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Understanding the Psychology of Creativity

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Michael H / DigitalVision / Getty Images

What Is Creativity?

When does creativity happen, types of creativity, what does it take to be creative, creativity and the big five, how to increase creativity, frequently asked questions.

What is creativity? Creativity involves the ability to develop new ideas or utilize objects or information in novel ways. It can involve large-scale ideas that have the potential to change the world, such as inventing tools that impact how people live, or smaller acts of creation such as figuring out a new way to accomplish a task in your daily life.

This article explores what creativity is and when it is most likely to happen. It also covers some of the steps that you can take to improve your own creativity.

Studying creativity can be a tricky process. Not only is creativity a complex topic in and of itself, but there is also no clear consensus on how exactly to define creativity. Many of the most common definitions suggest that creativity is the tendency to solve problems or create new things in novel ways.

Two of the primary components of creativity include:

• Originality: The idea should be something new that is not simply an extension of something else that already exists.
• Functionality: The idea needs to actually work or possess some degree of usefulness.

In his book Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention , psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi suggested that creativity can often be seen in a few different situations.  

• People who seem stimulating, interesting, and have a variety of unusual thoughts.
• People who perceive the world with a fresh perspective, have insightful ideas and make important personal discoveries. These individuals make creative discoveries that are generally known only to them.
• People who make great creative achievements that become known to the entire world. Inventors and artists such as Thomas Edison and Pablo Picasso would fall into this category.

Experts also tend to distinguish between different types of creativity. The “four c” model of creativity suggests that there are four different types:

• “Mini-c” creativity involves personally meaningful ideas and insights that are known only to the self.
• “ Little-c” creativity involves mostly everyday thinking and problem-solving. This type of creativity helps people solve everyday problems they face and adapt to changing environments.
• “Pro-C” creativity takes place among professionals who are skilled and creative in their respective fields. These individuals are creative in their vocation or profession but do not achieve eminence for their works.
• “Big-C” creativity involves creating works and ideas that are considered great in a particular field. This type of creativity leads to eminence and acclaim and often leads to world-changing creations such as medical innovations, technological advances, and artistic achievements.

Csikszentmihalyi suggests that creative people tend to possess are ​a variety of traits that contribute to their innovative thinking. Some of these key traits include:

• Energy: Creative people tend to possess a great deal of both physical and mental energy. However, they also tend to spend a great deal of time quietly thinking and reflecting.
• Intelligence: Psychologists have long believed that intelligence plays a critical role in creativity. In Terman’s famous longitudinal study of gifted children, researchers found that while high IQ was necessary for great creativity, not all people with high IQs are creative. Csikszentmihalyi believes that creative people must be smart, but they must be capable of looking at things in fresh, even naïve, ways.
• Discipline: Creative people do not just sit around waiting for inspiration to strike. They ​are playful, yet they are also disciplined in the pursuit of their work and passions.

Certain personality traits are also connected to creativity. According to the big five theory of personality , human personality is made up of five broad dimensions:

• Conscientiousness
• Extroversion
• Agreeableness
• Neuroticism

Each dimension represents a continuum, so for each trait, people can be either high, low, or somewhere between the two. 

Openness to experience is a big five trait that is correlated with creativity. People who are high on this trait are more open to new experiences and ideas. They tend to seek novelty and enjoy trying new things, meeting new people, and considering different perspectives. 

However, other personality traits and characteristics can also play a role in creativity. For example, intrinsic motivation , curiosity, and persistence can all determine how much people tend to pursue new ideas and look for novel solutions.

While some people seem to come by creativity naturally, there are things that you can do to increase your own creativity .

Some strategies that can be helpful for improving creativity include: 

• Being open to new ideas : Openness to experience is the personality trait that is most closely correlated with creativity. Focus on being willing to try new things and explore new ideas.
• Be persistent : Creativity is not just about sitting around waiting for inspiration to strike. Creative people spend time working to produce new things. Their efforts don't always work out, but continued practice builds skills that contribute to creativity.
• Make time for creativity : In addition to being persistent, you also need to devote time specifically toward creative efforts. This might mean setting aside a little time each day or each week specifically to brainstorm, practice, learn, or create.

Csikszentmihalyi has noted that creativity requires both a fresh perspective combined with discipline. As Thomas Edison famously suggested, genius is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration.

A Word From Verywell

Creativity is a complex subject and researchers are still working to understand exactly what factors contribute to the ability to think creatively. While some people seem to come by creativity naturally, there are also things you can do to build and strengthen this ability.

The late Maya Angelou also suggested that thinking creativity helps foster even greater creativity, "The important thing is to use it. You can’t use up creativity. The more you use it, the more you have," she suggested.

Creativity does not reside in one single area of the brain; many areas are actually involved. The frontal cortex of the brain is responsible for many of the functions that play a part in creativity.

However, other parts of the brain impact creativity as well, including the hippocampus (which is important to memory) and the basal ganglia (which is essential in the memory of how to perform tasks). The white matter of the brain, which keeps the various parts of the brain connected, is also essential for creative thinking.

Research suggests that people can train their brains to be more creative. Engaging in cognitively stimulating tasks, going on a walk, finding sources of inspiration, and meditating are a few strategies that may help boost creative thinking abilities. 

The "big five" are the broad categories of traits that make up personality. The five dimensions are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Each trait involves a range between two extremes, and people can be either at each end or somewhere in the middle.

American Psychological Association. The science of creativity .

Csikszentmihalyi M. Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention .   New York: HarperCollins; 2013.

Kaufman J, Beghetto R. Beyond big and little: The four C model of creativity .  Review of General Psychology . 2009;13(1):1-12. doi:10.1037/a0013688

Kaufman SB, Quilty LC, Grazioplene RG, et al. Openness to experience and intellect differentially predict creative achievement in the arts and sciences .  J Pers . 2016;84(2):248-258. doi:10.1111/jopy.12156

Elliot J.  Conversations With Maya Angelou . Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi; 1998.

Cavdarbasha D, Kurczek J. Connecting the dots: your brain and creativity . Front Young Minds . 2017;5:19. doi:10.3389/frym.2017.00019

Sun J, Chen Q, Zhang Q, Li Y, Li H, Wei D, Yang W, Qiu J.  Training your brain to be more creative: brain functional and structural changes induced by divergent thinking training .  Hum Brain Mapp . 2016;37(10):3375-87. doi:10.1002/hbm.23246

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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What Is Creative Problem-Solving & Why Is It Important?

• 01 Feb 2022

One of the biggest hindrances to innovation is complacency—it can be more comfortable to do what you know than venture into the unknown. Business leaders can overcome this barrier by mobilizing creative team members and providing space to innovate.

There are several tools you can use to encourage creativity in the workplace. Creative problem-solving is one of them, which facilitates the development of innovative solutions to difficult problems.

Here’s an overview of creative problem-solving and why it’s important in business.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is Creative Problem-Solving?

Research is necessary when solving a problem. But there are situations where a problem’s specific cause is difficult to pinpoint. This can occur when there’s not enough time to narrow down the problem’s source or there are differing opinions about its root cause.

In such cases, you can use creative problem-solving , which allows you to explore potential solutions regardless of whether a problem has been defined.

Creative problem-solving is less structured than other innovation processes and encourages exploring open-ended solutions. It also focuses on developing new perspectives and fostering creativity in the workplace . Its benefits include:

• Finding creative solutions to complex problems : User research can insufficiently illustrate a situation’s complexity. While other innovation processes rely on this information, creative problem-solving can yield solutions without it.
• Adapting to change : Business is constantly changing, and business leaders need to adapt. Creative problem-solving helps overcome unforeseen challenges and find solutions to unconventional problems.
• Fueling innovation and growth : In addition to solutions, creative problem-solving can spark innovative ideas that drive company growth. These ideas can lead to new product lines, services, or a modified operations structure that improves efficiency.

Creative problem-solving is traditionally based on the following key principles :

1. Balance Divergent and Convergent Thinking

Creative problem-solving uses two primary tools to find solutions: divergence and convergence. Divergence generates ideas in response to a problem, while convergence narrows them down to a shortlist. It balances these two practices and turns ideas into concrete solutions.

2. Reframe Problems as Questions

By framing problems as questions, you shift from focusing on obstacles to solutions. This provides the freedom to brainstorm potential ideas.

3. Defer Judgment of Ideas

When brainstorming, it can be natural to reject or accept ideas right away. Yet, immediate judgments interfere with the idea generation process. Even ideas that seem implausible can turn into outstanding innovations upon further exploration and development.

4. Focus on "Yes, And" Instead of "No, But"

Using negative words like "no" discourages creative thinking. Instead, use positive language to build and maintain an environment that fosters the development of creative and innovative ideas.

Creative Problem-Solving and Design Thinking

Whereas creative problem-solving facilitates developing innovative ideas through a less structured workflow, design thinking takes a far more organized approach.

Design thinking is a human-centered, solutions-based process that fosters the ideation and development of solutions. In the online course Design Thinking and Innovation , Harvard Business School Dean Srikant Datar leverages a four-phase framework to explain design thinking.

The four stages are:

• Clarify: The clarification stage allows you to empathize with the user and identify problems. Observations and insights are informed by thorough research. Findings are then reframed as problem statements or questions.
• Ideate: Ideation is the process of coming up with innovative ideas. The divergence of ideas involved with creative problem-solving is a major focus.
• Develop: In the development stage, ideas evolve into experiments and tests. Ideas converge and are explored through prototyping and open critique.
• Implement: Implementation involves continuing to test and experiment to refine the solution and encourage its adoption.

Creative problem-solving primarily operates in the ideate phase of design thinking but can be applied to others. This is because design thinking is an iterative process that moves between the stages as ideas are generated and pursued. This is normal and encouraged, as innovation requires exploring multiple ideas.

Creative Problem-Solving Tools

While there are many useful tools in the creative problem-solving process, here are three you should know:

Creating a Problem Story

One way to innovate is by creating a story about a problem to understand how it affects users and what solutions best fit their needs. Here are the steps you need to take to use this tool properly.

1. Identify a UDP

Create a problem story to identify the undesired phenomena (UDP). For example, consider a company that produces printers that overheat. In this case, the UDP is "our printers overheat."

2. Move Forward in Time

To move forward in time, ask: “Why is this a problem?” For example, minor damage could be one result of the machines overheating. In more extreme cases, printers may catch fire. Don't be afraid to create multiple problem stories if you think of more than one UDP.

3. Move Backward in Time

To move backward in time, ask: “What caused this UDP?” If you can't identify the root problem, think about what typically causes the UDP to occur. For the overheating printers, overuse could be a cause.

Following the three-step framework above helps illustrate a clear problem story:

• The printer is overused.
• The printer overheats.
• The printer breaks down.

You can extend the problem story in either direction if you think of additional cause-and-effect relationships.

4. Break the Chains

By this point, you’ll have multiple UDP storylines. Take two that are similar and focus on breaking the chains connecting them. This can be accomplished through inversion or neutralization.

• Inversion: Inversion changes the relationship between two UDPs so the cause is the same but the effect is the opposite. For example, if the UDP is "the more X happens, the more likely Y is to happen," inversion changes the equation to "the more X happens, the less likely Y is to happen." Using the printer example, inversion would consider: "What if the more a printer is used, the less likely it’s going to overheat?" Innovation requires an open mind. Just because a solution initially seems unlikely doesn't mean it can't be pursued further or spark additional ideas.
• Neutralization: Neutralization completely eliminates the cause-and-effect relationship between X and Y. This changes the above equation to "the more or less X happens has no effect on Y." In the case of the printers, neutralization would rephrase the relationship to "the more or less a printer is used has no effect on whether it overheats."

