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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Teenage Pregnancy

Introduction, general overviews, textbooks and chapters in textbooks, reference books, anthologies, philosophies, demographics and statistics, adolescent sexual and reproductive health, protective factors, risk factors, pregnancy prevention programs, the americas, asia and the pacific, related articles expand or collapse the "related articles" section about, about related articles close popup.

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Teenage Pregnancy by Andrew L. Cherry , Mary E. Dillon LAST REVIEWED: 24 July 2018 LAST MODIFIED: 26 October 2015 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199791231-0111

Since the 1950s, teenage pregnancy has attracted a great deal of concern and attention from religious leaders, the general public, policymakers, and social scientists, particularly in the United States and other developed countries. The continuing apprehension about teenage pregnancy is based on the profound impact that teenage pregnancy can have on the lives of the girls and their children. Demographic studies continue to report that in developed countries such as the United States, teenage pregnancy results in lower educational attainment, increased rates of poverty, and worse “life outcomes” for children of teenage mothers compared to children of young adult women. Teenage pregnancy is defined as occurring between thirteen and nineteen years of age. There are, however, girls as young as ten who are sexually active and occasionally become pregnant and give birth. The vast majority of teenage births in the United States occurs among girls between fifteen and nineteen years of age. When being inclusive of all girls who can become pregnant and give birth, the term used is adolescent pregnancy , which describes the emotional and biological developmental stage called adolescence. The concern over the age at which a young woman should give birth has existed throughout human history. In general, however, there are two divergent views used to explain teenage pregnancy. Some authors and researchers argue that labeling teen pregnancy as a public health problem has little to do with public health and more to do with it being socially, culturally, and economically unacceptable. The bibliographic citations selected for this article will be extensive. The objective is to cover the major issues related to teenage pregnancy and childbearing, and adolescent pregnancy and childbearing. Childbirth to teenage mothers in the United States peaked in the mid-1950s at approximately 100 births per 1,000 teenage girls. In 2010, the rate of live births to teenage mothers in the United States dropped to a low of 34 births per 1,000. This was the lowest rate of teenage births in the United States since 1946. In 2012, the live births to teenage mothers continued to decline to 29.4 per 1,000. This was a drop of 13.5 percent from 2010. In 2012, some 305,388 babies were born to girls between fifteen and nineteen years of age. Among girls fourteen and younger the rate of pregnancy is about 7 per 1,000. About half of these pregnancies (3 per 1,000) resulted in live births. In spite of this decline in teenage pregnancy over the years, approximately 820,000 (34 percent) of teenage girls in the United States become pregnant each year. What’s more, some 85 percent of these pregnancies are unintended. These pregnancies and births suggest that the story of teenage pregnancy is not in the numbers of teen pregnancies and births but in the story of what causes the increase and decrease in the numbers. With the objective in mind to better understand teenage pregnancy, a general overview is provided as a broad background on teenage pregnancy. Citations are grouped under related topics that explicate the complexity of critical forces affecting teenage pregnancy. Topics that provide a global view of the variations in perception of and response to teenage pregnancy will also be covered in this article.

Adolescent pregnancy is a complex issue with many reasons for concern. Teenage pregnancy is a natural human occurrence that is a poor fit with modern society. In many ways it has become a proxy in what could be called the cultural wars. On one philosophical side of the debate, political and religious leaders use cultural and moral norms to shape public opinion and promote public policy with the stated purpose of preventing teen pregnancy. To begin, Martin, et al. 2012 provides national vital statistics on teen pregnancy. Leishman and Moir 2007 provides a good overview of these broader issues. Demographic studies by organizations like the Alan Guttmacher Institute ( Alan Guttmacher Institute 2010 ) give a statistical description of teenage pregnancy in the United States. The number of teen pregnancies and the pregnancy outcomes are often used to support claims that teenage pregnancy is a serious social problem. The other side of this debate presented in publications by groups like the World Health Organization ( World Health Organization 2004 ) reflects the medical professionals, public health professionals, and academicians who make a case for viewing teenage sexuality and pregnancy in terms of human development, health, and psychological needs. These two divergent views of teen pregnancy are represented in the United States by groups such as Children’s Aid Society; Healthy Teen Network; Center for Population Options; Advocates for Youth; National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy; National Organization on Adolescent Pregnancy, Parenting, and Prevention; state-level adolescent pregnancy prevention organizations; and other organizations that include teen pregnancy within their scope of interest and services. Mollborn, et al. 2011 delineates other important aspects of teenage pregnancy (race, poverty, and religious influences) that help explain why teenage pregnancy is considered a problem in some circles. The association between teenage pregnancy and social disadvantage, however, is not just found in the United States. Harden, et al. 2009 reports on the impact of poverty on teenage pregnancy rates in the United Kingdom. This phenomenon is not isolated to the United States and Great Britain; it is global. Holgate, et al. 2006 and the authors of Cherry and Dillon 2014 provide a comprehensive overview of global teenage pregnancy. To round out this general overview, the article Jiang, et al. 2011 is a description of a pragmatic national effort to improve the sexual and reproductive health of all adolescents and young adults. The best sources for research are professional journals and monographs from national and international health and development organizations focused on specific countries, regions, and global teenage pregnancy variations and trends.

