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Detectives Just Used DNA To Solve A 1956 Double Homicide. They May Have Made History

Sharon Pruitt-Young

Clippings from the Great Falls Tribune were part of the Cascade County Sheriff's Office investigative file into the 1956 murders of Patricia Kalitzke and Lloyd Duane Bogle. Traci Rosenbaum/USA Today Network via Reuters Co. hide caption

Clippings from the Great Falls Tribune were part of the Cascade County Sheriff's Office investigative file into the 1956 murders of Patricia Kalitzke and Lloyd Duane Bogle.

It was only three days into 1956 when three boys from Montana, out for a hike on a normal January day, made a gruesome discovery they were unlikely to ever forget.

During a walk near the Sun River, they found 18-year-old Lloyd Duane Bogle, dead from a gunshot wound to the head. They found him on the ground near his car, and someone had used his belt to tie his hands behind his back, according to a report from the Great Falls Tribune . The next day brought another disturbing discovery: A county road worker found 16-year-old Patricia Kalitzke's body in an area north of Great Falls, the paper reports. She had been shot in the head, just as Bogle had been, but she had also been sexually assaulted.

Their killings went unsolved until this week when investigators announced they had cracked what is believed to be the oldest case solved with DNA and forensic genealogy.

The victims were discovered in a lover's lane

Bogle, an airman hailing from Texas, and Kalitzke, a junior at Great Falls High School, had fallen for each other and were even considering marriage, the Tribune reports. The place where they were believed to have been killed was a known "lover's lane," according to a clipping from a local newspaper posted on a memorial page.

But their love story was brutally cut short by the actions of a killer whose identity would not be revealed for more than 60 years. And it was not for lack of trying: Early on in the case, investigators followed numerous leads, but none of them panned out. The case eventually went cold.

For decades, the Cascade County Sheriff's Office continued to work on it, with multiple detectives attempting to make progress over the years. One such investigator was Detective Sgt. Jon Kadner, who was assigned the case in 2012 — his first cold case, he said during an interview with NPR. He was immediately met with the daunting task of digitizing the expansive case file, an endeavor that took months.

He continued to work on the Kalitzke/Bogle case even while handling the newer cases that were landing on his desk all the time, but he had a feeling that more was needed to get to the bottom of what had happened to the couple all those decades ago.

"My first impression was that the only way we're gonna ever solve this is through the use of DNA," Kadner said.

Detectives turned to a new forensic investigation

Fortunately, Kadner had something to work with. During Kalitzke's autopsy in 1956, coroners had taken a vaginal swab, which had been preserved on a microscopic slide in the years since, according to the Great Falls Tribune report. Phil Matteson, a now-retired detective with the sheriff's office, sent that sample to a local lab for testing in 2001, and the team there identified sperm that did not belong to Bogle, her boyfriend, the paper reports.

Armed with this knowledge, Kadner in 2019 sought out the assistance of Bode Technology. After forensic genealogy was used to finally nab the Golden State Killer the year prior, law enforcement officials were becoming increasingly aware of the potential to use that technology to solve cold cases — even decades-old cases like Kalitzke and Bogle's.

With the help of partnering labs, forensic genealogists are able to use preserved samples to create a DNA profile of the culprit and then use that profile to search public databases for any potential matches. In most cases, those profiles can end up linking to distant relatives of the culprit — say, a second or third cousin. By searching public records (such as death certificates and newspaper clippings), forensic genealogists are then able to construct a family tree that can point them right to the suspect, even if that suspect has never provided their DNA to any public database.

In this case, "Our genealogists, what they're going to do is independently build a family tree from this cousin's profile," Andrew Singer, an executive with Bode Technology, told NPR. He called it "a reverse family tree. ... We're essentially going backwards. We're starting with a distant relative and trying to work back toward our unknown sample."

It worked: DNA testing led investigators to a man named Kenneth Gould. Before moving to Missouri in 1967, Gould had lived with his wife and children in the Great Falls area around the time of the murders, according to the Tribune .

"It felt great because for the first time in 65 years we finally had a direction and a place to take the investigation," Kadner told NPR. "Because it was all theories up to that point ... we finally had a match and we had a name. That changed the whole dynamic of the case."

Investigators' goal is a safer world

But there was one big problem: Gould had died in 2007 and his remains had been cremated, according to the Tribune . The only way to prove his guilt or his innocence was to test the DNA of his remaining relatives.

Detectives had an uncomfortable task ahead of them: letting a dead man's family know that, despite the fact that he'd never previously been identified as a person of interest, he was now the key suspect in a double homicide and rape.

Authorities traveled to Missouri, where they spoke with Gould's children and told them about the Kalitzke/Bogle case and eventually identified their father as a suspect, Kadner said. They asked for the family's help in either proving or disproving that Gould was the man responsible and the family complied.

The test results said Gould was the guy. With the killer finally identified, Kadner was able to reach out to the victims' surviving relatives and deliver the closure that had taken more than 60 years to procure. It was a bittersweet revelation: They were grateful for answers, but for many of the older people in the family, it was a struggle to have those wounds reopened.

"They're excited, but at the same time, it has brought up a lot of memories," Kadner said.

Now, the sheriff's office is considering forming a cold case task force, as other law enforcement agencies have done. The hope is that they'll be able to provide more families with the answers they deserve and, in many cases, have spent years waiting for.

"If there's new technology and we are able to potentially solve something, we want to keep working at it, because ultimately we're trying to do it for the family," he said. "Give them some closure."

The Kalitzke/Bogle case is one of the oldest criminal cases that has been solved using forensic genealogy, and authorities are hopeful that they'll be able to use this ever-advancing technology to solve cold cases dating back even further — although new state legislation restricting forensic genealogy could complicate matters.

Even without that complication, Singer explained to NPR, the success rate depends heavily on how well the evidence has been preserved over the years. Still, he hopes that it can be used to help law enforcement improve public safety and "[prevent] tomorrow's victim."

"It's really fantastic technology and it's going to solve a lot of cold cases," Singer said.

19 August 2020

Plant forensics: Cracking criminal cases

Learn how forensic botany and kew’s plant science help solve crimes..

By Katie Avis-Riordan

Plant science has many amazing uses but there is one that may come as a surprise.

It can help catch killers, solve modern-day crimes and save lives in the process.  

This branch of plant science is known as forensic botany.

What is forensic botany?

Forensic botany, otherwise known as plant forensics, is the use of plants in criminal investigations .

This includes the analysis of plant and fungal parts, such as leaves, flowers, pollen, seeds, wood, fruit, spores and microbiology, plus plant environments and ecology.

The aim is to link plant evidence with a crime, such as placing a suspect at a crime scene through analysis of pollen or seed particles found on their clothing.

Discovering what the plant species is and where it comes from can help identify how the plant was used, or where and when a crime took place.

Some minuscule plant particles invisible to the naked eye can cling to material and be preserved for years, even decades.

This evidence can then be used in court.

How Kew cracks mysteries

Here at Kew, our Commercial Phytochemistry Unit (CPU) is a specialist team of scientists who, as part of their job, help investigators solve their mysteries.

Headed by our Deputy Director of Science Professor Monique Simmonds , the team examine plant and fungal samples sent in by investigators, and use cutting-edge methodology to crack criminal cases.

Bringing all the elements of Kew Science together, and using our wealth of botanical knowledge, world-class collections and databases is crucial for answering investigative questions.

This background knowledge is important and helpful. We have and continue to collect knowledge about the uses of plants, including negative ones such as homicide.

Being able to identify a plant correctly can have life or death consequences.

For example, if someone has been poisoned and is on life support, it is imperative that we identify the plant toxin to aid their medical treatment and recovery, and possibly identify an antidote.

Our team of experts work swiftly and are able to respond quickly to enquiries coming through.

Finding a botanical fingerprint

In chemical analysis, we look for the botanical fingerprint of the plant chemicals.

We have high-tech equipment here in our labs at Kew that allows us to do botanical fingerprinting by liquid chromatography.

Comparing the results to chemicals already on our database, the team can identify the plant samples.

The importance of plant science in forensics

In the past, crimes have gone unsolved due to the inability of investigators to detect certain types of plant compounds, so killers have got away with poisoning someone with plant-based toxins.

We now have advanced methodology and technology to be able to detect plant substances that we did not have in the early 20th century. We hope to continue with this advancement and increase our knowledge of DNA to help solve future cases.

Kew’s collections and scientific work have been essential in solving some notorious criminal cases.

Listen to our podcast to discover how Kew worked with detectives to solve the case of ‘the curry killer’, catch the suspect and save a life .

Listen to our new podcast

Want more? Episode 2 of our Unearthed podcast will delve deep into the world of forensic botany and Kew's involvement in 'the curry killer' case.

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Solving Cold Cases with DNA: The Boston Strangler Case

This was a ghastly crime.

Nineteen-year-old Mary Sullivan had just moved from Cape Cod to Boston, where she rented an apartment in the bustling Beacon Hill neighborhood. Within a few days of her arrival in January 1964, she was found dead. Her attacker raped her and strangled her to death.

Sullivan was one of 11 women whom Albert DeSalvo — known as the Boston Strangler — would later confess to killing. However, he then recanted, leaving lingering doubts about the possibility that the real assailant had eluded capture.

DeSalvo was never convicted of any of the Strangler killings, but he was sentenced to life in prison on other rape charges. He was stabbed to death in 1973. For decades after his death, experts argued about whether he really was the Strangler or whether someone else committed the crimes and got away.

Evidence that finally linked DeSalvo to the Sullivan assault emerged in July 2013.

DNA Provides Answers

Over the years, NIJ has funded the examination of "cold cases" across the country through its Solving Cold Cases with DNA program. The funding helps police departments identify, review, investigate and analyze violent crime cold cases that could be solved through DNA analysis. Sometimes the cases are so old that DNA testing did not yet exist when the crimes were committed, and testing biological evidence now might show a match with a suspect.

In 2009 and 2012, the city of Boston received competitive grants under NIJ's cold case program. The Boston Police Department's cold case squad decided to use some of the NIJ funding to test DNA from a nephew of DeSalvo's and look for a match with seminal fluid that had been found on Sullivan's body and on a blanket at the crime scene. When forensics experts ran the test, they got a hit.

The match was possible because of tests that zero in on short tandem repeats (STRs), which are patterns found on DNA strands. Forensic scientists use a specialized test that focuses on male (Y) chromosomes. Y-chromosome DNA comes from fathers who pass their Y-STR DNA profiles to their male offspring. Barring a mutation, the profiles remain unchanged. Every male in a paternal lineage has the same Y-STR DNA profile. This includes fathers, sons, brothers, uncles, nephews and a wider group of male relatives, even out to third and fourth cousins.