Even if creating a problem story doesn't provide a solution, it can offer useful context to users’ problems and additional ideas to be explored. Given that divergence is one of the fundamental practices of creative problem-solving, it’s a good idea to incorporate it into each tool you use.

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a tool that can be highly effective when guided by the iterative qualities of the design thinking process. It involves openly discussing and debating ideas and topics in a group setting. This facilitates idea generation and exploration as different team members consider the same concept from multiple perspectives.

Hosting brainstorming sessions can result in problems, such as groupthink or social loafing. To combat this, leverage a three-step brainstorming method involving divergence and convergence :

• Have each group member come up with as many ideas as possible and write them down to ensure the brainstorming session is productive.
• Continue the divergence of ideas by collectively sharing and exploring each idea as a group. The goal is to create a setting where new ideas are inspired by open discussion.
• Begin the convergence of ideas by narrowing them down to a few explorable options. There’s no "right number of ideas." Don't be afraid to consider exploring all of them, as long as you have the resources to do so.

Alternate Worlds

The alternate worlds tool is an empathetic approach to creative problem-solving. It encourages you to consider how someone in another world would approach your situation.

For example, if you’re concerned that the printers you produce overheat and catch fire, consider how a different industry would approach the problem. How would an automotive expert solve it? How would a firefighter?

Be creative as you consider and research alternate worlds. The purpose is not to nail down a solution right away but to continue the ideation process through diverging and exploring ideas.

Continue Developing Your Skills

Whether you’re an entrepreneur, marketer, or business leader, learning the ropes of design thinking can be an effective way to build your skills and foster creativity and innovation in any setting.

If you're ready to develop your design thinking and creative problem-solving skills, explore Design Thinking and Innovation , one of our online entrepreneurship and innovation courses. If you aren't sure which course is the right fit, download our free course flowchart to determine which best aligns with your goals.

About the Author

Is Creativity the Number 1 Skill for the 21st Century?

Creativity is the essential skillset for the future.

Posted February 7, 2011

Against a backdrop of uncertainty, economic turmoil and unprecedented change a new picture is emerging of the skills and traits for success (and perhaps even simply survival) in the modern era. At the heart of this essential skillset for the future lies... creativity.

A raft of recent research studies demonstrates that creativity is vital from the shopfloor to the boardroom and at the level of the individual to the organization as a whole. What is more... our economic fortunes at a societal level probably rest on creativity too.

Below are 7 (magnificent!) themes and some research studies that convinced me. I wonder if they will convince you of the cruciality of creativity too.

1 - Creativity and innovation are the number 1 strategic priorities for organizations the world over

The Boston Consulting Group has been running an annual strategy survey for the last 8 years. For 7 out of 8 years creativity and innovation have been the top ranked strategic imperative. Hardly suprising - it is innovation and creativity that enable the development of new ways of working that ensure profitability.

2 - Creativity is part of all our day jobs

Many researchers would agree that creativity is concerned with producing ideas that are original and useful in order to solve problems and exploit opportunities . When we consider creativity to be part of everyday problem-solving - we can see why the 2009 NESTA Everyday Innovation survey proposed that creativity was an integral part of modern work. Not just for Chief Executives or arch-strategists, but for all of us. We can all find original and useful ways of solving the problems we encounter. In some industries and sectors, it may not be so much that 'we can', but rather that 'we must'.

3 - Organizational profitability rests on individual creativity

Academic researchers have begun to converge on the opinion that:

" Considerable evidence now suggests that employee creativity can make a substantial contribution to an organization's growth and competitiveness " (Baer & Oldham, 2006).

Further in an article in The Economist it was suggested that the biggest challenge facing organizations is identifying and developing individuals with " brainpower (both natural and trained) and especially the ability to think creatively " (Frymire, 2006).

4 - Creative teams perform better and are more efficient

In a research study of creative teams in industry, Gilson, Mathieu, Shalley and Ruddy (2005) found that teams that were more creative scored higher on objective measures of performance and were also found to work more effectively within budgets.

Further, the studies that have examined High Performing Teams (Katzenbach & Smith, 2003), have found that these teams are characterised by their willingness to think creativity and find innovative solutions to problems.

5 - Creative organisations are more profitable

First, creative companies harness the creativity within the organization to improve or invent new products, processes and services. As indicated in the report:

" We assume that 50% of our revenue in 5 years' time must come from sources that do not exist today. That is why we innovate. "

In the same Ernst & Young report it was found that highly successful companies realise that:

" the ability to manage, organise, cultivate and nurture creative thinking is directly linked to growth and achievement ."

Further, the report highlighted that "I nnovation 'for the sake of it' is often essential, but the speed at which a fast-growth company moves forward will depend on its ability to connect creativity to profit. "

In a recent study of 190 Agile companies, Bottani (2010) found that their flexibility and speed of reaction were strongly dependent on creativity. Similar results have been found in a study of agile companies by BTM where agile firms were prepared to innovate and experiment with creative approaches to emerging technologies, work practices, product or service concepts and customer segments or product markets.

Similarly, within the research frameworks that have examined the characteristics of High Performing companies, creativity features strongly. The Accenture Institute of High Performance (2003-2010) found that High Performing organisations created powerful strategies, encouraged deep insight, originality and the engagement of creativity across all employees. Lastly, these companies invested disproportionally in recruiting and developing people.

6. Creative Leadership is fundamental

The previous studies have shown that creativity is vital for individuals, teams and organizations. Little wonder then that in a global survey of 1500 CEO's , IBM found that creativity was considered to be the number 1 leadership trait for the future:

" more than rigor, management discipline, integrity or even vision - successfully navigating an increasingly complex world will require creativity ."

Why? Leaders will need to be creative (solve problems in new and useful ways) to stay abreast of rapid change. Further, they will need to orchestrate and encourage creativity across all the levels for which creativity is important. They will need to identify and develop creativity in individuals, build and nurture creativity in teams and set the culture and align processes to promulgate creativity throughout the whole organisation.

But it doesn't stop there...

7. Successful economies and societies will need to be creative

From an organisational perspective we can see why we must demand creativity from individuals, teams and the firm. However, according to the 2010 Winning Ingredients report from Standard Chartered ... successful economies will need to utilise cash, commodities and creativity. The report concluded that:

" Creativity may be the most powerful of all the resources to be rich in. With vast numbers of people entering the workforce, huge improvements in productivity , and continued globalisation, the rewards for innovation and creativity will become even greater. "

Given that for much of the western world we have exhausted our supplies of cash and commodities, creativity may be all we have left.

So there we have it. 7 themes that demonstrate that creativity is the number 1 skill for the 21st Century.

The question is...

Are you developing your creativity to prepare for the modern world of work?

Does the team you work in create and innovate?

Is your organization prepared for the uncertainty of the future - is creativity top of the agenda?

Mark Batey CPsychol. PhD

is a Creativity Specialist at Manchester Business School, UK

For more insight and discussion... Join the Psychology of Creativity LinkedIn group

References (unless embedded as links in the blog)

• Baer, M., & Oldham, G. R. (2006). The curvilinear relation between experienced creative time pressure and creativity: Moderating effects of openness to experience and support for creativity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 963-970.
• Frymire, B. (2006, October 7). The search for talent; Business and society. The Economist, 8498, 11.
• Gilson, L. L., Mathieu, J. E., Shalley, C. E. & Ruddy, T. M. (2005). Creativity and standardization: Complementary or conflicting drivers of team effectiveness? Academy of Management journal, 48, 521-531.
• Katzenbach, J. R., & Smith, D. K. (2003). The wisdom of teams: Creating the high performance organizations. New York: Collins Business.
• Bottani, E. (2010). Profile and enablers of agile companies: an empirical investigation. International Journal of Production Economics, 125(2), 251-261.

Mark Batey is a creativity, innovation and leadership specialist at Alliance Manchester Business School.

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Intelligence and Creativity in Problem Solving: The Importance of Test Features in Cognition Research

Associated data.

This paper discusses the importance of three features of psychometric tests for cognition research: construct definition, problem space, and knowledge domain. Definition of constructs, e.g., intelligence or creativity, forms the theoretical basis for test construction. Problem space, being well or ill-defined, is determined by the cognitive abilities considered to belong to the constructs, e.g., convergent thinking to intelligence, divergent thinking to creativity. Knowledge domain and the possibilities it offers cognition are reflected in test results. We argue that (a) comparing results of tests with different problem spaces is more informative when cognition operates in both tests on an identical knowledge domain, and (b) intertwining of abilities related to both constructs can only be expected in tests developed to instigate such a process. Test features should guarantee that abilities can contribute to self-generated and goal-directed processes bringing forth solutions that are both new and applicable. We propose and discuss a test example that was developed to address these issues.

The definition of the construct a test is to measure is most important in test construction and application, because cognitive processes reflect the possibilities a task offers. For instance, a test constructed to assess intelligence will operationalize the definition of this construct, being, in short, finding the correct answer. Also, the definition of a construct becomes important when selecting tests for the confirmation of a specific hypothesis. One can only find confirmation for a hypothesis if the chosen task instigates the necessary cognitive operations. For instance, in trying to confirm the assumed intertwining of certain cognitive abilities (e.g., convergent thinking and divergent thinking), tasks should be applied that have shown to yield the necessary cognitive process.

The second test feature, problem space , determines the degrees of freedom cognition has to its disposal in solving a problem. For instance, cognition will go through a wider search path when problem constraints are less well defined and, consequently, data will differ accordingly.

The third test feature, knowledge domain , is important when comparing results from two different tests. When tests differ in problem space, it is not advisable they should differ in knowledge domain. For instance, when studying the differences in cognitive abilities between tests constructed to asses convergent thinking (mostly defined problem space) and divergent thinking (mostly ill-defined problem space), in general test practice, both tests also differ in knowledge domain. Hence, data will reflect cognition operating not only in different problem spaces, but also operating on different knowledge domains, which makes the interpretation of results ambiguous.

The proposed approach for test development and test application holds the promise of, firstly, studying cognitive abilities in different problem spaces while operating on an identical knowledge domain. Although cognitions’ operations have been studied extensively and superbly in both contexts separately, they have rarely been studied in test situations where one or the other test feature is controlled for. The proposed approach also presents a unique method for studying thinking processes in which cognitive abilities intertwine. On the basis of defined abilities, tasks can be developed that have a higher probability of yielding the hypothesized results.

The construct of intelligence is defined as the ability to produce the single best (or correct) answer to a clearly defined question, such as a proof to a theorem ( Simon, 1973 ). It may also be seen as a domain-general ability ( g -factor; Spearman, 1904 ; Cattell, 1967 ) that has much in common with meta cognitive functions, such as metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive monitoring, and metacognitive control ( Saraç et al., 2014 ).

The construct of creativity, in contrast, is defined as the ability to innovate and move beyond what is already known ( Wertheimer , 1945/1968 ; Ghiselin , 1952/1985 ; Vernon, 1970 ). In other words, it emphasizes the aspect of innovation. This involves the ability to consider things from an uncommon perspective, transcend the old order ( Ghiselin , 1952/1985 ; Chi, 1997 ; Ward, 2007 ), and explore loosely associated ideas ( Guilford, 1950 ; Mednick, 1962 ; Koestler, 1964 ; Gentner, 1983 ; Boden, 1990 ; Christensen, 2007 ). Creativity could also be defined as the ability to generate a solution to problems with ill-defined problem spaces ( Wertheimer , 1945/1968 ; Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi, 1976 ). In this sense it involves the ability to identify problematic aspects of a given situation ( Ghiselin , 1952/1985 ) and, in a wider sense, the ability to define completely new problems ( Getzels, 1975 , 1987 ).

