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Domestic Abuse: Types, Causes, and Impact

Sanjana is a health writer and editor. Her work spans various health-related topics, including mental health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness.

Yolanda Renteria, LPC, is a licensed therapist, somatic practitioner, national certified counselor, adjunct faculty professor, speaker specializing in the treatment of trauma and intergenerational trauma.

Boy_Anupong / Getty Images

• Supporting Someone

Domestic abuse , also known as domestic violence or family abuse, is a pattern of behavior that is used to hurt, terrorize, manipulate, or gain control over a family member.

Domestic abuse may be perpetrated by any member of the household, such as an intimate partner, parent, child, sibling, relative, or staff member. When domestic abuse is perpetrated by an intimate partner, it is referred to as intimate partner violence. When a child is a victim of domestic abuse, it is referred to as child abuse .

People from marginalized groups are at greater risk of experiencing abuse. However, it’s important to recognize that anyone can be a victim of abuse, regardless of their age, race, gender, sexual orientation, class, or faith.

Domestic abuse and intimate partner violence are serious public health issues globally. In fact, it is believed that domestic abuse is the most prevalent but least reported crime in the United States.

This article explores the types, causes, signs, and impact of domestic abuse, as well as some ways to support someone who has been abused.

If you or a loved one are a victim of domestic violence, contact the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-7233 for confidential assistance from trained advocates. 

If you are in immediate danger, call 911 . For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database .

Types of Domestic Abuse

Domestic abuse can take many forms. These are some of the different types of domestic abuse:

• Physical abuse , which is when someone harms the other person’s body, causing them to experience pain or suffer physical injuries. Physical abuse includes slapping, beating, hitting, kicking, punching, pinching, biting, choking, pushing, grabbing, shaking, or burning another person.
• Sexual abuse , which includes any form of touching or sexual contact without the other person’s explicit consent. Sexual abuse also includes any form of sexual contact between an adult and a person below the age of 18 .
• Emotional or psychological abuse , which includes yelling, cursing, name-calling, bullying, coercing, humiliating, gaslighting, harassing, infantilizing , threatening, frightening, isolating, manipulating, or otherwise controlling another person. Emotional/psychological abuse can be just as harmful as sexual or physical abuse.
• Neglect , which involves failing to provide a child or a dependent adult with necessities such as food, water, clothing, shelter, medical care, or supervision. Neglect can also be emotional, which involves failing to provide love, care, and emotional support to a family member.
• Financial abuse , which involves taking control of an individual's finances by controlling their income, restricting their ability to work, or accumulating debts in their name.
• Cultural identity abuse , which involves using aspects of a person's cultural identity to cause pain. This might involve threatening to out a person as LGBTQ+, using racial or ethnic slurs, or not permitting the person to practice traditions and customs of their faith.
• Technological abuse , which involves using technology as a means to threaten, stalk, harass, and abuse the other person. Examples of this form of abuse include using tracking devices to monitor someone's movements or online activities and demanding to have access to the person's social media or email accounts.
• Immigration abuse , which involves inflicting harm on a person by using their immigration status to threaten or restrict aspects of their life. Examples of this might involve threatening the individual's family members, destroying or hiding their immigration papers, and threatening to have them deported.

Signs of Domestic Abuse

It’s important to recognize domestic abuse because the victims are our friends, family members, coworkers, and neighbors.

These are some of the signs that someone is experiencing domestic abuse:

• Being upset or agitated
• Being withdrawn or unresponsive
• Exhibiting signs of fear or nervousness around certain people
• Displaying sudden changes in behavior or unusual behaviors
• Having injuries such as cuts, bruises, black eyes, or broken bones
• Having bruises, bleeding, torn clothes, or bloodstains around genital areas
• Being dehydrated, malnourished, or unkempt
• Living in unsafe or unsanitary conditions
• Wearing long-sleeved clothing or sunglasses to cover up bruising
• Having unusual eating or sleeping habits
• Being extremely meek and apologetic
• Losing interest in daily activities
• Isolating from friends and family

Causes of Domestic Abuse

Research suggests that there are a number of different factors that contribute to the prevalence of domestic violence:

• Cultural factors: Historically, many patriarchal cultures have permitted the beating and chastising of women and children, who are viewed as a man’s property. Additionally, the concept of a woman’s sexuality is often tied to the family’s honor. Therefore, any actions or behaviors by a woman that are perceived as acts of dishonor toward the family are met with judgment and abuse.
• Legal factors: Law enforcement agencies tend to treat domestic abuse as a private family matter and sometimes hesitate to intervene or get involved. Acts of domestic abuse are often treated with more leniency than crimes committed by strangers. In fact, sexual abuse by intimate partners is not even recognized as a crime in many cultures.
• Economic factors: Lack of economic resources is often associated with domestic abuse.
• Environmental factors: People who have grown up in abusive environments and witnessed or experienced abuse as children may be more likely to perpetrate domestic abuse as adults. This is referred to as the intergenerational cycle of abuse .
• Social factors: Society still tends to blame victims for being abused, which can make it difficult for them to come forward and report their abusers. Victims are often scrutinized minutely, and any imperfections are held against them.
• Substance use: Excessive use of substances such as alcohol and drugs can lead to domestic abuse.

Impact of Domestic Abuse

Being abused can cause a person to:

• Think they did something to deserve the abuse
• Believe they are unwanted and unworthy of love or respect
• Feel guilty or ashamed
• Feel helpless and powerless
• Feel used , controlled, or manipulated
• Be terrified of doing something that will upset their abuser
• Behave differently in order to avoid upsetting their abuser
• Have difficulty sleeping, concentrating, or participating in activities they once enjoyed
• Develop mental health conditions such as depression or anxiety
• Develop physical health conditions such as heart disease, digestive issues, muscle and bone conditions, fertility problems, and nervous system disorders
• Feel responsible for regulating the emotions and behaviors of their abuser
• Feel hypervigilant and like they are constantly walking on eggshells
• Not feel good enough or capable to make it on their own
• Constantly doubt their perception and their decisions

Experiencing domestic abuse can cause physical and mental health issues that persist long after the abuse stops.

Supporting Someone Who Has Been Abused

These are some ways to support someone who has been abused:

• Listen to the person and believe them
• Honor where they are in their process and don't push your personal views
• Offer assistance and let them know they’re not alone
• Help them note down all the details they can remember
• Remind them that they’re not to blame for anything that has happened to them
• Encourage them to seek professional support, either through a confidential hotline or via other medical or mental healthcare providers
• Encourage them to speak up about the abuse and report their abuser to the authorities, because keeping it secret only protects their abuser
• Respect whatever choice they make and let them know you'll be there for them regardless of what they decide

A Word From Verywell

Domestic abuse can take many different shapes and forms. It can be extremely traumatic to experience, leaving behind physical wounds, emotional scars, and health issues. It can affect every aspect of the person’s life and make it difficult for them to function.

Recovery takes time, but speaking up about the abuse, leaving an abusive situation , and seeking treatment are important steps that can help.