Alan Guttmacher Institute. U.S. Teenage Pregnancies, Births and Abortions: National and State Trends and Trends by Race and Ethnicity . New York: Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2010.

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This report describes trends in teenage pregnancy, childbearing, and abortion in the United States. The statistics reveal discernible variations in teen birth and abortions between states. There is also a wide variation in teen pregnancy between racial and ethnic groups. Since the slight increase in 2006 rates have continued to decline.

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Cherry, Andrew L. “Biological Determinants and Influences Affecting Adolescent Pregnancy.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 39–53. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

This chapter highlights the biological determinants that influence adolescent sexuality and pregnancy. While our genes influence individual sexual development and behavior, the question is how much. Integrated biopsychosocial models are more accurate and give a richer picture of the determinants of adolescent sexuality.

Cherry, Andrew, and Mary Dillon. International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-8026-7 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this edited volume, eight chapters deal with issues related to adolescent pregnancy, such as mental health; biological determinants; fatherhood; pregnancy among lesbian, gay, and bisexual teens; etc. Additionally, thirty-one chapters cover major variations in the way adolescent pregnancy is viewed from different countries around the world.

Harden, Angela, Ginny Brunton, Adam Fletcher, and Ann Oakley. “Teenage Pregnancy and Social Disadvantage: Systematic Review Integrating Controlled Trials and Qualitative Studies.” British Medical Journal 339 (2009): 1182–1185.

DOI: 10.1136/bmj.b4254 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a review of interventions addressing social disadvantages associated with adolescent pregnancy in the United Kingdom. Teenage pregnancy rates were 39 percent lower among teenagers receiving both early childhood intervention and youth development programs that address “dislike of school,” “poor material circumstances and unhappy childhood,” and “low expectations for the future.”

Holgate, Helen S., Roy Evans, and Francis K. O. Yuen. Teenage Pregnancy and Parenthood: Global Perspectives, Issues and Interventions . New York: Routledge, 2006.

Teenage pregnancy and parenting, especially at a young age, is typically viewed as personally and socially undesirable. Governments worldwide demonstrate concern about teenage pregnancy in their policies and programs. This book provides a broad range of international perspectives and cultural contexts, and looks at interventions and examples of best practices.

Jiang, Nan, Lloyd J. Kolbe, Dong-Chul Seo, Noy S. Kay, and Claire D. Brindis. “Health of Adolescents and Young Adults: Trends in Achieving the 21 Critical National Health Objectives by 2010.” Journal of Adolescent Health 49 (2011): 124–132.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.04.026 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a report on the 21 Critical National Health Objectives for Adolescents and Young Adults in the United States as described in Healthy People 2010 . Two of the twenty-one goals were reached, reduction in adolescents riding with a drunk driver, and reduced physical fighting. Progress varied by demographic variables.

Leishman, June, and James Moir. Pre-Teen and Teenage Pregnancy: A Twenty-First Century Reality . Keswick, UK: M&K Update, 2007.

This book is a good place to start. It provides a standard definition of adolescents. The premise is that the physical and emotional health of teenagers has always been a complex issue and continues to challenge modern societies. It offers insight into the social reality of sexually active adolescents.

Martin, J. A., B. E. Hamilton, S. J. Ventura, M. J. Osterman, E. C. Wilson, and T. J. Mathews. “National vital statistics reports.” National Vital Statistics Reports 61.1 (2012).

