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मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध | Essay on my country nepal in nepali

मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध | essay on my country nepal in nepali , मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध (१५० शब्दहरु ) mero desh essay in nepali language, मेरो देश को बारेमा निबन्ध 200 शब्दमा essay on my country in nepali in 200, मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध (२५० शब्दहरु ) mero desh nepal essay in nepali, मेरो देश को बारेमा निबन्ध 300 शब्दमा essay on my country in nepali in 300, मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध ( ५०० शब्दहरु) essay on my country nepal in nepali in 500 words, recommended posts, post a comment.

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Nepali Society: Past Present and Future

The Nepali Society: Past, Present and Future 

By society, we mean a long-standing group of people sharing cultural aspects such as language, dress, norms of behaviour and artistic forms. Nepali society has a mixed culture. Even though different cultures live together, cultural practices are often mixed and one cultural group can be seen practising the traditions of another. People are free to choose their own cultural practices and no one is forced to follow any particular pattern. As a Nepali citizen, I like Nepali society much. I have seen as well as read about Nepali society and its change. 

Over time, many changes have been seen in the context of Nepali society. The condition of Nepali society wasn't good in the past time. Nepali society was so rigid in the past time. Most people were uneducated and there was a lack of awareness among the people. Patriarchal norms and values were at their height. Class, as well as sex subjection, had played a vital role in every society. 

The concept of Feudalism was prevalent everywhere. Ordinary people had to face miserable life under the feudalists. They were quite a way from the concept of rights and opportunities of lives. Life was so difficult for most of the peasants. There was a lack of facilities in people's lives. In most societies, there were feudalists or lords who used to determine others fate. Talking about women's lives during that time, women had very bad conditions. They were living being dependent on males. The patriarchal norms and values had made them remain limited within the boundaries of their houses. Child marriage was so common. Life in the past was really not favourable for ordinary people including women. In the present time, different changes are seen in various sectors of Nepal. 

Nepali societies seem quite different from that of past Nepalese societies. In the present, Nepali society is on the way to development. In the matter of facilities as electricity, drinking water, roads and transportation, education etc, Nepali society has been changed. People in the present time have various rights regarding various things. If there is one thing that upsets me about Nepali society is the political aspect. People in the present time are totally involved in the dirty game of politics. Due to this, Nepali society is facing disorders every single day. At present, the condition of Nepali women is much better than expected. 

Over time, Nepali women have got many rights according to the constitution of Nepal. I think the future of Nepali society will be so good if we all Nepali citizens choose the right candidates for the betterment of Nepalese society. We should be away from this dirty game of politics and think about the bright future of Nepali people and society. 

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• Condition of Women in Nepali Society - Essay | Free Writing

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Essay Writing Unit: Essay (Free Writing) Subject: English Grade XI

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• English Grade XI

Essay | Free Writing The Position of Woman in Nepali Society

The status of women in Nepal cannot be said to be good. More than 60% of women are illiterate. The status of women is different according to regions, castes, economy, religion, and structure of the community. The women of higher castes have been more suppressed though they have got more facilities and opportunities of education and employment. The women of lower castes have got more freedom than the former ones but they have got less chance of education and employment. Most of Nepalese women do not have right to the property. They are not often involved in making policies and decisions of family as well as nation.

Nowadays some reservation and empowerment programmes are being held to encourage the women. Though they have they have equal right in the articles of constitution but in the field it has not been followed. They are however unable to participate into the public affairs due to the dominant ideology of culture being practiced. While the latter women have no autonomy even within the private sphere, but enjoy limited position in the public sphere. Their suppression stems from the concepts of hierarchy the caste system, traditional though about food, and the high value of chastity. Although the women belonging to different caste, religion, and culture have different status, one thing is certain that they are being suppressed with respect to economic, socio-cultural, political and legal status which can’t be analyzed in isolation because each is intrinsically tied to the next. But for the clarity, each category is discussed separately. Economically the status of Nepalese women is also not good. The dominant Hindu religion and culture have popularized a belief that women should be dependent on the males for income from cradle to grave. Men are considered the sole breadwinners of families; and women are viewed only as domestic and maternal. Women’s work is confined to the household. Their responsibilities are thought to include cooking, washing, maternity, collecting fuel and firewood, fetching water, engaging in agriculture, and service to males and other family members. Although their works plays vital role, it is generally left uncounted.

The workload of Nepalese women is immense. They work about 16 hours every day. Nepalese women are mainly engaged in agricultural works, carpet Industries, and wage labour activities. Furthermore, Nepalese women are compelled to resort to prostitution and to be sold as commercial sex-workers. Because of modernization, their work load has certainly increased. Thus they are now forced to perform triple roles; that of mother, of traditional wife and of community participant. Generally, Nepalese women have much less access to institutional credit, both an individual and household enterprise level irrespective of ecological regions, urban of rural increasing feminization of poverty. To remedy this situation, women should need full economic rights.

Dowry system has also decreased the status of women especially in Terai and urban areas. Women have been bargained as fancy good in a shop.

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Culture and Traditions of Nepal: A Journey Through the Heart of Nepalese Heritage

Article 12 Feb 2023 4774 0

Nepal is a country steeped in rich cultural heritage and traditions. With a unique blend of Hindu and Buddhist influences, Nepalese culture is a vibrant and colorful tapestry of festivals, customs, music, and art. In this article, we'll explore the diverse cultural landscape of Nepal, from its religious roots to the unique traditions of its ethnic groups.

A Brief History of Nepal and its Cultural Influences

Nepal has a long and storied history, with influences from Hindu and Buddhist cultures and the presence of various ethnic groups. The country was ruled by a Hindu monarchy until the late 18th century, when it became a Hindu state. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Buddhism gained popularity, and today both religions coexist in Nepal. This fusion of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs and practices has shaped the country's culture and traditions.

Nepal is a landlocked country located in South Asia and is bordered by India and Tibet (China). Its history is rich and diverse, with cultural influences from the Hindu and Buddhist religions. The country has been ruled by various dynasties and kingdoms throughout its history, and its culture has been shaped by these influences as well as by its geographic location and contact with neighboring countries.

The earliest inhabitants of Nepal were likely animist tribes who worshipped nature and natural elements. Over time, Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced to the country, and these religions have played a major role in shaping its culture and traditions. Nepal was officially declared a Hindu kingdom in the 19th century, but the influence of Buddhism has remained strong, particularly in the northern regions of the country.

Today, Nepal is a diverse country with many different ethnic and cultural groups, each with its own unique customs and traditions. Despite this diversity, there is a strong sense of national identity in Nepal, and its people take great pride in their cultural heritage.

Overview of the Major Religions in Nepal and Their Impact on the Country's Culture and Traditions

The majority of Nepalese people practice Hinduism, and it is the dominant religion in the country. Hinduism has had a profound impact on Nepalese culture and traditions, with many customs, festivals, and rituals being rooted in this religion. The festivals of Dashain and Tihar, for example, are celebrated by Hindus in Nepal and are closely tied to Hindu mythology.

Buddhism is also widely practiced in Nepal, particularly in the northern regions of the country. The Kathmandu Valley is home to many Buddhist monasteries, and the Stupa of Swayambhunath is one of the most important Buddhist pilgrimage sites in the world. Buddhism has influenced Nepalese culture in many ways, including the traditional art and architecture of the country.

Traditional Festivals and Celebrations

Nepal is a country with many colorful and vibrant traditional festivals and celebrations. Some of the most important and widely celebrated festivals include:

• Dashain: Dashain is the biggest and most important festival in Nepal and is celebrated by Hindus across the country. The festival celebrates the victory of good over evil and is marked by feasting, dancing, and the exchange of gifts. The festival lasts for 15 days, and families come together to participate in the celebrations.
• Tihar: Tihar is another major festival in Nepal, and it is also celebrated by Hindus. The festival is also known as the Festival of Lights, and it is marked by the lighting of oil lamps and the decoration of homes with flowers and other decorations. During the festival, families come together to offer prayers, sing songs, and exchange gifts.
• Holi: Holi is a spring festival that is celebrated by Hindus and is known as the Festival of Colors. The festival is marked by the throwing of colored powders and the singing of traditional songs. Holi is a time of joy and celebration and is a time when people put aside their differences and come together to celebrate.
• Gai Jatra: Gai Jatra is a traditional festival that is celebrated by the Newar community in Kathmandu. The festival is a time of celebration and remembrance, and it involves the procession of people dressed in cow costumes. The festival is believed to bring comfort to the families of those who have died in the previous year.

These are just a few of the many traditional festivals and celebrations that take place in Nepal. Each festival has its own unique customs and traditions, and they serve as an important part of the country's cultural heritage.

Unique Customs and Traditions of the Ethnic Groups in Nepal

Nepal is home to a rich tapestry of ethnic groups, each with their own unique customs and traditions. These ethnic groups are an important part of Nepalese culture and contribute to the country's diverse heritage.

• Gurungs: The Gurungs are an ethnic group native to the western region of Nepal and are known for their hospitality and bravery. They have a rich tradition of music and dance and are famous for the Ghantu dance, which is performed during festivals and celebrations. The Gurungs are also known for their traditional woven textiles and handicrafts, which are popular among tourists visiting Nepal.
• Tamangs: The Tamangs are an ethnic group native to the central region of Nepal and are known for their rich cultural heritage. They have a tradition of storytelling, passed down from generation to generation, and are famous for their unique instruments like the Madal drum. The Tamangs also have a rich tradition of metalwork, including the creation of traditional knives and other tools.
• Newars: The Newars are an ethnic group native to the Kathmandu Valley and are known for their elaborate wood carvings, metalwork, and traditional festivals. The Newars have a rich history, dating back to the time of the ancient kingdoms in the Kathmandu Valley, and are known for their distinctive architecture and art. The Newars are also famous for their traditional food, which is a fusion of Nepalese, Tibetan, and Indian cuisine.

