adults are in lower-income households, and they are much less likely than adults ages 30 to 44 – as well as those ages 45 to 64 – to be in the upper-income tier.

All other age groups experienced an increase in the shares who are lower income from 1971 to 2021, as well as a decrease in the shares who are middle income. But they also saw increases in the shares who are upper income. Among adults ages 30 to 44, for instance, the share in upper-income households almost doubled, from 12% in 1971 to 21% in 2021.

There is a sizable and growing income gap between adults with a bachelor’s degree and those with lower levels of education. In 2021, about four-in-ten adults with at least a bachelor’s degree (39%) were in the upper-income tier, compared with 16% or less among those without a bachelor’s degree. The share of adults in the upper-income tier with at least a bachelor’s degree edged up from 1971 to 2021, while the share without a bachelor’s degree either edged down or held constant.

About half or a little more of adults with either some college education or a high school diploma only were in the middle class in 2021. But these two groups, along with those with less than a high school education, experienced notable drops in their middle class shares from 1971 to 2021 – and notable increases in the shares in the lower-income tier. In 2021, about four-in-ten adults with only a high school diploma or its equivalent (39%) were in the lower-income tier, about double the share in 1971.

Note: Here is the methodology for this analysis.

• Economic Inequality
• Income & Wages
• Middle Class

Rakesh Kochhar is a senior researcher at Pew Research Center

Stella Sechopoulos is a former research assistant focusing on social and demographic trends research at Pew Research Center

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UW Psychology Student Wins National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship

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Institutional Communications Bureau of Mines Building, Room 137 Laramie, WY 82071 Phone: (307) 766-2929 Email:   [email protected]

Published April 23, 2024

University of Wyoming psychology graduate student Jaylan Aliev, of Boise, Idaho, has been awarded a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship.

As a second-year graduate student in the psychology and law Ph.D. program, Aliev’s research interests include juror perceptions of marginalized victims, how these perceptions affect legal decision-making and how to mitigate juror biases.

“Child sexual abuse is a national health crisis, and the process of seeking justice for victims can often be retraumatizing,” Aliev says. “Countless child sexual abuse narratives do not follow the popular culture prototype that suggests victims are young girls and perpetrators middle-aged men, and it is important to investigate how older or male victims of child sexual abuse are treated in the legal system -- and how such demographic factors may influence mock juror decision-making in these cases.”

Aliev’s current work examines the impact of victim physical maturity on legal decision-making in cases of child sexual abuse. Her secondary line of research focuses on analyzing racial, socioeconomic, geographic and policy disparities in the U.S. juvenile legal system.

“Receiving the news that I was a 2024 National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship awardee felt like a dream,” she says. “I am a first-generation high school and college graduate, as well as first-generation American. My initial thought was, ‘Things like this don’t happen to people like me.’”

In May, Aliev will graduate with her master’s degree in psychology, and she looks forward to beginning her graduate fellowship research plans.

“As I have gained more experience working with community partners, I have become extremely interested in disseminating psycho-legal research in a way that informs public policy and aims to improve our current criminal legal system,” she says.

After earning her Ph.D., she hopes to continue her work at a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization as a researcher or data analyst.

“It still has not fully sunk in that my application was one of the 2,000 that was selected as a recipient out of tens of thousands of applications,” Aliev says. “I immediately started crying and then called my adviser, Kayla Burd (UW assistant professor of psychology), and my parents.”

To learn more about Aliev’s research, email her at [email protected] .

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

The covid-19 pandemic, psychologists’ professional quality of life and mental health.

• Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand

Background: Psychologists are at known risk of work-related stress, secondary trauma, and burnout. The COVID-19 pandemic increased stress and anxiety for communities worldwide and corresponded with an increased demand for mental health services. Our study investigated the impact of COVID-19 on psychologists’ professional quality of life, psychological symptoms, and work-related stress in Aotearoa, New Zealand (NZ).