This brief report shows the latest available statistical on teenage pregnancy in the United States. The report shows that teenage pregnancy continued to fall for all groups. Nevertheless the disparity between the rate of live births is two times higher among non-Hispanic African American and Hispanic girls compared to non-Hispanic white girls.

Mollborn, Stefanie, Benjamin W. Domingue, and Jason D. Boardman. Racial, Socioeconomic, and Religious Influences on School-Level Teen Pregnancy Norms and Behaviors . Boulder: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, 2011.

This report provides a broad overview of the influence and role of schools on teenage pregnancy. The impact of the school’s social, economic, and racial composition on teenage pregnancy rates among students is examined. Focusing on “age norms,” the authors answer the question, How do norms explain school pregnancy rates?

World Health Organization. Adolescent Pregnancy: Issues in Adolescent Health and Development . Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2004.

This overview of global adolescent health, development, and pregnancy covers both developed and developing countries. Social indicators and statistics show the increase in teen pregnancy after World War II and the surprising decline in the 1990s. This occurred as social control by parents and family declined.

As of mid-year 2012, there were few books designed as textbooks to be used in college classes on teenage pregnancy. This lack of textbooks and chapters, however, does not mean that this topic is not addressed in academia. Research related to teenage pregnancy (not including demographic studies and comparisons) has been mainly limited to the medical, behavioral, and social sciences. An exception is the textbook Farber 2009 . Written for social workers and students in the helping professions, it covers the risk factors and prevention. There are other books that might be used as supplemental reading material: Goldstein 2011 has a medical orientation but it was not written to be a textbook. There are several chapters on teenage pregnancy written in textbooks, for example, Armstrong 2001 . Other chapters are included in volumes related to adolescent health. Wells 2006 would be useful as a supplemental text. It presents opposing viewpoints. Other volumes such as Cater and Coleman 2006 explore why teenage girls in Great Britain plan their pregnancies. Another publication, Romer 2003 , could stimulate class discussions about the perception of what is an integrated approach to reducing the risk of adolescent pregnancy. Two other books that could be used in a college class are Maynard 1996 , a classic that makes the case that teenage pregnancy is a problem that needs to be addressed, and Cocca 2006 , which provides a historical background.

Armstrong, Bruce. “Adolescent Pregnancy.” In Handbook of Social Work Practice with Vulnerable and Resilient Populations . Edited by Alex Gitterman, 305–341. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.

This chapter provides students in the helping professions with a more in-depth discussion of the experience of teenagers who become pregnant and parent their children. Examining vulnerability and resilience, the chapter makes the point that pregnancy and parenting during adolescence is a contentious public issue and has resulted in perplexing policy.

Cater, Suzanne, and Lester Coleman. “Planned” Teenage Pregnancy: Perspectives of Young Parents from Disadvantaged Backgrounds . Bristol, UK: Policy, 2006.

This is a study of the reasons teenage girls facing poverty and disadvantage in the United Kingdom plan their pregnancies. Interviews with the teens are used to suggest policy implications for reducing teen pregnancy and how “planning” is viewed by policymakers.

Cocca, Carolyn. Adolescent Sexuality: A Historical Handbook and Guide . Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006.

This is a set of five essays dealing with adolescent sexuality, which includes adolescent pregnancy. It also includes a broad survey of the history of perceptions of adolescent sexuality and chapters on rape, pregnancy, sex education, and pop culture.

Farber, Naomi. Adolescent Pregnancy: Policy and Prevention Services . 2d ed. New York: Springer, 2009.

This textbook is primarily written for social workers and others in the helping professions who provide services to adolescents and teenagers. It covers the risk factors, child-family outcomes, and prevention. It addresses public policy and practice issues related to adolescent sexual health risks and the variation in teen pregnancy rates. Originally published in 2003.

Goldstein, Mark A. “Adolescent Pregnancy.” In The MassGeneral Hospital for Children: Adolescent Medicine Handbook . Edited by Mark A. Goldstein, 111–113. New York: Springer, 2011.

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6845-6_15 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a medical-oriented description of teenage pregnancy focusing on predictors. Listed causes are: early pubertal development, sexual abuse, poverty, lack of a nurturing family, substance abuse, low expectations or career goals, and poor school performance. “Just say no” and “virginity pledges” may decrease the likelihood of using contraception.