The customs and traditions of each of these ethnic groups add to the rich cultural heritage of Nepal and provide a unique insight into the country's diverse history. From the traditional music and dance of the Gurungs to the intricate wood carvings of the Newars, each ethnic group offers a unique glimpse into the customs and traditions of Nepal.

An examination of how modern Nepalese society is impacting traditional cultural practices

With the advancement of technology and globalization, modern Nepalese society has brought about changes to traditional cultural practices. The younger generation is becoming more westernized, and traditional customs and beliefs are slowly being replaced by modern ideas. For instance, the younger generation is more likely to celebrate Western holidays like Christmas, rather than traditional festivals like Dashain and Tihar.

Additionally, with the rise of urbanization, many rural Nepalese are moving to cities, and as a result, traditional practices are being lost. Many of the younger generation do not have access to or the opportunity to learn traditional practices from their elders. The influence of modern society has also led to a decline in traditional crafts like wood carving and metalwork.

However, the Nepalese government and cultural organizations are taking steps to preserve and promote traditional cultural practices. The preservation of cultural heritage is seen as an important aspect of Nepalese identity and is necessary for the continuation of traditional practices.

"Nepal has a rich cultural heritage that has been passed down from generation to generation. It is our responsibility to preserve and promote these traditions so that they can continue to be a part of our identity," says a cultural expert from Nepal.

Preservation and promotion of Nepalese culture and traditions

The preservation and promotion of Nepalese culture and traditions are crucial for ensuring the longevity and relevance of this rich cultural heritage. There are several organizations and initiatives aimed at promoting Nepalese culture and traditions, both domestically and internationally.

For instance, the National Museum of Nepal, located in Kathmandu, serves as a hub for showcasing the country's cultural heritage through its exhibits and cultural programs. The museum works to preserve traditional Nepalese artifacts and promote the country's cultural heritage to both domestic and international audiences.

Similarly, the Nepalese government, along with local communities, have been working to preserve traditional festivals and celebrations. For example, the Gai Jatra festival in Kathmandu has been officially recognized as an important cultural event and is protected by the government, ensuring its continuation for future generations.

In addition to these efforts, cultural exchange programs have been established between Nepal and other countries, promoting the country's unique traditions and customs globally. The Gurkha Museum in Winchester, England, for example, showcases the cultural heritage of the Gurkha soldiers and their contributions to the British Army.

Moreover, there are numerous non-government organizations that are working to preserve and promote the cultural heritage of Nepal. These organizations aim to raise awareness about Nepalese culture and traditions, particularly among the younger generation, to ensure that these customs and traditions continue to be passed down from one generation to the next.

In conclusion, Nepal is a country with a rich and diverse cultural heritage that is shaped by its history, religion, and traditions. From the elaborate wood carvings of the Newars to the traditional festivals and celebrations of Dashain, Tihar, and Holi, Nepalese culture is a tapestry of fascinating customs, practices, and art forms. With a focus on preservation and promotion, Nepalese culture will continue to thrive and provide a unique and rich experience for future generations.

"Nepalese culture is like a treasure trove, with something new to discover at every turn. It is our duty to preserve and promote it, so that future generations can experience and appreciate its richness and diversity," says cultural historian, Dr. Bhagat Singh.

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Inclusivity is an important discourse in Nepali literature

Kshitiz Pratap Shah

Prakash Thamsuhang is an Ilam-based poet and essayist. He has been working in the literary field for the past three decades and has published ‘Palamko Murchana’, a poetry collection and ‘Sabdathum’, an essay collection.

Thamsuhang is currently the chairperson of the Yakthung Writer’s Association and Ilam Nagar Sahitya Kala Sangit Pratisthan.

In this talk with the Post ’s Kshitiz Pratap Shah , Thamsuhang discusses his literary inspirations, writing in various forms and genres, and the importance of his locale to his writing.

What was your early reading experience? Tell us about your first read.

I remember reading comic books when I was younger. In Ilam bazaar, there was this comic store called Srijana Store, where I would eagerly wait for new editions of Chacha Chowdhary comics.

When I got older, I started buying issues of magazines like Muna and Yuva Mancha from the same shop. I loved reading Khagendra Sangraula's works in Yuva Mancha. My brothers also bought me books, like Prakash Kovind’s novels and Hindi detective stories. I also recall reading Garima magazines and Sajha Prakashan’s Sajha Katha.

I still remember one book I couldn’t finish reading as a kid: Robinson Crusoe. The book is about a sailor whose ship got wrecked and was stuck on a remote island. I believed that story to be true and was thoroughly excited by the adventures of the stranded sailor.

Unfortunately, the Nepali translation was incomplete. I still wonder if that sailor is still stuck on the island or if he was rescued eventually.

How has your experience been with reading as a writer and an essayist? What things prompted you to write essays and poem writing?

From my early school days, I have been interested in literature. I always thought of myself as a reader with an author hidden within me.

Writing helped me expand my vocabulary substantially. My belief in dedicating myself to critical, reflective and analytical writing came through the books I read. These texts made me realise our duty to read humanity itself.

Through my readings, I realised how writing can be used to criticise and illuminate the discriminations and wrongdoings in our society.

What is your favourite text or book that had the most impact on you, personally and professionally?

My writings have been heavily inspired by Bairagi Kaila’s poetry. His poems are philosophical and culturally aware, and they make great use of myths.

I aspire to write poetry in Kaila’s style, but it would be difficult to emulate such heights, even with lots of experience and study.

Through Shankar Lamichhane’s writings, I am also learning how to make my writings even more relatable to readers. His writings inspire me.

How inclusive would you say Nepal’s writing space has been for you in terms of opportunity, language, and other aspects?

Nepali literature in the past was limited, and there was little representation of the actual state of Nepali society. Diversity is an intrinsic part of Nepal’s social identity. Yet, our literature kept presenting the reflections, myths and cliches of only one ethnic group and culture, that of the politically dominant community. Due to this one-tone focus of Nepali literature, many of us started on the path of identity-focused writing.

Even then, the mainstream literary society labelled us as a minority and attempted to sideline us. Marginalised writing and the diverse corners of Nepali literature have historically been treated unfairly.

Yet, our repeated intervention and many literary movements have helped establish inclusivity as an important discourse in Nepali literature. No one can attempt to discredit or interrupt writers who want to write about their identity.

Still, we need to include more writings of different mother tongues in Nepali literature.

What text are you reading currently? Tell us something about your reading preferences.

I am currently reading historian and former journalist Rajkumar Dikpal’s ‘Prithvi Narayan Shah: Alochnatmak Itihaas’. This book tells of the hidden or lost historical truths from the famous king’s time.

In the context of most Nepali historians idolising Pritvi Narayan Shah, this text’s attempt to see things more critically has been refreshing to read.

Currently, my focus is on reading texts focused on the Mundhum, cultural and historical matters.

How do you think your hometown and your experiences in Ilam have helped you in your academic and other written works?

Ilam has a significant literary heritage. Prominent local authors like Santa Gyandil Das, Raharsingh Rai, Mahananda Sapkota, Dr Tana Sharma, and Janaklal Sharma have continuously inspired my writing.

I hope that my works and writings inspire the younger generation in some way. This is my current goal.

We recently opened a community library with the help of the Ilam Municipality to develop a reading culture among the local youth and remind them that technology alone cannot fulfil their quest for knowledge.

The annual Ilam Literature Festival is also held here to encourage literature-inclined students of Ilam and guide them through the contemporary literary landscape.

I have found that this helps young writers in their understanding of the field.

Prakash Thamsuhang’s Book Recommendations

Nawacoit Mundhum

Author: Bairagi Kainla

This compilation of texts belongs to the oral tradition of the Yakthung Limbus, handed down through generations for centuries. It discusses the universe, the earth, and the origins of humanity, emphasising that words were the first creation.

Abstract Chintan Pyaj

Author: Shankar Lamichhane

Publisher: Sajha Prakashan

I frequently recommend this classic literary masterpiece by Shankar Lamichhane to readers. It showcases his exceptional writing skills and provides a deep understanding of his articulation of ideas through essays.

Damini Bhir

Author: Rajan Mukarung

Publisher: Phoenix Books

Mukarung’s writings are extremely helpful for understanding Kirati culture, and he is good at writing about them. He excels at capturing local tales and the essence of the region, vividly portraying the roots of common people.

Author: Raja Punayani

Publisher: Book Hill

The poems in this book are about climate change and nature conservation. They examine the relationship between human institutions and nature through the lens of Kirati culture.

Prithviko Avishkar

Author: Sundar Kurup

Publisher: Shangri-La Books

The poems in this collection have an organic flavour. They artistically portray the movements of life and the minute elements of society.

Author: Shyam Shah

This collection of stories highlights the untapped potential of tales from Madhesh. Shah’s writing helps us appreciate the novelty and beauty of Madheshi stories.

Kshitiz Pratap Shah Kshitiz Pratap Shah was a Culture and Lifestyle intern. He is an undergraduate student at Ashoka University, pursuing an English & Media Studies major.

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• Countries and Their Cultures
• Culture of Nepal

Culture Name

Alternative name, orientation.

Identification. Nepal is named for the Kathmandu Valley, where the nation's founder established a capital in the late eighteenth century. Nepali culture represents a fusion of Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Mongolian influences, the result of a long history of migration, conquest, and trade.