United Nations. What is domestic abuse?

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preventing intimate partner violence .

Li S, Zhao F, Yu G. Childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence victimization: A meta-analysis . Child Abuse Negl . 2019;88:212-224. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.11.012

City Government of Annapolis, Maryland. Myths about domestic violence .

Nemours Foundation. Abuse .

Women Against Abuse. Types of abuse .

Department of Human Services. Domestic violence crisis and prevention .

Washington State Department of Social and Health Services. Types and signs of abuse .

Yakubovich AR, Stöckl H, Murray J, Melendez-Torres GJ, Steinert JI, Glavin CEY, Humphreys DK. Risk and protective factors for intimate partner violence against women: Systematic review and meta-analyses of prospective-longitudinal studies . Am J Public Health . 2018;108(7):e1-e11. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2018.304428

Greene CA, Haisley L, Wallace C, Ford JD. Intergenerational effects of childhood maltreatment: A systematic review of the parenting practices of adult survivors of childhood abuse, neglect, and violence . Clin Psychol Rev . 2020;80:101891. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101891

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Emotional and verbal abuse .

Malik M, Munir N, Ghani MU, Ahmad N. Domestic violence and its relationship with depression, anxiety, and quality of life . Pak J Med Sci . 2021;37(1):191-194. doi:10.12669/pjms.37.1.2893

Cleveland Clinic. How to heal from emotional abuse .

By Sanjana Gupta Sanjana is a health writer and editor. Her work spans various health-related topics, including mental health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness.

Domestic Violence: Causes and Effects

Causes: violence and its origins, effects: changes in a community, works cited.

The phenomenon of domestic violence is upsettingly common in the present-day setting. Although it varies depending on the area and its unique characteristics, such as individual anger issues, education levels, social prejudices, etc., domestic violence can occur anywhere (Pearlman et al. 49). The persistent nature of the phenomenon alters communities where its occurrences are most frequent.

Domestic violence affects both adults and children, traumatizing the latter and disrupting relationships between the former. Furthermore, domestic violence disrupts the very core of a family unit, thus, tearing the fabric of a community apart (Cunradi et al. 86). Therefore, domestic violence must be viewed as the factor altering a community drastically and leading to its ultimate deterioration and destruction.

Violence, in general, and domestic violence, in particular, is a huge cause of the decomposition of society. The quiet and secret nature of domestic violence suggests that it affects people on a very personal level and is rarely discussed openly (Pearlman et al. 47). Thus, as a cause of a rapid drop in the quality of social relationships, domestic violence is very difficult to identify and remove from the context of a particular community.

The exposure to the specified factor leaves a lasting impact on adults and children alike, preventing both from developing positive relationships in the future. Furthermore, considering violence as a cause of a drop in the quality of social interactions, one must mention the stigma that prevents victims from revealing the challenges and suffering with which they have to deal regularly (Cunradi et al. 81). Therefore, domestic violence as a cause has a lasting impact and is very difficult to detect and address appropriately.

Due to its perceived invisibility, domestic violence affects a community drastically. Among the key outcomes, one must mention the inability of its victims to address the situation. Furthermore, it may create a sense of detachment among community members and alienate them from each other (Cunradi et al. 84). Similarly, the problem has a massive impact on the children that live in abusive households. Afterward, they are likely to transfer the specified framework to the context of their own families, according to a recent study (Pearlman et al. 51). Thus, communities with abusive families live in a vicious circle that is very hard to break.

Although domestic violence is restricted to the setting of a particular family, it affects a community and its members directly since it encourages silencing violence among community members and promotes a wrong idea of relationships to children. Therefore, domestic violence affects a community in the most drastic and deplorable way possible. Unless addressed properly, domestic violence disrupts regular patterns of communication and provides children with behavior models that will ultimately ruin their relationships and suggest the role of either an abuser or a victim. Thus, it is essential to focus on reducing the levels of domestic violence, as well as offering psychological and social help to victims and their children.

Cunradi, Carol B., et al. “Discrepant Patterns of Heavy Drinking, Marijuana Use, and Smoking and Intimate Partner Violence: Results from the California Community Health Study of Couples.” Journal of Drug Education, vol. 45, no. 2, 2015, pp. 73-95. Web.

Pearlman, Deborah N., et al. “Neighborhood Environment, Racial Position, and Risk of Police-Reported Domestic Violence: A Contextual Analysis.” Public Health Reports, vol. 118, no. 1 2016, pp. 44-58. Web.

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THE ACADEMY IS CELEBRATING ITS 25TH ANNIVERSARY

Domestic Violence and Abuse: Types, Signs, Symptoms, Causes, and Effects

Tina de Benedictis, Ph.D., Jaelline Jaffe, Ph.D., and Jeanne Segal, Ph.D., www.helpguide.org

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Nationwide Crisis Line and Hotline Directory

All too frequently the media bombards us with news about a high-profile domestic violence case, where a man or woman is suspected of murdering their wife or husband, with or without a previous history of domestic abuse. Violence. How can a person turn from loving and living with a person to beating them up or murdering them? What kind of a person resorts to domestic violence against their spouse or domestic intimate partner? What kind of person thinks it is okay to continually humiliate or talk down to their life intimate partner? What kind of a person has sex with their partner without the person’s consent and desire to participate?

A common pattern of domestic abuse is that the perpetrator alternates between violent, abusive behavior and apologetic behavior with apparently heartfelt promises to change. The abuser may be very pleasant most of the time. Therein lies the perpetual appeal of the abusing partner and why many people are unable to leave the abusive relationship.

Domestic abuse is most often one of the following:

• child abuse
• abuse of a spouse or domestic intimate partner
• elder abuse

In this article, we discuss domestic abuse between spouses and intimate partners: the types of domestic abuse, signs and symptoms, causes, and effects. Domestic violence and abuse are common. The first step in ending the misery is recognition that the situation is abusive. Then you can seek help. See the related Helpguide article: Domestic Violence and Abuse: Help, Treatment, Intervention, and Prevention.

What is the definition of domestic abuse between intimate partners?

Domestic abuse between spouses or intimate partners is when one person in a marital or intimate relationship tries to control the other person. The perpetrator uses fear and intimidation and may threaten to use or may actually use physical violence. Domestic abuse that includes physical violence is called domestic violence.

The victim of domestic abuse or domestic violence may be a man or a woman. Domestic abuse occurs in traditional heterosexual marriages, as well as in same-sex partnerships. The abuse may occur during a relationship, while the couple is breaking up, or after the relationship has ended.

Domestic abuse often escalates from threats and verbal abuse to physical violence. Domestic violence may even end up in murder.

The key elements of domestic abuse are:

• intimidation
• humiliating the other person
• physical injury

Domestic abuse is not a result of losing control; domestic abuse is intentionally trying to control another person. The abuser is purposefully using verbal, nonverbal, or physical means to gain control over the other person.