Maynard, Rebecca A., ed. Kids Having Kids: Economic Costs and Social Consequences of Teen Pregnancy . Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1996.

During the early 1990s, four hundred thousand US girls under the age of eighteen gave birth. This was twice the rate of other developed countries. Estimated economic and social costs of teenage childbearing are presented and contrasted with the strengths and weaknesses of specific policies and programs to prevent teen pregnancy and childbirth.

Romer, Daniel. Reducing Adolescent Risk: Toward an Integrated Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2003.

This is a good source on the topic of adolescent risk-taking behaviors (such as unprotected sex resulting in teen pregnancy). Understanding the role that adolescent risk taking often plays in sexual behavior is important for understanding unplanned teen pregnancy. This volume provides prevention and programming resources.

Wells, Ken R., ed. Teenage Sexuality: Opposing Viewpoints . Farmington Hills, MI: Greenhaven, 2006.

This is the latest in an opposing viewpoint series that can be useful supplemental material in some educational settings. It approaches teenage pregnancy by providing expert opinions in a pro versus con format.

The following reference material covers many issues that mark teenage pregnancy as an important issue in modern society. The debate is over whether teenage pregnancy is a serious health problem that requires intervention and prevention programming or whether it is a constructed crisis perpetuated by a conservative segment of society trying to enforce moral standards in an effort to save the greater society. The more pragmatic, less moralistic assessments tend to equate teenage pregnancy with adolescent sexual and reproductive health. What is evident from the literature is that on an individual level, adolescent pregnancy can and does change the trajectory of the teen mother and her child’s future. Rayes 2010 does a good job showing how trends influence public policy that results from concern over teenage pregnancy. The edited book by Card and Benner 2008 is a good source of descriptions of model programs to improve adolescent sexual health. Vinovskis’s work ( Vinovskis 1988 ) began early to make the case that teenage pregnancy was inappropriately being characterized as a problem. It helps put the policy issue in perspective. Fraser 2004 portrays teen pregnancy in an ecological context. This is a view that does not blame the teenager for her pregnancy. Arai 2009 takes a similar position in explaining teenage pregnancy in Great Britain. Early negative life events have been studied by Felitti and Anda ( Felitti and Anda 2010 ); they discuss these effects on adolescent pregnancy and the on long-term psychosocial outcomes and fetal death. Lancaster and Hamburg 2008 is similar with a biosocial emphasis. Finally, Laser and Nicotera 2010 employs these ideas for practitioners who work with adolescents. Cherry, et al. 2009 shows that although the physical risk associated with biological immaturity is ever present when young girls become pregnant, this risk (supported by research worldwide) for the most part has been shown to be caused by the social context in which the girls live. What is clear in the literature is that assumptions and perspectives can either increase risk or modulate the risk associated with an adolescent pregnancy.

Arai, Lisa. Teenage Pregnancy: The Making and Unmaking of a Problem . Bristol, UK: Policy, 2009.

This book presents the findings of a longitudinal study of adolescent health that focuses on teenage pregnancy. The author identifies strategies to reduce teenage pregnancy, reframes teen pregnancy as a social exclusion issue rather than a moral issue, and promotes increasing the participation of teen mothers in education and employment.

Card, Josefina J., and Tabitha A. Benner, eds. Model Programs for Adolescent Sexual Health: Evidence-Based HIV, STI, and Pregnancy Prevention Interventions . New York: Springer, 2008.

This volume provides a directory of model programs for adolescent sexual health. Programs described are among the most promising and empirically tested sexual education and prevention programs in the United States. Programs included were selected for their demonstrated positive impact.

Cherry, Andrew L., Lisa Byers, and Mary E. Dillon. “A Global Perspective on Teen Pregnancy.” In Maternal and Child Health: Global Challenges, Programs, and Policies . Edited by John Ehiri, 375–397. New York: Springer, 2009.

DOI: 10.1007/b106524 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This chapter presents a global view of teenage pregnancy comparing developed and developing counties in terms of attitudes, perspectives, and approaches employed to deal with teen pregnancy. The primary conclusions: the more educational, occupational, and economic opportunity available to teenage girls, the more likely they are to postpone pregnancy and childbirth.