Guilford (1956) introduced the constructs of convergent thinking and divergent thinking abilities. Both thinking abilities are important because they allow us insights in human problem solving. On the basis of their definitions convergent and divergent thinking help us to structurally study human cognitive operations in different situations and over different developmental stages. Convergent thinking is defined as the ability to apply conventional and logical search, recognition, and decision-making strategies to stored information in order to produce an already known answer ( Cropley, 2006 ). Divergent thinking, by contrast, is defined as the ability to produce new approaches and original ideas by forming unexpected combinations from available information and by applying such abilities as semantic flexibility, and fluency of association, ideation, and transformation ( Guilford, 1959 , as cited in Cropley, 2006 , p. 1). Divergent thinking brings forth answers that may never have existed before and are often novel, unusual, or surprising ( Cropley, 2006 ).

Guilford (1967) introduced convergent and divergent thinking as part of a set of five operations that apply in his Structure of Intellect model (SOI model) on six products and four kinds of content, to produce 120 different factors of cognitive abilities. With the SOI model Guilford wanted to give the construct of intelligence a comprehensive model. He wanted the model to include all aspects of intelligence, many of which had been seriously neglected in traditional intelligence testing because of a persistent adherence to the belief in Spearman’s g ( Guilford, 1967 , p. vii). Hence, Guilford envisaged cognition to embrace, among other abilities, both convergent and divergent thinking abilities. After these new constructs were introduced and defined, tests for convergent and divergent thinking emerged. Despite the fact that Guilford reported significant loadings of tests for divergent production on tests constructed to measure convergent production ( Guilford, 1967 , p. 155), over the years, both modes of thinking were considered as separate identities where convergent thinking tests associated with intelligence and divergent thinking tests with creativity ( Cropley, 2006 ; Shye and Yuhas, 2004 ). Even intelligence tests that assess aspects of intelligence that supposedly reflect creative abilities do not actually measure creativity ( Kaufman, 2015 ).

The idea that both convergent and divergent thinking are important for solving problems, and that intelligence helps in the creative process, is not really new. In literature we find models of the creative process that define certain stages to convergent and divergent thinking; the stages of purposeful preparation at the start and those of critical verification at the end of the process, respectively ( Wallas, 1926 ; Webb Young , 1939/2003 ). In this view, divergent thinking enables the generation of new ideas whereas the exploratory activities of convergent thinking enable the conversion of ideas into something new and appropriate ( Cropley and Cropley, 2008 ).

We argue that studying the abilities of divergent and convergent thinking in isolation does not suffice to give us complete insight of all possible aspects of human problem solving, its constituent abilities and the structure of its processes. Processes that in a sequence of thoughts and actions lead to novel and adaptive productions ( Lubart, 2001 ) are more demanding of cognition for understanding the situation at hand and planning a path to a possible solution, than abilities involved in less complex situations ( Jaušovec, 1999 ). Processes that yield self-generated and goal-directed thought are the most complex cognitive processes that can be studied ( Beaty et al., 2016 ). Creative cognition literature is moving toward the view that especially in those processes that yield original and appropriate solutions within a specific context, convergent and divergent abilities intertwine ( Cropley, 2006 ; Ward, 2007 ; Gabora, 2010 ).

The approach of intertwining cognitive abilities is also developed within cognitive neuroscience by focusing on the intertwining of brain networks ( Beaty et al., 2016 ). In this approach divergent thinking relates to the default brain network. This network operates in defocused or associative mode of thought yielding spontaneous and self-generated cognition ( Beaty et al., 2015 ). Convergent thinking relates to the executive control network operating in focused or analytic modes of thought, yielding updating, shifting, and inhibition ( Benedek et al., 2014 ). Defocused attention theory ( Mendelssohn, 1976 ) states that less creative individuals operate with a more focused attention than do creative individuals. This theory argues that e.g., attending to two things at the same time, might result in one analogy, while attending to four things might yield six analogies ( Martindale, 1999 ).

In the process of shifting back and forth along the spectrum between associative and analytic modes of thinking, the fruits of associative thought become ingredients for analytic thought processes, and vice versa ( Gabora, 2010 ). In this process, mental imagery is involved as one sensory aspect of the human ability to gather and process information ( Jung and Haier, 2013 ). Mental imagery is fed by scenes in the environment that provide crucial visual clues for creative problem solving and actuates the need for sketching ( Verstijnen et al., 2001 ).

Creative problem solving processes often involve an interactive relationship between imagining, sketching, and evaluating the result of the sketch ( van Leeuwen et al., 1999 ). This interactive process evolves within a type of imagery called “visual reasoning” where forms and shapes are manipulated in order to specify the configurations and properties of the design entities ( Goldschmidt, 2013 ). The originality of inventions is predicted by the application of visualization, whereas their practicality is predicted by the vividness of imagery ( Palmiero et al., 2015 ). Imaginative thought processes emerge from our conceptual knowledge of the world that is represented in our semantic memory system. In constrained divergent thinking, the neural correlates of this semantic memory system partially overlap with those of the creative cognition system ( Abraham and Bubic, 2015 ).

Studies of convergent and divergent thinking abilities have yielded innumerable valuable insights on the cognitive and neurological aspects involved, e.g., reaction times, strategies, brain areas involved, mental representations, and short and long time memory components. Studies on the relationship between both constructs suggest that it is unlikely that individuals employ similar cognitive strategies when solving more convergent than more divergent thinking tasks ( Jaušovec, 2000 ). However, to arrive at a quality formulation the creative process cannot do without the application of both, convergent and divergent thinking abilities (e.g., Kaufmann, 2003 ; Runco, 2003 ; Sternberg, 2005 ; Dietrich, 2007 ; Cropley and Cropley, 2008 ; Silvia et al., 2013 ; Jung, 2014 ).

When it is our aim to study the networks addressed by the intertwining of convergent and divergent thinking processes that are considered to operate when new, original, and yet appropriate solutions are generated, then traditional thinking tests like intelligence tests and creativity tests are not appropriate; they yield processes related to the definition of one or the other type of construct.

Creative Reasoning Task

According to the new insights gained in cognition research, we need tasks that are developed with the aim to instigate precisely the kind of thinking processes we are looking for. Tasks should also provide a method of scoring independently the contribution of convergent and divergent thinking. As one possible solution for such tasks we present the Creative Reasoning Task (CRT; Jaarsveld, 2007 ; Jaarsveld et al., 2010 , 2012 , 2013 ).

The CRT presents participants with an empty 3 × 3 matrix and asks them to fill it out, as original and complex as possible, by creating components and the relationships that connect them. The created matrix can, in principle, be solved by another person. The creation of components is entirely free, as is the generation of the relationships that connects them into a completed pattern. Created matrices are scored with two sub scores; Relations , which scores the logical complexity of a matrix and is, therefore, considered a measure for convergent thinking, and Components and Specifications , which scores the originality, fluency, and flexibility and, therefore, is considered an indication for divergent thinking (for a more detailed description of the score method, see Appendix 1 in Supplementary Material).

Psychometric studies with the CRT showed, firstly, that convergent and divergent thinking abilities apply within this task and can be assessed independently. The CRT sub score Relations correlated with the Standard Progressive Matrices test (SPM) and the CRT sub score Components and Specifications correlated with a standard creativity test (TCT–DP, Test of Creative Thinking–Drawing Production; Urban and Jellen, 1995 ; Jaarsveld et al., 2010 , 2012 , 2013 ). Studies further showed that, although a correlation was observed for the intelligence and creativity test scores, no correlation was observed between the CRT sub scores relating to intelligent and creative performances ( Jaarsveld et al., 2012 , 2013 ; for further details about the CRT’s objectivity, validity, and reliability, see Appendix 2 in Supplementary Material).

Reasoning in creative thinking can be defined as the involvement of executive/convergent abilities in the inhibition of ideas and the updating of information ( Benedek et al., 2014 ). Jung (2014) describes a dichotomy for cognitive abilities with at one end the dedicated system that relies on explicit and conscious knowledge and at the other end the improvisational system that relies more upon implicit or unconscious knowledge systems. The link between explicit and implicit systems can actually be traced back to Kris’ psychoanalytic approach to creativity dating from the 1950s. The implicit system refers to Kris’ primary process of adaptive regression, where unmodulated thoughts intrude into consciousness; the explicit system refers to the secondary process, where the reworking and transformation of primary process material takes place through reality-oriented and ego-controlled thinking ( Sternberg and Lubart, 1999 ). The interaction between explicit and implicit systems can be seen to form the basis of creative reasoning, i.e., the cognitive ability to solve problems in an effective and adaptive way. This interaction evolved as a cognitive mechanism when human survival depended on finding effective solutions to both common and novel problem situations ( Gabora and Kaufman, 2010 ). Creative reasoning solves that minority of problems that are unforeseen and yet of high adaptability ( Jung, 2014 ).

Hence, common tests are insufficient when it comes to solving problems that are unforeseen and yet of high adaptability, because they present problems that are either unforeseen and measure certain abilities contained in the construct of creativity or they address adaptability and measure certain abilities contained in the construct of intelligence. The CRT presents participants with a problem that they could not have foreseen; the form is blank and offers no stimuli. All tests, even creativity tests, present participants with some kind of stimuli. The CRT addresses adaptability; to invent from scratch a coherent structure that can be solved by another person, like creating a crossword puzzle. Problems, that are unforeseen and of high adaptability, are solved by the application of abilities from both constructs.

Neuroscience of Creative Cognition

Studies in neuroscience showed that cognition operating in ill-defined problem space not only applies divergent thinking but also benefits from additional convergent operations ( Gabora, 2010 ; Jung, 2014 ). Understanding creative cognition may be advanced when we study the flow of information among brain areas ( Jung et al., 2010 ).

In a cognitive neuroscience study with the CRT we focused on the cognitive process evolving within this task. Participants performed the CRT while EEG alpha activity was registered. EEG alpha synchronization in frontal areas is understood as an indication of top-down control ( Cooper et al., 2003 ). When observed in frontal areas, for divergent and convergent thinking tasks, it may not reflect a brain state that is specific for creative cognition but could be attributed to the high processing demands typically involved in creative thinking ( Benedek et al., 2011 ). Top-down control, relates to volitionally focusing attention to task demands ( Buschman and Miller, 2007 ). That this control plays a role in tasks with an ill-defined problem space showed when electroencephalography (EEG) alpha synchronization was stronger for individuals engaged in creative ideation tasks compared to an intelligence related tasks ( Fink et al., 2007 , 2009 ; Fink and Benedek, 2014 ). This activation was also found for the CRT; task related alpha synchronization showed that convergent thinking was integrated in the divergent thinking processes. Analyzes of the stages in the CRT process showed that this alpha synchronization was especially visible at the start of the creative process at prefrontal and frontal sites when information processing was most demanding, i.e., due to multiplicity of ideas, and it was visible at the end of the process, due to narrowing down of alternatives ( Jaarsveld et al., 2015 ).