NIJ has funded research on Y-STRs for years, believing that it would give forensics experts a powerful and important tool in certain cases.

Testing of Y-STRs in the Mary Sullivan case showed a match between DNA from the crime scene and DeSalvo's nephew. According to Boston officials, this match implicated DeSalvo and excluded 99.9 percent of the male population. But because a Y-STR profile is common to a group of male family members, it does not yield the more precise match to a particular individual available in other DNA tests.

Armed with the Y-STR testing results, Boston authorities went a step further and exhumed DeSalvo's body in July 2013 so they could conduct a confirmatory test using a DNA sample directly from DeSalvo. DNA extracted from a femur and three teeth yielded a match — specifically, DNA specialists calculated the odds that a white male other than DeSalvo contributed the crime scene evidence at one in 220 billion — leaving no doubt that DeSalvo had raped and murdered Mary Sullivan.

NIJ's Solving Cold Cases with DNA Program

Since 2005, NIJ has awarded more than $73 million to more than 100 state and local law enforcement agencies through its Solving Cold Cases with DNA competitive grant program. This funding has allowed the agencies to review more than 119,000 cases. The funding has also facilitated the entry of almost 4,000 DNA profiles into the FBI's Combined DNA Index System, yielding more than 1,400 hits.

The program has given agencies the opportunity to put resources toward solving homicides, sexual assaults and other violent offenses that otherwise might never have been reviewed or reinvestigated. Crime scene samples from these cases — previously thought to be unsuitable for testing — have yielded DNA profiles. And samples that previously generated inconclusive DNA results have been reanalyzed using modern technology and methods.

Thanks to these cold case funds and the latest Y-STR technology, the Boston Police Department was able to solve the mystery surrounding Mary Sullivan almost 50 years after her death.

For More Information

• Read more about the Solving Cold Cases with DNA program.
• To learn more about STR analysis, read "STR Analysis" from issue 267 of the NIJ Journal .

About This Article

This article appeared in NIJ Journal Issue 273 , March 2014.

About the author

Philip Bulman is a former NIJ writer and editor.

Cite this Article

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• NIJ Journal Issue No. 273

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The Forensic Entomology Case Report—A Global Perspective

Zanthé kotzé.

1 Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, 400 Bizzell St., College Station, TX 77843, USA; ude.umat@nilrebmotkj

Sylvain Aimar

2 Forensics Fauna and Flora Unit, Forensic Sciences Laboratory of the French Gendarmerie, 95000 Pontoise, France; [email protected]

Jens Amendt

3 Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Frankfurt/Main, Goethe-University, 60323 Frankfurt, Germany; ed.trufknarf-inu.me@tdnema

Gail S. Anderson

4 Centre for Forensic Research, School of Criminology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada; ac.ufs@nosredna_liag

Luc Bourguignon

5 National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology, 1120 Brussels, Belgium; [email protected]

Martin J.R. Hall

6 Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK; [email protected]

Jeffery K. Tomberlin

Associated data.

Not applicable.

Simple Summary

Forensic entomologists are most often tasked with determining when arthropods colonized living or deceased vertebrates. In most cases, this estimation involves humans; however, pets, livestock, and other domesticated animals can also be illegally killed or victims of neglect. Globally, there is no standard format for the case report, and much of the content is based on the personal preferences of the analyst or standards set within a country. The article below proposes a general overview of sections to be considered when drafting a case report.

Forensic practitioners analyzing entomological evidence are faced with numerous challenges when presenting their findings to law practitioners, particularly in terms of terminology used to describe insect age, what this means for colonization time of remains, and the limitations to estimates made. Due to varying legal requirements in different countries, there is no standard format for the entomological case report prepared, nor any guidelines as to the sections that are required, optional or unnecessary in a case report. The authors herein propose sections that should be considered when drafting an entomological case report. The criteria under which entomological evidence is analyzed are discussed, as well as the limitations for each criterion. The concept of a global, standardized entomological case report is impossible to achieve due to national legislative differences, but the authors here propose a basic template which can be adapted and changed according to the needs of the practitioner. Furthermore, while the discussion is fairly detailed, capturing all differences between nations could not be accomplished, and those initiating casework for the first time are encouraged to engage other practicing forensic entomologists or professional associations within their own nation or region, to ensure a complete report is generated that meets lab or national requirements, prior to generating a finalized report.

1. Introduction

In the last ~20 years, developments in the field of forensic entomology have progressed greatly and at pace. These increased research efforts and applications have resulted in over 1100 research and review articles, and books, published since 2000 [ 1 ]. Despite the vast number of references available, one of the many challenges faced in allowing entomological evidence to be admitted into court is an understanding of what exactly forensic entomology entails, what information the arthropod evidence can provide, and the application of such information to the case at hand, in addition to meeting standards for a given legal system, such as the Daubert standard of admissibility in the USA [ 2 ] and ISO 17025 (predominantly in the European Union) [ 3 ]. Of course, such standards vary between legal systems.

Due to such standards being in place in most parts of the world, efforts have been aimed at developing specific guidelines for forensic entomology. Accreditation standards, such as those implemented by the European Association for Forensic Entomology (EAFE) for the sampling and evaluation of entomological traces, and the certification of entomological experts by the American Board of Forensic Entomology (ABFE), as well as the accreditation of laboratories (such as the Forensics Sciences Laboratory of the French Gendarmerie and the laboratory of the Belgium Institut National de Criminalistique et Criminologie) [ 4 ], have allowed for entomological evidence to be admitted into courts and analyzed as part of the legal proceedings. Similar standards are being developed in the USA by the Organization of Scientific Area Committees for Forensic Science (OSAC) [ 5 ], -Crime Scene Investigation Subcommittee, Forensic Entomology Task Group (Tomberlin, personal communication).

Forensic entomologists are often tasked with determining “how long the victim has been dead” by law enforcement and other officials [ 6 ], and may provide a written report (or expert witness statement), detailing an estimated time frame since insects first colonized the remains, and also present expert testimony in Court. The purpose of this article is to provide guidance for the preparation of an entomological case report and clarify its interpretation, with an outline of criteria, terminology, limitations/restrictions and applications of medicolegal forensic entomology, for use by both students new to the field, as well as investigators and legal counsel for clarity in a court of law. This work may also aid seasoned practitioners to improve the presentation of their findings and pave the way for a universal minimum standard in entomological case reports worldwide, adapted to suit relevant legal circumstances. However, it should be noted that such recommendations will vary in terms of their applicability depending on the location and agency involved in the investigation.

2. Criteria and Limitations

The overarching principle of forensic entomology is based on the arrival of insects to remains shortly after death, whereafter eggs or larvae are deposited. Larvae develop on the remains, and the age of the oldest developmental stages can be determined when the remains are discovered [ 6 ]. Assuming no disturbance, and ideal conditions, the age of the oldest developmental stages is determined to be close to the interval since time of death, termed the minimum post-mortem interval (minPMI). However, there are a number of factors which can cause deviation from ideal conditions, and thus affect the age determination. The role of the author of a forensic entomology report is to identify the factors present in each case, evaluate their weight and influence, and explain their impact on the minPMI estimation.

Due to the ectothermic nature of insects, much of their physiology, ecology, and behavior has been documented in relation to environmental conditions, especially temperature, but also including humidity, light intensity and wind. Insects inhabiting carrion, which include mainly flies (Diptera: e.g., the families Calliphoridae, Fanniidae, Muscidae, Phoridae, Piophilidae, Sarcophagidae, Stratiomyidae, and Syrphidae) and beetles (Coleoptera: e.g., the families Carabidae, Cleridae, Dermestidae, Histeridae, Silphidae and Staphylinidae), have been extensively studied and various criteria have been set forth to evaluate their development and succession on remains for a forensic report. The author of a forensic report should never assume (i.e., accept as being true without proof) anything; nevertheless, there are certain criteria related to insect biology which have support from scientific study and can act as guides to an analysis of insect evidence, unless there is compelling evidence to the contrary. Some of the basic criteria used by forensic practitioners, as well as their limitations, are listed below [ 6 ]:

The consideration of temperature is fundamental in estimating the age of insects [ 7 , 8 ]. The microclimates in which insects develop at a scene can potentially vary greatly from the temperatures provided by a nearby environmental monitor (e.g., national weather station). Regardless of the debate among scientists as to whether the temperatures to which the developing insects were exposed should be taken one-to-one from that monitor or modelled site-specifically, practitioners should clearly state which method of estimating temperature was used, e.g., whether it was nearby weather station data, scene temperature logger data, or some form of regression analysis based on these two sets of data. Challenges exist with each method, and there are numerous factors that may affect the developmental patterns within the parameters of the influence of temperature [ 9 ].

The vast majority of published and accepted insect developmental datasets have been derived under laboratory conditions. These conditions usually applied a range of temperature profiles (constant or with daily variations), controlled humidity and specified light: dark cycles. When developing in a natural environment, none of the above-mentioned factors are controlled, and can affect development accordingly [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Temperature cycles fluctuate greatly, both daily and seasonally [ 13 ], humidity is dependent on a number of factors, including season and precipitation, and light: dark cycles are highly dependent on season and region (not to mention possible artificial lighting conditions). Although some field studies have validated laboratory data [ 14 ], the general assumption that developmental patterns observed in the laboratory are reflected in natural environments may result in an under- or overestimate of larval developmental patterns. More validation studies between laboratory and field developmental data are needed, in pursuit of increasing the accuracy and precision of entomological estimates, as well as their reliability;

In certain situations, oviposition or larviposition may occur before death, for example, when the decedent has open and possibly necrotic wounds such as decubitus ulcers (bed sores). Myiasis is the colonization of a living vertebrate host by fly larvae [ 15 ], and if the victim is not discovered until after death, it may not be known whether the colonization occurred before or after death [ 16 , 17 ]. While this could lead to an overestimation of time since death if not considered, it could also provide new leads for the investigation, e.g., in cases of suspected neglect, where demonstration of ante-mortem myiasis can be crucial evidence [ 18 ].

Contamination of insect evidence can occur from other organisms that are deceased and within close proximity of the remains under scrutiny. For example, in an outdoor case, empty puparia in soil samples from a crime scene could originate from flies that had developed on a dead animal in the immediate vicinity at an earlier time.