Location and Geography. Nepal is a roughly rectangular country with an area of 147,181 square miles (381,200 square kilometers). To the south, west, and east it is bordered by Indian states; to the north lies Tibet. Nepal is home to the Himalayan Mountains, including Mount Everest. From the summit of Everest, the topography plunges to just above sea level at the Gangetic Plain on the southern border. This drop divides the country into three horizontal zones: the high mountains, the lush central hills, and the flat, arid Terai region in the south. Fast-moving, snow-fed rivers cut through the hills and mountains from north to south, carving deep valleys and steep ridges. The rugged topography has created numerous ecological niches to which different ethnic groups have adapted. Although trade has brought distinct ethnic groups into contact, the geography has created diversity in language and subsistence practices. The result is a country with over thirty-six ethnic groups and over fifty languages.

Demography. The population in 1997 was just over 22.6 million. Although infant mortality rates are extremely high, fertility rates are higher. High birth rates in rural areas have led to land shortages, forcing immigration to the Terai, where farmland is more plentiful, and to urban areas, where jobs are available. Migration into cities has led to over-crowding and pollution. The Kathmandu Valley has a population of approximately 700,000.

Linguistic Affiliation. After conquering much of the territory that constitutes modern Nepal, King Prithvi Narayan Shah (1743–1775) established Gorkhali (Nepali) as the national language. Nepali is an Indo-European language derived from Sanskrit with which it shares and most residents speak at least some Nepali, which is the medium of government, education, and most radio and television broadcasts. For many people Nepali is secondary to the language of their ethnic group or region. This situation puts certain groups at a disadvantage in terms of education and civil service positions. Since the institution of a multiparty democracy in 1990, linguistic issues have emerged as hotly debated topics.

Symbolism. The culture has many symbols from Hindu and Buddhist sources. Auspicious signs, including the ancient Hindu swastika and Shiva's trident, decorate buses, trucks, and walls. Other significant symbols are the emblems (tree, plow, sun) used to designate political parties.

Prominent among symbols for the nation as a whole are the national flower and bird, the rhododendron and danfe; the flag; the plumed crown worn by the kings; and the crossed kukhris (curved knives) of the Gurkhas, mercenary regiments that have fought for the British Army in a number of wars. Images of the current monarch and the royal family are displayed in many homes and places of business. In nationalistic rhetoric the metaphor of a garden with many different kinds of flowers is used to symbolize national unity amid cultural diversity.

History and Ethnic Relations

The birth of the nation is dated to Prithvi Narayan Shah's conquest of the Kathmandu Valley kingdoms in 1768. The expansionist reigns of Shah and his successors carved out a territory twice the size of modern Nepal. However, territorial clashes with the Chinese in the late eighteenth century and the British in the early nineteenth century pushed the borders back to their current configuration.

National Identity. To unify a geographically and culturally divided land, Shah perpetuated the culture and language of high-caste Hindus and instituted a social hierarchy in which non-Hindus as well as Hindus were ranked according to caste-based principles. Caste laws were further articulated in the National Code of 1854.

By privileging the language and culture of high-caste Hindus, the state has marginalized non-Hindu and low-caste groups. Resentment in recent years has led to the organization of ethnopolitical parties, agitation for minority rights, and talk about the formation of a separate state for Mongolian ethnic groups.

Despite ethnic unrest, Nepalis have a strong sense of national identity and pride. Sacred Hindu and Buddhist sites and the spectacular mountains draw tourists and pilgrims and give citizens a sense of importance in the world. Other natural resources, such as rivers and flora and fauna are a source of national pride.

Hindu castes and Buddhist and animist ethnic groups were historically collapsed into a single caste hierarchy. At the top are high-caste Hindus. Below them are alcohol-drinking ( matwali ) castes, which include Mongolian ethnic groups. At the bottom are untouchable Hindu castes that have traditionally performed occupations considered defiling by higher castes. The Newars of the Kathmandu Valley have a caste system that has been absorbed into the national caste hierarchy.

Historically, members of the highest castes have owned the majority of land and enjoyed the greatest political and economic privileges. Members of lower castes have been excluded from political representation and economic opportunities. The untouchable castes were not permitted to own land, and their civil liberties were circumscribed by law. Caste discrimination is officially illegal but has not disappeared. In 1991, 80 percent of positions in the civil service, army, and police were occupied by members of the two highest castes.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Nepal historically was one of the least urbanized countries in the world, but urbanization is accelerating, especially in the capital, and urban sprawl and pollution have become serious problems. Kathmandu and the neighboring cities of Patan and Bhaktapur are known for pagoda-style and shikhara temples, Buddhist stupas, palaces, and multistory brick houses with elaborately carved wooden door frames and screened windows. Although the largest and most famous buildings are well maintained, many smaller temples and older residential buildings are falling into disrepair.

At the height of British rule in India, the Rana rulers incorporated Western architectural styles into palaces and public buildings. Rana palaces convey a sense of grandeur and clear separation from the peasantry. The current king's palace's scale and fortress-like quality illustrate the distance between king and commoner.

Rural architecture is generally very simple, reflecting the building styles of different caste and ethnic groups, the materials available, and the climate. Rural houses generally have one or two stories and are made of mud brick with a thatched roof. Village houses tend to be clustered in river valleys or along ridge tops.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Many Nepalis do not feel that they have eaten a real meal unless it has included a sizable helping of rice. Most residents eat a large rice meal twice a day, usually at midmorning and in the early evening. Rice generally is served with dal, a lentil dish, and tarkari, a cooked vegetable. Often, the meal includes a pickle achar, made of a fruit or vegetable. In poorer and higher-altitude areas, where rice is scarce, the staple is dhiro, a thick mush made of corn or millet. In areas where wheat is plentiful, rice may be supplemented by flat bread, roti. Most families eat from individual plates while seated on the floor. Though some urbanites use Western utensils, it is more common to eat with the hands.

Conventions regarding eating and drinking are tied to caste. Orthodox high-caste Hindus are strictly vegetarian and do not drink alcohol. Other castes may drink alcohol and eat pork and even beef. Traditionally, caste rules also dictate who may eat with or accept food from whom. Members of the higher castes were particularly reluctant to eat food prepared by strangers. Consequently, eating out has not been a major part of the culture. However, caste rules are relaxing to suit the modern world, and the tourist economy is making restaurants a common feature of urban life.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. At weddings and other important life-cycle events, feasts are generally hosted by the families directly involved, and numerous guests are invited. At such occasions, it is customary to seat guests on woven grass mats on the ground outside one's home, often in lines separating castes and honoring people of high status. Food is served on leaf plates, which can be easily disposed of. These customs, however, like most others, vary by caste-ethnic groups, and are changing rapidly to suit modern tastes.

Basic Economy. The large majority of the people are subsistence farmers who grow rice, maize, millet, barley, wheat, and vegetables. At low altitudes, agriculture is the principal means of subsistence, while at higher altitudes agropastoralism prevails. Many households maintain chickens and goats. However, few families own more than a small number of cows, water buffalo, or yaks because the mountainous topography does not provide grazing land for large animals.

Nepal is one of the poorest countries in the world. This poverty can be attributed to scarce natural resources, a difficult terrain, landlocked geography, and a weak infrastructure but also to feudal land tenure systems, government corruption, and the ineffectiveness of development efforts. Foreign aid rarely goes to the neediest sectors of the population but is concentrate in urban areas, providing jobs for the urban middle class. The name of the national currency is rupee.

Land Tenure and Property. Historically, a handful of landlords held most agricultural land. Civil servants often were paid in land grants, governing their land on an absentee basis and collecting taxes from tenant-farming peasants. Since the 1950s, efforts have been made to protect the rights of tenants, but without the redistribution of land.

Overpopulation has exacerbated land shortages. Nearly every acre of arable land has been farmed intensively. Deforestation for wood and animal fodder has created serious erosion.

Commercial Activities. The majority of commercial activity takes place at small, family-owned shops or in the stalls of sidewalk vendors. With the exception of locally grown fruits and vegetables, many products are imported from India and, to a lesser extent, China and the West. Jute, sugar, cigarettes, beer, matches, shoes, chemicals, cement, and bricks are produced locally. Carpet and garment manufacturing has increased significantly, providing foreign exchange. Since the late 1950s, tourism has increased rapidly; trekking, mountaineering, white-water rafting, and canoeing have drawn tourists from the West and other parts of Asia. The tourism industry has sparked the commercial production of crafts and souvenirs and created a number of service positions, such as trekking guides and porters. Tourism also has fueled the black market, where drugs are sold and foreign currency is exchanged.

Major Industries. There was no industrial development until the middle of the twentieth century. Much of earliest industrial development was accomplished with the help of private entrepreneurs from India and foreign aid from the Soviet Union, China, and the West. Early development focused on the use of jute, sugar, and tea; modern industries include the manufacturing of brick, tile, and construction materials; paper making; grain processing; vegetable oil extraction; sugar refining; and the brewing of beer.

Trade. Nepal is heavily dependent on trade from India and China. The large majority of imported goods pass through India. Transportation of goods is limited by the terrain. Although roads connect many major commercial centers, in much of the country goods are transported by porters and pack animals. The few roads are difficult to maintain and subject to landslides and flooding. Railroads in the southern flatlands connect many Terai cities to commercial centers in India but do not extend into the hills. Nepal's export goods include carpets, clothing, leather goods, jute, and grain. Tourism is another primary export commodity. Imports include gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products, and fertilizers.

Division of Labor. Historically, caste was loosely correlated with occupational specialization. Tailors, smiths, and cobblers were the lowest, untouchable castes, and priests and warriors were the two highest Hindu castes. However, the large majority of people are farmers, an occupation that is not caste-specific.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. Historically, caste and class status paralleled each other, with the highest castes having the most land, capital, and political influence. The lowest castes could not own property or receive an education. Although caste distinctions are no longer supported by law, caste relations have shaped present-day social stratification: Untouchables continue to be the poorest sector of society, while the upper castes tend to be wealthy and politically dominant. While land is still the principal measure of wealth, some castes that specialize in trade and commerce have fared better under modern capitalism than have landowning castes. Changes in the economic and political system have opened some opportunities for members of historically disadvantaged castes.