Method: Ninety-nine registered psychologists were recruited via NZ professional psychology organizations, representing 3% of the total workforce. Survey data collected included symptoms of compassion fatigue and satisfaction, psychological symptoms, COVID-19-related stress and resilience, and professional and personal circumstances during the third year of the pandemic, 2022.

Results: Seventy percent reported that their work stress had increased, and 60% reported that their caseload intensity had increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychologists reported receiving little to no additional personal or professional support, while 55% reported increased personal responsibilities during the pandemic (for example, closed childcare and schools during lockdowns). High rates of compassion fatigue (burnout and secondary traumatic stress) and low resilience were reported. We observed that psychological distress was higher than the community averages before the pandemic and comparable with frontline healthcare professionals. Compassion fatigue was associated with COVID-related stress, psychological distress, years in practice, and more frequent supervision, but not with working with at-risk clients, levels of personal support, or having children at home. Despite these difficulties, high Compassion Satisfaction scores were also reported, with over 90% indicating they had no intention of leaving the profession in the foreseeable future.

Conclusion: Psychologists’ compassion fatigue appears to have worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic, as have their symptoms of psychological distress. Increased workplace and clinical demands, telehealth difficulties, stress relating to the pandemic, inadequate support, and increased personal responsibilities were reported by psychologists. Mental health workforces are not immune to the personal and professional impacts of crises and are at risk of burnout and secondary traumatic stress. We hope that increased awareness and understanding of psychologists’ own difficulties during COVID-19 can be used to better tackle future crises and support mental health professionals.

Introduction

During the pandemic, mental health service demand increases were reported worldwide ( Saha et al., 2020 ; Benton et al., 2022 ; Deng et al., 2023 ; Sicouri et al., 2023 ), specifically in Aotearoa, New Zealand (NZ; Every-Palmer et al., 2020 ; Freeman et al., 2021 ; Gasteiger et al., 2021 ; Officer et al., 2022 ). Healthcare professionals (HCPs) faced the unusual challenge of sharing stressful situations with their patients, as navigating uncertain health risks, lockdowns, travel restrictions, and financial disruptions coincided with increased client distress and severity. In NZ, government-mandated restrictions were among the strictest and most effective in reducing the spread and mortality of COVID-19, such that widespread community transmission was not seen until the 2022 Omicron outbreak. At the time of this study in 2022, extended lockdowns had only recently ended, vaccination rates were high, and community transmission was increasing ( Ministry of Health, 2022 ). Many psychologists continued to work remotely via telehealth.

The impact of the pandemic on HCPs has been reported by frontline medical workers, with rates of stress and anxiety particularly noted ( Buselli et al., 2020 ; Bell et al., 2021 ). However, little research has been conducted on mental health professionals. During the pandemic, psychologists reported clients needing care as much or more than before, as the stress of the circumstances compounded existing challenges ( British Psychological Society, 2020 ). Unprecedented numbers of people attended NZ hospitals for mental health emergencies, particularly among young people ( Every-Palmer et al., 2020 ; Freeman et al., 2021 ; Gasteiger et al., 2021 ; Officer et al., 2022 ). However, the effects on psychologists went largely unexamined, with little consideration given to these professionals working to support their communities.

Pre-pandemic research established a significant risk of work-related stress, vicarious trauma, and burnout symptoms among psychologists. Estimates were that between 20 and 67% of psychologists experienced symptoms of burnout ( Morse et al., 2012 ; McCormack et al., 2018 ; O’Connor et al., 2018 ; Simpson et al., 2019 ). In 2021, the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic, NZ psychologists reported significantly higher rates of burnout and secondary traumatic stress than caring professionals internationally and in earlier NZ-based studies ( Kercher and Gossage, 2023 ). Psychologists also reported difficulties, mainly working with high-risk clients, stress, and depression symptoms, which were linked with compassion fatigue. However, the specific and prolonged effects of the pandemic were not clear, which was the motivation for the current study.