A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study ( Beaty et al., 2015 ) with a creativity task in which cognition had to meet specific constraints, showed the networks involved. The default mode network which drives toward abstraction and metaphorical thinking and the executive control network driving toward certainty ( Jung, 2014 ). Control involves not only maintenance of patterns of activity that represent goals and the means to achieve those ( Miller and Cohen, 2001 ), but also their voluntary suppression when no longer needed, as well as the flexible shift between different goals and mental sets ( Abraham and Windmann, 2007 ). Attention can be focused volitionally by top-down signals derived from task demands and automatically by bottom-up signals from salient stimuli ( Buschman and Miller, 2007 ). Intertwining between top-down and bottom-up attention processes in creative cognition ensures a broadening of attention in free associative thinking ( Abraham and Windmann, 2007 ).

These studies support and enhance the findings of creative cognition research in showing that the generation of original and applicable ideas involves an intertwining between different abilities, networks, and attention processes.

Problem Space

A problem space is an abstract representation, in the mind of the problem solver, of the encountered problem and of the asked for solution ( Simon and Newell, 1971 ; Simon, 1973 ; Hayes and Flowers, 1986 ; Kulkarni and Simon, 1988 ; Runco, 2007 ). The space that comes with a certain problem can, according to the constraints that are formulated for the solution, be labeled well-defined or ill-defined ( Simon and Newell, 1971 ). Consequently, the original problems are labeled closed and open problems, respectively ( Jaušovec, 2000 ).

A problem space contains all possible states that are accessible to the problem solver from the initial state , through iterative application of transformation rules , to the goal state ( Newell and Simon, 1972 ; Anderson, 1983 ). The initial state presents the problem solver with a task description that defines which requirements a solution has to answer. The goal state represents the solution. The proposed solution is a product of the application of transformation rules (algorithms and heuristics) on a series of successive intermediate solutions. The proposed solution is also a product of the iterative evaluations of preceding solutions and decisions based upon these evaluations ( Boden, 1990 ; Gabora, 2002 ; Jaarsveld and van Leeuwen, 2005 ; Goldschmidt, 2014 ). Whether all possible states need to be passed through depends on the problem space being well or ill-defined and this, in turn, depends on the character of the task descriptions.

When task descriptions clearly state which requirements a solution has to answer then the inferences made will show little idiosyncratic aspects and will adhere to the task constraints. As a result, fewer options for alternative paths are open to the problem solver and search for a solution evolves in a well-defined space. Vice versa, when task or problem descriptions are fuzzy and under specified, the problem solver’s inferences are more idiosyncratic; the resulting process will evolve within an ill-defined space and will contain more generative-evaluative cycles in which new goals are set, and the cycle is repeated ( Dennett, 1978 , as cited in Gabora, 2002 , p. 126).

Tasks that evolve in defined problem space are, e.g., traditional intelligence tests (e.g., Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, WAIS; and SPM, Raven , 1938/1998 ). The above tests consist of different types of questions, each testing a different component of intelligence. They are used in test practice to assess reasoning abilities in diverse domains, such as, abstract, logical, spatial, verbal, numerical, and mathematical domains. These tests have clearly stated task descriptions and each item has one and only one correct solution that has to be generated from memory or chosen from a set of alternatives, like in multiple choice formats. Tests can be constructed to assess crystallized or fluid intelligence. Crystallized intelligence represents abilities acquired through learning, practice, and exposure to education, while fluid intelligence represents a more basic capacity that is valuable to reasoning and problem solving in contexts not necessarily related to school education ( Carroll, 1982 ).

Tasks that evolve in ill-defined problem space are, e.g., standard creativity tests. These types of test ask for a multitude of ideas to be generated in association with a given item or situation (e.g., “think of as many titles for this story”). Therefore, they are also labeled as divergent thinking test. Although they assess originality, fluency, flexibility of responses, and elaboration, they are not constructed, however, to score appropriateness or applicability. Divergent thinking tests assess one limited aspect of what makes an individual creative. Creativity depends also on variables like affect and intuition; therefore, divergent thinking can only be considered an indication of an individual’s creative potential ( Runco, 2008 ). More precisely, divergent thinking explains just under half of the variance in adult creative potential, which is more than three times that of the contribution of intelligence ( Plucker, 1999 , p. 103). Creative achievement , by contrast, is commonly assessed by means of self-reports such as biographical questionnaires in which participants indicate their achievement across various domains (e.g., literature, music, or theater).

Studies with the CRT showed that problem space differently affects processing of and comprehension of relationships between components. Problem space did not affect the ability to process complex information. This ability showed equal performance in well and ill-defined problem spaces ( Jaarsveld et al., 2012 , 2013 ). However, problem space did affect the comprehension of relationships, which showed in the different frequencies of relationships solved and created ( Jaarsveld et al., 2010 , 2012 ). Problem space also affected the neurological activity as displayed when individuals solve open or closed problems ( Jaušovec, 2000 ).

Problem space further affected trends over grade levels of primary school children for relationships solved in well-defined and applied in ill-defined problem space. Only one of the 12 relationships defined in the CRT, namely Combination, showed an increase with grade for both types of problem spaces ( Jaarsveld et al., 2013 ). In the same study, cognitive development in the CRT showed in the shifts of preference for a certain relationship. These shifts seem to correspond to Piaget’s developmental stages ( Piaget et al., 1977 ; Siegler, 1998 ) which are in evidence in the CRT, but not in the SPM ( Jaarsveld et al., 2013 ).

Design Problems

A sub category of problems with an ill-defined problem space are represented by design problems. In contrast to divergent thinking tasks that ask for the generation of a multitude of ideas, in design tasks interim ideas are nurtured and incrementally developed until they are appropriate for the task. Ideas are rarely discarded and replaced with new ideas ( Goel and Pirolli, 1992 ). The CRT could be considered a design problem because it yields (a) one possible solution and (b) an iterative thinking process that involves the realization of a vague initial idea. In the CRT a created matrix, which is a closed problem, is created within an ill-defined problem space. Design problems can be found, e.g., in engineering, industrial design, advertising, software design, and architecture ( Sakar and Chakrabarti, 2013 ), however, they can also be found in the arts, e.g., poetry, sculpting, and dance geography.

These complex problems are partly determined by unalterable needs, requirements and intentions but the major part of the design problem is undetermined ( Dorst, 2004 ). This author points out that besides containing an original and a functional value, these types of problems contain an aesthetic value. He further states that the interpretation of the design problem and the creation and selection of possible suitable solutions can only be decided during the design process on the basis of proposals made by the designer.

In design problems the generation stage may be considered a divergent thinking process. However, not in the sense that it moves in multiple directions or generates multiple possibilities as in a divergent thinking tests, but in the sense that it unrolls by considering an initially vague idea from different perspectives until it comes into focus and requires further processing to become viable. These processes can be characterized by a set of invariant features ( Goel and Pirolli, 1992 ), e.g., structuring. iteration , and coherence .

Structuring of the initial situation is required in design processes before solving can commence. The problem contains little structured and clear information about its initial state and about the requirements of its solution. Therefore, design problems allow or even require re-interpretation of transformation rules; for instance, rearranging the location of furniture in a room according to a set of desirable outcomes. Here one uncovers implicit requirements that introduce a set of new transformations and/or eliminate existing ones ( Barsalou, 1992 ; Goel and Pirolli, 1992 ) or, when conflicting requirements arise, one creates alternatives and/or introduces new trade-offs between the conflicting constraints ( Yamamoto et al., 2000 ; Dorst, 2011 ).

A second aspect of design processes is their iterative character. After structuring and planning a vague idea emerges, which is the result of the merging of memory items. A vague idea is a cognitive structure that, halfway the creative process is still ill defined and, therefore, can be said to exist in a state of potentiality ( Gabora and Saab, 2011 ). Design processes unroll in an iterative way by the inspection and adjustment of the generated ideas ( Goldschmidt, 2014 ). New meanings are created and realized while the creative mind imposes its own order and meaning on the sensory data and through creative production furthers its own understanding of the world ( Arnheim , 1962/1974 , as cited in Grube and Davis, 1988 , pp. 263–264).

A third aspect of design processes is coherence. Coherence theories characterize coherence in, for instance, philosophical problems and psychological processes, in terms of maximal satisfaction of multiple constraints and compute coherence by using, a.o., connectionist algorithms ( Thagard and Verbeurgt, 1998 ). Another measure of coherence is characterized as continuity in design processes. This measure was developed for a design task ( Jaarsveld and van Leeuwen, 2005 ) and calculated by the occurrence of a given pair of objects in a sketch, expressed as a percentage of all the sketches of a series. In a series of sketches participants designed a logo for a new soft drink. Design series strong in coherence also received a high score for their final design, as assessed by professionals in various domains. Indicating that participants with a high score for the creative quality of their final sketch seemed better in assessing their design activity in relation to the continuity in the process and, thereby, seemed better in navigating the ill-defined space of a design problem ( Jaarsveld and van Leeuwen, 2005 ). In design problems the quality of cognitive production depends, in part, on the abilities to reflect on one’s own creative behavior ( Boden, 1996 ) and to monitor how far along in the process one is in solving it ( Gabora, 2002 ). Hence, design problems are especially suited to study more complex problem solving processes.

Knowledge Domain

Knowledge domain represents disciplines or fields of study organized by general principles, e.g., domains of various arts and sciences. It contains accumulated knowledge that can be divided in diverse content domains, and the relevant algorithms and heuristics. We also speak of knowledge domains when referring to, e.g., visuo-spatial and verbal domains. This latter differentiation may refer to the method by which performance in a certain knowledge domain is assessed, e.g., a visuo-spatial physics task that assesses the content domain of the workings of mass and weights of objects.

In comparing tests results, we should keep in mind that apart from reflecting cognitive processes evolving in different problem spaces, the results also arise from cognition operating on different knowledge domains. We argue that, the still contradictory and inconclusive discussion about the relationship between intelligence and creativity ( Silvia, 2008 ), should involve the issue of knowledge domain.

Intelligence tests contain items that pertain to, e.g., verbal, abstract, mechanical and spatial reasoning abilities, while their content mostly operates on knowledge domains that are related to contents contained in school curricula. Items of creativity tests, by contrast, pertain to more idiosyncratic knowledge domains, their contents relating to associations between stored personal experiences ( Karmiloff-Smith, 1992 ). The influence of knowledge domain on the relationships between different test scores was already mentioned by Guilford (1956 , p. 169). This author expected a higher correlation between scores from a typical intelligence test and a divergent thinking test than between scores from two divergent thinking tests because the former pair operated on identical information and the latter pair on different information.

Studies with the CRT showed that when knowledge domain is controlled for, the development of intelligence operating in ill-defined problem space does not compare to that of traditional intelligence but develops more similarly to the development of creativity ( Welter et al., in press ).

Relationship Intelligence and Creativity

The Threshold theory ( Guilford, 1967 ) predicts a relationship between intelligence and creativity up to approximately an intelligence quotient (IQ) level of 120 but not beyond ( Lubart, 2003 ; Runco, 2007 ). Threshold theory was corroborated when creative potential was found to be related to intelligence up to certain IQ levels; however, the theory was refuted, when focusing on achievement in creative domains; it showed that creative achievement benefited from higher intelligence even at fairly high levels of intellectual ability ( Jauk et al., 2013 ).

Distinguishing between subtypes of general intelligence known as fluent and crystallized intelligence ( Cattell, 1967 ), Sligh et al. (2005) observed an inverse threshold effect with fluid IQ: a correlation with creativity test scores in the high IQ group but not in the average IQ group. Also creative achievement showed to be affected by fluid intelligence ( Beaty et al., 2014 ). Intelligence, defined as fluid IQ, verbal fluency, and strategic abilities, showed a higher correlation with creativity scores ( Silvia, 2008 ) than when defined as crystallized intelligence. Creativity tests, which involved convergent thinking (e.g., Remote Association Test; Mednick, 1962 ) showed higher correlations with intelligence than ones that involved only divergent thinking (e.g., the Alternate Uses Test; Guilford et al., 1978 ).