Political Life

Government. The Shah dynasty has ruled the country since its unification, except during the Rana period from the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century. During the Rana administration, the Shah monarchs were stripped of power and the country was ruled by a series of prime ministers from the Rana noble family. In 1950, the Shah kings were restored to the throne and a constitutional monarchy was established that eventually took the form of the panchayat system. Under this system, political parties were illegal and the country was governed by local and national assemblies controlled by the palace. In 1990, the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (People's Movement) initiated a series of popular demonstrations for democratic reforms, eventually forcing the king to abolish the panchayat system and institute a multiparty democracy.

The country is divided administratively into fourteen zones and seventy-five districts. Local and district-level administers answer to national ministries that are guided by policies set by a bicameral legislature made up of a House of Representatives and a National Council. The majority party in the House of Representatives appoints the prime minister. The executive branch consists of the king and the Council of Ministers.

Leadership and Political Officials. The government is plagued by corruption, and officials often rely on bribes to supplement their income. It is widely believed that influence and employment in government are achieved through personal and family connections. The king is viewed with ambivalence. He and his family have been criticized for corruption and political repression, but photos of the royal family are a popular symbol of national identity and many people think of the king as the living embodiment of the nation and an avatar of the god Vishnu.

Social Problems and Control. International attention has focused on the plight of girls who have been lured or abducted from villages to work as prostitutes in Indian cities and child laborers in carpet factories. Prostitution has increased the spread of AIDS. Foreign boycotts of Nepali carpets have helped curb the use of child labor but have not addressed the larger social problems that force children to become family wage earners.

Military Activity. The military is small and poorly equipped. Its primary purpose is to reinforce the police in maintaining domestic stability. Some Royal Nepal Army personnel have served in United Nations peacekeeping forces. A number of Nepalis, particularly of the hill ethnic groups, have served in Gurkha regiments. To many villagers, service in the British Army represents a significant economic opportunity, and in some areas soldiers' remittances support the local economy.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Aid organizations are involved in health care, family planning, community development, literacy, women's rights, and economic development for low castes and tribal groups. However, many projects are initiated without an understanding of the physical and cultural environment and serve the interests of foreign companies and local elites.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Only men plow, while fetching water is generally considered women's work. Women cook, care for children, wash clothes, and collect firewood and fodder. Men perform the heavier agricultural tasks and often engage in trade, portering, and other work outside the village. Both men and women perform physically demanding labor, but women tend to work longer hours, have less free time, and die younger. In urban areas, men are far more likely to work outside the home. Increasingly, educational opportunities are available to both men and women, and there are women in professional positions. Women also frequently work in family businesses as shopkeepers and seamstresses.

Children and older people are a valuable source of household labor. In rural families, young children collect firewood, mind animals, and watch younger children. Older people may serve on village councils. In urban areas and larger towns, children attend school; rural children may or may not, depending on the proximity of schools, the availability of teachers, and the work required of them at home.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. Women often describe themselves as "the lower caste" in relation to men and generally occupy a subordinate social position. However, the freedoms and opportunities available to women vary widely by ethnic group and caste. Women of the highest castes have their public mobility constrained, for their reputation is critical to family and caste honor. Women of lower castes and classes often play a larger wage-earning role, have greater mobility, and are more outspoken around men. Gender roles are slowly shifting in urban areas, where greater numbers of women are receiving an education and joining the work force.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Hindu castes do not generally approve of cross-cousin marriage, which is preferred among some Mongolian ethnic groups. Among some groups, a brideprice substitutes for a dowry. In others, clan exogamy is an important feature of marriages. Until recently, polygyny was legal and relatively common. Now it is illegal and found only in the older generation and in remote areas. Child marriages were considered especially auspicious, and while they continue to be practiced in rural areas, they are now prohibited by law. Love marriage is gaining in popularity in the cities, where romantic films and music inform popular sentiment and the economy offers younger people economic independence from the extended family.

Domestic Unit. Among landholding Hindu castes, a high value is placed on joint family arrangements in which the sons of a household, along with their parents, wives, and children, live together, sharing resources and expenses. Within the household, the old have authority over the young, and men over women. Typically, new daughters-in-law occupy the lowest position. Until a new bride has produced children, she is subject to the hardest work and often the harshest criticism in her husband's household. Older women, often wield a great deal of influence within the household.

The emphasis in joint families is on filial loyalty and agnatic solidarity over individualism. In urban areas, an increasing number of couples are opting for nuclear family arrangements.

Inheritance. Fathers are legally obligated to leave equal portions of land to each son. Daughters do not inherit paternal property unless they remain unmarried past age thirty-five. Although ideally sons manage their father's land together as part of a joint family, familial land tends to be divided, with holdings diminishing in every generation.

Kin Groups. Patrilineal kin groups form the nucleus of households, function as corporate units, and determine inheritance patterns. A man belongs permanently to the kinship group of his father, while a woman changes membership from her natal kin group to the kin group of her husband at the time of marriage. Because family connections are critical in providing access to political influence and economic opportunities, marriage alliances are planned carefully to expand kinship networks and strengthen social ties. Although women join the husband's household, they maintain emotional ties and contact with their families. If a woman is mistreated in her husband's household, she may escape to her father's house or receive support from her male kin. Consequently, women often prefer to marry men from the same villages.

Socialization

Infant Care. Infants are carried on the mothers' back, held by a shawl tied tightly across her chest. Babies are breast-fed on demand, and sleep with their mothers until they are displaced by a new baby or are old enough to share a bed with siblings. Infants and small children often wear amulets and bracelets to protect them from supernatural forces. Parents sometimes line a baby's eyes with kohl to prevent eye infections.

Child Rearing and Education. Mothers are the primary providers of child care, but children also are cared for and socialized by older siblings, cousins, and grandparents. Often children as young as five or six mind younger children. Neighbors are entitled to cuddle, instruct, and discipline children, who are in turn expected to obey and defer to senior members of the family and community. Children address their elders by using the honorific form of Nepali, while adults speak to children using more familiar language. Because authority in households depends on seniority, the relative ages of siblings is important and children are often addressed by birth order.

Certain household rituals mark key stages in child's development, including the first taste of rice and the first haircut. When a girl reaches puberty, she goes through a period of seclusion in which she is prohibited from seeing male family members. Although she may receive special foods and is not expected to work, the experience is an acknowledgment of the pollution associated with female sexuality and reproductivity.

From an early age, children are expected to contribute labor to the household. The law entitles both girls and boys to schooling; however, if a family needs help at home or cannot spare the money for uniforms, books, and school fees, only the sons are sent to school. It is believed that education is wasted on girls, who will marry and take their wage-earning abilities to another household. Boys marry and stay at home, and their education is considered a wise investment.

The customary greeting is to press one's palms together in front of the chest and say namaste ("I greet the god within you"). Men in urban areas have adopted the custom of shaking hands. In the mainstream culture, physical contact between the sexes is not appropriate in public. Although men may be openly affectionate with men and women with women, even married couples do not demonstrate physical affection in public. Some ethnic groups permit more open contact between the sexes.

Hospitality is essential. Guests are always offered food and are not permitted to help with food preparation or cleaning after a meal. It is polite to eat with only the right hand; the hand used to eat food must not touch anything else until it has been thoroughly washed, for saliva is considered defiling. When drinking from a common water vessel, people do not touch the rim to their lips. It is insulting to hit someone with a shoe or sandal, point the soles of one's feet at someone, and step over a person.

Religious Beliefs. Eighty-six percent of Nepalis are Hindus, 8 percent are Buddhists, 4 percent are Muslims, and just over 1 percent are Christians. On a day-to-day level, Hindus practice their religion by "doing puja, " making offerings and prayers to particular deities. While certain days and occasions are designated as auspicious, this form of worship can be performed at any time.

Buddhism is practiced in the Theravadan form. There are two primary Buddhist traditions: the Buddhism of Tibetan refugees and high-altitude ethnic groups with cultural roots in Tibet and the Tantric form practiced by Newars.

There is a strong animistic and shamanic tradition. Belief in ghosts, spirits, and witchcraft is widespread, especially in rural areas. Spiteful witches, hungry ghosts, and angry spirits are thought to inflict illness and misfortune. Shamans mediate between the human and supernatural realms to discover the cause of illness and recommend treatment.

Religious Practitioners. Many forms of Hindu worship do not require the mediation of a priest. At key rites of passage such as weddings and funerals, Brahmin priests read Vedic scriptures and ensure the correct performance of rituals. At temples, priests care for religious icons, which are believed to contain the essence of the deities they represent. They are responsible for ensuring the purity of the temple and overseeing elaborate pujas.

Buddhist monasteries train young initiates in philosophy and meditation. Lay followers gain religious merit by making financial contributions to monasteries, where religious rites are performed on behalf of the general population. Within Buddhism there is a clerical hierarchy, with highly esteemed lamas occupying the positions of greatest influence. Monks and nuns of all ranks shave their heads, wear maroon robes, and embrace a life of celibacy and religious observance.

Rituals and Holy Places. Nepal occupies a special place in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions. According to Hindu mythology, the Himalayas are the abode of the gods, and are specifically associated with Shiva, one of the three principal Hindu deities. Pashupatinath, a large Shiva temple in Kathmandu, is among the holiest sites in Nepal and attracts Hindu pilgrims from all over South Asia. Pashupatinath is only one of thousands of temples and shrines scattered throughout Nepal, however. In the Kathmandu Valley alone, there are hundreds of such shrines, large and small, in which the major gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon, as well as local and minor divinities, are worshiped. Many of these shrines are constructed near rivers or at the base of pipal trees, which are themselves considered sacred. For Buddhists, Nepal is significant as the birthplace of Lord Buddha. It is also home to a number of important Buddhist monasteries and supas, including Boudha and Swayambhu, whose domeshaped architecture and painted all-seeing eyes have become symbols of the Kathamandu Valley.