During the pandemic, psychologists and other mental health professionals saw the challenge of therapy moving online, a platform many had rarely used, and which brought ethical, legal, and technical difficulties ( British Psychological Society, 2020 ). The benefits of ongoing connections and support for clients were numerous, with clients accessing services from home. Clinical practices have since changed, with services and training programs focusing more on online delivery than ever. Anecdotally, psychologists, like many others, reported challenges from juggling remote work with children schooling at home and other caring responsibilities, but this was not being measured formally. The current study sought to assess the challenges faced by psychologists during the pandemic and developed a questionnaire for this purpose ( Rahman et al., 2024 ).

The current study focused on the effects of COVID-19 on psychologists in NZ. Psychologists undergo prescribed training and practice under comprehensive codes of conduct and ethics and are thus a relatively homogenous and standardized sample of mental health practitioners. By the third year of the pandemic, themes were beginning to emerge in anecdotal discussions among psychologists—telehealth fatigue, personal demands, client changes, and systemic challenges. This research investigated these factors and sought to understand the effects of COVID-related stressors on psychologists’ psychological symptoms and levels of compassion fatigue.

Participants

Online surveys were conducted with 110 registered psychologists in NZ. Of these, 99 completed the study, with 11 largely incomplete responses excluded. This represented approximately 3% of NZ’s registered psychologists ( New Zealand Psychologists Board, 2021 ). Similar to the profession’s demographic makeup, 82% were identified as Pākeha (of European descent), 1% as Māori, 1% as Pasifika, 5% as Asian, and 11% from other backgrounds, with 92% female, 8% male, and no non-binary respondents, and a median age range of 41–45 years. The majority (84%) were married or in de facto relationships, 48% reported no children under 18 living in their home, 41% had one to two children, and 11% had three or more. Nine percent reported additional caregiving responsibilities (e.g., relatives with disabilities or illnesses). More than half (55%) received little to no support with personal commitments, while 23% reported adequate support and 22% good support. Approximately one-third (33%) reported additional personal stressors during the survey (e.g., health problems, housing or financial hardships, and domestic violence).

Professional characteristics varied, as shown in Appendix A . Participants reported an average of 11–15 years in practice, with 90% receiving the required monthly supervision. The NZ Psychologists Board Guidelines on Supervision recommend regular sessions, wherein discussions with a respected colleague include self-reflection, professional issues, and feedback on all elements of practice, with a focus on the quality of service, improving practice, and managing the impacts of professional work upon the supervi(see New Zealand Psychologists Board, 2021 ). Approximately half worked in publicly funded roles in health or hospital settings, and nearly half in private practice. Psychologists worked with varied client groups, including clients at risk of self-harm and suicide. The majority reported no intention to leave soon, with over 90% intending to remain in practice for more than 5 years.

Professional quality of life scale (ProQOL)

The Professional Quality of Life Scale (ProQOL; Stamm, 2010 ) is a widely used measure of the positive and negative aspects of mental health work, comprising three subscales. Thirty items are answered on a Likert Scale (from 1 = never to 5 = very often). Compassion satisfaction (CS) represents the feeling of satisfaction and reward derived from one’s work, a positive outcome. Burnout (BO) incorporates feelings of disconnection, hopelessness, and ineffectiveness in one’s role, while Secondary Traumatic Stress (STS) assesses vicarious trauma symptoms, including fear and overwhelm. These two negative outcomes are summed to represent compassion fatigue (CF), the negative impact of caring work ( Stamm, 2002 , 2010 ; Larsen and Stamm, 2008 ). Given the high level of collinearity between these two subscales, this composite negative outcome was used in multivariate analyses to allow the exploration of other variables. At the same time, BO and STS are considered compared to previous studies that reported these separate constructs.