In some cultures, control of women by men is accepted as the norm. This article speaks from the orientation that control of intimate partners is domestic abuse within a culture where such control is not the norm. Today we see many cultures moving from the subordination of women to increased equality of women within relationships.

What are the types of domestic abuse?

The types of domestic abuse are:

• physical abuse (domestic violence)
• verbal or nonverbal abuse (psychological abuse, mental abuse, emotional abuse)
• sexual abuse
• stalking or cyberstalking
• economic abuse or financial abuse
• spiritual abuse

The divisions between these types of domestic abuse are somewhat fluid, but there is a strong differentiation between the various forms of physical abuse and the various types of verbal or nonverbal abuse.

What is physical abuse of a spouse or intimate partner?

Physical abuse is the use of physical force against another person in a way that ends up injuring the person, or puts the person at risk of being injured. Physical abuse ranges from physical restraint to murder. When someone talks of domestic violence, they are often referring to physical abuse of a spouse or intimate partner.

Physical assault or physical battering is a crime, whether it occurs inside a family or outside the family. The police are empowered to protect you from physical attack.

Physical abuse includes:

• pushing, throwing, kicking
• slapping, grabbing, hitting, punching, beating, tripping, battering, bruising, choking, shaking
• pinching, biting
• holding, restraining, confinement
• breaking bones
• assault with a weapon such as a knife or gun

What is emotional abuse or verbal abuse of a spouse or intimate partner?

Mental, psychological, or emotional abuse can be verbal or nonverbal. Verbal or nonverbal abuse of a spouse or intimate partner consists of more subtle actions or behaviors than physical abuse. While physical abuse might seem worse, the scars of verbal and emotional abuse are deep. Studies show that verbal or nonverbal abuse can be much more emotionally damaging than physical abuse.

Verbal or nonverbal abuse of a spouse or intimate partner may include:

• threatening or intimidating to gain compliance
• destruction of the victim’s personal property and possessions, or threats to do so
• violence to an object (such as a wall or piece of furniture) or pet, in the presence of the intended victim, as
• a way of instilling fear of further violence
• yelling or screaming
• name-calling
• constant harassment
• embarrassing, making fun of, or mocking the victim, either alone within the household, in public, or in front of family or friends
• criticizing or diminishing the victim’s accomplishments or goals
• not trusting the victim’s decision-making
• telling the victim that they are worthless on their own, without the abuser
• excessive possessiveness, isolation from friends and family
• excessive checking-up on the victim to make sure they are at home or where they said they would be
• saying hurtful things while under the influence of drugs or alcohol, and using the substance as an excuse to say the hurtful things
• blaming the victim for how the abuser acts or feels
• making the victim remain on the premises after a fight, or leaving them somewhere else after a fight, just to “teach them a lesson”
• making the victim feel that there is no way out of the relationship

What is sexual abuse or sexual exploitation of a spouse or intimate partner?

Sexual abuse includes:

• sexual assault: forcing someone to participate in unwanted, unsafe, or degrading sexual activity
• sexual harassment: ridiculing another person to try to limit their sexuality or reproductive choices
• sexual exploitation (such as forcing someone to look at pornography, or forcing someone to participate in pornographic film-making)

Sexual abuse often is linked to physical abuse; they may occur together, or the sexual abuse may occur after a bout of physical abuse.

What is stalking?

Stalking is harassment of or threatening another person, especially in a way that haunts the person physically or emotionally in a repetitive and devious manner. Stalking of an intimate partner can take place during the relationship, with intense monitoring of the partner’s activities. Or stalking can take place after a partner or spouse has left the relationship. The stalker may be trying to get their partner back, or they may wish to harm their partner as punishment for their departure. Regardless of the fine details, the victim fears for their safety.

Stalking can take place at or near the victim’s home, near or in their workplace, on the way to the store or another destination, or on the Internet (cyberstalking). Stalking can be on the phone, in person, or online. Stalkers may never show their face, or they may be everywhere, in person.

Stalkers employ a number of threatening tactics:

• repeated phone calls, sometimes with hang-ups
• following, tracking (possibly even with a global positioning device)
• finding the person through public records, online searching, or paid investigators
• watching with hidden cameras
• suddenly showing up where the victim is, at home, school, or work
• sending emails; communicating in chat rooms or with instant messaging (cyberstalking: see below)
• sending unwanted packages, cards, gifts, or letters
• monitoring the victim’s phone calls or computer-use
• contacting the victim’s friends, family, co-workers, or neighbors to find out about the victim
• going through the victim’s garbage
• threatening to hurt the victim or their family, friends, or pets
• damaging the victim’s home, car, or other property

Stalking is unpredictable and should always be considered dangerous. If someone is tracking you, contacting you when you do not wish to have contact, attempting to control you, or frightening you, then seek help immediately.

What is cyberstalking?

Cyberstalking is the use of telecommunication technologies such as the Internet or email to stalk another person. Cyberstalking may be an additional form of stalking, or it may be the only method the abuser employs. Cyberstalking is deliberate, persistent, and personal.

Spamming with unsolicited email is different from cyberstalking. Spam does not focus on the individual, as does cyberstalking. The cyberstalker methodically finds and contacts the victim. Much like spam of a sexual nature, a cyberstalker’s message may be disturbing and inappropriate. Also like spam, you cannot stop the contact with a request. In fact, the more you protest or respond, the more rewarded the cyberstalker feels. The best response to cyberstalking is not to respond to the contact.

Cyberstalking falls in a grey area of law enforcement. Enforcement of most state and federal stalking laws requires that the victim be directly threatened with an act of violence. Very few law enforcement agencies can act if the threat is only implied.

Regardless of whether you can get stalking laws enforced against cyberstalking, you must treat cyberstalking seriously and protect yourself. Cyberstalking sometimes advances to real stalking and to physical violence.

How likely is it that stalking will turn into violence?

Stalking can end in violence whether or not the stalker threatens violence. And stalking can turn into violence even if the stalker has no history of violence.

Women stalkers are just as likely to become violent as are male stalkers.

Those around the stalking victim are also in danger of being hurt. For instance, a parent, spouse, or bodyguard who makes the stalking victim unattainable may be hurt or killed as the stalker pursues the stalking victim.

What is economic or financial abuse of a spouse or domestic partner?

Economic or financial abuse includes:

• withholding economic resources such as money or credit cards
• stealing from or defrauding a partner of money or assets
• exploiting the intimate partner’s resources for personal gain
• withholding physical resources such as food, clothes, necessary medications, or shelter from a partner
• preventing the spouse or intimate partner from working or choosing an occupation

What is spiritual abuse of a spouse or intimate partner?

Spiritual abuse includes:

• using the spouse’s or intimate partner’s religious or spiritual beliefs to manipulate them
• preventing the partner from practicing their religious or spiritual beliefs
• ridiculing the other person’s religious or spiritual beliefs
• forcing the children to be reared in a faith that the partner has not agreed to

How do I know if I am in an abusive relationship? What are the signs and symptoms of an abusive relationship?