Nocturnal oviposition is very rare and is thus usually excluded from analyses. Historically, it was assumed that oviposition only occurs during the day and, thus, hours of darkness were not considered when estimating the minPMI based on calculating the time of oviposition [ 19 , 20 , 21 ].

Oviposition or larviposition on the deceased occurs shortly after death without hindrance (physical and/or temporal/seasonal). However, in medico-legal cases where entomological evidence is to be obtained, a decedent may be concealed in order to prevent law enforcement from finding the body. This concealment may include burial, wrapping or disposal in bodies of water. In such instances, carrion-colonizing arthropods are limited in their access to the remains, often only gaining access after the remains have been discovered or exposed by the elements or by scavengers. In such instances particularly, the entomological evidence obtained provides details regarding the period of environmental exposure, provided the remains have always been in the conditions of their discovery, but cannot provide more specific information regarding a time frame of the decedents’ death.

While faunal succession patterns are somewhat predictable [ 22 ], they are seasonally and environmentally-dependent, and depend largely on the faunal species present in an area [ 23 , 24 ]. However, precise estimates of exact species present and their arrival patterns at remains cannot be determined without conducting field trials in many different environments, and creating a database of these findings, which is an unrealistic task and not necessarily reproducible outside of an experimental framework. Producing an entomological estimate based solely on faunal succession patterns is not likely to be robust and will have large confidence intervals. In most cases, faunal data are presented in terms of overlapping time frames, from which a minPMI can then be estimated [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. In some instances, species level data can be used to interpret successional data; however, such cases are rare [ 29 ].

While the above criteria and limitations are broadly applicable to most cases, it must be noted that each case containing entomological evidence is unique and should be analyzed accordingly—there is no “one size fits all” approach.

3. Use of Terminology

There have been some disputes in recent years regarding the terminology used by forensic practitioners concerning entomological evidence [ 30 ]. Historically, entomological evidence was used to estimate the postmortem interval [ 31 , 32 ]. This term implies that the time of death of the decedent could be accurately estimated using arthropods present but this does not consider that there may be a delay in colonization for many different reasons, e.g., in an enclosure without insect access, such as a car trunk or locked room. All such issues would affect access to the remains by arthropods.

A myriad of alternative terms has been introduced to describe the activity of arthropods on remains. In some manner or another, each term that is used describes the time since arthropods have colonized the remains. The terms include: minPMI; post-colonization interval (PCI); and time of colonization (TOC) [ 33 , 34 ].

Irrespective of the terminology selected by the practitioner, it is critical that the reader understands what the term used in the report is referring to and what it means; namely, a period of time which has passed at least since the occurrence of death. The clarification of terms is important for interpretation of the report by individuals without entomological/scientific training, such as law practitioners or judges/jurors.

4. Insect Identification and Reliability of Keys

Numerous dichotomous and pictographic keys exist for the identification of arthropods based on physical characteristics. These keys are still the most frequently used means of identification for both immature and adult specimens of forensic importance. In many instances, samples may be received by the practitioner that have been damaged or are missing body parts. In such situations, the use of a dichotomous or pictographic key may not be the best avenue, as these keys reference specific body regions. Resources such as Lucidcentral [ 35 ] allow for the identification of specimens that are missing aspects critical for identification, as the data are arranged in a spreadsheet rather than a dichotomous key format. Additionally, voucher specimens from museums may also be used for comparison and identification.

With the advent of molecular identification techniques, such as DNA barcoding, arthropod identification, especially that of insect fragments, has become easier [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]. However, despite the vast number of researchers using databases such as GenBank, errors in gene sequences still exist, and are being continuously detected and corrected. One of the most important benefits of using techniques such as DNA for identification is the accurate differentiation of morphologically and behaviorally similar species (provided that the corresponding developmental data set are available), such as Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann) and L. sericata (Meigen) [ 41 ], or Hemilucilia segmentaria (Fabricius) and H. semidiaphana (Rondani) (all Diptera: Calliphoridae) [ 37 ]. While these species are behaviorally and morphologically similar, they differ in their developmental patterns, so accurate identification is important to provide a reliable estimate of colonization periods [ 42 ].

Whichever method of identification is used by the practitioner to identify specimens must be mentioned in the report.

5. Recommended Sections and Explanations for an Entomological Case Report

The following proposed sections for an entomological case report have been adapted and extended from those proposed in the Standard Operating Protocol for medico-criminal case reports by the American Board of Forensic Entomology in 2009 (see Table 1 for template/summary).

Proposed template for a forensic entomological report, with summary of content.

* does not necessarily need to be provided with the report, but a statement of availability on request is then necessary.

• This should include a case number or legal system reference if applicable, as well as an indication that the report is of an entomological nature.
• This should include a working postal or email address and contact telephone number. The practitioner’s title and affiliation should be included.
• Again, a working postal or email address and contact telephone number, plus title and affiliation of contact person included.
• This section should include a brief note on when and how the practitioner was contacted and a precise description of what was being asked of them by the investigating officer or other person requesting evidentiary analysis.
• The purpose of this section is not to restate the entirety of the case file; rather, a brief summary of the biographic details of the case (date, time, location) and details pertinent to the victim(s) and entomological evidence.
• Many practitioners relabel evidence once received, based on their own preferences or the labeling system of their laboratory. Both the original evidence details and the renamed details should be included here, to cover the bases for chain of custody.
• If vials containing evidence are split or repackaged for any reason, this should be indicated, with a reasonable explanation as to the reasoning behind repackaging (e.g., to change or add preservative). Vials that have been split into multiple sections must be relabeled, and new labels names indicated as well. This should follow chain of custody protocols as dictated by the regulating authority of the country.
• For preserved evidence, the time of collection and time of preservation should be included.
• If used, the preservation medium used by the practitioner should be indicated—often law enforcement officials do not have the necessary chemicals for preservation available at a collection scene and will use any suitable substance that is readily available (e.g., gin, vodka). Evidence is then analyzed and replaced into vials with a more standard ethanol preservative (the concentration of which must be indicated).
• If live samples were provided, a detailed timeline of collection and transportation should be provided. This includes storage conditions (e.g., in coolers), if oxygen supply was limited in a sealed container, as well as dietary medium provided during transport. If samples were further reared once reaching the practitioner, rearing details (e.g., temperature, food supplied) should also be provided.
• This would also be an appropriate section to indicate any external factors that may have affected insect colonization and development on the remains (such as concealment, found in a closed room/building with no open windows, thermostat on/off at constant temperature, as well as whether specimens had, at any point, faced refrigeration at a mortuary).
• Since weather stations are not always conveniently located near crime scenes, it is advisable to use the most relevant climatic data available, from a certified meteorological organization, such as the national meteorological institution of your jurisdiction/country, and also indicate if data loggers placed at the scene after body discovery have been used to reconstruct scene data.
• The weather conditions at the time of insect collection should also be included if they were provided by the investigating officer.
• A brief background of the species identified should be presented, including geographic range and life cycle.
• Suitable references that have been used in the analysis should also be included here. These should include references to the identification keys, voucher specimens and molecular techniques used for identification and comparison;
• If a large number of specimens were provided, and only a subset analyzed, the criteria for subset selection should be mentioned.
• This section, the bulk of the report, should be a brief summary of the estimation of the age of insect evidence based on temperature. This section should be broken down by species identified.
• This section should highlight the most important findings and/or date range of colonization if applicable.
• There are a number of ways this could be presented; it may be helpful to separate date ranges by species, with a conclusive statement encompassing the chosen range.
• There is a long list of criteria as stated above. It should not be necessary to include all of these, but definitely those most pertinent to the specific case. These can also be included wherever relevant throughout the report, rather than as a separate section.
• This should be based on the requirements of the legal system into which the report is submitted, which can vary greatly, and include a statement indicating that analyses were performed based on currently available information and, should more information become available, the findings are subject to change.
• The report should be signed in accordance with the local requirements for documents of legal value.
• A list of professional qualifications of the author can be included here, including professional qualifications and the number of cases worked. This section may be omitted where national legislature does not require it, or where pre-accredited lists exist which include such information.
• Citations identified in the report should be provided. These citations support the approaches, interpretation, and conclusions made in the report (see discussion below).
• Chain of custody documents (courier receipts etc.) if available.
• Developmental data sets and calculations (upon request).
• Tabulated weather data (upon request).

6. References and Citations Selected

References included in the case report should reflect the locality of the entomological evidence as far as possible, as well as being relevant to the species identified. Key aspects to consider when compiling/utilizing references include:

Where applicable, the datasets used should be based on insect populations as close to where the evidence was collected as possible. In cases where no local datasets are available, the practitioner should include a statement indicating that local data were not available. It must be noted, however, that developmental patterns by geographic separation may not always differ, and, in some cases, are comparable irrespective of location [ 34 , 43 ].

Where available, datasets pertaining to the actual species identified should be used. When this is not possible, it is preferable to exclude these species from analysis rather than use a dataset for a closely related species. However, the exclusion of such data is at the discretion of the practitioner, provided they maintain transparency regarding their findings, as sometimes it might be better to guide an investigation with a much more general conclusion based on data from a related species, suitably qualified with regard to accuracy, than to provide no conclusion. In such cases, the practitioner may refer to a generalized larval life cycle of the organisms concerned, or datasets for closely related species, to indicate a possible time of colonization estimate based on prevailing conditions. Irrespective of which sources a practitioner opts to utilize, these sources should be cited and the data should be accessible to any individual who is to read/analyze the submitted report.

7. Application and Conclusions

The goal of any entomological report is a reliable estimate of the TOC, which some interpret as a minPMI, of vertebrate remains by arthropods in cases where such events occurred after death. The report should be written and constructed in such a way that it is understood by individuals regardless of their level of scientific training. The report should be grounded in scientific principles and expertise, but not so saturated with scientific jargon that non-scientists struggle to understand or interpret the report. We acknowledge that an entomological report is not a scientifically peer-reviewed paper, but it should be prepared to the same high standards and, in order to meet legal standards (such as the Daubert standard in the USA, and ISO 17025), a significant element of scientific expertise is required. Quality assurance in entomological reports is of the highest importance, and fact-based evidence will be critical. However, it is acknowledged that every report will also contain opinion-based evidence, based on the knowledge and experience of the person compiling the report, and the judge presiding over the case will need to acknowledge that each case is unique and will need to be considered, in some aspects, independently of other case reports and studies [ 4 ].