The ProQOL has strong psychometric properties, with each subscale showing good construct validity and internal consistency (α from 0.75 to 0.88, Stamm, 2010 ). In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.77 for BO, 0.83 for STS, and 0.89 for CS.

Depression, anxiety, stress scale (DASS-21)

Symptoms of psychological distress were measured using the DASS-21, a commonly used questionnaire ( Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995 ). Twenty-one items are answered on a four-point Likert Scale (0 to 3), with seven items assessing symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress, respectively. Scores are doubled to allow comparisons with the original DASS-42 instrument ( Crawford et al., 2011 ). The DASS-21 is widely recognized for its robust psychometric properties ( Medvedev et al., 2020 ). In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.85 (depression), 0.77 (anxiety), and 0.76 (stress). Overall symptoms of psychological distress can be measured from the total DASS-21 symptom score ( Alfonsson et al., 2017 ; Zanon et al., 2021 ), which was used here in multivariate analyses to allow consideration of other variables without the multicollinearity between DASS-21 subscales.

Connor–Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC-10)

The 10-item Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC-10) measures resilience ( Connor and Davidson, 2003 ; Davidson, 2018 ). A Likert scale (0 = not true at all, 4 = true nearly all the time) assesses stress coping abilities, with a final score of the sum of responses (0–40) and higher scores indicating higher resilience. The CD-RISC-10 has good psychometric properties ( Campbell-Sills et al., 2009 ; Davidson, 2018 ), with Cronbach’s alpha here of 0.80.

COVID-19 related stress (CVRS)

The CVRS was developed for the current study specifically to assess the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on those working in the mental healthcare sector. Five questions were based on the findings of a qualitative report by the British Psychological Society (2020) , which reported experiences of the pandemic among psychologists, with two additional questions created by the authors. The measure presents seven statements on a five-point Likert scale (1 = not true at all, 5 = true nearly all the time; see Appendix B ). A higher score indicates a greater level of COVID-19-related stress. The reliability of this scale was established by Rahman et al. (2024) , with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83 indicating high internal consistency. In addition, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) tests and Bartlett’s sphericity tests were supported using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), which confirmed a one-factor solution.

Survey questions

The questionnaire also surveyed psychologists’ professional and personal circumstances, including types of work and client presentations, frequency of work with at-risk clients (from 0 = ‘never’ to 3 = ‘very often’), therapeutic practices, supervision and professional support, demographics, family and caring responsibilities, and personal support.

Participants were recruited via social media and email invitations shared by the New Zealand Psychological Society and New Zealand College of Clinical Psychologists. Almost all psychologists in NZ are members of one of these organizations. Participants gave informed consent and completed the survey via the online research platform Qualtrics, with no identifying information recorded. Ethical approval was granted by the Auckland University of Technology Ethics Committee (21/54, 8th April 2022).

Data analysis

Analyses were conducted using the software package Jamovi (v.1.6.23) and online t-test calculators. 1 Reliability analyses were conducted for all scales before analyses (as above). The properties of the CVRS were investigated through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using principal axis factoring extraction and Obliman rotation (see Appendix C ). Based on eigenvalues of more than one, the unidimensional one-factor solution was justified with all factor loadings larger than 0.40.

Independent t-tests were performed to compare our sample with previous studies of psychologists and health professionals. Welch’s t-tests were used where the variances were unequal ( Delacre et al., 2017 ). Spearman’s rho correlations were calculated to investigate the associations between the key variables. Multicollinearity was investigated due to the correlation between variables. However, the variance inflation factors (VIFs) were less than 5, suggesting that the multicollinearity is not strong enough to prevent a multiple linear regression (MLR). Bivariate correlations were conducted. An MLR was then conducted to investigate the impact of CVRS, distress, and workplace characteristics on CF.

Descriptive statistics and comparisons

Distress and compassion fatigue.

Descriptive statistics for the distress (DASS-21), resilience (CD-RISC), COVID-19-related stress (CVRS) and burnout, secondary traumatic stress, and compassion satisfaction (ProQOL) scores are presented in Table 1 .