Death and the Afterlife. Hindus and Buddhists believe in reincarnation. An individual's meritorious actions in life will grant him or her a higher rebirth. In both religions the immediate goal is to live virtuously in order to move progressively through higher births and higher states of consciousness. Ultimately, the goal is to attain enlightenment, stopping the cycle of rebirth.

In the Hindu tradition, the dead are cremated, preferably on the banks of a river. It is customary for a son to perform the funeral rites. Some Buddhists also cremate bodies. Others perform what are called "sky burials," in which corpses are cut up and left at sacred sites for vultures to carry away.

Medicine and Health Care

Infant mortality is high, respiratory and intestinal diseases are endemic, and malnutrition is widespread in a country where life expectancy is fifty-seven years. Contributing to this situation are poverty, poor hygiene, and lack of health care. There are hospitals only in urban areas, and they are poorly equipped and unhygienic. Rural health clinics often lack personnel, equipment, and medicines. Western biomedical practices have social prestige, but many poor people cannot afford this type of health care. Many people consult shamans and other religious practitioners. Others look to Ayurvedic medicine, in which illness is thought to be caused by imbalances in the bodily humors. Treatment involves correcting these imbalances, principally through diet. Nepalis combine Ayurvedic, shamanic, biomedical, and other systems.

Although health conditions are poor, malaria has been eradicated. Development efforts have focused on immunization, birth control, and basic medical care. However, the success of all such projects seems to correlate with the education levels of women, which are extremely low.

The Arts and Humanities

Graphic Arts. Much of Nepali art is religious. Newari artisans create cast-bronze statuary of Buddhist and Hindu deities as well as intricately painted tangkas that describe Buddhist cosmology. The creation and contemplation of such art constitutes a religious act.

Performance Arts. Dramatic productions often focus on religious themes drawn from Hindu epics, although political satire and other comedic forms are also popular. There is a rich musical heritage, with a number of distinctive instruments and vocal styles, and music has become an marker of identity for the younger generation. Older people prefer folk and religious music; younger people, especially in urban areas, are attracted to romantic and experimental film music as well as fusions of Western and Asian genres.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Universities are underfunded, faculties are poorly paid, and library resources are meager. Nepalis accord less respect to degrees from universities than to degrees obtained abroad and many scholars seek opportunities to study overseas or in India. Despite these limitations, some fine scholarship has emerged, particularly in the social sciences. In the post-1990 period, political reforms have permitted a more open and critical intellectual environment.

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—M ARIE K AMALA N ORMAN

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Essay on : the socio cultural importance of dashain.

“The socio-cultural importance of Dashain”

D ashain is the biggest festival that Nepal Observe every year a wonderful socio-cultural celebration that allows people time to time reunites and refresh. Socially the same festival is celebrated for 15 days where different cultural rituals take place every day. The Hindu society of Nepal gives huge Priority to this festival. Dashain is the grand celebration from the first day to the fifteenth day.

Culturally Dashain festival signifies the victory of truth and the inspection of happiness. Dashain generally falls on the month of Ashoj (October). Every day has special rituals and activities to be performed. Socio Culturally the festival starts from Ghatasthapana and ends at Vijaya Dashami. On Ghatasthapana people sow rice and barely seeds on the pious corner of their house to grow seedling called Jamara.

The seventh day Phulpati, traditionally on this day the royal Kalash, banana stick, Jamara and sugarcane is carried from Gorkha to Kathmandu by Brahmins. The Eighth day is called as the bloody day of the festival. In this day people cut off the head of 108 goat and 8 buffaloes at the courtyard near the durbar square. Those meats were bought I home and taken as “Parshad”. The ninth day is known a as “Maha Navami”. This day is known as the demon hunting day because member of the defeated demon army try to save themselves by hiding in the bodies of animal and fowls. The tenth day is called as “Vijaya Dashami”. On this day tika is prepared along with Jamara. Elder put tika and Jamara (shown on Ghatsthapna) on the forehead of younger relative to bless them with abundance in upcoming year. Dashain festival is purely a religious celebration. The festival is observed as the victory of truth (goddess) over the devil.

Dashain festival is purely a religious celebration. This is the festival is observed as the victory of truth (goddess) over the devil in ten-day battle. During Navaratri almost all the temple over the country get animal sacrifice. This symbolize the battle between goddess and devil. As the goddess comes victorious over the devil on the tenth day. So, it is observed as the great joy and happiness. Socio Culturally the victory celebration goes until fifteenth day.

Although the festival has rich cultural importance it also has great religious importance. The Hindus in Nepal consider this festival as occasion to bring people together. The Nepalese people living and working in the different part of the world return back to their home in Dashain to be with their family. Dashain festival is also an occasion when you enjoy the cultural impression as traveller it’s certainly a great chance to see and experience thee Nepalese life and culture from close.

Enthusiastic Nepalese often celebrate Dashain festival to celebrate the victory of truth. Dashain has emphasized the importance of family reunion which is helpful to ease social contradiction. All the government agencies, educational institution and other public sectors are closed down during the festival period so as the worker can stay with their family member and increase the happiness among families during the festival. So, it is said that the festival Dashain has the religious and cultural and social importance. It is an occasion of peace and goodwill.

Despite this, Dashain has dark side too. Numerous birds, animals are killed mercifully. People engaged themselves in taking drinks, different beverage and gambling and so on. Some people even celebrate in an expensive and pompous style being in prolonged debt. Due to which social hazard may takes place. This may create a sadful movement for the people who can’t afford all the luxurious event. There is a popular saying in Nepali society “!!!  आयो   दशैं   ढोल   बजाइ ,  गयो   दशैं   ऋण   बोकाई  !!!”. So Dashain is just a festival so everyone should make expenses according to their capacity. This will help to make people of all class happy during this great Festival.

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Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Students are often asked to write an essay on Culture Of Nepal in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction.

Nepal, a small country in South Asia, is known for its rich cultural diversity. It is a blend of various ethnic groups, each with unique customs, traditions and languages. This makes the culture of Nepal colorful and fascinating.

Religions in Nepal

Nepal is a religious country with Hinduism and Buddhism being the main faiths. There are also followers of Islam, Christianity, and other religions. These religions influence the daily lives, festivals, and rituals of the Nepalese people.

Languages of Nepal

Nepal is a multilingual country. The official language is Nepali, but more than 123 languages are spoken. Each ethnic group has its own language, adding to the cultural richness.

Traditional Clothing

Nepalese people wear traditional clothing. Men wear ‘Daura Suruwal’ and women wear ‘Sari’ or ‘Kurta Suruwal’. The clothing reflects their ethnic identity and is worn during festivals and special occasions.

Festivals of Nepal

Art and architecture.

Nepalese art and architecture is influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism. Temples, palaces, and sculptures display intricate designs and craftsmanship. This showcases the artistic skills of the Nepalese people.

Cuisine of Nepal

Nepalese cuisine is a mix of flavors. Dal Bhat, a lentil soup with rice, is the staple food. Momos, Gundruk, and Dhido are other popular dishes. Each region has its own special dish, reflecting the diversity.

The culture of Nepal is a beautiful mix of various elements. It is a symbol of unity in diversity. Despite the differences, the people of Nepal live in harmony, respecting each other’s cultures.

250 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction to nepal’s culture.

Nepal, a small country in South Asia, is famous for its rich and diverse culture. It is home to various ethnic groups, each with its unique traditions, languages, and customs. This makes Nepal a place where different cultures blend together, creating a beautiful mix.

Religion and Beliefs

Religion is a big part of life in Nepal. Most people follow Hinduism or Buddhism. These religions influence many aspects of daily life, like food, clothing, and festivals. People visit temples and shrines regularly, showing their deep faith.

Language and Communication

Festivals and celebrations.

Festivals are a major part of Nepal’s culture. They bring joy and unity among people. Dashain, Tihar, and Holi are some of the main festivals. During these times, people gather with family, exchange gifts, and enjoy special meals.

Nepal’s art and architecture are unique and beautiful. You can see this in the temples and old buildings. They are often decorated with detailed carvings and colourful paintings. This highlights the artistic skills of the Nepalese people.

Food and Cuisine

In conclusion, Nepal’s culture is a colourful mix of traditions, beliefs, and customs. It is a symbol of unity in diversity, making Nepal a truly special place.

500 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction to nepalese culture.

Nepal, a small country nestled in the heart of the Himalayas, is known for its rich and vibrant culture. The culture of Nepal is a unique mix of tradition and novelty. It is a fusion of ancient history and modern influences. The culture is deeply rooted in the people, their rituals, their beliefs, and their daily lives.

Religions and Festivals

Language and literature.

Language is an essential part of any culture, and Nepal is no exception. The official language is Nepali, but more than 123 languages are spoken here. This shows the cultural richness and diversity of the country. Nepalese literature is also diverse, with works ranging from ancient scriptures and epics to modern novels and poetry.

Nepal is famous for its distinctive art and architecture. The country is full of ancient temples, palaces, and monuments that reflect the skills of the Newar artisans. Kathmandu Valley, in particular, is a treasure trove of such architectural wonders. The intricate woodwork, stone carvings, and metal crafts are a testament to the artistic prowess of the Nepalese people.

Nepalese cuisine is as diverse as its culture. The food varies from region to region. Dal Bhat (lentil soup with rice), Gundruk (fermented leafy greens), and Momo (dumplings) are some popular dishes. The food is not just about taste but also carries cultural and religious significance.

Music and Dance

Music and dance form an integral part of Nepalese culture. Folk music and dances are popular, with each ethnic group having its unique music and dance forms. Instruments like Madal and Sarangi are commonly used. The dances are usually performed during festivals and special occasions, adding color and rhythm to the celebrations.