As indicated by the title of this communication, the points expressed above are recommended contents and points for consideration when compiling an entomological report for any legal purposes, including investigations of death, neglect, or stored product scenarios. As forensic practitioners, we understand that standards and legislation differ by country, and some sections may need to be revised to deviate slightly from those discussed, or the order of topics restructured to reflect the specific needs of the investigating officer or person requesting the report for its intended purpose (for example, not all entomological reports go to court). Without a global standard of legislature, the implementation of a standard entomological report may not be possible, but, at the very least, we hope this manuscript can provide a framework which entomological practitioners in any area can modify to develop a standardized report that is accepted by the respective jurisdiction in which the report is to be presented.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Captain Melanie Pienaar (Victim Identification Center: South African Police Service) for valuable input and contributions.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed equally to the development of this manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

No funds were applied to this project.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Forensic science and the case of Dr Mario Jascalevich

By Alan Dronsfield and Ann Ferguson 2011-05-01T00:00:00+01:00

• No comments

Forensic science is depicted in several television programmes as a near-perfect means of solving major crimes. In real life, forensics may sometimes point to guilt, but in the end be insufficient to prove it. This is the account of one such case

Doubt and confusion remain even after advances in analytical chemistry provided new insights into a suspected case of poisoning

Murder by poisoning is now rare compared to a century or more ago. Firstly, the classic poisons are much less readily available. You cannot pop into the local chemists and buy the deadly poisonous alkaloid, strychnine, under the pretence that you want it for destroying garden moles. Arsenic compounds are no longer ingredients in fly-papers. Secondly, in suspicious deaths, analytical chemistry is far more effective at identifying unexpected substances in bodily remains, so laying the foundation for subsequent detective work.

Source: AP photos/Corbis/Corbis

Jascalevich (left) Shipman (middle) and Crippen (right)

The medical profession and murder by poison have a connectivity, even in recent times. Most notorious is the case of Dr Harold Shipman, who may have killed up to 230 of his patients by injections of morphine and heroin. A century earlier, the story of Dr Hawley Harvey Crippen who poisoned his wife using hyoscamine, still resonates today. This connection between doctors and poisoning arises because they:

• have access to drugs that the general population does not have
• have knowledge of the drugs' actions and how to adminster them without causing obvious suspicion
• are connected in the public mind with saving lives, not bringing them to a premature end.

New Jersey, US, 1965

This is the story of Dr Mario Jascalevich, who probably killed as many as 25 hospital patients, and the battle between two sets of forensic experts, the outcome of which failed to convince the jury of the doctor's guilt. Jascalevich was the chief surgeon at Riverdell Hospital, New Jersey, US. In 1965-6 patients began to die unexpectedly. 

The first was a man of 73 admitted for a hernia repair. Jascalevich said he was not fit for surgery due to mild congestive heart failure and he put him on an intravenous drip. The patient died a few minutes later. 

A few months later a four year old girl had her appendix removed by another surgeon, Dr Stanley Harris. She was progressing well and told a nurse that she wanted to go home. A few minutes later she was dead. 

A succession of suspicious fatalities followed. Dr Harris and his colleague, Dr Lans, reviewed the cases and noted several similarities: 

• all the patients had intravenous access via a drip 
• all the deaths were sudden, wholly unexpected and seemed to involve respiratory arrest 
• many occurred at about 8am 
• ...Dr Jascalevich seemed to have been near all the patients. 

Using his own initiative, Dr Harris decided to open Jascalevich's locker. He found several vials (both sealed and half used) of curare, a poison and syringes of curare. The directors of the hospital were alerted. A warrant was obtained to conduct a formal search of the locker. 

Source: Koehler's Medicinal Plants 1887

The strychnos toxifera plant, from which curare can be extracted

Curare in medicine

Curare (pronounced curaré) was used by South American Indians as arrow poison. It was derived from local plants, which they used to kill prey for food. 5   In sufficient quantity, curare paralyses muscles so that the prey cannot escape, and dies because it stops breathing. It was first brought to Europe by the explorer, Charles-Marie de la Condamine, and extensively investigated by physiologists in the 19th century. But it was not until the mid-20th century that it was realised that as it caused paralysis, if it were to be safely used in medical applications, it had to be combined with artificial ventilation.

Source: Lonely Planet Images

 The nerve impulse from the brain along the nerve is electrical, but when it reaches the nerve ending, it becomes chemical. Acetyl choline is released which passes across the junction on to receptors on the muscle, and causes it to contract. Curare sits on these receptors, so the acetyl choline cannot reach them. Provided that the subject is kept alive by artificial ventilation, eventually the curare dissipates, and the subject recovers voluntary muscle control.

Curare itself is no longer used in anaesthesia as better synthetic analogues are now available. These drugs have revolutionised anaesthesia and surgery. An anaesthetised patient can now be kept lightly anaesthetised, but completely paralysed, so that surgeons can gain access to areas which were impossible previously. At the end of surgery these drugs can be reversed and recovery from anaesthesia is more rapid, as less anaesthetic agent needs to be used.

When challenged, Jascalevich claimed that he'd been using the drug as an anaesthetic adjunct for experimental work in connection with liver biopsies on dogs. Afterwards he went to his research laboratories and performed a dog experiment. 

Later his locker was found to be contaminated by dog blood and hairs. There was no way of knowing if the contamination occurred before or after the confrontation between Jascalevich and the hospital authorities. 

A check revealed that some of his curare had been legitimately purchased but some could have been stolen from the hospital pharmacy, and planted by someone else in his locker in an attempt to frame him. Because of this, and because the prosecution was told that curare could not be found in human tissue, the case was dropped. 

Early in 1967 Dr Jascalevich left Riverdell Hospital and the mortality rate dropped. 

Re-examining the case

In 1975 the New York Times received a tip-off that the events might be worth re-examination and reporter Myron Farber began investigating. He interviewed relatives of the deceased and hospital staff. He obtained case notes and other original files, publishing three long articles on his findings in the NY Times. 

Dr Michael Baden, Deputy Medical Examiner for New York, reviewed the case-notes and commented 

"It is my professional opinion that the majority of the cases reviewed are not explainable on the basis of natural causes and are consistent with having been caused by a respiratory depressant. It is my opinion that recent technological advances now permit the detection of very minute amounts of curare removed from dead bodies." 1

Relatives of five of the alleged patient-victims agreed to exhumations. Tissue samples were taken and divided among toxicology laboratories. Curare was found, apparently, in several of the bodies and Jascalevich was arraigned for the murder of these patients.

The 34 week trial, conducted before 18 jurors, started on 28 February 1978. The scientific issues that were being deliberated were:

• What happens to human tissue, embalmed and interred for a decade?
• Would the drug have changed chemically or have been destroyed entirely over a 10-year period?
• Assuming that curare had been injected, what analytical techniques could be used to trace submicrogram amounts of it?
• Could components in embalming fluids or bacteria react chemically, to form substances giving a false positive reading in the analytical procedures? 1

If the forensic analysis indicated the presence of curare in the patients' tissues, was Dr Jascalevich the person who injected them with it? His defence challenged the chemistry underpinning the analyses, and raised uncertainties over this last point.

Principal defence witness, Abraham Stolman, Chief Toxicologist, State of Connecticut Department of Health, said:

"Currently, the reported analytical methods (relied upon by the prosecution), which include ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy, thin layer chromatography, high pressure liquid chromatography and radio-immune assay, alone or in conjunction, lack such a degree of specificity with any degree of scientific certainty required to support the opinion that they identified the isolated material as d-tubocurarine (ie curare) in the embalmed decomposed and skeletonizing tissues that have been in the ground for ten years under varying climactic conditions."

The structure of curare (d-tubocurarine chloride)

Experienced users of thin layer chromatography will know how difficult it is to be certain that one ascending spot, or more likely, smudge, is moving at the same rate as the reference one. Even if it is, does the coincidence imply that the two substances, analyte and reference, are identical? 

• Analytical chemistry

Missing from Stolman's list was mass spectrometry. This technique was used by both the prosecution and defence. 

A prosecution witness, David Beggs from the Hewlett Packard Corporation, said he had found curare in the tissues from one of the patients (Nancy Savino) and that sample from two further exhumations contained  possible traces of curare. However, under cross-examination he stated that mass spectrometry is not an absolute test for curare but 'just probably indicated that it was there'. 

Today we would combine the spectrometry with capillary gas chromatography. If reference curare matched the analyte both with respect to GC retention time  and with a MS fingerprint, then the result would not be disputable. 

Establishing a method

A defence witness, Frederick Rieders, former chief toxicologist in Philadelphia, said the only procedure that he considered as providing unequivocal evidence for the presence of curare was, indeed, mass spectrometry. A reliance should be placed on the whole 'fingerprint' spectrum, rather than the more sensitive selected ion monitoring method. 

His technique was to: 

• crush the frozen sample 
• homogenise with an acid buffer and dichloromethane and discard the organic layer that contained neutral and acidic components 
• buffer the aqueous layer with alkali and extract the basic components again with dichloromethane 
• shake the organic layer with potassium iodide solution to extract the curare as the iodide salt
• shake the dichloromethane layer with hydrochloric acid to give an aqueous solution of the curare hydrochloride 
• aporate this on the MS probe and record the mass spectrum. 

Having established a method for showing up traces of curare, Rieders tested the stability of curare against embalming fluids and the liquids produced by bodies whilst they decompose. It was detectable for a few days, but after this period he could not find any traces of it, or plausible decomposition products that indicated its original presence. 

In reviewing his results, Lawrence Hall and Roland Hirsch said: 

"These liquids altered curare chemically to the point where it was no longer recognisable as such. He concluded that the rapid rate of decomposition meant that to detect curare in the specimens of 1976 would have required huge, medically impossible amounts to have been present in 1966."

Inconsistent evidence

However, Rieders had another surprise in store for the jury. His methodology confirmed one of the prosecution's assertions: he too found curare in the liver from Nancy Savino. However, this observation was accompanied by some concerns. 

Firstly, in the light of his work on the instability of curare towards embalming and decomposing fluids, it should not have shown up at all. 

Secondly, he found that the curare, despite having been in a most unpromising environment for a decade, was highly and inexplicably pure. 

Thirdly, he found curare only in the child's liver, not in her muscle tissue. The drug, administered by intravenous injection, should have perfused the whole body (with the possible exception of the brain) and a positive liver result should have been matched by a positive tissue result. 

In the reports available to us, we do not know what interpretations the defence made from these findings. Possibly the least suspicious one would be that some form of accidental contamination occurred whilst handing the child's liver. 