The more of the following questions that you answer Yes to, the more likely you are in an abusive relationship. Examine your answers and seek help if you find that you respond positively to a large number of the questions.

Your inner feelings and dialogue: Fear, self-loathing, numbness, desperation

• Are you fearful of your partner a large percentage of the time?
• Do you avoid certain topics or spend a lot of time figuring out how to talk about certain topics so that you do not arouse your partner’s negative reaction or anger?
• Do you ever feel that you can’t do anything right for your partner?
• Do you ever feel so badly about yourself that you think you deserve to be physically hurt?
• Have you lost the love and respect that you once had for your partner?
• Do you sometimes wonder if you are the one who is crazy, that maybe you are overreacting to your partner’s behaviors?
• Do you sometimes fantasize about ways to kill your partner to get them out of your life?
• Are you afraid that your partner may try to kill you?
• Are you afraid that your partner will try to take your children away from you?
• Do you feel that there is nowhere to turn for help?
• Are you feeling emotionally numb?
• Were you abused as a child, or did you grow up with domestic violence in the household? Does domestic violence seem normal to you?

Your partner’s lack of control over their own behavior:

• Does your partner have low self-esteem? Do they appear to feel powerless, ineffective, or inadequate in the world, although they are outwardly successful?
• Does your partner externalize the causes of their own behavior? Do they blame their violence on stress, alcohol, or a “bad day”?
• Is your partner unpredictable?
• Is your partner a pleasant person between bouts of violence?

Your partner’s violent or threatening behavior:

• Does your partner have a bad temper?
• Has your partner ever threatened to hurt you or kill you?
• Has your partner ever physically hurt you?
• Has your partner threatened to take your children away from you, especially if you try to leave the relationship?
• Has your partner ever threatened to commit suicide, especially as a way of keeping you from leaving?
• Has your partner ever forced you to have sex when you didn’t want to?
• Has your partner threatened you at work, either in person or on the phone?
• Is your partner cruel to animals?
• Does your partner destroy your belongings or household objects?

Your partner’s controlling behavior:

• Does your partner try to keep you from seeing your friends or family?
• Are you embarrassed to invite friends or family over to your house because of your partner’s behavior?
• Has your partner limited your access to money, the telephone, or the car?
• Does your partner try to stop you from going where you want to go outside of the house, or from doing what you want to do?
• Is your partner jealous and possessive, asking where you are going and where you have been, as if checking up on you? Do they accuse you of having an affair?

Your partner’s diminishment of you:

• Does your partner verbally abuse you?
• Does your partner humiliate or criticize you in front of others?
• Does your partner often ignore you or put down your opinions or contributions?
• Does your partner always insist that they are right, even when they are clearly wrong?
• Does your partner blame you for their own violent behavior, saying that your behavior or attitudes cause them to be violent?
• Is your partner often outwardly angry with you?
• Does your partner objectify and disrespect those of your gender? Does your partner see you as property or a sex object, rather than as a person?

In my workplace, what are the warning signs that a person is a victim of domestic violence?

Domestic violence often plays out in the workplace. For instance, a husband, wife, girlfriend, or boyfriend might make threatening phone calls to their intimate partner or ex-partner. Or the worker may show injuries from physical abuse at home.

If you witness a cluster of the following warning signs in the workplace, you can reasonably suspect domestic abuse:

• Bruises and other signs of impact on the skin, with the excuse of “accidents”
• Depression, crying
• Frequent and sudden absences
• Frequent lateness
• Frequent, harassing phone calls to the person while they are at work
• Fear of the partner, references to the partner’s anger
• Decreased productivity and attentiveness
• Isolation from friends and family
• Insufficient resources to live (money, credit cards, car)

If you do recognize signs of domestic abuse in a co-worker, talk to your Human Resources department. The Human Resources staff should be able to help the victim without your further involvement.

What are the causes of domestic abuse or domestic violence?

A strong predictor of domestic violence in adulthood is domestic violence in the household in which the person was reared. For instance, a child’s exposure to their father’s abuse of their mother is the strongest risk factor for transmitting domestic violence from one generation to the next. This cycle of domestic violence is difficult to break because parents have presented violence as the norm.

Individuals living with domestic violence in their households have learned that violence and mistreatment are the way to vent anger. Someone resorts to physical violence because:

• they have solved their problems in the past with violence,
• they have effectively exerted control and power over others through violence, and
• no one has stopped them from being violent in the past.

Some immediate causes that can set off a bout of domestic abuse are:

• provocation by the intimate partner
• economic hardship, such as prolonged unemployment
• desperation

How does society perpetuate domestic abuse?

Society contributes to domestic violence by not taking it seriously enough and by treating it as expected, normal, or deserved. Specifically, society perpetuates domestic abuse in the following ways.

• Police may not treat domestic abuse as a crime, but, rather, as a “domestic dispute”
• Courts may not award severe consequences, such as imprisonment or economic sanctions
• A community usually doesn’t ostracize domestic abusers
• Clergy or counselors may have the attitude that the relationship needs to be improved and that the relationship can work, given more time and effort
• People may have the attitude that the abuse is the fault of the victim, or that the abuse is a normal part of marriage or domestic partnerships
• Gender-role socialization and stereotypes condone abusive behavior by men

Community solutions may be inadequate, such that victims cannot get the help they need. For example, seeking refuge in a shelter may require a woman to leave her neighborhood, social support system, job, school, and childcare. In addition, teenagers are often not welcome at shelters, particularly teenage males. Teenage girls with children may have difficulty finding shelter because of their own age. And male victims of domestic violence have trouble finding shelters that will take them.

Domestic abuse is more common in low-income populations. Low-income victims may lack mobility and the financial resources to leave an abusive situation.

Who abuses their spouse or intimate partner?

• Ninety-two percent of physical abusers are men. However, women can also be the perpetrators of domestic violence.
• About seventy-five percent of stalkers are men stalking women. But stalkers can also be women stalking men, men stalking men, or women stalking women.
• Domestic abuse knows no age or ethnic boundaries.
• Domestic abuse can occur during a relationship or after a relationship has ended.

What are the results of domestic violence or abuse?

The results of domestic violence or abuse can be very long-lasting. People who are abused by a spouse or intimate partner may develop:

• sleeping problems
• anxiety attacks
• low self-esteem
• lack of trust in others
• feelings of abandonment
• sensitivity to rejection
• diminished mental and physical health
• inability to work
• poor relationships with their children and other loved ones
• substance abuse as a way of coping
• Physical abuse may result in death, if the victim does not leave the relationship.

What is the effect of domestic violence on children?

Children who witness domestic violence may develop serious emotional, behavioral, developmental, or academic problems. As children, they may become violent themselves, or withdraw. Some act out at home or school; others try to be the perfect child. Children from violent homes may become depressed and have low self-esteem.

As they develop, children and teens who grow up with domestic violence in the household are:

• more likely to use violence at school or in the community in response to perceived threats
• more likely to attempt suicide
• more likely to use drugs
• more likely to commit crimes, especially sexual assault
• more likely to use violence to enhance their reputation and self-esteem
• more likely to become abusers in their own relationships later in life

Published by the American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress - 2020

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Essay On Domestic Violence

500 words essay on domestic violence.