Table 1 . Descriptive statistics for the current sample ( N  = 99) and comparisons with previous studies.

Independent sample t-tests compared our sample with previous norms (see Table 1 ). Notably, NZ psychologists reported significantly higher average depression, anxiety, and stress than pre-pandemic community norms and higher average burnout and secondary traumatic stress than pre-pandemic psychologists. Distress averages were comparable to those reported by frontline HCPs during the pandemic’s peak, except for anxiety, which was higher for medical personnel. Resilience was lower than pre-pandemic psychologists and community norms. Compassion satisfaction was comparable with previous samples of psychologists and frontline HCPs.

Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic

Using our new COVID-19-related stress (CVRS) scale measure, psychologists reported a range of scores from 7 to 33 ( M  = 19.2, SD = 5.5). During the pandemic, most psychologists also reported increased stress or concern about their work (69.9%), increased caseload intensity (60.2%), and increased personal responsibilities (54.8%); however, nearly all reported no increase in professional support (90.3% the same or decreased) or personal support (97% the same or decreased; see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Effects of COVID-19 lockdowns and restrictions on New Zealand psychologists ( N  = 99).

Bivariate analyses

Due to collinearity between the subscales, the composite Compassion Fatigue and total DASS-21 distress scores were used in multivariate analyses. Correlations were considered based on the hypotheses, with expected relationships between stressors (children at home, low support in the workplace or home, low experience, and more frequent work with at-risk clients) and experiences of distress (CVRS, DASS-21, CF). In contrast, supervision and high support were expected to be protective, and resilience and CS would show the opposite effects (see Table 2 ). These hypotheses were supported—CF is strongly associated with psychological distress, and both are strongly related to CVRS. Having more children at home was associated with increased COVID-related stress. Interestingly, CF positively correlates with increased supervision but not with years in practice. Having more experience appears slightly protective against distress. Those working with at-risk clients report higher resilience and supervision but not higher CF or distress. No significant relationships were found for other client presentation types (mental health severity, trauma, child/adolescent, Māori, and Pasifika, p  > 0.05).

Table 2 . Bivariate correlations ( N  = 99).

There are clear relationships between indicators of distress, stress, and CF, which were further explored in multivariate analyses. One-way ANOVA was conducted to investigate differences between public sector and private practice psychologists. However, differences in CVRS, CF, and DASS-21 total were not significant ( p  > 0.05).

Multivariate analyses

Predictors of compassion fatigue.

Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to investigate the predictors of CF, considering the role of COVID-related stress and other factors hypothesized to be related. This model was significant, with 45% of the variance in CF explained by the variables listed in Table 3 ( F (7, 82) = 9.75, p  < 0.001. R 2  = 0.45). Higher levels of psychological distress (DASS-21 total symptoms), COVID-related stress (CVRS), supervision frequency, and years in practice all predicted increases in compassion fatigue, measured during the pandemic. Having children at home, providing personal support, and working with at-risk clients were not significant predictors of CF.

Table 3 . Multiple linear regression results: predictors of compassion fatigue ( N  = 99).

Psychologists in Aotearoa, NZ, reported high rates of psychological distress, burnout, and secondary traumatic stress symptoms during the third year of the pandemic (2022). While a great deal of attention has rightly focused on frontline medical workers’ wellbeing and the risk of burnout during the pandemic, our study shows that psychologists have been experiencing the same difficulties.

Psychologists had higher average scores for depression, anxiety, and stress than pre-pandemic community norms ( Crawford et al., 2011 ) and significantly higher average burnout and secondary traumatic stress than pre-pandemic psychologists in NZ ( McCormick, 2014 ). Notably, NZ psychologists’ average distress was comparable with symptoms reported by frontline HCPs during the peak of the pandemic in Australia ( Hammond et al., 2021 ), except for anxiety, which was higher for medical personnel—likely due to the intensity of emergency room work during this time which would drive autonomic nervous system arousal, as measured by the DASS-21 anxiety scale.