That the Remote Association test also involves convergent thinking follows from the instructions; one is asked, when presented with a stimulus word (e.g., table) to produce the first word one thinks of (e.g., chair). The word pair table–chair is a common association, more remote is the pair table–plate, and quite remote is table–shark. According to Mednick’s theory (a) all cognitive work is done essentially by combining or associating ideas and (b) individuals with more commonplace associations have an advantage in well-defined problem spaces, because the class of relevant associations is already implicit in the statement of the problem ( Eysenck, 2003 ).

To circumvent the problem of tests differing in knowledge domain, one can develop out of one task a more divergent and a more convergent thinking task by asking, on the one hand, for the generation of original responses, and by asking, on the other hand, for more common responses ( Jauk et al., 2012 ). By changing the instruction of a task, from convergent to divergent, one changes the constraints the solution has to answer and, thereby, one changes for cognition its freedom of operation ( Razumnikova et al., 2009 ; Limb, 2010 ; Jauk et al., 2012 ). However, asking for more common responses is still a divergent thinking task because it instigates a generative and ideational process.

Indeed, studying the relationship between intelligence and creativity with knowledge domain controlled for yielded different results as defined in the Threshold theory. A study in which knowledge domain was controlled for showed, firstly, that intelligence is no predictor for the development of creativity ( Welter et al., 2016 ). Secondly, that the relationship between scores of intelligence and creativity tests as defined under the Threshold theory was only observed in a small subset of primary school children, namely, female children in Grade 4 ( Welter et al., 2016 ). We state that relating results of operations yielded by cognitive abilities performing in defined and in ill-defined problem spaces can only be informative when it is ensured that cognitive processes also operate on an identical knowledge domain.

Intertwining of Cognitive Abilities

Eysenck (2003) observed that there is little justification for considering the constructs of divergent and convergent thinking in categorical terms in which one construct excludes the other. In processes that yield original and appropriate solutions convergent and divergent thinking both operate on the same large knowledge base and the underlying cognitive processes are not entirely dissimilar ( Eysenck, 2003 , p. 110–111).

Divergent thinking is especially effective when it is coupled with convergent thinking ( Runco, 2003 ; Gabora and Ranjan, 2013 ). A design problem study ( Jaarsveld and van Leeuwen, 2005 ) showed that divergent production was active throughout the design, as new meanings are continuously added to the evolving structure ( Akin, 1986 ), and that convergent production was increasingly important toward the end of the process, as earlier productions are wrapped up and integrated in the final design. These findings are in line with the assumptions of Wertheimer (1945/1968) who stated that thinking within ill-defined problem space is characterized by two points of focus; one is to work on the parts, the other to make the central idea clearer.

Parallel to the discussion about the intertwining of convergent and divergent thinking abilities in processes that evolve in ill-defined problem space we find the discussion about how intelligence may facilitate creative thought. This showed when top-down cognitive control advanced divergent processing in the generation of original ideas and a certain measure of cognitive inhibition advanced the fluency of idea generation ( Nusbaum and Silvia, 2011 ). Fluid intelligence and broad retrieval considered as intelligence factors in a structural equation study contributed both to the production of creative ideas in a metaphor generation task ( Beaty and Silvia, 2013 ). The notion that creative thought involves top-down, executive processes showed in a latent variable analysis where inhibition primarily promoted the fluency of ideas, and intelligence promoted their originality ( Benedek et al., 2012 ).

Definitions of the Constructs Intelligence and Creativity

The various definitions of the constructs of intelligence and creativity show a problematic overlap. This overlap stems from the enormous endeavor to unanimously agree on valid descriptions for each construct. Spearman (1927) , after having attended many symposia that aimed at defining intelligence, stated that “in truth, ‘intelligence’ has become a mere vocal sound, a word with so many meanings that finally it has none” (p. 14).

Intelligence is expressed in terms of adaptive, goal-directed behavior; and the subset of such behavior that is labeled “intelligent” seems to be determined in large part by cultural or societal norms ( Sternberg and Salter, 1982 ). The development of the IQ measure is discussed by Carroll (1982) : “Binet (around 1905) realized that intelligent behavior or mental ability can be ranged along a scale. Not much later, Stern (around 1912) noticed that, as chronological age increased, variation in mental age changes proportionally. He developed the IQ ratio, whose standard deviation would be approximately constant over chronological age if mental age was divided by chronological age. With the development of multiple-factor-analyses (Thurstone, around 1935) it could be shown that intelligence is not a simple unitary trait because at least seven somewhat independent factors of mental ability were identified.”

Creativity is defined as a combined manifestation of novelty and usefulness ( Jung et al., 2010 ). Although it is identified with divergent thinking, and performance on divergent thinking tasks predicts, e.g., quantity of creative achievements ( Torrance, 1988 , as cited in Beaty et al., 2014 ) and quality of creative performance ( Beaty et al., 2013 ), it cannot be identified uniquely with divergent thinking.

Divergent thinking often leads to highly original ideas that are honed to appropriate ideas by evaluative processes of critical thinking, and valuative and appreciative considerations ( Runco, 2008 ). Divergent thinking tests should be more considered as estimates of creative problem solving potential rather than of actual creativity ( Runco, 1991 ). Divergent thinking is not specific enough to help us understand what, exactly, are the mental processes—or the cognitive abilities—that yield creative thoughts ( Dietrich, 2007 ).

Although current definitions of intelligence and creativity try to determine for each separate construct a unique set of cognitive abilities, analyses show that definitions vary in the degree to which each includes abilities that are generally considered to belong to the other construct ( Runco, 2003 ; Jaarsveld et al., 2012 ). Abilities considered belonging to the construct of intelligence such as hypothesis testing, inhibition of alternative responses, and creating mental images of new actions or plans are also considered to be involved in creative thinking ( Fuster, 1997 , as cited in Colom et al., 2009 , p. 215). The ability, for instance, to evaluate , which is considered to belong to the construct of intelligence and assesses the match between a proposed solution and task constraints, has long been considered to play a role in creative processes that goes beyond the mere generation of a series of ideas as in creativity tasks ( Wallas, 1926 , as cited in Gabora, 2002 , p. 1; Boden, 1990 ).

The Geneplore model ( Finke et al., 1992 ) explicitly models this idea; after stages in which objects are merely generated, follow phases in which an object’s utility is explored and estimated. The generation phase brings forth pre inventive objects, imaginary objects that are generated without any constraints in mind. In exploration, these objects are evaluated for their possible functionalities. In anticipating the functional characteristics of generated ideas, convergent thinking is needed to apprehend the situation, make evaluations ( Kozbelt, 2008 ), and consider the consequences of a chosen solution ( Goel and Pirolli, 1992 ). Convergent reasoning in creativity tasks invokes criteria of functionality and appropriateness ( Halpern, 2003 ; Kaufmann, 2003 ), goal directedness and adaptive behavior ( Sternberg, 1982 ), as well as the abilities of planning and attention. Convergent thinking stages may even require divergent thinking sub processes to identify restrictions on proposed new ideas and suggest requisite revision strategies ( Mumford et al., 2007 ). Hence, evaluation, which is considered to belong to the construct of intelligence, is also functional in creative processes.

In contrast, the ability of flexibility , which is considered to belong to the construct of creativity and denotes an openness of mind that ensures the generation of ideas from different domains, showed, as a factor component for latent divergent thinking, a relationship with intelligence ( Silvia, 2008 ). Flexibility was also found to play an important role in intelligent behavior where it enables us to do novel things smartly in new situations ( Colunga and Smith, 2008 ). These authors studied children’s generalizations of novel nouns and concluded that if we are to understand human intelligence, we must understand the processes that make inventiveness. They propose to include the construct of flexibility within that of intelligence. Therefore, definitions of the constructs we are to measure affect test construction and the resulting data. However, an overlap between definitions, as discussed, yields a test diversity that makes it impossible to interpret the different findings across studies with any confidence ( Arden et al., 2010 ). Also Kim (2005) concluded that because of differences in tests and administration methods, the observed correlation between intelligence and creativity was negligible. As the various definitions of the constructs of intelligence and creativity show problematic overlap, we propose to circumvent the discussion about which cognitive abilities are assessed by which construct, and to consider both constructs as being involved in one design process. This approach allows us to study the contribution to this process of the various defined abilities, without one construct excluding the other.

Reasoning Abilities

The CRT is a psychometrical tool constructed on the basis of an alternative construct of human cognitive functioning that considers creative reasoning as a thinking process understood as the cooperation between cognitive abilities related to intelligent and creative thinking.

In generating relationships for a matrix, reasoning and more specifically the ability of rule invention is applied. The ability of rule invention could be considered as an extension of the sequence of abilities of rule learning, rule inference, and rule application, implying that creativity is an extension of intelligence ( Shye and Goldzweig, 1999 ). According to this model, we could expect different results between a task assessing abilities of rule learning and rule inference, and a task assessing abilities of rule application. In two studies rule learning and rule inference was assessed with the RPM and rule application was assessed with the CRT. Results showed that from Grades 1 to 4, the frequencies of relationships applied did not correlate with those solved ( Jaarsveld et al., 2010 , 2012 ). Results showed that performance in the CRT allows an insight of cognitive abilities operating on relationships among components that differs from the insight based on performance within the same knowledge domain in a matrix solving task. Hence, reasoning abilities lead to different performances when applied in solving closed as to open problems.

We assume that reasoning abilities are more clearly reflected when one formulates a matrix from scratch; in the process of thinking and drawing one has, so to speak, to solve one’s own matrix. In doing so one explains to oneself the relationship(s) realized so far and what one would like to attain. Drawing is thinking aloud a problem and aids the designer’s thinking processes in providing some “talk-back” ( Cross and Clayburn Cross, 1996 ). Explanatory activity enhances learning through increased depth of processing ( Siegler, 2005 ). Analyzing explanations of examples given with physics problems showed that they clarify and specify the conditions and consequences of actions, and that they explicate tacit knowledge; thereby enhancing and completing an individual’s understanding of principles relevant to the task ( Chi and VanLehn, 1991 ). Constraint of the CRT is that the matrix, in principle, can be solved by another person. Therefore, in a kind of inner explanatory discussion, the designer makes observations of progress, and uses evaluations and decisions to answer this constraint. Because of this, open problems where certain constraints have to be met, constitute a powerful mechanism for promoting understanding and conceptual advancement ( Chi and VanLehn, 1991 ; Mestre, 2002 ; Siegler, 2005 ).

Convergent and divergent thinking processes have been studied with a variety of intelligence and creativity tests, respectively. Relationships between performances on these tests have been demonstrated and a large number of research questions have been addressed. However, the fact that intelligence and creativity tests vary in the definition of their construct, in their problem space, and in their knowledge domain, poses methodological problems regarding the validity of comparisons of test results. When we want to focus on one cognitive process, e.g., intelligent thinking, and on its different performances in well or ill-defined problem situations, we need pairs of tasks that are constructed along identical definitions of the construct to be assessed, that differ, however, in the description of their constraints but are identical regarding their knowledge domain.