Domestic violence refers to the violence and abuse which happens in a domestic setting like cohabitation or marriage. It is important to remember that domestic violence is not just physical but any kind of behaviour that tries to gain power and control over the victim. It can affect people from all walks of life and it basically subjects towards a partner, spouse or intimate family member. Through an essay on domestic violence, we will go through its causes and effects.

Causes of Domestic Violence

Often women and children are the soft targets of domestic violence. Domestic violence is a gruesome crime that also causes a number of deaths. Some of the most common causes of domestic violence are illiteracy and economical dependency on the menfolk.

The male-dominated society plays an important role in this problem. Further, dowry is also one of the leading causes which have the consequence of violence against newly-wed brides. In many parts of the world, physically assaulting women and passing horrendous remarks is common.

Moreover, children also become victims of this inhuman behaviour more than often. It is important to recognize the double standards and hypocrisy of society. A lot of the times, the abuser is either psychotic or requires psychological counselling.

However, in a more general term, domestic violence is the outcome of cumulative irresponsible behaviour which a section of society demonstrates. It is also important to note that solely the abuser is not just responsible but also those who allow this to happen and act as mere mute spectators.

Types of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence has many ill-effects which depend on the kind of domestic violence happening. It ranges from being physical to emotional and sexual to economic. A physical abuser uses physical force which injures the victim or endangers their life.

It includes hitting, punching, choking, slapping, and other kinds of violence. Moreover, the abuser also denies the victim medical care. Further, there is emotional abuse in which the person threatens and intimidates the victim. It also includes undermining their self-worth.

It includes threatening them with harm or public humiliation. Similarly, constant name-calling and criticism also count as emotional abuse. After that, we have sexual abuse in which the perpetrator uses force for unwanted sexual activity.

If your partner does not consent to it, it is forced which makes it sexual abuse. Finally, we have economic abuse where the abuser controls the victim’s money and their economic resources.

They do this to exert control on them and make them dependent solely on them. If your partner has to beg you for money, then it counts as economic abuse. This damages the self-esteem of the victim.

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Conclusion of the Essay on Domestic Violence

To conclude, domestic violence has many forms which include physical aggression like kicking and biting and it can also be sexual or emotional. It is essential to recognize the signs of domestic violence and report the abuser if it is happening around you or to you.

FAQ of Essay on Domestic Violence

Question 1: Why is domestic violence an issue?

Answer 1: Domestic violence has a major impact on the general health and wellbeing of individuals. It is because it causes physical injury, anxiety, depression. Moreover, it also impairs social skills and increases the likelihood that they will participate in practices harmful to their health, like self-harm or substance abuse.

Question 2: How does domestic violence affect a woman?

Answer 2: Domestic violence affects women in terms of ill health. It causes serious consequences on their mental and physical health which includes reproductive and sexual health. It also includes injuries, gynaecological problems, depression, suicide and more.

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Long-Term Impact of Domestic Violence on Individuals—An Empirical Study Based on Education, Health and Life Satisfaction

1 School of Economics, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China

Peng Yating

2 School of Pharmacy, Changsha Health Vocational College, Changsha 410600, China

Associated Data

This is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated.

This paper takes the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Survey (CHARLS) as a sample to assess the long-term impacts of domestic violence experienced in childhood on individuals. First, from the four dimensions of injury from violence, negligent care, emotional abuse and witness to domestic violence, an indicator system for quantifying domestic violence is constructed. Second, the simultaneous equation of self-evaluation health and life satisfaction is estimated by the seemingly unrelated regression model. Starting with education, health and life satisfaction, the long-term impact of domestic violence experiences on individuals is quantitatively assessed, providing empirical evidence for preventing and curing domestic violence and healing trauma. The empirical research shows the following: (1) An experience of domestic violence significantly reduces educational achievements. Compared with the three dimensions of injury from violence, negligent care and witnessing domestic violence, emotional abuse has the greatest negative impact on educational achievements. (2) Domestic violence significantly reduces the self-assessed health level and life satisfaction and increases the subjective mental health risk. Based on the complexity and concealment of domestic violence, combined with empirical research conclusions, this paper proposes countermeasures to prevent and control domestic violence.

1. The Raising of Questions

“Almost the love of children, love and fear arrest, such as the beginning of vegetation germination, ease of the bar, the destruction of the impotence” (Wang Yangming’s “General Idea of Discipline”). Domestic violence is one of the most negative experiences that can impact the temperament of teenagers, and the trauma it brings may accompany them for life. For a long time, news about domestic violence has frequently been reported. How to prevent and control domestic violence is a key issue in governance and public opinion. On 1 March 2016, the “Anti Domestic Violence Law of the People’s Republic of China” (hereinafter referred to as the “Anti Domestic Violence Law”) was officially implemented, allowing the state to directly intervene in domestic violence through special laws. On 23 October 2021, the “Family Education Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China” was officially promulgated, which further clarified that “parents or other guardians of minors shall not discriminate against minors on the basis of sex, physical condition, intelligence, etc., and shall not commit domestic violence”. With the joint efforts of the government, society and the media, remarkable results in the prevention and treatment of domestic violence have been achieved, but how to heal the trauma caused by domestic violence still needs to be explored. Adler, a famous psychologist, believes that “an unhappy childhood needs a lifetime to be cured” [ 1 ]. Trauma events can have a broad and lasting impact on individuals, and clarifying the long-term impact of domestic violence on individuals is a prerequisite for healing the trauma [ 2 , 3 ].

For minors, domestic violence refers to the information perceived by minors that is related to violence in the family and can be divided into direct exposure and indirect exposure according to the form of violence exposure. The former refers to direct physical attacks and abuse suffered by minors at home, while the latter refers to the violence or aggressive behavior of family members that is seen or heard by minors [ 4 , 5 , 6 ].

In the existing laws and conventions, the definition of the scope of domestic violence is not completely unified. Article 19 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child stipulates: “When a child is under the care of parents, legal guardians or any other person responsible for the care of the child, he or she shall be protected from any form of physical or mental abuse, injury or abuse, neglect or improper care, abuse or exploitation”. Article 2 of Japan’s “Child Abuse Prevention Law” stipulates that “corresponding to the obvious abuse or rejection of children, illegal attacks such as physical violence against the spouse of a family with children living together endanger their lives or bodies and other words and deeds that have significant psychological harm to children.” There are plans for domestic violence, physical abuse, neglect, emotional abuse and other behaviors to be included in the category of domestic violence [ 7 , 8 ]. Article 2 of the “Anti Domestic Violence Law” of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that “domestic violence referred to in this Law refers to physical and mental violations committed among family members by means of beating, binding, maiming, restricting personal freedom, as well as constant abuse and intimidation.” Therefore, some scholars believe that negligent care, emotional abuse and the witnessing domestic violence should be defined as domestic violence against minors based on the distinctiveness of minors [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ].