Psychologists in NZ reported higher average burnout and secondary traumatic stress than Italian frontline healthcare professionals during the peak of the pandemic, in intensely stressful and distressing conditions ( Buselli et al., 2020 ). This may be because burnout is a slow-onset phenomenon, culminating in work-related issues over a long period ( Stamm, 2002 ), whereas the Italian medical community was experiencing more acute and intensive stress. However, secondary traumatic stress can have a sudden onset, so, it is surprising that our rates were higher than the Italian HCPs on this scale.

Resilience was lower than pre-pandemic NZ psychologists ( McCormick, 2014 ) and general community norms ( Davidson, 2018 ). The latter is particularly surprising, as mental healthcare professionals typically show high rates of resilience ( Davidson, 2018 ) and have a professional understanding of coping strategies. Interestingly, psychologists working with more at-risk clients reported higher resilience, though this was not significantly related to compassion fatigue or other measures of distress. It could be that psychologists self-select their work, and those with higher resilience elect to work with higher-risk presentations. On the other hand, compassion satisfaction scores were comparable with previous samples of NZ psychologists and frontline HCPs, suggesting that psychologists enjoy their work and find it rewarding. These results were comparable with our earlier sample of NZ psychologists in 2021 ( Kercher and Gossage, 2023 ), so measurement errors are unlikely—psychologists have repeatedly reported elevated distress. Similar difficulties were reported for frontline HCPs ( Bell et al., 2021 ) and psychiatrists in NZ during the pandemic ( Chambers and Frampton, 2022 ), but with different measures preventing direct comparisons.

The current study sought to understand the role of COVID-19-related stress, among other workplace and personal factors, in contributing to the reported levels of compassion fatigue among NZ psychologists. We found that COVID-19-related stress was a predictor of CF, over and above psychological distress, years in practice, supervision, and non-significant predictors, including personal support, having children at home, and working with at-risk clients. Interestingly, receiving more supervision was associated with increased CF—perhaps those at risk of CF are actively seeking more support or working in settings where this is offered. However, working in public or private settings was not significantly associated with CF. Those with more years of practice experience reported higher CF in a model containing the other predictors. This is unusual—often, there is a “survivorship effect” seen in burnout, where those prone to experience it leave their roles early in their careers, and those with more years of experience appear more resilient to burnout ( Rupert and Morgan, 2005 ).

Psychologists reported increases in stress and concern about work, caseload intensity, and personal responsibilities during the pandemic, with more than 90% reporting no increases in personal or professional support. While the pandemic has since eased, with the government of Aotearoa, NZ, removing the last of the public health orders ( Government NZ, 2023 ), ongoing pressures continue for the mental health sector. Frequent reports emphasize shortages of psychologists ( Psychology Workforce Task Group, 2016 ; Skirrow, 2021 ), psychiatrists ( Thabrew et al., 2017 ), increases in demand ( Every-Palmer et al., 2022 ), difficulties with access ( Officer et al., 2022 ), and waitlists ( Cardwell, 2021 ). Arguably, this is causing a worsening cycle of severity in the community—services triage patients and see the most severe cases first, leaving those with mild-to-moderate concerns without help. Without intervention, many psychological conditions worsen over time ( Ghio et al., 2015 ) and are associated with an increased risk of suicide ( Maslow et al., 2015 ). Clients receive treatment when their symptoms worsen ( Blayney and Kercher, 2023 ). As a result, psychologists report increasing severity, intensity, and concern about their work, although this was not directly associated with CF in the current study.