In October 1978, the jury retired to consider its verdict. It had to consider a mass of circumstantial evidence, an array of allegedly positive chemical tests advanced by the prosecution, and the doubts raised by the defence as to the validity of the results. It had to weigh the research results from Dr Rieders above and deliver a verdict. This only took two hours. 

The unanimous jury found Dr Jascalevich was not guilty of the charges of murder for which he had been tried. He was acquitted, but his licence to practise medicine was revoked by the New Jersey Medical Licensing board for seven unrelated counts of malpractice. He skipped the country, leaving his attorney, Raymond Brown, unpaid. 

Jascalevich died in 1984. Riverdell Hospital changed its name, but it remained tainted with the scandal and closed. 

Further Reading

One of us has recently reviewed this case from a medical viewpoint. 2 Some 20 years ago, L H Hall and R F Hirsch (then associate professor of chemistry at Seton Hall University) presented a view from an analytical chemical perspective and most of our quotations are taken from this source. 1 The Jascalevich case has featured in at least two books, with the one by Farber giving the more detailed account. 3,4

• L H Hall and R F Hirsch,  Anal. Chem. , 1979, 51, 812A
• A Ferguson,  Proc. Hist. Anaesth. , 2009, 40, 48 
• M Farber,  Somebody is lying . New York: Doubleday, 1982 
• M Barden with J A Hennessee,  Unnatural death . New York: Ballantine Books, 1990 
• Education in Chemistry , May 2003, p74, and A Ferguson,  Proc. Hist. Anaesth. , 2002,  31, 10 

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Introduction to Forensic Science

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There are 9 modules in this course

We have all seen forensic scientists in TV shows, but how do they really work? What is the science behind their work?

The course aims to explain the scientific principles and techniques behind the work of forensic scientists and will be illustrated with numerous case studies from Singapore and around the world. Some questions which we will attempt to address include: How did forensics come about? What is the role of forensics in police work? Can these methods be used in non-criminal areas? Blood. What is it? How can traces of blood be found and used in evidence? Is DNA chemistry really so powerful? What happens (biologically and chemically) if someone tries to poison me? What happens if I try to poison myself? How can we tell how long someone has been dead? What if they have been dead for a really long time? Can a little piece of a carpet fluff, or a single hair, convict someone? Was Emperor Napoleon murdered by the perfidious British, or killed by his wallpaper? *For Nanyang Technological University (NTU) students, please be noted that this course will no longer be eligible for credit transfer.

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What's included, 7 readings • total 70 minutes.

• Course Overview • 10 minutes
• Connect With Us • 10 minutes
• Your Instructor • 10 minutes
• Glossary • 10 minutes
• Recommended Readings • 10 minutes
• Credits • 10 minutes
• Code of Conduct • 10 minutes

10 videos 1 reading

10 videos • Total 108 minutes

• Week 1 - 1 Basic Ideas in Forensic Science • 6 minutes • Preview module
• Week 1 - 2 What is Forensic Science? • 12 minutes
• Week 1 - 3 Application of Forensic Science • 8 minutes
• Week 1 - 4 Limits of Forensic Science • 10 minutes
• Week 1 - 5 Locard's Exchange Principle • 8 minutes
• Week 1 - 6 Roberto Calvi Case • 8 minutes
• Week 1 - 7 Buck Ruxton & the Jigsaw Murders Case • 6 minutes
• Week 1 - 8 Forensic Laboratories • 18 minutes
• Week 1 - 9 Reconstruction & Re-enactment • 18 minutes
• Week 1 - 10 The Woodchipper Murder Case; Summary • 9 minutes

1 reading • Total 10 minutes

• Lecture Materials • 10 minutes

Chemical Analysis in Forensic Science

11 videos 1 reading

11 videos • Total 104 minutes

• Week 2A - 1 Introduction to Atomic Structure • 16 minutes • Preview module
• Week 2A - 2 Structure of the Atom • 15 minutes
• Week 2A - 3 Elemental Analysis • 3 minutes
• Week 2A - 4 Analysis of Microscopic Objects • 3 minutes
• Week 2A - 5 Napoleon Case • 9 minutes
• Week 2A - 6 JFK Assassination Case • 4 minutes
• Week 2A - 7 "Adam" Case; Summary • 7 minutes
• Week 2B - 1 Introduction to Chromatography • 15 minutes
• Week 2B - 2 GC & HPLC • 11 minutes
• Week 2B - 3 Infrared Spectroscopy • 7 minutes
• Week 2B - 4 Mass Spectrometry; Summary • 9 minutes

Time of Death; Blood

11 videos 1 reading 1 quiz

11 videos • Total 91 minutes

• Week 3A - 1 Recent Deaths • 10 minutes • Preview module
• Week 3A - 2 Decomposing Bodies I (Putrefaction) • 6 minutes
• Week 3A - 3 Decomposing Bodies II (Forensic Entomology) • 11 minutes
• Week 3A - 4 Analysis of Skeletal Remains I • 8 minutes
• Week 3A - 5 Analysis of Skeletal Remains II • 11 minutes
• Week 3A - 6 Ötzi Case; Summary • 3 minutes
• Week 3B - 1 Blood • 13 minutes
• Week 3B - 2 Tests for Blood • 6 minutes
• Week 3B - 3 Precipitin Technology • 3 minutes
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• Week 3B - 5 Lord Lucan Case; Summary • 7 minutes

1 quiz • Total 30 minutes

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DNA in Forensics

11 videos 1 reading 1 peer review

11 videos • Total 79 minutes

• Week 4 - 1 Introduction to DNA • 16 minutes • Preview module
• Week 4 - 2 Techniques used in DNA Profiling • 8 minutes
• Week 4 - 3 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) • 4 minutes
• Week 4 - 4 Short Tandem Repeats (STR) • 12 minutes
• Week 4 - 5 Colin Pitchfork Case • 5 minutes
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• Week 4 - 8 Early Uses of DNA Profiling • 6 minutes
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1 peer review • Total 60 minutes

• The Ang Mo Kio Case • 60 minutes

Fingerprinting; Polymers & Fibres; Firearms

11 videos • total 96 minutes.

• Week 5A - 1 History of Fingerprinting • 12 minutes • Preview module
• Week 5A - 2 Principles of Fingerprinting • 10 minutes
• Week 5A - 3 Visualising Fingerprints • 4 minutes
• Week 5A - 4 Brandon Mayfield Case; Summary • 4 minutes
• Week 5B - 1 Introduction to Polymers & Fibres • 17 minutes
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• Week 5B - 3 Hair • 10 minutes
• Week 5B - 4 Wayne Williams Case • 4 minutes
• Week 5B - 5 Sarah Payne Case; Summary • 4 minutes
• Week 5C - 1 Internal Ballistics • 12 minutes
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• Week 5 (MCQ Set 2) • 30 minutes

6 videos 1 reading 1 peer review

6 videos • Total 73 minutes

• Week 6 - 1 Types of Illegal Drugs • 9 minutes • Preview module
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• Week 6 - 4 Synthetic Drugs • 17 minutes
• Week 6 - 5 Analogs • 9 minutes
• Week 6 - 6 Detection and Identification of Drugs; Summary • 5 minutes
• Ruritania Case Study, "The Sturgkh Assassination" • 60 minutes

12 videos 1 reading 1 quiz

12 videos • Total 129 minutes

• Week 7 - 1 Introduction to Toxicology • 16 minutes • Preview module
• Week 7 - 2 Deliberate & Accidental Poisoning • 9 minutes
• Week 7 - 3 Toxins & Biological Poisons • 7 minutes
• Week 7 - 4 LD50 • 12 minutes
• Week 7 - 5 Forensic Toxicology • 13 minutes
• Week 7 - 6 Alcohol • 20 minutes
• Week 7 - 7 Inorganic Poisons - Arsenic • 14 minutes
• Week 7 - 8 Inorganic Poisons - Thallium • 5 minutes
• Week 7 - 9 Inorganic Poisons - Barium • 5 minutes
• Week 7 - 10 Nerve Agents • 13 minutes
• Week 7 - 11 Georgi Markov Case • 4 minutes
• Week 7 - 12 Alexander Litvinenko Case; Summary • 6 minutes
• Week 7 (MCQ Set 3) • 30 minutes

Case Studies

7 videos 1 reading

7 videos • Total 62 minutes

• Week 8 - 1 King Richard III Case • 11 minutes • Preview module
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• Week 8 - 3 June Devaney Case • 4 minutes
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Young and research-intensive, Nanyang Technological University (NTU Singapore) is ranked 13th globally. It is also placed 1st amongst the world’s best young universities. NTU has about 33,000 students in the colleges of engineering, science, business, education, humanities, arts, social sciences. Its medical school is set up jointly with Imperial College London. A melting pot of international award-winning scientists, young talents and eminent global partners, NTU is also home to several world-class research institutes that builds on its strengths in interdisciplinary research.

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This course is very complete about different and important topics about the forensics scientist, I love the week about the toxicology. Congratulations for the good work in these topics.

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Its a great course, i have learnt alot about forensic science and i am thinking of pursuing this career. Mr.Roderick Bates is a great Instructor and i wish i can do my Diploma and Degree with him.

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What is Forensic Science?

The word forensic comes from the Latin word forensis :  public, to the forum or public discussion; argumentative, rhetorical, belonging to debate or discussion.  A relevant, modern definition of forensic is: relating to, used in, or suitable to a court of law.  Any science used for the purposes of the law is a forensic science. The forensic sciences are used around the world to resolve civil disputes, to justly enforce criminal laws and government regulations, and to protect public health.  Forensic scientists may be involved anytime an objective, scientific analysis is needed to find the truth and to seek justice in a legal proceeding. 

What Do Forensic Scientists Do?

What's a forensic scientist.

A forensic scientist is first a scientist. When a scientist's knowledge is used to help lawyers, juries, and judges understand the results of scientific tests, the scientist becomes a forensic scientist. Because the work of a forensic scientist is intended to be used in court and because scientific evidence can be very powerful, the forensic scientist must be accurate, methodical, detailed, and above all, unbiased. 

Analyze Information and Document Findings

In most cases, the item or items in question are provided to the forensic scientist for examination and analysis. In other cases, they may need to go to the scene to conduct an on-site analysis, gather evidence, or document facts for later analysis. Having been provided or having gathered the relevant information, the forensic scientist then has to decide which examinations, tests, or analyses are appropriate – and relevant – to the issue(s) in dispute. (Is that powder cocaine or not?  Did a defect in the road surface cause the crash?). They must conduct the most appropriate tests/analyses and document the process to interpret the results and document the steps followed to reach this conclusion or opinion.