One such possible pair, the Progressive Matrices Test and the CRT was suggested here. The CRT was developed on the basis of creative reasoning , a construct that assumes the intertwining of intelligent and creativity related abilities when looking for original and applicable solutions. Matched with the Matrices test, results indicated that, besides similarities, intelligent thinking also yielded considerable differences for both problem spaces. Hence, with knowledge domain controlled, and only differences in problem space remaining, comparison of data yielded new results on intelligence’s operations. Data gathered from intelligence and creativity tests, whether they are performance scores or physiological measurements on the basis of, e.g., EEG, and fMRI methods, are reflections of cognitive processes performing on a certain test that was constructed on the basis of a certain definition of the construct it was meant to measure. Data are also reflections of the processes evolving within a certain problem space and of cognitive abilities operating on a certain knowledge domain.

Data can unhide brain networks that are involved in the performance of certain tasks, e.g., traditional intelligence and creativity tests, but data will always be related to the characteristics of the task. The characteristics of the task, such as problem space and knowledge domain originated at the construction of the task, and the construction, on its turn, is affected by the definition of the construct the task is meant to measure.

Here we present the CRT as one possible solution for the described problems in cognition research. However, for research on relationships among test scores other pairs of tests are imaginable, e.g., pairs of tasks operating on the same domain where one task has a defined problem space and the other one an ill-defined space. It is conceivable that pairs of test could operate, besides on the domain of mathematics, on content of e.g., visuo-spatial, verbal, and musical domains. Pairs of test have been constructed by changing the instruction of a task; instructions instigated a more convergent or a more a divergent mode of response ( Razumnikova et al., 2009 ; Limb, 2010 ; Jauk et al., 2012 ; Beaty et al., 2013 ).

The CRT involves the creation of components and their relationships for a 3 × 3 matrix. Hence, matrices created in the CRT are original in the sense that they all bear individual markers and they are applicable in the sense, that they can, in principle, be solved by another person. We showed that the CRT instigates a real design process; creators’ cognitive abilities are wrapped up in a process that should produce a closed problem within an ill-defined problem space.

For research on the relationship among convergent and divergent thinking, we need pairs of test that differ in the problem spaces related to each test but are identical in the knowledge domain on which cognition operates. The test pair of RPM and CRT provides such a pair. For research on the intertwining of convergent and divergent thinking, we need tasks that measure more than tests assessing each construct alone. We need tasks that are developed on the definition of intertwining cognitive abilities; the CRT is one such test.

Hence, we hope to have sufficiently discussed and demonstrated the importance of the three test features, construct definition, problem space, and knowledge domain, for research questions in creative cognition research.

Author Contributions

All authors listed, have made substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00134/full#supplementary-material

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CREATIVITY in problem solving

• January 2004
• Affiliation: The Van Leer Jerusalem Istitute

• Hebrew University of Jerusalem
• This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.

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Creativity and problem-solving ability are considered to be part of: a) physical capital b) human capital c) social capital d) emotional capital

Creativity and problem-solving ability are considered to be part of human capital. Human capital refers to the sum of an individual's skills, abilities, and knowledge, which contributes to their potential productivity.

Human capital is a term used in economics that describes the stock of knowledge, habits, social, and personality attributes, including creativity and problem- solving ability, that a person acquires through education, work, and life experiences.

Human capital's fundamental premise is that not all labor is equal, which implies that the quality of workers can be enhanced by investing in them, leading to better performance and increased productivity. Thus, it is clear that Creativity and problem-solving ability are considered to be part of human capital.

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Related Questions

drugs administered via the intravenous route are absorbed within ____.

Drugs administered via the intravenous route are absorbed within seconds. Intravenous (IV) is a route of drug administration in which a vein is utilized to administer drugs straight into the bloodstream.

Intravenous drug administration can deliver drugs rapidly into the bloodstream, producing a nearly immediate pharmacological reaction. Intravenous administration of drugs is generally used in emergency situations when rapid, sustained, and controlled drug delivery is needed, as well as for drugs that are poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.

Intravenous administration of drugs is more rapid than other methods, with a nearly immediate onset of action. It can result in a long-lasting impact and is beneficial for critically ill patients. IV medications can also be used to maintain a continuous state of therapeutic drug concentration in the bloodstream. Hence, the drugs administered via the intravenous route are absorbed within seconds.

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think and reflect on nutrition, and of course write about it and explore the virtues and pitfalls of a particular kind of diet like keto or paleo: is it safe? effective? Why would someone go on this kind of diet? Is it nutritionally sound and any thought you could think.

There are many diets to choose from, each with its own set of rules and regulations. Some people swear by keto , while others swear by paleo.

When it comes to nutrition , it's essential to consider the virtues and pitfalls of each diet before deciding which one is right for you.A ketogenic diet is a low-carb, high-fat diet that has gained popularity in recent years. The objective of this diet is to put your body into a state of ketosis, where it burns fat for energy instead of glucose.

The keto diet has been shown to aid in weight reduction, lowering cholesterol, and managing blood sugar levels. However, it can also have negative side effects such as keto flu, constipation, and nutritional deficiencies.Paleo is a diet that aims to imitate the eating habits of our hunter-gatherer ancestors. It is focused on whole, unprocessed foods such as meat, fish, nuts, fruits, and vegetables while eliminating processed foods, dairy, and grains. The paleo diet has been linked to weight loss, improved gut health, and decreased inflammation . However, some nutritionists argue that the diet is too restrictive, leading to nutrient deficiencies.

While the keto and paleo diets are popular, it is essential to remember that every person's nutritional requirements are different. It is necessary to consult a doctor or registered dietitian before embarking on a new diet to ensure that it is nutritionally sound and suitable for your individual needs.

Additionally, it's important to remember that a balanced diet consisting of a variety of whole foods is generally the healthiest and most sustainable approach to nutrition.

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The three main functions of nutrients include all of the following EXCEPT: a) contributing to the structure of our body. b) providing us with energy. c) regulating biological processes in the body. d) speeding up our metabolism.

The three main functions of nutrients include all of the following EXCEPT d) speeding up our metabolism .

Correct answer is d) speeding up our metabolism.

Metabolism is the process that transforms food into energy . It is the collection of chemical reactions that occur within an organism in order to maintain life. Metabolism is a multifaceted process, and it includes processes such as digestion, absorption, transport, and use of nutrients by the body.

Nutrients are substances that the body requires to function correctly. There are six types of nutrients that the body requires: proteins , carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.

The three main functions of nutrients include:

contributing to the structure of our body: Proteins are used to build and repair body tissue, such as muscle, bone, and skin. Calcium is a mineral that contributes to the development and maintenance of healthy bones and teeth.

providing us with energy: Carbohydrates , fats, and proteins all provide the body with energy. The body requires energy to perform tasks such as breathing, moving, and thinking. Carbohydrates are the body's primary source of energy, while fats are a long-term source of energy.

regulating biological processes in the body: Vitamins and minerals are used by the body to regulate processes such as nerve function, blood clotting, and muscle contraction. They also help to maintain the body's fluid balance, acid-base balance, and electrolyte balance.

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Which of the following groups of terms best describes a nurse-initiated intervention? A) Dependent, physician-ordered, recovery B) Autonomous, clinical judgment, client outcomes C) Medical diagnosis, medication administration D) Other health care providers, skill acquisition

A nurse-initiated intervention is best described as B) autonomous, clinical judgment, and client outcomes. Nurse -initiated intervention refers to any nursing action that a nurse can initiate without a doctor's prescription.

A nurse-initiated intervention is an independent nursing decision made by the nurse in order to prevent or address problems with a client's health. There are three types of nursing interventions: physician-initiated interventions, collaborative interventions, and nurse-initiated interventions. Here are the three types of nursing interventions: Physician-Initiated Interventions: Interventions that the physician orders or prescribes are referred to as physician-initiated interventions. Collaborative interventions are interventions that are agreed upon by healthcare professionals, such as doctors, nurses, and therapists . A nurse-initiated intervention refers to any nursing action that a nurse can initiate without a doctor's prescription. Nurse-Initiated Interventions: Independent nursing decisions that the nurse makes are referred to as nurse-initiated interventions. These nursing interventions are initiated by the nurse to prevent or address problems with the patient's health. A nurse-initiated intervention refers to any nursing action that a nurse can initiate without a doctor's prescription .

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which of the following conditions may improve with vitamin e therapy?

Vitamin E therapy is an alternative treatment that may be used to treat intermittent claudication.  The correct option is d.

What is Vitamin E therapy ?

Vitamin E therapy may be used to treat conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and heart disease, as well as other conditions. Some research suggests that vitamin E therapy may also be beneficial in the treatment of intermittent claudication, a condition that is caused by a narrowing of the arteries in the legs, which can lead to pain, cramping, and difficulty walking.

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The correct question is:

a.​Diabetes

​b.​Pernicious anemia

​c.​Muscular dystrophy

​d.​Intermittent claudication

An effective nutritional counseling approach to bulimia involves all the following except A. a daily meal plan. B. keeping a daily food diary. C. helping the person correct misconceptions about food. D. suggesting that the person follow strict food rules to control eating.

An effective nutritional counseling approach to bulimia involves all the following except (D) suggesting that the person follow strict food rules to control eating.

In the context of bulimia , suggesting that the person follow strict food rules to control eating is not an effective nutritional counseling approach. Bulimia is an eating disorder characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise, or the use of laxatives. It is important to approach nutritional counseling for bulimia in a balanced and non-restrictive manner.

Effective nutritional counseling for bulimia typically includes the following approaches:

A. a daily meal plan: Developing a structured meal plan can help establish regular and consistent eating patterns, which can reduce the likelihood of binge eating episodes .

B. keeping a daily food diary: Keeping a food diary helps individuals track their eating behaviors, emotions, and triggers, providing insight into their relationship with food and identifying patterns or problematic behaviors.

C. helping the person correct misconceptions about food: Education and challenging misconceptions about food, weight, and body image can help individuals develop a healthier relationship with food and their bodies.

By focusing on structured meal planning, food diary tracking, and addressing misconceptions about food, nutritional counseling can support individuals with bulimia in establishing healthier eating habits, promoting a more balanced relationship with food, and ultimately aiding in their recovery.

Therefore, (D) suggesting that the person follow strict food rules to control eating is the correct answer.

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Cranial nerve II could be assessed in a young infant by: a. assessing squinting response to bright light b. feeling for squeezing of fingers c. observing response to loud noise d. assessing rapid eye movement

Cranial nerve II, also known as the optic nerve , is responsible for vision. Assessing cranial nerve II in a young infant can be done by observing the response to a bright light. This is best accomplished by using a penlight or a similar light source and shining it towards the infant's eyes .

When the light is directed towards the infant's eyes , a normal response would involve the infant squinting or blinking in response to the bright light. This demonstrates that the optic nerve is functioning appropriately, transmitting the visual information to the brain.

Option a, "assessing squinting response to bright light," correctly describes the assessment of cranial nerve II in a young infant. It is important to note that this response may be subtle in very young infants and may develop more fully as the baby grows.

Options b, c, and d are not directly related to the assessment of cranial nerve II. Feeling for squeezing of fingers (option b) assesses motor function and would pertain to a different cranial nerve. Observing response to loud noise (option c) would involve cranial nerve VIII, the vestibulocochlear nerve, which is responsible for hearing. Assessing rapid eye movement (option d) may relate to assessing cranial nerve III, the oculomotor nerve, which controls eye movement and pupil responses .

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which lesion is a fluid-filled sac under the skin?

A cyst is a fluid-filled sac that can appear under the skin. These sacs are often benign, meaning that they are not cancerous .

Cysts can appear anywhere on the body, although they are most commonly found on the face, neck, chest, and back. They can vary in size, but may range from small to quite large , and are typically round or oval in shape. Typically, cysts are harmless and will just remain in one spot. Occasionally, however, they can become inflamed, producing a red, warm lump or an infection .