No matter what the form of domestic violence is, it will cause physical and psychological trauma to minors. Empirical evidence shows that domestic violence seriously harms children’s growth, and its cumulative effects may last until adulthood [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. The harm caused by domestic violence is different for children of different ages, and early and long-term contact may cause more serious problems [ 17 ]. For preschool children and school-age children whose mothers have experienced domestic violence during pregnancy, 44% of them have at least one trauma symptom and separation anxiety [ 18 ]. It is often witnessed that domestic violence affects the brain development of children [ 19 ]. Lundy and Grossman (2005) [ 20 ] conducted a sample survey of 4636 children who had experienced domestic violence. One-fifth of them found it difficult to abide by school rules, and one-third of them were highly aggressive. This conclusion was also confirmed in another survey [ 21 ]. The harm caused by witnessing domestic violence cannot be ignored. Compared with children who have not witnessed domestic violence, preschool children who have witnessed domestic violence are more likely to have post-traumatic stress symptoms and find it more difficult to cultivate empathy and inferiority [ 22 , 23 ]. Similar to children, adolescents exposed to domestic violence are more likely to have various psychological and physical problems, experience sleep or eating disorders, engage in drug and alcohol abuse and are more likely to become perpetrators and victims of domestic violence in adulthood [ 24 , 25 ].

The existing literature has examined the definition and category of domestic violence from the perspective of the law, analyzed the adverse impact of domestic violence on personal growth from the perspective of psychology and proposed governance strategies regarding domestic violence from the perspective of social governance, but quantitative research is lacking. This paper uses the CHARLS (2011, 2013, 2015, 2018) and the “life course” survey as sample data to quantitatively assess the long-term impacts of the domestic violence experience on individuals from the perspectives of education, health and life satisfaction. The original intention of this paper is to provide empirical evidence to prevent domestic violence and heal trauma.

This paper consists of four parts as follows: first, based on the life course survey data of the CHARLS, we select the dimensions and indicators to quantify domestic violence and build an empirical model; second, we estimate the empirical model with sample data and adjust the empirical model to test the robustness of the empirical conclusion; finally, the research conclusions are summarized, and the corresponding countermeasures and suggestions are proposed.

2. Research Design

2.1. measurement of domestic violence.

This paper uses the data of China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Survey (CHARLS) from 2011 to 2018 (as shown in https://g2aging.org accessed on 13 December 2022). CHARLS survey was carried out in 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2018. The sample covered 150 counties, 450 communities (villages) and 12,400 households in 28 provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the Central Government), with 19,000 respondents. The survey conducted four levels of sampling when selecting samples. PPS probability sampling proportional to the population size was adopted in the county (district) village (resident) sampling and then randomly selected sample households from each sample village/neighborhood committee through field mapping. A family member over 45 years of age was randomly selected from each sample household as the main interviewee to interview him (her) and his/her spouse; therefore, the accuracy, unbiased and representativeness of samples are guaranteed. CHARLS provides a wealth of personal, family and community information, including demographic variables and health information at the individual level, wealth, assets, occupation and income variables at the family level and financial and economic development variables at the community level [ 26 , 27 ]. In particular, CHARLS conducted a detailed survey on whether the interviewees suffered from domestic violence and bullying in their childhood and collected information on 12 bad childhood experiences and 14 chronic diseases and frequently occurring diseases of the participants. The 12 bad childhood experiences included physical abuse, emotional neglect, domestic drug abuse, family mental illness, domestic violence, family members being imprisoned, parents separated or divorced, dangerous neighbors, bullying, death of parents, death of brothers and sisters and disability of parents ( http://charls.pku.edu.cn/en/ , accessed on 24 September 2020). This objectively creates convenient conditions for assessing the long-term impact of domestic violence on individuals, facilitates tracking the long-term development of China’s population and provides a more scientific basis for formulating and improving China’s relevant policies. It can be said that for China, CHARLS data are the best data to study the impact of domestic violence on individuals. Based on the above reasons, this paper conducts research and analysis based on CHARLS. Based on the existing literature, taking into account the reality of family division of labor, women take on more specific tasks in the process of raising and caring for children, and children’s daily life mainly depends on female caregivers. This paper intends to construct an indicator system for quantifying domestic violence from the four dimensions of injury from violence, negligent care, emotional abuse and witnessing domestic violence (shown in Figure 1 ). In the life course survey, the respondents recorded in detail whether their parents had beaten them in childhood, whether they had enough experience to take care of themselves, how their relationship with their parents was and whether they had witnessed violence between their parents. The specific definition and quantification of the variables are shown in Table 1 .

Descriptive statistics of domestic violence dimensions.

Domestic violence dimensions and quantitative methods.

According to the descriptive statistics, 3.02% of the sample respondents were often beaten by male caregivers, while 4.35% were often beaten by female caregivers, and 6.5% of the respondents were neglected by female caregivers. The proportion of respondents who had bad relationships with male and female caregivers was 1.25 and 0.91%, respectively; 1.75% of respondents’ fathers often beat their mothers, while 0.39% of respondents’ mothers often beat their fathers. Based on the above secondary indicators, combined with the weighting method based on the coefficient of variation method, we estimated the domestic violence index [ 28 ]. The secondary indicator and primary indicator weights are also shown in Table 1 , and the nuclear density distribution of the domestic violence index is shown in Figure 2 . From the distribution of the domestic violence index, the estimation of the kernel density function shows a trailing pattern, and the proportion of respondents experiencing serious domestic violence is relatively low.

Nuclear density estimation of domestic violence index.

2.2. The Choice of Variables and the Construction of Empirical Models

2.2.1. selection of indicators.

This study intends to assess the long-term impact of domestic violence on minors from three aspects: education, health and life satisfaction, so three empirical models need to be built. For the interviewees, aspects such as educational achievements; primary family environment factors, such as parents’ educational level, family economic status, number of siblings, parents’ physical and mental health and whether parents have bad behaviors; demographic variables such as age, gender, nationality, urban or rural area, community environment and economic location; as well as other macro variables are all influencing factors. Among them, the original family environment variables all originate from the 2014 life course survey. The determinants of health are similar to those of educational achievements. In addition to the above factors, education, marriage, family economic conditions and living conditions are also determinants of health [ 29 ].

The level of health can be described in two ways: one is through a self-assessment of health; the other is to break up health into physical health and mental health. Physical health can be characterized using biomarker indicators, that is, dimension reduction in blood test indicators. The dimension reduction method is shown in Equation (1) [ 30 ]:

where x represents the biomarker indicator vector; μ ( x ) is its mean vector; and S denotes the covariance matrix of biomarker indicators. Meanwhile, one can also count the frequency of blood test indicators exceeding the threshold value according to the threshold value of each blood test indicator and calculate the risk score. The psychological health risk can be calculated using the test results of the psychological scale. The blood test indicators, their thresholds and the psychological scale are shown in Table 2 . The blood examination indicators are from the 2011 and 2015 surveys, while the self-assessment health and psychological surveys have been implemented in four surveys (in the blood test data in 2011, the indicator cystatin C was often missing, so it was not used as an indicator in the dimension reduction in blood test indicators). For life satisfaction, in addition to the above factors, health and education are influencing factors. Education, self-assessment of health, psychological scale, life satisfaction and family living standard indicators are all from the follow-up survey in 2018.