Testify in Court as an Expert Witness

The forensic scientist will, at some point, have to testify. Testimony is the verbal statement of a witness, under oath, to the judge or jury. Forensic scientists are "expert" witnesses as opposed to ordinary or "fact" witnesses. Expert witnesses are permitted to testify not just about what the results of testing or analysis were ("facts"), but also to give an opinion about what those results mean. For example, a forensic scientist may testify about the observed, factual results of a chemical drug analysis and that, in their expert opinion, the results show that the tested substance is a specific drug, such as cocaine or heroin.

To qualify as an expert witness, the forensic scientist must have a solid, documented background of education, training, and experience in the scientific discipline used to conduct the examinations, testing, or analyses about which the forensic scientist wants to testify.

Being a member of the AAFS may assist in qualifying a forensic scientist as an expert witness. 

Student Affiliate

Students must be enrolled in an undergraduate or graduate program that would support a forensic science career to be eligible..

This reduced barrier to entry is intended to encourage youth involvement in the field of forensic science, escalate career opportunities, and promote collaboration between the different generations of practitioners.

Student Affiliate Membership Requirements

A party to a court case may challenge whether the scientist performed the tests correctly; whether the scientist interpreted the results accurately; or, whether the underlying science is valid and reliable. A party to a court case may additionally challenge whether the scientist is properly qualified to render an expert opinion or question the scientist's impartiality.

"If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of science. You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to convict or save — you must bear testimony within the limits of science."

— Dr. P.C.H. Brouardel 19th-Century French Medico-Legalist

How do I Become a Forensic Scientist?

You will need:

• Bachelor's degree in science - (chemistry, biology, physics, etc.) Take other courses in math, statistics, and writing skills.
• Advanced degree – certain jobs require advanced degrees and specialized training.
• Good speaking skills – courses enhancing your public presence and speaking ability are highly recommended.
• Good note-taking and observation skills – take laboratory courses.
• The ability to write an understandable scientific report
• The ability to be unbiased, intellectual curiosity, and personal integrity

How Much Money Will I Make?

Income in the forensic sciences and average work weeks vary greatly depending on the type of job, the employer, and the work requirements. Most scientists in forensic laboratories work 40 hours per week.  Others work in the field, some may be "on call," and their work hours may vary. Every branch of forensic science offers opportunity for personal growth, career advancement, and increased financial compensation.

The average salary of a forensic scientist is estimated to be between $40,000 and $100,000 a year. 

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Case Studies: Forensic Science

All forensic science case studies.

Fatally Flawed?

By Amy C. Groth

Disaster at the Daisys’

By Kimberly S. Farah

Caught Red-Handed

By Mackenzie A. Hahn, Hannah C. Schake, Ryan T. Schalles, Sarah R. Shioji, Breanna N. Harris

The Boy in the Temple

By Cheryld L. Emmons

The Sad But True Case of Earl Washington

By Justin F. Shaffer

Thomas and Sally

By Eric Ribbens, Andrew C. Lydeard

King Tut's Family Secrets

By Kuei-Chiu Chen

Murder by HIV? Grades 5-8 Edition

By Michèle I. Shuster, Naowarat (Ann) Cheeptham, Laura B. Regassa

What Do We Tell the Sheriff?

By Phoebe R. Stubblefield, Elizabeth Scharf

The Case of the Druid Dracula: Clicker Case Version

By Norris Armstrong, Terry Platt, Peggy Brickman

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Forensics Digest

All about Forensics

The World’s Oldest Forensic Case – The Iceman’s Mystery

In the annals of forensic science, one of the most remarkable and oldest solved cases revolves around the mysterious death of a man who lived over 5,000 years ago. Discovered in the Alps in 1991, the ancient remains, aptly named “Ötzi the Iceman,” have provided an astonishing window into our distant past and offered valuable insights into his life, health, and the circumstances surrounding his demise. This case study delves into the fascinating story of Ötzi, the world’s oldest forensic mystery, and how modern forensic techniques unraveled the secrets of this ancient cold case.

Ötzi the Iceman was discovered in the Ötztal Alps, on the border between Austria and Italy, by hikers on September 19, 1991. The well-preserved mummy, encased in ice, is estimated to have lived around 3,300 BCE during the Copper Age. Initially thought to be a mountaineer who had met with a recent accident, further examination revealed a more complex and intriguing story.

Picture Credit

The Forensic Investigation

• Age and Origin: Initially, experts believed Ötzi was a modern-day accident victim. However, radiocarbon dating and other forensic techniques determined that the Iceman lived around 5,300 years ago, making him the oldest natural mummy in Europe.
• Cause of Death: Initial examinations suggested Ötzi might have died from exposure. However, further analysis revealed an arrowhead lodged in his shoulder, indicating foul play. He had also suffered a blow to the head, possibly from a fall or an altercation.
• Health Assessment: Detailed medical examinations unveiled a wealth of information about Ötzi’s health, diet, and lifestyle. Hair analysis was used to examine his diet from several months before. He had several health issues, including arthritis, tooth decay, and the presence of a parasite in his intestines. His diet consisted of cereals and meat, shedding light on the Copper Age diet.
• Clothing and Equipment: Forensic analysis of his clothing and equipment, including a copper axe, dagger, and quiver, provided insights into the technology and materials of his time. High levels of both copper particles and arsenic were found in Ötzi’s hair. This, along with Ötzi’s copper axe blade, which was 99.7% pure copper, has led scientists to speculate that Ötzi was involved in copper smelting.
• Genomic Studies: Ötzi’s DNA has been extensively sequenced, revealing his genetic heritage and distant relatives, and contributing to our understanding of human migration patterns.

The case of Ötzi the Iceman showcases the remarkable capabilities of forensic science to unravel mysteries from the distant past. Through a combination of radiocarbon dating, medical analysis, DNA sequencing, and other cutting-edge forensic techniques, experts have reconstructed Ötzi’s life, health, and the circumstances of his death. The legacy of the Iceman continues to be an invaluable resource for researchers, shedding light on ancient civilizations, human evolution, and the enduring power of forensic science to solve the most enduring mysteries.

Where to Watch ?

Students can watch these documentaries and films as they offer various perspectives on Ötzi the Iceman’s story, combining historical, scientific, and dramatic elements.

• “Iceman: The Last of the Neanderthals” (2021): This documentary, released in 2021, explores Ötzi’s life and the circumstances surrounding his death. It delves into the scientific research, including DNA analysis and forensic investigations, that has shed light on Ötzi’s world.
• “NOVA: Iceman Reborn” (2016): A PBS documentary, this program chronicles the story of Ötzi’s discovery and the scientific efforts to recreate a lifelike model of his appearance, based on forensic data and research.
• “The Iceman Murder Mystery” (2005): This documentary explores the forensic investigations that uncovered the violent circumstances of Ötzi’s death. It delves into the details of the murder mystery surrounding the world’s oldest-known homicide case.
• “Iceman” (2012): This is a dramatic film inspired by Ötzi’s life, though it takes artistic liberties. It’s a fictionalized account of Ötzi’s journey and the events leading to his death.

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Famous Scientists Sir Alec Jeffreys Edmond Locard Clyde Snow

What’s that yellow powder? A nuclear forensic case study

• Published: 13 August 2018
• Volume 318 , pages 17–25, ( 2018 )

Cite this article

• Ning Xu 1 ,
• Christopher Worley 1 ,
• Jung Rim 1 ,
• Michael Rearick 1 ,
• Dana Labotka 1 ,
• Lance Green 1 &
• Randy Walker 1  

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In this paper the utilization of three analytical chemistry techniques including gamma spectrometry, XRF, and ICP-MS/OES is described for performing nuclear forensic analyses on an unknown powder. We have demonstrated that each method was unique in providing specific material characteristics, yet they were also complementary for extracting useful nuclear forensic signatures. It is the integral effort of all three analytical chemistry tools in the nuclear forensic tool box that ultimately allowed us to reveal the identity of the unknown nuclear material as Nb 2 O 5 mixed with ~ 9% HEU.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank the United States Department of Energy and National Nuclear Security Agency for founding. The authors are especially grateful for the critical discussions with Andrew Nelson at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. This publication is LA-UR-18-21732.

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Ning Xu, Christopher Worley, Jung Rim, Michael Rearick, Dana Labotka, Lance Green & Randy Walker

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Xu, N., Worley, C., Rim, J. et al. What’s that yellow powder? A nuclear forensic case study. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 318 , 17–25 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-018-6084-x

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-018-6084-x

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The role of forensic science in solving true crime cases

Also known as criminalistics, forensic science takes natural science principles and applies it to criminal justice.

Mariska Hargitay weighs in on the popularity of the true crime genre

"Law & Order: SVU" star Mariska Hargitay reflected on the popularity of true crime and shared her view on why the genre resonates with people.

You’ve seen it countless times.

Police scope out the scene of a crime and find a piece of evidence: a strand of hair, a blood sample, a bullet casing. It goes to the lab, and after forensic scientists analyze it, the evidence helps land the perpetrator in jail.

Or, that is how forensic science is depicted in "CSI" or "Law & Order." But in reality, forensic science is often far more complicated.

HOW EXACT IS FORENSIC SCIENCE?

What exactly is forensic science, and how does it work in real criminal investigations? Read on to learn more about the role that forensic science plays in solving true crime cases .

What is forensic science?

Forensic science, also known as criminalistics, is the use of scientific methods to assist professionals in the criminal justice system. It makes use of many scientific disciplines, such as chemistry, physics and biology, to determine what exactly happened at the scene of a crime, be it homicide, sexual assault or robbery. 

Crime scene investigators with the San Francisco Police Department document the scene of a shooting on Jan. 18, 2011. (Lea Suzuki/The San Francisco Chronicle via Getty Images)

How does the forensic science process work?

It begins with a thorough documentation of the crime scene. The area is photographed, bullet holes are measured to determine the trajectory of shots and possible witnesses are interviewed. 

Physical evidence, which could include fingerprints, blood or DNA samples, and possible murder weapons are collected. These items are then sent to a laboratory for analysis.

Victimology, or studying the victim to gain insight into the perpetrator’s behavior, is also an important component of forensic science. 