Cysts can also become tender with movement or pressure. Treatment for cysts can range from simply draining the fluid from the cyst for comfort , to surgical removal depending on the size or severity. It’s best to speak to a doctor if you suspect you have a cyst in order to determine the best course of treatment.

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what lesion is a fluid-filled sac under the skin?

A series of diets followed by eventual weight gain is known as yo-yo dieting. True False

The given statement "A series of diets followed by eventual weight gain is known as yo-yo dieting " is False .

Yo-yo dieting refers to the process of repeatedly losing weight and then regaining it. Yo-yo dieting, also known as weight cycling, is a pattern of dieting characterized by regular, rapid weight loss followed by gaining back the lost weight, often with an added weight gain. This weight-cycling process can continue over the years, and it is frequently associated with self-esteem issues, unhealthy eating habits , and low-quality sleep. This pattern of repeated weight loss and gain can harm the body and raise the risk of obesity , heart disease, and other health problems. The individual may experience difficulty losing weight and keeping it off over time. Yo-yo dieting isn't an official medical diagnosis. It's a term that refers to a pattern of eating and weight gain. Instead, the phenomenon is commonly linked to various health problems, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, heart disease, and other chronic illnesses .

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which statement best describes a lifestyle with healthy eating habits

A lifestyle with healthy eating habits is best described by the following statement: Healthy eating habits involve consuming a balanced diet rich in nutrients and avoiding processed and junk foods.

A lifestyle with healthy eating habits comprises consuming foods that are rich in nutrients while avoiding those that are high in sugar, salt, and unhealthy fats. A balanced diet includes fruits, vegetables , lean proteins, whole grains, and healthy fats such as omega-3s. Additionally, individuals with healthy eating habits maintain portion control and limit their intake of high-calorie, low-nutrient foods.

They also drink plenty of water and limit their consumption of sugary drinks such as soda . They may also choose to supplement their diet with vitamins and minerals as needed to maintain optimal health. Overall, individuals who maintain a healthy lifestyle with healthy eating habits enjoy numerous health benefits .

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how does the endocrine system affect the excretory system?

The endocrine system and the excretory system work together to regulate and maintain the proper functioning of the body.

The endocrine system produces hormones that regulate the excretory system, while the excretory system filters out waste products from the body and helps to maintain fluid balance and blood pressure.The endocrine system affects the excretory system by producing hormones that help to regulate the amount of water, sodium, and other electrolytes in the body. Hormones such as aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) help to regulate the reabsorption of water and electrolytes in the kidneys.

The adrenal glands also produce hormones that affect the excretory system, such as cortisol , which helps to regulate blood pressure.The excretory system, on the other hand, helps to remove waste products from the body, such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. The kidneys play a major role in the excretory system, as they filter the blood and remove waste products, while also maintaining fluid balance and blood pressure.The endocrine and excretory systems are also closely connected in other ways. For example, the kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, which stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The kidneys also produce a hormone called renin, which helps to regulate blood pressure. These hormones are produced in response to signals from the endocrine system, and help to maintain the proper functioning of the body.

The endocrine system affects the excretory system in several ways. The endocrine system produces hormones that regulate the reabsorption of water and electrolytes in the kidneys, helping to maintain fluid balance and blood pressure. Hormones such as aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) help to regulate the amount of water and electrolytes that are reabsorbed by the kidneys, while other hormones such as cortisol help to regulate blood pressure. The adrenal glands also produce hormones that affect the excretory system, such as adrenaline, which helps to regulate the fight or flight response of the body.In addition to regulating the excretory system, the endocrine system also helps to regulate the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow.

The kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin , which stimulates the production of red blood cells in response to signals from the endocrine system. The kidneys also produce a hormone called renin, which helps to regulate blood pressure.The excretory system helps to remove waste products from the body, such as urea, uric acid , and creatinine. The kidneys play a major role in the excretory system, as they filter the blood and remove waste products, while also maintaining fluid balance and blood pressure. The urinary system also helps to remove waste products from the body, such as urine and feces. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

The endocrine system and the excretory system work together to regulate and maintain the proper functioning of the body. The endocrine system produces hormones that regulate the reabsorption of water and electrolytes in the kidneys, while the excretory system helps to remove waste products from the body. The two systems are closely connected, and work together to maintain fluid balance, blood pressure, and the production of red blood cells in the body.

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Which of the following is NOT a likely health problem that will be exacerbated by warming in the Northeast? a. In the Mid-Atlantic part of the region, estimates suggest that between 450,000 and 2.3 million people are at risk of flooding and property damage from a three foot sea level rise. b. Kidney failure increase by 30% from polluted water c. Tick activity and Lyme disease incidence will increase due to climate, specifically because of abundant late spring and early summer moisture. d. Increase of 13 to 27 days in the ragweed pollen season at latitudes above 44°N. e. 50-91% increase in heat-related deaths in Manhattan

Kidney failure increase by 30% from polluted water is not a likely health problem that will be exacerbated by warming in the Northeast.

While polluted water can have adverse effects on health, such as waterborne diseases and contamination -related illnesses, a direct link between kidney failure and warming in the Northeast is not commonly observed. Other health problems mentioned in options a, c, d, and e are likely to be exacerbated by warming in the region. There for  Kidney failure increase by 30% from polluted water is not a likely health problem that will be exacerbated by warming in the Northeast.

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what is the primary mechanism that enables people to obtain health care services?

The primary mechanism that enables people to obtain healthcare services is health insurance. It is a contract between an insurance company and an individual or a group that provides coverage for medical care and related expenses in exchange for premiums paid by the insured.

The primary mechanism that enables people to obtain healthcare services is health insurance. Health insurance is a contract between an insurance company and an individual or a group that provides coverage for medical care and related expenses in exchange for premiums paid by the insured. Health insurance is essential because it enables people to access quality health care services without incurring massive expenses .

Health insurance policies come in different forms, and they offer different levels of coverage. There are individual health insurance policies, family health insurance policies, and group health insurance policies. The type of health insurance policy one chooses depends on their financial capability and health care needs. Health insurance is the primary mechanism that enables people to obtain health care services.

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How do you know your transfer to a broth was successful? How do you know your transfers to agar slants were successful?

We know our transfer to a broth was successful when the broth turns cloudy or turbid. The turbidity occurs because the microorganisms have grown in the broth and are now present in large numbers.

A broth that remains clear after inoculation usually means that the transfer was unsuccessful. In agar slant, we can observe the growth of bacteria on the surface of the agar. We can know that our transfer to agar slants was successful when there is visible growth of the microorganisms on the surface of the agar.

The growth appears as a visible mass of cells on the surface of the agar, and sometimes the color of the agar changes as the cells utilize the nutrients present in the medium. Apart from these physical observations, to determine the transfer was successful, microbiologists often conduct a series of tests to identify the microorganisms. These tests can include Gram staining, biochemical tests, and culture-dependent tests , to name a few.

Microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi can grow in many different types of media. The growth of these microorganisms in culture media is an essential step in microbiology and is often used to identify the microorganisms present in a sample. Transferring microorganisms from one culture medium to another is a fundamental technique in microbiology. The successful transfer of microorganisms is critical to ensure that the cultures are viable, pure, and can be used for further experimentation.

There are many ways to transfer microorganisms from one culture medium to another. The most common methods include streak plating, pour plating, spread plating, and broth culture.In broth culture, we know our transfer is successful when we see turbidity in the broth. The turbidity occurs due to the growth of microorganisms in the broth, indicating that the transfer was successful. However, a broth that remains clear after inoculation usually means that the transfer was unsuccessful. In agar slants, we can observe the growth of bacteria on the surface of the agar.

The presence of visible growth on the surface of the agar indicates that the transfer was successful. This growth appears as a visible mass of cells on the surface of the agar. Sometimes the color of the agar changes as the cells utilize the nutrients present in the medium.To summarize, the successful transfer of microorganisms from one culture medium to another is crucial for further experimentation and identification of microorganisms. It is important to observe the physical signs of growth to ensure that the transfer was successful. Microbiologists can also use a series of tests to identify microorganisms present in a sample. These tests can include Gram staining, biochemical tests, and culture-dependent tests.

A successful transfer of microorganisms from one culture medium to another is essential to ensure that the cultures are pure, viable, and can be used for further experimentation. Observing the physical signs of growth, such as turbidity in the broth or the presence of visible growth on the surface of the agar, is essential to ensure the transfer was successful. Microbiologists can also use a series of tests to identify the microorganisms present in a sample. These tests can include Gram staining, biochemical tests, and culture-dependent tests, among others.

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11,12,13,14 The word root kerat means sebum or oil True False QUESTION 12 The plural form is cicatrixes True False QUESTION 13 Dizziness as reported by a patient is considered a sign. True False QUESTION 14 Proxi

The following are:

11: The word root kerat means hard. It comes from the Greek word keras, which means horn. Sebum is an oily substance produced by the sebaceous glands in the skin. It is not related to the word root kerat.

12: The plural form of cicatrix is cicatrixes. A cicatrix is a scar. The plural form of a word is created by adding -es to the end of the singular form.

13: Dizziness as reported by a patient is considered a sign. A sign is an objective observation that can be made by a healthcare provider. Dizziness is a sign that can be caused by a variety of medical conditions, such as inner ear problems , low blood pressure, or anxiety.

14: Proxi is not a word root. The word root for proximity is proxim/o. Proximity means closeness or nearness.

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Complete question:

The word root kerat means sebum or oil. True or false?

The plural form of cicatrix is cicatrixes. True or false?

Dizziness as reported by a patient is considered a sign. True or false?

Proxi is a word root. True or false?

which finding would the nurse associate with hay fever?

The nurse would associate sneezing, watery eyes, and itching to hay fever . Hay fever is also known as allergic rhinitis, which is an allergic reaction to airborne substances such as pollen, dust mites, and animal dander.

The immune system overreacts to these substances, causing the release of histamine and other chemicals in the body, resulting in an allergic reaction. Hay fever is an allergic reaction to airborne substances such as pollen, dust mites, and animal dander. The immune system overreacts to these substances, causing the release of histamine and other chemicals in the body, resulting in an allergic reaction. The nurse would associate sneezing, watery eyes, and itching to hay fever. These are the most common symptoms of hay fever.

Other symptoms include a runny nose, congestion, postnasal drip, and a scratchy throat. Symptoms can vary depending on the individual and the time of year. Pollen is the most common cause of hay fever, and symptoms are often worse during the spring and fall when pollen counts are high. Other allergens such as mold spores, pet dander, and dust mites can also cause hay fever.

Hay fever is an allergic reaction to airborne substances such as pollen, dust mites, and animal dander. The nurse would associate sneezing, watery eyes, and itching to hay fever. Pollen is the most common cause of hay fever, and symptoms are often worse during the spring and fall when pollen counts are high. Other allergens such as mold spores, pet dander , and dust mites can also cause hay fever.

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a nursing theory differs from a theoretical framework in which way?

A nursing theory is a set of evidence-based propositions that define aspects of nursing practice and care. It provides a framework for nursing practitioners to make considered decisions about how to care for patients.

A theoretical framework is a set of basic assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts used to support and explain the relationships between two or more phenomena. While a theoretical framework offers a broad explanation of how certain phenomena are interrelated, a nursing theory is a set of concepts and their related theories and philosophies that provide a framework for providing nursing care.