Felitti, Vincent J., and Robert F. Anda. “The Relationship of Adverse Childhood Experiences to Adult Medical Disease, Psychiatric Disorders and Sexual Behavior: Implications for Healthcare.” In The Impact of Early Life Trauma on Health and Disease: The Hidden Epidemic . Edited by Ruth A. Lanius, Eric Vermetten, and Clare Pain, 77–87. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511777042 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Early negative life events are increasingly recognized as having serious and long-lasting effects. Emotional traumas during childhood impact neural and biological systems required for labile stability, general well-being, biomedical disorders, social function, and psychopathology. The effects of adolescent pregnancy on long-term psychosocial outcomes and fetal death are discussed.

Fraser, Mark W., ed. Risk and Resilience in Childhood: An Ecological Perspective . 2d ed. Washington, DC: NASW, 2004.

Each chapter deals with a different issue. Based on the ecological and multisystemic perspective, protective factors and risk factors for teenage pregnancy, school failure, and other childhood behaviors (i.e., disorders in childhood, drug use, and delinquency) are examined using an ethnocultural perspective.

Lancaster, Jane B., and Beatrix A. Hamburg. School-Age Pregnancy & Parenthood: Biosocial Dimensions . New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction, 2008.

In this biosocial perspective of teenage pregnancy both the biological substratum and the social environment are proposed as essential codeterminants of behavior. Culturally defined responses to the basic needs of pregnant and parenting girls is presented to explain the medical and social response and the challenge of teen pregnancy and childbearing.

Laser, Julie Anne, and Nicole Nicotera. Working with Adolescents: A Guide for Practitioners . Social Work Practice with Children and Families Series. New York: Guilford, 2010.

The authors take the position that teenage pregnancy is one of several adolescent problem behaviors. An ecological perspective is used to explain and address specific challenges faced by adolescents. The theoretical framework is followed by a section on the adolescent in context. It concludes with clinical interventions for problematic adolescent behaviors.

Rayes, Gilberto de la. Nonmarital Childbearing: Trends, Reasons and Policy . New York: Nova Science, 2010.

In 2006, 38.5 percent of all US births were among single mothers (single teenage girls and young women). Birth without marriage is viewed as a serious problem among social conservatives. Research cited suggests that children who grow up with only one biological parent often experience worse lifetime outcomes than peers.

Vinovskis, Maris A. An “Epidemic” of Adolescent Pregnancy? Some Historical and Policy Considerations . New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

This book is a historical review of adolescent sexuality and pregnancy starting in colonial times. It includes background on the origins of federal programs and policies that produced unexpected outcomes that were frequently not in line with expectations. This book also includes perspectives on the role of the adolescent father.

The following reference matter covers some of the most important issues related to teenage pregnancy. Foremost, as Patton, et al. 2010 and Hagen, et al. 2012 , make the point; teenage pregnancy is a health issue that fundamentally affects the sexual and reproductive health of the girl who is pregnant. Yet, Jewell 2000 and others believe that teenage pregnancy is a social problem. It is also a public health concern and a concern for those specializing in family planning. Prevention is another area that is supported by both professionals and the public. The definition of prevention, however, may be very different. As such, sexual education, the centerpiece of any prevention program, is hotly debated in many countries, particularly in the United States. In part, it is because the question is framed as an effort to prevent teen pregnancy. This is unfortunate. In many cases, the consequences of the prevention efforts often result in increases in sexually transmitted disease, pregnancy, and abortions. Approaching the task of providing sexual education from a justice perspective is different. The reason for providing accurate age-graded sexual information from a justice perspective, as Catania and Dolcini 2012 and Secor-Turnera, et al. 2011 suggest, is that it is an inalienable right of all people, especially adolescents and in particular teenagers, to have accurate information about their sexual and reproductive health. Even so, as Kaye, et al. 2009 and Collins, et al. 2011 explain, this does not exclude the influence of family, parents, or the religious community. Parents and peers are very influential on adolescent sexual behavior. Religion can be significant in delaying sexual initiation but is also associated with a failure to use a condom at first sexual intercourse.

Catania, Joseph A., and M. Margaret Dolcini. “A Social-Ecological Perspective on Vulnerable Youth: Toward an Understanding of Sexual Development among Urban African American Adolescents.” Research in Human Development 9 (2012): 1–8.

DOI: 10.1080/15427609.2012.654428 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A social-ecological framework is used to explore the complex factors influencing adolescent sexual development among urban African American youth living in low-income neighborhoods. Using a multistage qualitative investigation, the researchers offer new data on the sexual development of urban African American adolescents.