Clearly, the mental health sector requires increased funding and resourcing ahead of future crises. The challenges of the pandemic exacerbated workforce shortages and increased demand on a sector already under strain and the psychologists working to support their communities. Given the increasing frequency of natural disasters and other challenges in Aotearoa, NZ, and worldwide, the mental health sector needs to be better prepared for such difficulties in the future. Learning from the impact of the pandemic on psychologists, we need to focus on better supporting our health and support services and improve the resilience of mental health systems in the future.

The cross-sectional nature of our survey was a limitation of this study. Due to anonymity, we could not compare responses with the survey conducted in 2021. Still, we can track average rates of distress and professional quality of life, which were comparable across the two samples. Although our sample size ( N  = 99) was modest, we recruited only registered, practicing psychologists who undergo extensive training and practice under standardized codes of conduct and practice in Aotearoa, New Zealand, thus providing a homogenous sample. However, self-selection bias is possible, whereby those under most stress or most at risk of CF may not take the time to answer a survey. The survey was also limited in socio-cultural diversity, with most respondents from European NZ backgrounds identifying as female participants. Invitations were extended to target Māori and Pasifika psychologists’ groups; however, response rates were low. It will be important for future research to engage better tangata whenua psychologists, who are at known risk of burnout ( Levy, 2002 ; Hemopo, 2004 ).

Encouragingly, our respondents reported good average rates of compassion satisfaction. Additionally, more than 90% reported that they had no intention to leave the profession soon (in contrast with NZ psychiatrists, nearly half of whom reported intention to leave, Chambers et al., 2022 ). Psychologists report finding their work rewarding and satisfying, reflected in the reported sense of purpose and reward both here and internationally during the pandemic ( British Psychological Society, 2020 ).

The strong implication of this study is that psychologists face significant challenges in their roles. Combined with workforce and health system data indicating continual increases in demand and insufficient resources, it is vital that the shortage of psychologists is addressed with increased training and that the mental healthcare sector in Aotearoa, NZ, receives increased resources. While supervision and workplace support were not protective against CF here, almost all respondents received the required minimum of monthly supervision sessions—arguably, without this, distress could be even worse. Relatively few psychologists received more supervision than this despite guidelines recommending additional sessions for less experienced practitioners, new areas of work, or client crises. Supervision and professional development are generally protective against burnout and distress for mental health professionals ( Yang and Hayes, 2020 ), while supportive workplaces and manageable demands are also critical ( Maslach and Leiter, 2016 ). A larger sample of psychologists would allow better investigation of these potential protective factors, wherein a focus on different types of resilience and the potential role of supervision is suggested. Workplaces, the healthcare sector, and psychologists’ organizations should consider screening psychologists for burnout and secondary traumatic stress and address both demands and support within their roles.

For 2 years in a row, psychologists in Aotearoa, NZ, have reported high average scores of burnout and secondary traumatic stress, as well as psychological distress and low resilience. The current study found that COVID-related stress was predictive of compassion fatigue, over and above the additional effects of psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms), years in practice, and supervision. Supervision, workplace support, and years in practice were not protective, and personal factors did not contribute to the risk of CF over and above the impact of COVID-related stress. In the future, it is important to assess the ongoing risk of burnout, secondary traumatic stress, and psychological distress among psychologists. Given the ongoing increases in mental health demand worldwide and the impact of the pandemic on psychologists, priority should be given to increasing resources in mental health sectors and better supporting our caring professionals.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Auckland University of Technology Ethics Committee. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

AK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. JR: Data curation, Investigation, Project administration, Writing – original draft. MP: Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1339869/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: psychologists, pandemic, compassion fatigue, professional quality of life, depression, stress

Citation: Kercher A, Rahman J and Pedersen M (2024) The COVID-19 pandemic, psychologists’ professional quality of life and mental health. Front. Psychol . 15:1339869. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1339869

Received: 16 November 2023; Accepted: 20 February 2024; Published: 25 April 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Kercher, Rahman and Pedersen. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Amy Kercher, [email protected]

† ORCID: Amy Kercher, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0257-4406 Mangor Pedersen, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9199-1916

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