Clothing and Attire

Traditional Nepalese clothing is unique and varied. Men typically wear Daura Suruwal while women wear Gunyu Cholo. These outfits are often worn during festivals and special occasions. The clothing reflects the country’s cultural heritage and identity.

In conclusion, the culture of Nepal is a beautiful blend of various elements. It is a culture that respects diversity and celebrates unity. It is a culture that values tradition while embracing change. The culture of Nepal is a mirror of its people – warm, welcoming, and vibrant.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Status of Women in Nepal: A Critical Analysis of Transformational Trajectories

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A Devoted Son Exercise : Summary and Question Answers

Share this article, a devoted son, understanding the text, answer the following questions., a. how did the morning papers bring an ambience of celebration to the varma family, b. how did the community celebrate rakesh’s success, c. why was rakesh’s success a special matter of discussion in the neighbourhood, d. how does the author make fun with the words ‘america’ and ‘the usa’, e. how does the author characterize rakesh’s wife, f. describe how rakesh rises in his career., g. how does the author describe rakesh’s family background, h. what is the impact of rakesh’s mother’s death on his father, i. what did rakesh do to make his father’s old age more comfortable, j. why did the old man try to bribe his grandchildren, k. are mr. varma’s complaints about his diets reasonable how.

You can download our android app using below button to get offline access to the notes directly from your phone.

Reference to the Context

A. how did the varma couple make sacrifices for their son’s higher education, b. mr. varma suffers from diseases one after another after his wife’s death. would he have enjoyed better health if she had not died before him give reasons., c. dr rakesh is divided between a doctor and a son. as a son, he loves his father and worries about his weakening health but as a doctor, he is strict on his father’s diet and medicine. in your view, what else could rakesh have done to make his father’s final years more comfortable, d. what does the story say about the relationship between grandfather and grandchildren, e. do you call rakesh a devoted son give reasons., reference beyond the text, a. write an essay on the parents’ ambition for their children in nepali society. you must give at least five examples..

The Parents’ Ambition for their Children in Nepali Society

b. Medicines replace our diets in old age. What can be done to make old ageless less dependent on medicine?

C. write an essay on “care of elderly citizens” in about 300 words..

Care of Elderly Citizens

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Write an essay on 'The Impacts of Migration on Nepali Society'. Class 12 English Guide

 Class 12 English Guide

6. Write an essay on 'The Impacts of Migration on Nepali Society'.

Answer:   In recent days, migration in Nepal is a lot more in trend. Most Nepalese people are on the way to migration. People are seen migrating in both levels as internal migration and external migration. People are migrating to urban areas within the country and also to foreign lands. The sole cause behind their migration is to seek better living standards as well as opportunities. Nowadays, it is quite difficult to find out youth manpower in the country. Most of the youths of Nepal have moved to foreign lands in the name of education and jobs and settled their lives over there. The rural areas are facing a lack of youths. In most villages of Nepal, elderly people are living miserable lives. Most youths are spending their lives working in urban areas as well as foreign lands. Nepali societies are facing very bad impacts due to this concept of migration. Following are some of the bad impacts of migration on Nepali society:

1. The number of youths is decreasing rapidly.

2. Most Nepalese societies are facing a lack of youth manpower.

3. The relationship between people is becoming weaker.

4.The land of hilly areas is found unused.

5. In most societies of Nepal, elderly people are spending their lonely life in a very miserable state.

6. Due to the lack of people in societies, people are experiencing loneliness during the time of festivals. 

7. There is no sense of love, affection, care, co-operation, security, peace and harmony among 1people of societies.

8. Due to the lack of people, the development of societies even has decreased.

9. The prime concept of humanity itself is in a question mark.

10. People are seen away from relationships and selfishness among people is seen.

11. Birth rate has also decreased dramatically. 

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International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health

A journal of peer-reviewed research, changing family formation in nepal: marriage, cohabitation and first sexual intercourse.

In Nepal, marriage occurs at a relatively young age and arranged weddings are widespread. However, recent changes in the family formation process and the timing of first sexual intercourse suggest that a transformation may be under way.

Data on marriage, cohabitation and first sexual intercourse from the 2001 Nepalese Demographic and Health Survey were used to describe the family formation process. The sequence of these events and the intervals between them were explored for currently married men and women. Hazard models were used to identify factors associated with behavioral changes over time.

The average age at marriage among women married before age 20 increased from 13.7 years for those born in 1952–1956 to 15.6 years for those born in 1977–1981, while remaining relatively stable for men married before age 25 (17.3 years for the 1942–1946 birth cohort to 17.7 for the 1972–1976 birth cohort). After individual and couple characteristics were controlled for, younger age at interview was associated with greater odds of simultaneous marriage and cohabitation for both genders (odds ratios, 1.3–1.7). Younger age at interview was also associated with premarital sex among men—those aged 39 or younger had significantly higher risks than older men of having had premarital sex, with odds ratios rising from 1.6 among those aged 35–39 to 1.8 among those aged 15–24.

CONCLUSIONS

It is important not only to promote education as a means of delaying marriage and childbearing, but also to implement programs and services that prevent reproductive health problems for young married couples.

International Family Planning Perspectives, 2008, 34(1):30–39

First published online: April 9, 2008

In Nepal, as in other southern Asian countries, marriage is universal and occurs at a relatively young age. However, age at marriage celebration has increased. While women born in 1952–1956 married at the median age of 14.6 years, those born at the end of the 1970s married at 16.5 years. 1

This description, however, is somewhat incomplete, as in many Asian countries the marriage celebration, which marks the beginning of a conjugal union, often precedes actual cohabitation. Cohabitation may be delayed for months or even years for a variety of reasons, such as waiting for the bride to mature physically or waiting for housing to be made available. Consequently, to fully understand the process of family formation in Nepal, * we must take age at cohabitation into consideration. The median age at first cohabitation has been rising slowly, but still remains below age 18 for women born in the early 1980s. 2 Moreover, because age at first marriage has risen more quickly than age at first cohabitation, the interval between marriage and cohabitation has decreased. Men are also marrying at later ages, although for men born in 1942–1976, age at first cohabitation has remained more or less constant, at around age 20. 3 Recently, however, signs of an increase in men's age at first cohabitation have begun to appear. 2

Young age at marriage in Nepal is closely linked to the widespread practice of arranged marriages, where relationships and agreements between families prevail over individual choices. Thus, a decline in very early marriage, accompanied by a decrease in the interval between marriage and cohabitation, may indicate a change in the marital decision-making process and an increase in the level of involvement on the part of spouses in the formation of their own marital unions. 4–6 Indeed, a number of recent studies have documented important transformations in Nepalese marital traditions.

For example, an analysis of data from the 1996 Chitwan Valley Family Survey, which was conducted in an area undergoing rapid social change in south central Nepal, showed the strong negative effects of three characteristics—school enrollment, employment and having visited health care services—on the probability of ever marrying. 7,8 Another study, using data from a survey conducted in Nepal in 2000 among 14–22-year-olds, concluded that later age at marriage is associated with greater involvement of young people in the marital decision-making process, as well as with urban residence and higher levels of educational attainment. 4

A third study, using qualitative and quantitative data from a 2003 survey in the western Chitwan Valley, suggested that changing attitudes and behaviors toward marriage are a consequence of the diffusion of a new "developmental idealism." 9 In other words, an increasing number of people believe that the "modern" family is both good and attainable, and find several aspects of western marriage desirable. Education of women seems to be the most powerful influence on attitudes toward marriage. 9 More generally, shifting views result from changes in the socialization process. Young people who are educated, employed or exposed to media, have participated in youth clubs, have had nonfamily living experiences and have made residential moves appear to marry at an older age 7,8 and to be more involved than other youth in the choice of their spouse. 10 Socializing with others may raise aspirations and change behaviors. 7,8,11

If it is true that individuals socialized in a more modern way have more freedom to choose their partners, we might expect to see change in the nature of relationships between couples. For example, people may modify their sexual behavior. 5,12,13 If the social role of marriage as a contract between families weakens, then an increasing number of unions are likely to be formed on the basis of mutual decisions and love. Sex may become primarily an instrument of communication between the two partners rather than simply an instrument of procreation or a duty between spouses and may therefore play a more important role in the life of the couple. Eventually, sex may not require the legitimization of marriage.

In this study, we examine the process of family formation in Nepal for cohorts of men and women born in 1942–1981. We study the interactions between age at marriage, cohabitation and first sexual intercourse for males and females. Understanding recent changes in the family formation process and the timing of sexual initiation is fundamental to the design of successful government policies, programs and social interventions. Young age at cohabitation may put married couples at risk for reproductive health problems, while the postponement of marriage could lead young women and men to practice unsafe sex outside of stable relationships. 14

DATA AND METHODS

In this paper, we analyze data from the 2001 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). 15 The survey collected data on the background characteristics of the respondents, as well as information on marriage, fertility, family planning, reproductive health and child health. The primary respondents were 8,726 ever-married women aged 15–49; 2,261 ever-married men aged 15–59 were also interviewed. Data for currently married men are lined with those of their wives. Information on age at first marriage and age at first cohabitation † with the partner was collected for all men and women who had ever been married and had cohabited. Basic data were also obtained about the members of each household (sex, age, highest level of education, marital status).

Although sexuality has recently gained attention because of concerns over health and STIs such as HIV, nationally representative information is still relatively scarce in the Asian context for both males and females. 16 Nepal is the only country in southern Asia for which the DHS contains questions about the age at first sexual intercourse for males and females. ‡ Information on age at first sexual intercourse was collected for all currently married individuals.