Collins, Rebecca L., Steven C. Martino, Marc N. Elliott, and Angela Miu. “Relationships between Adolescent Sexual Outcomes and Exposure to Sex in Media: Robustness to Propensity-Based Analysis.” Developmental Psychology 47 (2011): 585–591.

DOI: 10.1037/a0022563 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The effect of exposure to sex in the media on adolescent initiation of sexual intercourse is still an open question. This article reviews research that has been conducted and finds a weak association between media exposure and sexual initiation. The authors suggest that youth exposure to sexual content be reduced.

Hagen, Janet W., Alice H. Skenandore, Beverly M. Scow, Jennifer G. Schanen, and Frieda Hugo Clary. “Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention in a Rural Native American Community.” Journal of Family Social Work 15 (2012): 19–33.

DOI: 10.1080/10522158.2012.640926 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Native American girls have a higher rate of teen pregnancy than the US national average. A five-year study of eighth graders who were taught the Discovery Dating curriculum resulted in fewer pregnancies and higher use of condoms than eighth graders in the control group.

Jewell, David. “Teenage Pregnancy: Whose Problem Is It?” Family Practice 17 (2000): 522–528.

DOI: 10.1093/fampra/17.6.522 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This qualitative study of thirty-four teenage mothers from the United Kingdom examines teenage mothers’ attitudes about sexual health, contraception, and pregnancy. Teens from less affluent families reported more problems accessing contraceptive services and dissatisfaction with sexual education in schools. Abortion was also less acceptable to the socially disadvantaged girls.

Kaye, Kelleen, Kristin Anderson Moore, Elizabeth C. Hair, Alena M. Hadley, Randal D. Day, and Dennis K. Orthner. “Parent Marital Quality and the Parent–Adolescent Relationship: Effects on Sexual Activity among Adolescents and Youth.” Marriage and Family Review 45 (2009): 270–288.

DOI: 10.1080/01494920902733641 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Teenagers growing up outside of an intact family are likely to engage in risky sexual behaviors. This study looks at characteristics within married-parent families to identify sources that influence adolescent sexual activity. Marital relationship, the youth–parent relationship, and the interaction of the two are identified and discussed.

Patton, George C., Russell M. Viner, Le Cu Linh, et al. “Mapping a Global Agenda for Adolescent Health.” Journal of Adolescent Health 47 (2010): 427–432.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.019 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Positive changes are taking place in health care in many developing countries that will benefit adolescents. This paper reports on a 2009 London meeting related to strategic data needed to monitor future global initiatives in adolescent health. Developing a core set of global adolescent health indicators would facilitate this process.

Secor-Turnera, Molly, Renee E. Sieving, Marla E. Eisenberg, and Carol Skay. “Associations between Sexually Experienced Adolescents’ Sources of Information about Sex and Sexual Risk Outcomes.” Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and Learning 11 (2011): 489–500.

DOI: 10.1080/14681811.2011.601137 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This secondary analysis reports on informal sources about sexual risk among a group ( N = 22,828) of sexually experienced teenagers aged thirteen to twenty. Friends and siblings were most often the source of information about sex. When accurate sexual information comes from friends and siblings, it reduces teenage sexual risk.

The citations presented in this section are for the most part literature reviews. Nevertheless, in several of these articles ( Coles, et al. 1997 and Jolly, et al. 2007 ), the authors and researchers provide information from the teenagers themselves that informs and provides insight into the reasons and circumstances associated with teenage sexual behavior. Teenage fathers are also introduced under this topic with the literature review Lohan, et al. 2010 . Although little attention has been paid to teenage fathers, they play a major role, whether involved with the mother and child or absent from that relationship. More research is needed to increase our understanding of how professionals and society can support the teenage father’s effort to become a responsible father, husband, and adult. School-based health clinics are another important program type. Strunk 2008 is a good source of descriptions of these model programs. Putting in perspective the need for adolescent pregnancy health services Sells and Blum 1996 shows that adolescent morbidity and mortality has declined since 1979 by 13 percent. Other conditions that are often overlooked are the effect of child abuse and child sexual abuse on the life trajectory of adolescent girls, delineated by Francisco, et al. 2008 , and the influence of the neighborhood context, explored by Lupton and Kneale 2010 , particularly, as Buhi and Goodson 2007 points out, in relationship to early pregnancy.