Nursing theories set forth specific goals, plans, and measurements for patient care that guide practitioners in assessing patient needs and determining the most appropriate interventions. A theoretical framework, on the other hand, suggests general relationships among concepts, rather than specific actions to take.

As such, theoretical frameworks are more open-ended and provide less direction for practitioners on patient care. Additionally, nursing theories often provide evidence-based support for the goals and measurements, which is not usually provided in a theoretical framework.

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a nursing theory differs from a theoretical framework in WHAT way?

What is the immediate fate of excess dietary protein in the body? A. Stored B. Reduced C. Oxidized D. Deaminated

The immediate fate of excess dietary protein in the body is deamination . The correct answer is option D.

A protein is a chain of amino acids linked together. Dietary protein can be found in a variety of foods, including meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy products, legumes, nuts, and seeds. The amino acids found in protein are essential for the body's growth, development, and maintenance.

The fate of excess dietary protein when dietary protein is consumed in excess, it can't be stored like fat or carbohydrates. Therefore, the body undergoes a series of chemical changes in response to the excess protein. This is called protein metabolism, and it involves a variety of metabolic pathways that result in the deamination of amino acids.

Excess dietary protein undergoes the process of deamination where the nitrogen-containing amino group is removed from the amino acid, which forms ammonia, and then this ammonia is converted into urea in the liver to be excreted in the urine. The carbon chain left behind can be used to produce energy through a metabolic process called gluconeogenesis. Therefore, the immediate fate of excess dietary protein in the body is deamination, option D.

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toilet training takes place during which of freud's psychosexual stages?

Toilet training takes place during the a_nal stage of freud's psychosexual stages.

According to Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory of development, toilet training occurs during the a_nal stage, which typically takes place between the ages of 1 to 3 years. The a_nal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development, following the oral stage. During this stage, the child's focus of pleasure shifts to the a_nal region, and the child learns to control and regulate their bodily functions, particularly bowel movements.

Toilet training is a significant milestone during this stage, as it involves the child's ability to control and release their bowel movements at appropriate times. Successful toilet training is believed to foster a sense of autonomy and control over one's body. Freud suggested that conflicts and experiences during the a_nal stage could have lasting effects on an individual's personality development and their attitudes towards orderliness, cleanliness , and control.

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which of the following describes proper technique for female perineal care?

The following are the proper techniques for female perineal care: Wash hands thoroughly before starting the care. This is an essential component in any hygiene care.

Although gloves are not a requirement for perineal care, it is a best practice to use gloves to prevent skin irritation and the spread of infection. Gently cleanse the area. You must clean the area in a front-to-back direction to prevent contamination from fecal matter. Gently separate the labia, and cleanse the skin with a mild, non-scented soap and warm water. After that, rinse with warm water and pat the area dry.

Use a Peri-pad to keep the area dry and clean. This is critical to maintaining the area clean and preventing infections, particularly in patients who are bedridden. Change the pad regularly, or if it gets dirty. If the patient is incontinent, clean and dry the area as soon as possible to prevent skin breakdown. Finally, ensure that the area is clean and dry. You must check for redness, sores, or any other abnormalities that may require additional medical attention. In conclusion, the above-mentioned techniques should be followed to perform the proper female perineal care.

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1. What are some reasons for studying health care systems abroad? 2. How do NHI and NHS systems compare with the health care system in the United States?

Studying healthcare systems abroad provides a broader perspective, knowledge of challenges and best practices, and the opportunity to improve healthcare systems at home. The NHI and NHS systems offer universal coverage, while the US healthcare system is market-based and lacks guaranteed access for all.

1. Reasons for studying healthcare systems abroad include: to gain a broader perspective of different healthcare systems, to understand the challenges and successes of different healthcare systems, to learn about best practices and innovative solutions, and to apply these insights to improve healthcare systems in one's own country. 2. The NHI (National Health Insurance) and NHS (National Health Service) systems differ from the healthcare system in the United States in several ways. In both the NHI and NHS systems, healthcare is considered a right and is provided to all citizens. This is not the case in the United States, where healthcare is not guaranteed as a right and access to healthcare is often dependent on one's ability to pay. The NHI system in Taiwan, for example, covers the entire population and offers universal coverage. It is funded through a combination of taxes, premiums, and co-payments. The NHS system in the United Kingdom is also funded through taxes and provides free healthcare to all citizens. In contrast, the healthcare system in the United States is largely market-based, with private insurance companies playing a dominant role in providing healthcare coverage . The cost of healthcare is a major concern for many Americans, and access to healthcare can be limited for those who cannot afford insurance or who have pre-existing conditions. In summary, the NHI and NHS systems are examples of universal healthcare coverage, while the healthcare system in the United States is largely market-based.

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The long term consumptiok of soy milk and soy based products will cause serious health problems for both nen and women!" Do you agree with this opinion? Why or why not?

On the contrary, there are numerous health benefits to consuming these products.

No, I do not agree with the opinion that the long-term consumption of soy milk and soy-based products will cause serious health problems for both men and women.

Soy milk and soy-based products have been found to be beneficial to human health in various studies that have been conducted over the years.

According to the American Heart Association, soy protein can lower LDL cholesterol levels, and this can lower the risk of cardiovascular disease. Soy-based products such as tofu, tempeh, and edamame contain isoflavones, which are natural plant compounds that have been found to lower the risk of breast and prostate cancer.

Apart from these benefits, soy-based products are also rich in calcium, vitamin D, and other nutrients that are important for human health. However, like all foods, soy-based products should be consumed in moderation, and people should not rely on them as the sole source of their nutrition.

To sum up, the opinion that long-term consumption of soy milk and soy-based products will cause serious health problems for both men and women is not supported by scientific evidence. On the contrary, there are numerous health benefits to consuming these products.

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historically, death has been ascertained by the absence of? A. heartbeat and breathing B. consciousness. C. brain waves. D. heartbeat and brain waves.

Historically, death has been ascertained by the absence of heartbeat and breathing . Historically, death has been ascertained by the absence of heartbeat and breathing. This was a very basic way to measure whether or not a person was still alive, but it was the only method available at the time.

Today, we have much more advanced methods of determining whether or not someone is alive or dead, including measuring brain activity and other vital signs beyond just breathing and heartbeat. In the past, people would often be declared dead because they were not breathing or because their hearts had stopped.

This would be enough to convince doctors and other medical professionals that the person had died. However, there have been cases in which people have been brought back to life after being declared dead because they were able to start breathing again. This is why modern medical technology is so important, as it can provide more accurate and reliable measurements of whether or not someone is truly dead .

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Overweight has been defined as a BMI of _____ or higher. a. 25 b. 30 c. 35 d. 40 e. 45

The correct answer to your question would be a. 25. Overweight is typically defined as having a body mass index ( BMI ) of 25 or higher.

BMI is a numerical value derived from an individual's weight and height, and it is commonly used as a screening tool to assess whether a person falls within a healthy weight range.

However, it's important to note that BMI is a general indicator and does not take into account factors such as muscle mass or body composition . In clinical settings, a BMI of 30 or higher is often used to define obesity, which is considered a more severe form of excess weight.

Therefore, the correct answer to your question would be a. 25.

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A homecare patient whom you are seeing uses an oxygen concentrator. He calls you to say that he doesn't think he is getting an adequate amount of flow from his cannula. What would you suggest the patient to do to quickly check the cannula?

To quickly check the cannula on an oxygen concentrator , we should ensure secure connections, inspect for kinks or blockages, confirm the flow rate, try a different cannula if needed, and contact the healthcare provider if the issue persists.

If a homecare patient using an oxygen concentrator feels that they are not receiving an adequate flow from their cannula, I would suggest the following steps to quickly check the cannula :

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What is the main advantage of using condoms with or instead of other forms of contraception? They are inexpensive. They prevent sexually transmitted infections. They are easily available over the counter. They produce minimal side effects.

B, they prevent sexually transmitted infections

If used correctly every time you have sex, condoms are extremely effective at preventing STIs. Condoms are also 98% effective at preventing pregnancy. This means that 2 out of 100 women using male condoms as contraception will become pregnant in a year.

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What complicates the use of Antabuse in the treatment of alcoholism? a. While it lessens cravings, it does nothing to improve negative mood states. b. There is a risk of dependence. c. It has to be administered intravenously. d. Exposure to all alcohol must be avoided.

The use of Antabuse in the treatment of alcoholism is Exposure to all alcohol must be avoided. The correct option is d.

Antabuse, also known as disulfiram , is a medication used in the treatment of alcoholism. It works by blocking the enzyme that metabolizes alcohol, causing the accumulation of toxic by-products when alcohol is consumed. This leads to unpleasant symptoms like nausea, vomiting, headache, and rapid heartbeat. As a result, Antabuse acts as a deterrent to drinking alcohol.

Option d states that exposure to all alcohol must be avoided when using Antabuse. This is a critical consideration because even small amounts of alcohol, such as those found in certain medications, mouthwash, or cooking ingredients, can trigger the adverse effects.

Patients on Antabuse must be extremely vigilant about avoiding any alcohol-containing substances to prevent uncomfortable and potentially dangerous reactions. Strict adherence to abstinence from alcohol is necessary for the safe and effective use of Antabuse in the treatment of alcoholism. The correct option is d.

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arrhythmia is used to describe dysfunction of the heart's _____________ system.

Arrhythmia is used to describe the dysfunction of the heart's electrical system .

What is arrhythmia?

Arrhythmia is a condition in which the heart beats irregularly or at an unusual pace. This happens when the electrical impulses that govern the heart's contractions are abnormal. Arrhythmias can happen in the atria (the top chambers of the heart), the ventricles (the bottom chambers), or both. In most cases, arrhythmias are not serious and do not cause symptoms or long-term health problems. Some arrhythmias, however, can lead to more serious complications, including fainting, heart failure, or sudden cardiac arrest .

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How did the industrial revolution change the health care system in America?

The industrial revolution brought about significant changes to the healthcare system in America. It led to an increased demand for medical professionals due to population growth, resulting in the professionalization of medicine and the establishment of formal training institutions.

Medical advancements, including new diagnostic tools and anesthesia, improved healthcare practices. Public health initiatives , such as sanitation improvements and vaccinations, were implemented to combat the spread of diseases. Additionally, the industrial revolution led to the development of health insurance , ensuring access to healthcare for workers. These changes transformed the healthcare system and laid the foundation for modern healthcare practices in America.

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Describe in your own words the opioid epidemic in the us why is it a challenge for all healthcare professionals? Name four ways healthcare (not just clinical professional ) managers can address the behavioral and substance abuse challenges of patients that present to healthcare facilities . How can healthcare managers use existing resources and professional advocacy groups to address the opioid epidemic to ensure optimal operations of their healthcare business operations ? Be sure to provide credible support for your opinions and positions

The opioid epidemic in the US presents a formidable challenge for all healthcare professionals due to its complex nature and far-reaching impacts. Healthcare professionals face the difficulties of managing patients with complex medical and psychological needs resulting from opioid addiction.

The increased healthcare utilization associated with the epidemic places strains on limited resources. Co-occurring mental health issues further complicate treatment approaches. Stigma surrounding opioid addiction hampers access to care. Healthcare managers can address these challenges by implementing integrated care models, providing training and education, fostering collaborative partnerships, and utilizing prescription monitoring programs. By leveraging existing resources and engaging with professional advocacy groups, healthcare managers can ensure optimal operations by staying informed, implementing evidence-based practices, and actively contributing to the collective efforts aimed at addressing the opioid epidemic and supporting patients in need of behavioral and substance abuse treatment.

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