Blood test indicators and psychological scale.

Meanwhile, the life course survey also recorded whether the respondents had often been bullied by other classmates during their school days. Similar to domestic violence, campus bullying can also harm the physical and mental health of minors, so it is necessary to take campus bullying as a control variable. The control variable assignment method is shown in Table 3 .

Interpreted, explanatory and control variables.

2.2.2. Empirical Model

As variables are exogenous, and education level is an ordered variable, linear model is used for estimation [ 31 ]. The empirical model of educational achievement is shown in Equation (2):

where the control variables X include campus bullying, demographic variables and native family variables. The empirical model of the self-assessment of health and life satisfaction is shown in Equation (3):

where the control variables X ′ include campus bullying, demographic statistics, native family variables and variables reflecting the quality of family life. Self-rated health and life satisfaction are both subjective indicators, and there is a causal relationship between them, so they are built into a simultaneous equation model. As self-rated health and life satisfaction are ordered variables, Equation (3) is a bivariate ordered variable model. Health is further divided into two dimensions: physical health and mental health. As physical health and mental health are mutually causal, a simultaneous equation model is also used to quantify the impact of domestic violence on health:

Different from Equation (3), the indicators reflecting physical health (DM), risk scores (Risk) and depression scores (Depr) can be regarded as continuous variables, while life satisfaction is an ordered variable, so Equation (4) is a mixed structure model. In quantitative research, the ordered probit/logit model and the simple linear regression model have consistency in the direction and significance of parameter estimates, with the latter being more intuitive and convenient to explain. Therefore, many studies directly use the OLS estimation ordered choice variable model [ 32 , 33 ], so they can also directly use the seemingly unrelated regression estimator (Equations (2)–(5)).

3. Empirical Research

The empirical research includes three main parts: First, the 2018 cross-sectional data are taken as the sample to quantify the impact of domestic violence on personal educational achievements. For the middle-aged and elderly aged 45 and above, the education level was finalized, and the 2018 cross-sectional data can be used as the sample to retain the observation object to the maximum extent. Second, the seemingly unrelated regression model is used to estimate the simultaneous equation of the self-assessment of health and life satisfaction. The sample data are panel data composed of 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2018 survey data. Finally, health is refined into physical health and mental health dimensions, and simultaneous equations are estimated through seemingly unrelated regression. The sample data are panel data composed of 2011 and 2015 survey data.

3.1. Domestic Violence and Educational Achievements

Equation (2) is estimated based on sample data. The estimated results are shown in Table 4 , which lists the estimated results of the OLS and ordered probit/logit models at the same time. According to the estimation results of the three types of models, at the 1% significance level, domestic violence significantly reduces individual educational achievements. Taking the OLS estimation results as an example, if one unit is added to the domestic violence index, the education level of individuals will decrease by 0.1318 levels. The interpretation of the estimated results of the ordered probit model requires the help of marginal effects. Based on the estimated results of the ordered probit model, the marginal effects of education level on the average value of the domestic violence index ∂ P ( E d u = κ ) / ∂ V ¯ can be estimated, in turn. The estimated results are shown in Figure 3 .

Marginal effect and probability ratio of education level on domestic violence index.

Note: Robust standard deviation in brackets; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1; the estimated result of the tangent point value is omitted.

It can be seen from the estimation results of the marginal effect that when the domestic violence index takes the average value, the marginal effect of the probability value P ( E d u = 4 ) (being educated to graduate from primary school) on the domestic violence index is 0.0056, and for other levels of education, the marginal effect is significantly less than 0. Therefore, it can be seen that domestic violence significantly reduces educational achievements after primary school graduation.

To intuitively explain the estimation results of the ordered logit model, we can also use the generalized ordered logit model in addition to the probability ratio. The generalized ordered logit model converts the ordered logit model into several logit models, which is consistent with the above. Typical primary school graduation, junior high school graduation, senior high school graduation, technical secondary school graduation, junior college graduation and undergraduate graduation are selected as the threshold for model transformation; that is, the impact of the domestic violence index on the probability value P ( E d u ≥ k | X ) ( k = 4 , 5 , ⋯ , 9 ) is mainly examined, with the estimation results of the probability ratio shown in Figure 3 . It can be seen from the estimated results of the probability ratio that, if the domestic violence index increases by 1 unit, the probability ratio of attaining primary school graduation and above will decrease by 13.42%, the probability ratio of attaining junior high school graduation and above will decrease by 13.72% and the probability ratios of attaining high school graduation, technical secondary school graduation, junior college graduation, undergraduate graduation and above will decrease by 21.11, 16.94, 14.45 and 17.61%, respectively. According to the estimation results of the OLS estimation, the ordered probit/logit model and the generalized logit model, domestic violence significantly reduces the educational achievements of respondents.

The domestic violence index is composed of four dimensions, and the impact of each dimension on educational achievements may be inconsistent. In view of this, in the heterogeneity analysis, the domestic violence index is subdivided into four dimensions, and the corresponding estimation results are shown in Table 5 . It can be seen from the above estimation results that the OLS estimation and the coefficient estimation of the ordered probit/logit model are consistent in significance and sign, so the OLS estimation results of the linear model are used to explain the practical meaning of the model. At the 1% confidence level, among the four dimensions, only the emotional abuse dimension has a significant negative impact on educational achievement; that is, compared with the other three dimensions, emotional abuse has the most prominent negative impact on educational achievement. Specifically, if the emotional abuse index increased by 1 unit, the education level decreased by 0.0759. This is because emotional abuse will affect children’s cognitive development and impair their memory and cognitive ability to a certain extent, making them likely to encounter difficulties in learning, thus affecting their academic performance and then their education level. From another perspective, scholars have found that the level of education will adjust the impact of domestic violence on individuals, so the level of education is an important factor to consider the impact of domestic violence on individuals [ 34 ].

Results of the dimensional heterogeneity analysis.

Note: Robust standard deviation in brackets; *** p < 0.01, * p < 0.1; the estimated results of control variables and tangent point values are omitted.