The main dependent variables in our analyses are age at first marriage celebration, first cohabitation and first sexual intercourse. Because these events are not always clearly identifiable and recognizable in developing countries, 17,18 we follow the approach used by the DHS, which accepts respondents' definitions of marriage celebration, cohabitation and first sexual intercourse.

Sequence of and Intervals Between Events

Our description of the family formation process is based on the sequence of the following events: marriage, cohabitation and first sexual intercourse. As information on these events was collected only for currently married individuals who had cohabited, each respondent has experienced all three; however, differences appear in the order of and intervals between events. We are especially interested in whether these events occurred simultaneously or sequentially, and if the latter, the order in which they occurred and the duration of intervals between events. This perspective allows us to identify different types of sequences.

We use regression analyses to determine if changes in behavior are more widespread among less traditional groups. We study the forces that accelerate or delay first cohabitation and sexual debut among men and women. We also examine the determinants of "love marriages" for both sexes (identified by simultaneous marriage and cohabitation) and of premarital sex for men. From the results of these analyses, we identify the individual determinants of change in the Nepalese family formation process.

The timing of cohabitation and sexual debut is studied using a discrete time event history approach, employing hazard models. We analyze the time from age 10 to first cohabitation and to sexual debut using hazard rate equations. 19 The dependent variables are the probabilities of cohabiting and of experiencing first sexual intercourse. A covariate that significantly reduces the probability of experiencing an event (when the estimated odds ratios are less than 1.0) signifies that people with that characteristic delay the event under consideration. We do not consider the wife's characteristics in the analysis of men's sexual debut, because the increasing proportion of young men who are having premarital sex rarely do so with their future wife.

In total, the analysis included 7,732 married women aged 15–49 who had already begun to live with their partner. In addition, we examined a sample of 1,528 married men aged 15–59 who also had already begun to live with their partner, and who had only one wife whose age fell between 15 and 49. § In order to include in our models some of the husband's or wife's characteristics, we limited the sample to women and men who had been married only once. The characteristics of the sample are shown in Table 1 .

The selection of currently married respondents prohibits us from exploring changes in age at first cohabitation across cohorts. ** However, in order to estimate the impact of cohort (and other covariates) on the probability of first cohabitation for females, we can apply hazard models to all of the women, considering never-married women as censored at interview. This is possible because first cohabitation in Nepal always follows the marriage celebration for females. In these models, we can introduce only the respondent's characteristics. We first estimated the birth-cohort effect to measure behavioral changes, and then introduced other covariates to see if they might explain these changes.

Finally, to illustrate the forces behind the increase in love marriages among men and women and premarital sex among men, we used probit regression models. In the model for love marriages, the dependent variable is the probability of simultaneous marriage and cohabitation (for both married women and men). Covariates for the wife and the husband are included in the models. In the model for premarital sex among married men, the dependent variable is the probability of having first sexual intercourse before the marriage celebration. Couple covariates were not considered.

Sequence of Events

In Nepal, the traditional behavior of delaying cohabitation was common among women born in the early 1950s (more than 40%), as well as among men born in 1947–1961 who were younger than 20 at marriage (45–53%; Table 2 ). The frequency of this behavior has declined over time, involving only about 20% of the youngest married men and women. In each cohort, for both genders, this behavior was associated with younger age at marriage.

For almost all women, first sexual intercourse takes place within marriage. Only 1% of women said that they had had premarital sex, regardless of whether or not they had delayed cohabitation (not shown). In the majority of cases, women's first sexual experience coincides with cohabitation (98%; not shown).

Among men, the proportion who had first sexual intercourse after the marriage celebration but before cohabitation is only slightly higher than that among women (1.9% vs. 0.2%; not shown). The main difference between the two sexes is in the proportion who had had premarital sex. For men, this number is higher and is increasing. For example, among men who married and cohabited before age 20, the proportion having premarital sex was 3% for the 1942–1946 cohort and 14% for the 1977–1981 cohort. These percentages are higher among those who marry and cohabit at later ages—among men in the 1967–1971 cohort, 11% of men who cohabited before age 20 had had premarital sex, while this was true for 20% of those who cohabited before age 30. It is worth noting that for men who have premarital sex, marriage and cohabitation tend to occur at the same time; only 2% delay cohabitation (not shown).

Duration of Intervals

Women's time before age 20 is divided three intervals: the time without any events; the time after marriage but before cohabitation and sexual intercourse; and the time between the end of the process (when marriage, cohabitation and sexual intercourse have occurred) and age 20 ( Table 3 ). *† The declining interval of time a woman spends between her initiation of marriage, cohabitation and sexual intercourse and her 20th birthday (interval MCS) reveals the steady increase in age at first marital cohabitation for females. For example, for women born in the early 1950s, this interval was 4.5 years; for women born in the late 1970s and early 1980s, it was 3.8 years. Viewed from the opposite end of the process, the increase in the time spent with no events (interval 0)—which ranged from 13.7 years for all women in the 1952–1956 cohort to 15.6 for those in the 1977–1981 cohort—means that the starting point of family formation is delayed. The time spent married before cohabiting (interval M) is also declining—the decrease from 1.8 years for the 1952–1956 cohort to 0.6 years for the 1977–1981 cohort confirms the decrease shown in Table 2 in the proportion of marriages in which the spouses do not begin living together immediately after the ceremony. The delay of the marriage celebration is compensated for by both the decline in the interval between marriage and cohabitation and in the time spent in marital cohabitation before age 20.

The increase in age at marriage and the decline in the time between marriage and cohabitation characterize the female sample as a whole, and may mask differences across subgroups of women. Consequently, we examined our data to determine whether the women who delayed cohabitation after marriage shared in these changes. Like women in the overall sample, women who delayed cohabitation married at later ages over time (interval 0)—from 11.3 years for women in the 1952–1956 cohort to 12.9 years for those in the 1977–1981 cohort—although change occurred at a slower pace than it did in the overall sample. The interval between marriage celebration and cohabitation (interval M) also declined over time for women who delayed cohabitation, from 3.9 years for women in the 1952–1956 cohort to 2.7 years for those in the 1977–1981 cohort.

Among men, no change is evident in the age at which the transitions begin (represented by interval 0), which varies between 16.5 years and 17.8 years across cohorts in the overall sample ( Table 4 ). The only sign of change in this respect is found in the occurrence of events before age 20: Among very young males, the age at which the transitions begin increased slightly over time, suggesting a slow abandonment of traditional behaviors (not shown). In addition, the MCS interval did not change across time for men. In other words, the age at first marital cohabitation remained relatively stable. Finally, whereas first sexual intercourse and cohabitation occurred at the same time for women, the time between those events rose from 0.5 years to 0.8 years across cohorts of men (interval S).

We also explored whether the subgroup of men who engaged in first sexual intercourse before marriage showed evidence of change in the timing of other behaviors across cohorts. For example, we explored whether the younger cohorts experienced first sexual intercourse earlier or married later. As Table 4 shows, however, no clear trend emerged. The interval before sexual intercourse (interval 0) rose by 1.7 years among older cohorts (between 1942– 1946 and 1952–1956). This change, however, did not greatly change the timing of marriage across cohorts, because it was offset somewhat by a decrease in the time between first sex and marriage (interval S). Unlike men in the overall sample, men who had had premarital sex did not postpone cohabitation after the marriage celebration; the value for interval MS is consistently 0.0. Moreover, compared with men as a whole, they are older at first marriage and first cohabitation (interval MCS is shorter).

Determinants of Age at First Sex and Cohabitation

Because first sexual intercourse and cohabitation occur at the same time for women, the factors associated with the two experiences are practically the same— Table 5 . Women's educational attainment is negatively associated with their risks of first sex and first cohabitation. The odds of first intercourse decline from 0.6 among young women with a primary education to 0.2 among those with a higher education, while the odds of first cohabitation fall from 0.8 to 0.3, relative to the odds among young women with no schooling. Both outcome variables are also negatively associated with the husband's level of education, and first cohabitation is negatively associated with the wife's age at marriage. In comparison with wives who are three or more years younger than their husband, those who are 0–2 years younger and those who are older than their husband have decreased odds of first and 0.4) and of first cohabitation (0.8 and 0.5).

Compared with those who lived in rural areas as children, women who lived in cities as children have decreased odds of first cohabitation (odds ratio, 0.7). Women who currently live in the less developed western and mountain districts of Nepal have greater odds of first intercourse than women living in the Kathmandu area (1.3–1.5). Compared with those from the Brahman group, women in the some of the Terai ethnic groups have significantly higher risks of both first intercourse and cohabitation (1.2–2.0).

Young men's educational attainment is associated only with first intercourse: Those with a secondary or higher education have a significantly lower risk than those with primary schooling or less (odds ratio, 0.7). However, schooling's association with cohabitation is completely captured by the wife's level of education: Compared with men whose wives have no education, those whose wives have a primary education have odds of 0.7 and those whose wives have secondary schooling have even lower odds (0.4). The wife's age at marriage is negatively associated with the odds of cohabitation, which decline from 0.3 among men whose wives were aged 14–16 at marriage to 0.04 among those whose wives were 17 or older. Compared with men who married a woman who was three or more years younger, those whose wives were 0–2 years younger and those whose wives were older had higher odds of cohabitation (8.9 and 16.9, respectively).

Having lived in the city rather than the country as a child was associated with reduced odds of cohabitation (odds ratio, 0.3). Currently residing in the Eastern Mountain or Eastern Hill was associated with reduced odds of both first intercourse and cohabitation (0.4–0.6); living in the Far Western Terai was associated with increased odds of first intercourse (1.6) and cohabitation (1.8). Compared with men from the Brahman group, those who were of Terai origin and those of Sherpa origin generally had higher odds of first sex and cohabitation (1.7–3.4). Having had premarital sex was associated with elevated odds of cohabitation (1.9); being non-Hindu was marginally associated with elevated odds of cohabitation (1.5).