CRIMINAL PROFILING: THE TECHNIQUES USED BY POLICE TO CATCH DANGEROUS OFFENDERS

For Mary Ellen O’Toole, Ph.D., director of the Forensic Science Program at George Mason University and a former FBI special agent with the Behavioral Analysis Unit, victimology begins by considering a host of questions.

"Why was that victim selected and did the offender know that victim? What was the level of risk to the victim? Was this somebody that was victimized in their own home in a safe neighborhood?" she told Fox News Digital during a phone call.

Finding the answers to these questions can help shed light on the perpetrator’s behavior and possible motive. O’Toole said that at this point in the investigation, "I'm still looking at the whole case, but I'm already forming some tentative opinions." 

St. Paul Police Officer Ron Himes demonstrates the process of digitally imaging evidence in a crime laboratory. (Bruce Bisping/Star Tribune via Getty Images)

Criminal investigations and the ‘order of operation’

When it comes to conducting an investigation, doing things in the right order is essential.

Investigators have to make important decisions about things as simple as how to move through the scene: Do you enter into the bathroom first, or the bedroom? When one misstep can disturb or ruin potential evidence, being careful is critical.

This is especially important when items are examined in the lab. Some tests can destroy important evidence on the item. 

"Think about a firearm," Peter Valentin, Ph.D., the chairman of the Forensic Science Department at the University of New Haven and a former detective in the Major Crime Squad for the Connecticut State Police told Fox News Digital during a phone call. "You might want to know if the firearm functions. But if you send it to get an operability test done first, and you don’t realize until afterwards that there was biological evidence on that firearm, it’s quite likely that that evidence will be gone. It will be destroyed or altered from the way it originally appeared."

IDAHO MURDERS TIMELINE: WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE SLAYINGS OF FOUR STUDENTS

That is why nondestructive tests should be done as early in the process as possible.

As test results come in and more information becomes available, investigators are able to build a fuller picture of what happened at the scene of the crime. They may have hypotheses of what happened based on their first look at the scene, but sometimes, looks can be deceiving.

A death that appeared to be the result of natural causes could be a murder, or vice versa. That is why forensic science can provide objective data that helps them formulate their idea of how the crime occurred. 

Forensic science: ‘Connecting objects, people, and places’

Forensic science helps investigators take evidence and then establish an association "between someone suspected of committing a crime and the scene of the crime or victim," according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

When Valentin explains this concept to his students, he focuses on three things. "Forensics is about connecting people together, connecting people to objects, and then connecting people and objects to places," he said. 

FOR MORE TRUE CRIME, FOLLOW FOX NEWS TRUE CRIME ON X

For example, he points to the ongoing case of the Idaho college murder case . The prime suspect, Bryan Kohberger, was found after investigators discovered matching DNA on the sheaf of the knife used to slay four students.

Instead of having to go through thousands of hours of surveillance footage, investigators were able to narrow their search for a specific vehicle and a specific cell phone serial number. This is how they determined that Kohberger was in the vicinity of the crime scene during the time of the murders.

"It’s a great example of how you can use forensic information to focus your investigation," said Valentin. "You go from having a mountain of data to having a suspect from out of state, and his car is in the area during the period of the crime . That's enough evidence to perhaps convince a jury."

Boston Police Criminalist Amy Kraatz uses a microscope in the Boston Police Crime Lab. (Mark Garfinkel/MediaNews Group/Boston Herald via Getty Images)

Crime scene analysis: Patience pays off

One way that forensic science differs from how it is portrayed on television is the length of time it takes to get results. In fiction, an analysis only takes a few hours. In reality, it can take days or weeks. 

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In the case of Gary Leon Ridgway, the "Green River Killer," one of the most prolific serial killers in U.S. history, it took more than a decade before a single piece of evidence led to his capture. 

Ridgway committed numerous murders from the 1980s to the early 2000s. Investigators considered him a suspect and even collected a saliva sample from 1987, but there was not enough evidence to convict him.

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DNA profiling was still in its infancy in the 1980s. However, the technology rapidly developed in the ensuing decades, and in the early 2000s, a DNA test linked Ridgway’s saliva sample to DNA collected from murder victims. 

"It may take years, but that's what forensic science is all about," said O’Toole. 

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2.3 Case study: The Shirley McKie story

In February 1997, a British policewoman, Shirley McKie, was charged with perjury after testifying at a murder trial that she had not been in the victim’s house, where her thumbprint was supposedly found. McKie’s house was searched and she was taken back to the police station where she was strip-searched and detained because of the controversial thumbprint.

The Scottish Criminal Record Office produced four fingerprint experts who certified that the thumbprint definitely belonged to McKie. However, she maintained her innocence and was acquitted, saved from a potential eight years’ imprisonment, after two American fingerprinting experts endorsed that the thumbprint did not belong to her.

After much media activity, legal action and controversy, Michael Russell, a member of the Scottish parliament, asked fingerprinting experts from around the world to verify the ownership of this thumbprint and had 171 certifications from 18 different countries that the thumbprint did not belong to McKie.

The main concern with the entire issue was not only about its effect on McKie’s career, but also about the accuracy of the Scottish Criminal Record Office’s earlier assertions. A civil trial against the Scottish Executive was due to be heard in early 2006. On the morning of the trial, the Executive offered McKie a settlement of £750,000 without admitting liability. She accepted the offer and the trial did not go ahead. Following the end of legal proceedings, the Scottish Parliament held an inquiry during 2006, which identified fundamental weaknesses in the Scottish fingerprinting service. Before the inquiry reported, the Scottish Criminal Record Office offered early retirement to four of its fingerprint officers, three of whom accepted the offer. The officer who refused early retirement was subsequently sacked, but later won a case for unfair dismissal.

A public inquiry into the case was held in 2009, with the report being published in 2011. The inquiry blamed human error and inadequate procedures for the misidentification of McKie’s thumbprint. It found no evidence of a conspiracy by the police against McKie, nor did it find any weaknesses in the theory of identification using fingerprints. However, it warned:

Practitioners and fact-finders alike require to give due consideration to the limits of the discipline.

Among its recommendations, the inquiry said ‘fingerprint evidence should be recognised as opinion evidence, not fact’ (p. 741).

Shirley McKie received a full personal apology from Strathclyde Police Chief Constable Stephen House in April 2012, more than 14 years after the murder of Marion Ross. Ross’s murder has never been solved.

Based on your current knowledge of digital forensics, what lessons do you think the McKie case has for digital forensic investigations?

Digital evidence can only show what a computer did, not what a person did, and the conclusions of a digital forensics investigators need to distinguish clearly between facts and opinion. It is also important to know what your assumptions are based on. The fingerprint experts assumed that Bertillon’s claim about 16 ridge points making a print unique was true, but it turned out not to be.

Forensic Fiber Analysis and Chemical Tests With Case Studies

Fibers are a valuable type of evidence in solving cases. They can be used to identify suspects, victims, and location of crimes.

The steps involved in processing fiber evidence include recovery, identification, comparison, and evaluation.

In all, one of the essential aspects of forensic analysis is the examination of fibers found at crime scenes.

Chemical analysis of fibers can provide valuable insights into a case, helping investigators link suspects to the scene or victims [1] .

Moreover, like other evidence, proper documentation and analysis are essential to ensure the reliability of fiber evidence in court.

Classification of Fibers

Fibers can be classified in a number of ways, including by their origin, chemical composition, and physical properties [2].

Classification 1: By Origin

Fibers can be classified as natural and synthetic based on their origin.

• Natural Fibers: These are derived from plants or animals. Some of the most common natural fibers include cotton (plant), wool (animal), silk (insect), linen (plant), and natural minerals (Asbestos).
• Synthetic Fibers: These are man-made fibers produced from petrochemicals. Examples include polyester (a polymer of ester), nylon, acrylic, spandex, etc.

Read More: Paper Fiber and Pulp Analysis: How They Impact Questioned Documents Examination?

Classification 2: By Chemical Composition

Fibers can also be classified as cellulosic and protein fibers based on their chemical composition.

• Cellulosic Fibers: These are made up of cellulose, a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls. Common examples of cellulosic fibers include cotton, linen, and hemp.
• Protein Fibers: These contain biopolymers made up of amino acids. Examples are wool and silk.

Classification 3: By Physical Properties

• Fibers can further be classified by their physical properties, such as their strength, elasticity, and durability.
• For instance, some fibers are strong and durable, while others are soft and elastic.

Other Classification Systems

Apart from the above systems, fibers can also be classified based on:

• Their end use, such as textile and industrial fibers,
• Manufacturing processes , like staple fibers and continuous filament fibers, etc.

Forensic Examinations of Fibers: Destructive and Non-Destructive Approach

Forensic fiber tests are used to identify the type of fiber and to distinguish between natural and synthetic fibers . They also help in determining the chemical composition of fibers and identifying any dyes or treatments that have been applied to the fibers[4].

Before jumping to forensic chemical analysis of fibers, there are two categories into which tests can be divided:

• Non-Technical Tests: Burning and Feeling/Texture tests.
• Technical Tests: Melting point tests, Microscopic tests, and Solubility tests.

Note: All chemical tests are destructive in nature. So make sure you first perform microscopic analysis and only proceed with chemical tests when necessary.

1. Texture/Feeling Test

The texture test is a more subjective method used to identify fibers based on their texture and feel .

• Natural Fibers: E.g., Cotton is typically soft and smooth, while wool is coarse and wiry.
• Synthetic Fibers: These can have a variety of textures but are often stiffer and less breathable than natural fibers[6].

2. Microscopic Characteristics of Fibers and Their Analysis

Microscopic examination of fibers is a technique used to identify the type of fiber and to distinguish between natural and synthetic fibers. It is also employed to determine the physical characteristics of fibers , such as their size, shape, color, and cross-sectional structure.

• Microscopic Examination Tools: Microscopic examination of fibers can be conducted using a variety of microscopes, including optical microscopes (compound and simple), and electron microscopes (SEM and TEM).
• Optical Microscopes: These are the most commonly used type for fiber analysis due to their accessibility and ease of use.
• Electron Microscopes (SEM and TEM): These can be used to obtain more detailed images of fibers, but they are more expensive and require more specialized training to operate.

3. Melting Point Test

The melting point test can distinguish between natural and synthetic fibers by determining the temperature at which a fiber melts.

Natural Fibers:

• They generally do not melt; instead, they tend to char or decompose when exposed to high temperatures.
• Example: Cotton, being a natural fiber, will not melt but will burn and eventually turn to ash at high temperatures.