Buhi, Eric R., and Patricia Goodson. “Predictors of Adolescent Sexual Behavior and Intention: A Theory-Guided Systematic Review.” Journal of Adolescent Health 40 (2007): 4–21.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.09.027 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This systematic literature review was conducted to answer the question, “Why do adolescents initiate sexual activity at early ages?” Three conditions were identified that help explain the behavior: intention, perceived norms , and time home alone . Based on the literature, these variables were good predictors of adolescent initiation of sexual behavior.

Coles, Robert, Robert E Coles, Daniel A Coles, and Michael H. Coles. The Youngest Parents: Teenage Pregnancy as It Shapes Lives . New York: W. W. Norton, 1997.

The voices of teenage girls and boys who were soon to be parents are presented in an effort to challenge preconceived ideas about teenagers who become pregnant and parents. Their stories are unique and reveal much to respect.

Francisco, Melissa A., Kasey Hicks, Julianne Powell, Kristin Styles, Jessica L. Tabor, and Linda J. Hulton. “The Effect of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Adolescent Pregnancy: An Integrative Research Review.” Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing 13 (2008): 237–248.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6155.2008.00160.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In 2008, during a brief period of time when adolescent pregnancies in the United States increased, there were renewed calls for research related to identifying risk factors involved in adolescent pregnancy. Based on a meta-analysis, the authors determined the existence and strength of the relationship between child sexual abuse and adolescent pregnancy.

Jolly, Kim, Josie A. Weiss, and Patricia Liehr. “Understanding Adolescent Voice as a Guide for Nursing Practice and Research.” Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing 30.1–2 (2007): 3–13.

DOI: 10.1080/01460860701366518 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article focuses on adolescent attitudes about contraception and adolescent depression, taking into consideration the ethnocultural context. Giving voice to adolescents by listening to their stories is proposed as a way of improving health care provided to teenagers and as a basis for further research.

Lohan, Maria, Sharon Cruise, Peter O’Halloran, Fiona Alderdice, and Abbey Hyde. “Adolescent Men’s Attitudes in Relation to Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes: A Systematic Review of the Literature from 1980–2009.” Journal of Adolescent Health 47 (2010): 327–345.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.05.005 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A review of the professional literature exposed a long-standing gender bias in academic and policy research on adolescent pregnancy, which has resulted in the lack of research on the perspectives of the adolescent male. This article sums up the literature related to adolescent boys and their attitude toward pregnancy and parenting.

Lupton, Ruth, and Dylan Kneale. Are There Neighbourhood Effects on Teenage Parenthood in the UK, and Does It Matter for Policy? A Review of Theory and Evidence . London School of Economics and Political Science CASE 141. London: Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, 2010.

This paper is a review of the evidence for considering “neighborhood effects” in relationship to teenage pregnancy. This review identifies three explanations for teen pregnancy (opportunity costs, differential values, and social networks). Although neighborhoods may influence the rate of teen pregnancy, the authors conclude that statistical evidence is mixed.

Sells, C. Wayne, and Robert W. Blum. “Morbidity and Mortality among US Adolescents: An Overview of Data and Trends.” American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 513–519.

DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.86.4.513 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is an analysis of data about adolescent morbidity and mortality in the United States (1979–1994). Since the 1980s mortality declined 13 percent among fifteen- to twenty-four-year-olds. Messages related to the benefits of contraceptives and the prevention of sexually transmitted disease have had a positive impact on the rate of unwanted teen pregnancies and childbearing.

Strunk, Julie A. “The Effect of School-Based Health Clinics on Teenage Pregnancy and Parenting Outcomes: An Integrated Literature Review.” The Journal of School Nursing 24 (2008): 13–20.

DOI: 10.1177/10598405080240010301 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This review of the literature offers substantial research findings that suggest many of the problems associated with teenage pregnancy and parenting could be lessened if school-based programs offer counseling, health care, health education, and classes on childhood development.