3.2. Domestic Violence, Health and Life Satisfaction

Similar to the above, this part also uses the linear model for empirical research. The Breusch–Pagan test shows that the residual terms of the simultaneous equations are correlated, so the seemingly uncorrelated panel model is used to estimate the simultaneous equations. The estimation results are shown in Table 6 . At the 1% confidence level, the domestic violence index has a significant negative impact on the self-assessment health level and life satisfaction. If the domestic violence index increases by 1 unit, the self-assessment health level decreases by 0.0320, and life satisfaction decreases by 0.0948. Furthermore, the domestic violence index is divided into four levels. For health self-evaluation, at the 1% confidence level, only the emotional abuse dimension has a significant negative impact on the health self-evaluation level, which increases by 1 unit, while the self-evaluation health level decreases by 0.0267. In the life satisfaction equation, at the 1 or 5% confidence level, injury from violence, negligent care, emotional abuse and witnessing domestic violence all have significant negative impacts on life satisfaction. For each increase in the index of each dimension, life satisfaction decreases by 0.0240, 0.0189, 0.0314, and 0.0216 levels, in turn. In general, domestic violence significantly reduces the self-rated health level and life satisfaction. This is because domestic violence causes great harm to the victims, directly damages the physical and mental health of the victims and causes long-term mental tension, anxiety and fear in the victims. At the same time, because domestic violence makes it difficult for victims to feel warmth from family, life satisfaction will be greatly reduced.

Estimated results of domestic violence, health and life satisfaction.

Note: Robust standard deviation in brackets; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05; the estimated results of other control variables and tangent point values are omitted.

3.3. Further Discussion on Domestic Violence and Health

On the basis of the above, health is further divided into physical health and mental health, characterized by biomarker indicators and depression score indicators. The corresponding estimation results are shown in Table 7 . At the 1% confidence level, the domestic violence index has a significant positive impact on depression scores; at the 5% confidence level, the domestic violence index significantly increases the abnormal frequency of blood test indicators. Specifically, in the simultaneous equation of DM and depression scores, if the domestic violence index increased by 1 unit, the depression score increased by 0.6591 points; in the simultaneous equation of the abnormal frequency of blood test index and depression scores, if the domestic violence index increased by 1 unit, the abnormal frequency of blood test index increased by 0.0532 units, and the depression score increased by 0.6617 points. Furthermore, the domestic violence index is divided into four dimensions. At the 1% confidence level, the three indexes of injury from violence, emotional abuse and witnessing domestic violence significantly improved the depression score but have no significant impact on the two health risk indicators based on blood test indicators. Therefore, on the whole, it can be determined that domestic violence increases the subjective mental health risk.

Estimated results of domestic violence and physical and mental health.

3.4. Robustness Test

Calculating the domestic violence index through dimension reduction can quantify the degree of domestic violence experienced by the interviewees in general, but it will also lose some of the indicator information. In view of this, in the robustness test, directly using the secondary indicators as explanatory variables is proposed, with the estimated results shown in Table 8 . In the education decision equation, at the 1% confidence level, only the relationship with the mother has a significant negative impact on education level. In the simultaneous equation of self-rated health and life satisfaction, for self-rated health, at the 5% confidence level, only the relationship with the mother has a significant negative impact. For life satisfaction, at the 1% confidence level, whether the father has injuries from violence, whether the mother has invested enough in taking care of herself and the relationship with the father have significant negative effects. In the two simultaneous equations of health risk, seven secondary indicators have no significant impact on the health risk indicators based on blood test indicators. For subjective mental health, at the 1 or 5% confidence level, whether the mother behaved violently, the relationship with the mother and whether domestic violence was witnessed have significant positive effects on the depression score. In general, the secondary indicators in the dimension of emotional abuse have a particularly prominent impact on educational achievement, life satisfaction and mental health, which verifies the main conclusions of the empirical study.

Estimation results of the robustness test.

4. Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

Domestic violence includes not only physical violence but also mental violence with regard to neglect, emotional abuse, etc. Therefore, this study estimates a domestic violence index from the four aspects of injury from violence, negligent care, emotional abuse and witnessing domestic violence, and then takes the CHARLS (2011, 2013, 2015, 2018) and the “life course” survey as sample data to assess the impact of domestic violence on personal education, health and life satisfaction, in turn. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) Domestic violence significantly reduced the respondents’ educational achievements. Compared with the three dimensions of injury from violence, negligent care and witnessing domestic violence, emotional abuse had the most significant negative impact on educational achievements. (2) Domestic violence significantly reduced the self-rated health level and life satisfaction and significantly increased the mental health risk of the respondents.

The above conclusions have important policy implications for optimizing social governance strategies. Domestic violence has far-reaching negative impacts on personal education, health and life satisfaction. To prevent domestic violence and heal the trauma caused, based on its complexity and concealment, we believe that its long-term impact on individuals should be approached from the following four perspectives.

First, a domestic violence monitoring system should be built. Domestic violence has the characteristics of being long-term and repeated, so it is necessary to find the families involved and prevent recurrence in a timely manner. On one hand, the tracking mechanism should be strengthened: for people with low educational achievements and low physical and mental satisfaction (especially young people), society, schools and families should be vigilant in tracing domestic violence back to the source to prevent long-term negative impacts. On the other hand, the feedback mechanism should be strengthened: for those who have suffered from domestic violence, the probability of being subjected to repeated domestic violence is greatly increased. Therefore, they should be encouraged to express their concerns freely, and in the future, a “one-to-one” follow-up mechanism, and a “fixed + random” feedback mechanism should be established to strengthen the ability of victims to provide feedback and communicate with the relevant departments.

Second, the harm caused by emotional abuse and other mental abuse should be confronted. On one hand, the consciousness of the victims needs to be awakened. Domestic violence refers not only to physical violence but also emotional abuse, neglect and other spiritual mistreatment. However, compared with physical violence, the biggest dilemma surrounding domestic psychological abuse is that the victims do not comprehend it themselves but instead feel extreme emotional pain and depression. Therefore, it is necessary to make the content and methods of domestic psychological abuse known, so that the parties who are unknowingly experiencing it will become aware and safeguard their rights. On the other hand, we should establish a working mechanism for linking the authorities that deal with domestic violence. The difficulty in determining if domestic violence is occurring is that it is not easy to obtain evidence, and many victims are unable to enter the judicial process. Therefore, the judicial department should link with women’s federations, neighborhood committees, village committees and other departments to deal with cases of psychological abuse flexibly and quickly, integrating evidence collection, assistance and protection.

Third, attention should be paid to the long-term impact of domestic violence on individuals. On one hand, many perpetrators do not realize that domestic violence is a crime; on the other hand, they ignore the long-term harm to individuals caused by domestic violence. Therefore, we should not only enhance the public’s legal understanding of domestic violence but also use new media to publicize the serious harm that can be caused to individuals as a result of domestic violence. Furthermore, family moral education needs to be strengthened, and the establishment of harmonious families advocated.

Fourth, it is necessary for domestic violence to be prevented at the source. Accordingly, we must go deep into communities to facilitate an understanding of the legal issues related to family disputes [ 35 , 36 ], not only to issue personal safety protection orders to the victims but also to use laws and regulations to intervene and correct the behavior of the perpetrators [ 37 ]. Finally, we need to fully investigate and establish a family violence litigation protection base and form a “one-stop” litigation processing procedure that is simple and smooth, with privacy protections.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by the Hunan Health Economics and Information Society, grant number 2022B07.

Author Contributions

L.B. and P.Y. generated the idea and study design, collected data, and carried out the data analysis and write up. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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