Synthetic Fibers:

• They typically have a specific melting point at which they melt and may even shrink from a flame.
• Example: When polyester is subjected to heat, it will melt at a specific temperature (typically around 260-290 °C).

4. Burn and Flame Test

The burn test is a rudimentary test and is based on how fibers (as evidence) react to flame and the type of smoke they produce when burned.

• When subjected to flame, natural fibers usually burn and may continue to glow after the flame is removed, producing a characteristic odor.
• Example: Wool will burn and may produce a characteristic burnt hair odor (because of keratin), leaving behind a black, crushable ash.
• Tends to melt and shrink away from the flame, and they often extinguish once the flame is removed, producing a different kind of smoke and odor compared to natural fibers.
• Example: Nylon will melt and shrink away from the flame, often extinguishing once the flame is removed, and may produce a celery-like odor and black smoke, leaving behind a hard, bead-like residue.

This test is not definitive but is useful for narrowing down the possible types of fibers.

5. Solubility Test

The solubility test is another rudimentary test used to distinguish between natural and synthetic fibers.

Procedure: A small sample of the fiber is placed in a solvent, such as acetone or sodium hydroxide.

• Natural Fibers: Typically soluble in certain solvents.
• Synthetic Fibers: Typically not soluble.

This test can be more definitive than the burn test. Still, it is important to use other tests to confirm the identity of a fiber due to some natural and synthetic fibers having similar solubility properties.

Note: All of the fibers listed in the table are insoluble in water.

6. Dye Test for Fibers

The dye test can be used to identify the type of dye applied to a fiber. It helps in determining the possible source of origin of a fiber, albeit not conclusively.

• Take a small sample of the fiber.
• Place the fiber sample in a water solution or ethanol.
• Heat the solution with the fiber sample in it.
• After heating, examine the fiber under a microscope and the amount of dye absorbed cross-sectional.
• Observe any color changes in the fiber.
• Document any color changes and the type of dye absorbed by the fiber for further analysis.

Observation: If the fiber absorbs any of the dyes, the color of the fiber will change[5] and the amount of soaking ability is much higher in natural fibers than in synthetic.

This information can help in narrowing down the possible sources of the fiber. Read the following examples:

Example 1: Fiber A (Cotton):

• If a cotton fiber is placed in the dye solution, it absorbs a specific dye, changing its color.
• This indicates that the fiber is natural and cellulose-based, as cotton is known to absorb dyes well due to its cellulose composition.

Example 2: Fiber B (Polyester):

• If a polyester fiber is placed in the same dye solution, it does not absorb the dye or change color differently compared to cotton .
• This can indicate that the fiber is synthetic and likely made from polymers, as polyester fibers usually have non-absorbing properties due to their synthetic nature.

Read More: Identification of Paper Additives: Fillers, Oil, Waxes, and Pigment

Spectroscopy Examination of Fibers: A Non-Destructive Approach

Spectroscopy, specifically techniques like ATR-FTIR and FT-Raman, is pivotal for analyzing fibers. It involves studying the interactions between matter and electromagnetic radiation .

This helps the forensic examiner to extract detailed information about the molecular composition, chemical structure, and physical properties of fibers.

1. Dye and Pigment Analysis Using UV-Visible Spectroscopy

• Application: For analyzing dyes and pigments in fibers.
• Example: The absorption spectra obtained can be compared to known standards to identify specific dyes and pigments.

2. Identification of Chemical Composition Using IR

• Specific Techniques: ATR-FTIR and FT-Raman are pivotal for analyzing fibers.
• Application: Allows for the differentiation between various synthetic and natural fibers through the detection of specific functional groups like carbonyl or amine groups.
• Example: Using ATR-FTIR , analysts can identify the unique infrared absorption spectra of fibers. A fiber sample with a characteristic peak at 1720 cm⁻¹ could indicate the presence of a carbonyl group, typical in polyester fibers, allowing for more precise identification[7].

3. Structural Analysis using Raman Spectroscopy

• Application: Provides insights into the molecular vibrations within the fiber, enabling the identification of molecular structures and polymorphs.
• Example: Differentiation between various crystalline structures in synthetic fibers like polyethylene.

4. Microspectrofluorimetry

• Application: Allows for the detailed analysis of the color and optical properties of fibers (especially useful when examining dyed fibers).
• Example: Microspectrofluorimetry is essential for analyzing the fluorescence of fibers. For instance, a fiber treated with a specific flame retardant might exhibit a distinctive fluorescence signature under UV light.
• If a cotton fiber exhibits fluorescence at 460 nm , it might indicate the presence of a specific optical brightener or flame retardant, providing another layer of specificity to the analysis[9].

Read More: Forensic Watermark Examination of Paper: Destructive And Non-Destructive Analysis

5. Trace Evidence Analysis using Mass Spectrometry (MS):

• Application: Provides detailed information about the molecular weight and sequence of polymer units in fibers and their dye compositions.
• Example: Identification of trace components or additives in fiber samples.

6. Comparative Analysis with Database Integration

• Application: Allows forensic analysts to compare the spectroscopic profiles of unknown fibers with known samples.
• Example: A forensic analyst might compare a fiber found at a crime scene with fibers cataloged in the National Fiber Databank .
• If a match is found, say a unique dye in an acrylic fiber that corresponds to a specific manufacturer, it can significantly narrow down the source and potentially link a suspect or victim to the crime scene[8].

Challenges While Analysing Fibers as Evidence

• Contamination and Sample Degradation: These are persistent challenges that affect the reliability and accuracy of results.
• Limited Sample Quantity: Often, only minute fiber samples are available for analysis, which can limit the types and number of tests that can be performed.
• Instrument Limitations: The limitations of some analytical instruments can hinder the detection of certain fiber characteristics or components, potentially impacting the overall analysis.
• Complexity of Fiber Mixtures: Analyzing mixed fiber samples can be challenging due to the presence of multiple fiber types, dyes, and treatments, requiring careful separation and analysis.

Advancements in Fiber Analysis

• HEPA Filtered Environments: High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filtered environments in laboratories have significantly reduced the risk of airborne contamination during fiber analysis.
• Enhanced Microspectrophotometry: Advancements allow for more detailed analysis of fiber coloration and chemical composition, even with minute, degraded samples[10].
• Improved Instrumentation: The continual refinement and enhancement of analytical instruments, such as more sensitive spectrometers and higher-resolution microscopes, have expanded the capabilities of forensic fiber analysis.

Cases Solved Using Fibers As Evidence

Case 1: darlie routier [forensic files] invisible intruder case.

In the 1996 Routier case , a critical piece of evidence was a bread knife found with a single fiberglass rod and rubber dust .

These fibers matched the fiberglass rods from a cut window screen, indicating the screen had been cut from the inside and contradicting the intruder theory.

This fiber analysis was pivotal in solving the case, leading to Darlie Routier’s conviction for the murder of her sons.

Case 2: Beaten by a Hair [Forensic Files] Case

In the 1992 disappearance case of Laura Houghteling , forensic fiber analysis was proven important. A strand of synthetic hair, resembling a wig, was found in Laura’s brush, linking to Hadden Clark , a suspect.

Microscopic examination and microspectrophotometry analysis of this hair matched it to a wig found in Clark’s possession, confirming the fibers were identical.

Fiber analysis , along with other corroborating evidence like matching thumbprints and Clark’s possession of items belonging to Laura, led to the resolution of the case and Clark revealing the location of Laura’s body.

Case 3: Charlene and Brian Hummert [A Tight Leash] Case

In the 2004 case of Charlene Hummert , forensic analysis of a dog leash helped in identifying the culprit.

The forensic linguist, Dr. Robert Leonard , analyzed various letters and concluded that the stalker’s letter, the killer’s misleading letter, and Brian’s writings were all penned by Brian Hummert , Charlene’s husband.

The linguistic analysis, coupled with matching ligature marks from a dog’s leash found in Brian’s possession and his ownership of clothing matching descriptions from enhanced security footage, led to Brian Hummert’s arrest for the murder of his wife.

Case 4: Nice Threads [Forensic Files] Case

In the 1995 case of Dawn Fehring , meticulous solving the case from fingerprints on clothes . Forensic expert Eric Bird made a significant breakthrough by retrieving details from partial blood fingerprints found on Dawn’s bed sheet (a fabric).

These fingerprints were then matched precisely by fingerprint expert Patrick Warrick to a neighbor, Eric Hayden , who had been acting suspiciously and inconsistently during interrogations.

The fingerprint development on fabric and the use of a mathematical algorithm to remove the background led to the arrest and subsequent conviction of Hayden for first-degree murder, solving the harrowing case.

References:

• Robertson, J., Roux, C., & Wiggins, K. G. (2017). Forensic Examination of Fibres . CRC Press.
• Identification of Textile Fibers. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2023, from Textile Coach
• Identification of Textile Fibers—Google Books. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2023, from Google Books
• Frank, R. S., & Sobol, S. P. (1990). Fibres and Their Examination in Forensic Science. In A. Maehly & R. L. Williams (Eds.), Forensic Science Progress (pp. 41–125). Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-75186-8_3
• Goodpaster, J., & Liszewski, E. (2009). Forensic Analysis of Dyed Textile Fibers. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 394 , 2009–2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2885-7
• Textile Standards—Standards Products—Standards & Publications—Products & Services. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2023, from ASTM
• Meleiro, P. P., & García-Ruiz, C. (2016). Spectroscopic techniques for the forensic analysis of textile fibers. Applied Spectroscopy Reviews, 51 (4), 278–301. DOI: 10.1080/05704928.2015.1132720
• Forensic Fiber Examiner Training Program | Office of Justice Programs. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2023, from Office of Justice Programs
• Hu, C., Mei, H., Guo, H., & Zhu, J. (2020). Color analysis of textile fibers by microspectrophotometry. Forensic Chemistry, 18 , 100221. DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100221
• Stoney, D. A., & Stoney, P. L. (2015). Critical review of forensic trace evidence analysis and the need for a new approach. Forensic Science International, 251 , 159–170. DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.03.022

A Forensic Science graduate from Rashtriya Raksha University, and certifications in behavioral science, communication, and foreign languages. Known for her analytical proficiency and extensive field experience, solving real-world cases and presenting at prestigious conferences.

Anshika Srivastava

FR Author Group at ForensicReader is a team of Forensic experts and scholars having B.Sc, M.Sc, or Doctorate( Ph.D.) degrees in Forensic Science . We published on topics on fingerprints, questioned documents, forensic medicine, toxicology, physical evidence, and related case studies. Know More .

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