In Table 6 (page 36), model 1 illustrates the changes among cohorts in age at first cohabitation, and confirms the results drawn from our descriptive analyses. Compared with women older than 40, women from all other cohorts had decreased odds of cohabitation at a given age, ranging from 0.7 to 0.9. These cohort effects are partially explained by the diffusion of education: Relative to women with no education, those with any education had decreased odds of cohabitation (0.1–0.6); these odds decreased as level of education increased (Model 2).

We analyzed the probability of simultaneous marriage and cohabitation as a measure of the diffusion of love marriages ( Table 7 , page 36). Several individual and partner characteristics that delay age at cohabitation also affect the simultaneity of the two events. In a model that included only age at interview, the odds of simultaneous marriage and cohabitation rose as women's age declined (odds ratios, 1.4–1.7). When all other background variables were added, women with primary education had higher odds of simultaneous marriage and cohabitation than did women with no schooling (1.2); having had a secondary education was marginally associated with higher odds of simultaneous marriage and cohabitation compared with having had no schooling. The odds of the two events being simultaneous were higher for women who had married between the ages of 14 and 16 (4.3) and for those who had married at age 17 or older (8.8) than for women who had married when younger than 14. Compared with those who lived in the countryside, women raised in the city had elevated odds of entering marriage and cohabitation at the same time (1.3). Also, when compared with women whose husband had a primary education or no education, those whose husband had secondary education or higher had greater odds of the two events occurring simultaneously (1.2).

As was shown with women, younger age at interview was associated with greater odds of simultaneous marriage and cohabitation for men (odds ratios, 1.3–1.4) in the univariate model; in the full model, however, only the youngest men were significantly more likely to begin living with their spouse immediately after the marriage celebration (1.4). Men whose wife married when she was older than age 17 or between the ages of 14 and 16 had greater odds of the two events occurring simultaneously than men whose wife had married before age 14. Men whose wife was less than two years younger and those whose wife was older had lower odds of simultaneous marriage and cohabitation than those whose wife was three or more years younger.

We also explored the characteristics associated with premarital sex among men ( Table 8 , page 37). In a model that included only age at interview, men who were aged 39 or younger had significantly higher risks than men who were older of having had premarital sex, with odds ratios rising from 1.6 among those aged 35–39 to 1.8 among those aged 15–24. Findings were similar in the full model. In that model, men who had a secondary or higher education had greater odds of having had first sex before marriage than did men who had no education (odds ratio, 1.3).

In recent years, changes in family formation have become widespread in east and southeast Asia. Age at marriage for women is rising, as is the proportion of women who will never marry. Although the median age at marriage in Nepal is rising, it remains lower than that of other countries in the region. Our analysis builds on earlier studies by highlighting changes in the sequence of events and the intervals between them, and by identifying factors that influence the timing of transitions to cohabitation and first sexual intercourse in Nepal.

Our results show that the proportion of marriages with delayed cohabitation is declining for both males and females, while age at marriage celebration and cohabitation is increasing for females. Although marriages with delayed cohabitation are celebrated earlier than others, cohabitation is increasingly delayed, even by more traditional couples.

There are no signs that premarital sex is spreading among females, not even those marrying for love. In such cases, marriage celebration and cohabitation occur at the same time. This does not hold true for men, indicating that there is a double standard for sexual behavior in Nepal. For males who have premarital sex, sexual debut takes place 3–4 years before marriage. The proportion of young men having premarital sex has risen; that proportion varies little across regions and ethnic groups. However, fewer than 20% of young males (born in the 1970s) practice this behavior, and there is no indication that these young men are engaging in nonmarital cohabitation. This is a rather small proportion compared with that observed in southern European countries, for example, where the double standard was common both before and during the sexual revolution. 20

Limitations

Data on the characteristics of respondents during their adolescence and on their family and social context are not available in the DHS. Some of the most relevant individual and community factors that might be considered include female employment and other nonfamilial experiences, participation in the family decision-making process, various family systems and interfamilial relationships, and the payment of dowry. Female employment before marriage and other nonfamilial experiences and the increased autonomy that may result from these experiences could postpone family formation. 7,8,10 However, the association of female employment with delayed marriage is unclear, especially in more traditional contexts, where families may use the woman's earnings for a dowry, increasing her marriageability. 6 In some cases, female employment should be understood as a household strategy, because it frees her brothers and parents to conduct other activities outside the village. 21

The decision-making process can affect age at marriage, as arranged marriages tend to take place at younger ages than love marriages. In addition, the proportion of love marriages increases with age at marriage, and the changes in marriage patterns are related to the diminishing number of arranged marriages. 4,6

Social and economic changes affect the context in which marital decisions take place. For example, a modern community may be more open to accepting individuals' freedom to choose their spouse. 11,22 Changes in family formation are also closely related to changes in family systems. Early marriage is typical in a society where the wedding serves as an alliance between families. In addition, the younger the prospective wife, the more malleable and submissive she will most likely be to the family rules and the authority of her new husband and in-laws. Very early marriage also prevents premarital sexual activity and protects against social censure of an unmarried daughter. 6,21–24 Parental characteristics may also reflect a more or less modern family context. For example, an association has been found between higher educational attainment for fathers and mothers and lower probabilities of early marriage for their daughters. 4,7,8

The payment of dowry plays a central role in arranged weddings and marriage patterns in Asian countries. In India, for example, the need for a dowry can delay a daughter's marriage until the parents have saved enough money. Some researchers, however, argue that parents may also accelerate the timing of the wedding to avoid the higher demands made for the dowry of older brides.

The quality of the data available in the DHS may also affect our results. One of the principal issues is the respondents' self-reports of the stages of family formation. Although our analysis is based on their responses, we do not know if these stages hold the same meaning for all respondents. However, our analysis is useful for at least four reasons. First, our analysis concerns only one country, thus making a contribution to understanding current trends within a common culture. Second, the existence of important changes in cohort behaviors is better demonstrated through analyses of sequences and intervals rather than the analysis of a specific event, such as marriage only or cohabitation only. Our results are a preliminary response to Hull and Hull's recommendation that "Retrospective studies in the future should pay particular attention to the issue of delay in consummation and cohabitation, and should also attempt to gather information on the various relevant stages of marriage, rather than asking only the age at marriage without regard to traditional patterns of arrangement and recognition of unions." 17 Indeed, the timing of marriage is not a mere demographic event, but is part of a process within wider strategies of social reproduction. 21 Third, our results are in keeping with those of in-depth studies such as the survey (mentioned earlier) on young Nepalese adults, where an emphasis was placed on the meanings of marriage transitions. And finally, our analysis demonstrates that research on this topic would be enhanced by the inclusion in surveys of additional questions concerning male and female transitions to adulthood, especially in the Asian context.

A second related problem with the quality of the DHS data is the reliability of the self-reported age at the time of certain events. The main difference between males and females in our analysis lies in the timing of their sexual debut, but this result is dependent on honest answers concerning first sexual intercourse. In a society such as Nepal's, which has strong social control and rigid norms concerning female behavior, women may underreport certain events. 16

Policy Implications

Our results suggest that one of the most important mechanisms for the raising age at marriage for males and females is the diffusion of education. However, attaining widespread delays in family formation through education may take many years. In the meantime, it is important to implement and reinforce programs and services that prevent reproductive health problems for young married couples. 25 Our results help to identify the groups most likely to marry early: less educated people, those living in rural areas and those in the Terai and western regions.

Although our results show no evidence that delayed marriage currently entails an increase in risky sexual behavior on the part of young women, they do show that about one in five young men engage in premarital sex. These young men tend to initiate sex nearly four years before they marry and begin living with their wife, potentially exposing themselves to the risk of HIV and other STIs. Consequently, preventive health programs should address the risks of STIs with young unmarried men who have premarital sex and young married couples in which the husband has had premarital sexual experiences.

Our results show that it is not only factors related to modernization (such as education, socialization in urban areas and age balance between partners) that explain differences in age at family formation, but social characteristics as well (such as ethnicity and region of residence). This is also in line with results from previous studies. 26,27 Consequently, programs that encourage marriage postponement will be successful only if they are contextualized within particular ethnic institutions and social settings. This means that policies should take regional differences into consideration and recognize that many actors are involved. Services to individuals must meet their special needs and distinct situations, and a particular effort should be made to include male partners in family interventions. In addition, the staff in service centers must be adequately trained, and parents and community members should be informed of the consequences of early marriages and births, and the advantages of postponing family formation. Finally, mass media (especially the radio) may provide a useful instrument through which to reach the entire target population. 28,29

* In the context of Nepal, this process consists of the marriage celebration, the beginning of cohabitation and the initiation of sexual intercourse.

† These data were collected as completed years of age.

‡ ;Other comparative surveys on sexual behaviors in Asia, carried out in the late 1980s and the 1990s on nationally representative samples (source: reference 18), covered only a few countries and are now out of date.

§ Because we selected a subsample as our target population (73% of the total sample of females and 17% of the males), we included a probit equation to control for selectivity using the Heckman approach (source: Heckman JJ, Sample selection bias as a specification error, Econometrica, 1979, 47(1):153–161). Basic information on all of the members of the sample households who were not selected for the individual interview was used to control for selectivity bias.

** Because we took only currently married people into consideration, the younger cohorts are censored at early ages at marriage. Consequently, the cohort parameters are overestimated because they measure the increased probability of cohabitation at young ages.

*† Three additional intervals (the time after sexual intercourse, but before marriage and cohabitation; the time after marriage and sexual intercourse, but before cohabitation; and a residual interval, such as time spent in premarital cohabitation) apply only to men.

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Author's Affiliations

Marcantonio Caltabiano is reseacher and Maria Castiglioni is associate professor, both in the Department of Statistical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Tiziana Leone for her helpful comments.