There are no journals that are exclusively dedicated to teenage pregnancy issues; however, there are a number of journals focused on adolescent issues, such as the Journal of Adolescence , Journal of Adolescent Health , Journal of Research on Adolescence , and International Family Planning Perspectives , which tend to publish articles on teenage and adolescent pregnancy and childbirth. Pediatrics and the American Journal of Public Health have a propensity to cover many of the issues related to teenage pregnancy. The journals listed here such as the Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry and the International Journal of Epidemiology are examples of professional publications that emphasize medical, psychological, or sociological perspectives. Of course, other journals similar to Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care will publish articles related to teen pregnancy depending on their area of clinical, medical, or social service interest.

American Journal of Public Health .

This journal focuses on research methods and program evaluation related to public health. In an effort to improve public health research, the journal publishes articles related to public health policy, best practices, and education. Epidemiologists, a broad range of social scientists, and medical and helping professionals access this journal.

International Family Planning Perspectives . 1995–2008.

This journal published studies conducted in the United States and other developed countries in the world. Articles published cover contraceptive practice; fertility levels, trends, and determinants; adolescent pregnancy; abortion; public policies and legal issues affecting childbearing; and other critical issues related broadly to family planning practice.

International Journal of Epidemiology .

This international journal publishes studies about epidemiological advances and new developments and changes in the global population. Articles and studies related to teenage pregnancy typically focus on effects of prevention programming, health services, and medical care.

Journal of Adolescence .

This is an international, multidisciplinary, broad-based journal that is concerned with the nature of adolescent development (i.e., emphasis is on personality, social, and emotional functioning). It publishes empirical studies, clinical studies, and literature reviews. A broad field of professionals specializing in services to adolescents read and publish in this journal.

Journal of Adolescent Health .

This is a multidisciplinary scientific journal. It publishes research in the field of adolescent medicine and health. Articles typically cover biological, behavioral, public health, and policy issues. Professionals involved in adolescent health access this journal. This is the official publication of the Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine.

Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care .

The journal emphasis reproductive and sexual health nationally and internationally. The articles are related to clinical care, service delivery, training, and education in the field of contraception and reproductive/sexual health.

Journal of Research on Adolescence .

This journal is research oriented. It presents methodological and theoretical articles using methods that include multivariate, longitudinal, etc. Studies include ethnographic, experimental, cross-national, and studies of gender, ethnic, and racial diversity.

Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry .

The Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry is the leading journal that focuses exclusively on the psychiatric research and treatment of the child and adolescent. The journal is committed to the advancement of research on pediatric mental health and promoting the mental health of adolescents and their families.

Pediatrics .

This journal addresses the broad needs of the whole child: that is, physiologic, mental, emotional, and social structures. It provides a platform for articles of interest to pediatricians, general medical professionals, and helping professionals.

There are basically two major views and explanations for teenage pregnancy and these views are at odds. One is that teenage pregnancy is a serious problem that requires prevention and intervention. The other is the view articulated by Upadhya and Ellen 2011 that teen pregnancy is an issue of social disparities. Johnson 2014 discusses the association between adolescent pregnancy and poverty. Banerjee, et al. 2009 argues that it is a socially inflicted health hazard. Rich-Edwards 2002 and Lawlor and Shaw 2002 made a similar point that teen pregnancy is not a public health crisis in the United States. Nonetheless, Chambers, et al. 2001 identifies sex, culture, and service needs to reduce the socially inflicted harm. A good example of the problems perspective is explained by Holgate 2012 . As a problem, teenage pregnancy is viewed as something to control and manage. As a health issue, safety is paramount, closely followed by adolescent developmental issues. Regardless of one’s explanation, Calvin, et al. 2009 discusses the rights of teen parents to be involved in decision-making that impacts their family and child or children. Of course, in Linders and Bogard 2014 and Duncan, et al. 2010 there is a real conflict over teenage parenthood. Even so, the reality is that teenage girls, especially young girls who become pregnant, are at risk of physical complications due to the immaturity of their bodies. This is especially problematic among child brides. Becoming pregnant at too young an age comes with many physical risks and problems. Given the social context, even older teens can face daunting-odds when attempting to parent their child or children. The challenge for professionals is to respect the human rights of the adolescent and support her or his physical and emotional needs as a teenager lunging toward adulthood. To improve the outcomes of adolescent pregnancy Montgomery, et al. 2014 addresses the issue through legislation. Macleod 2014 suggests the issues can be better understood and addressed as a feminist issue.

Banerjee, Bratati, G. K. Pandey, Debashis Dutt, Bhaswati Sengupta, Maitrayei Mondal, and Sila Deb. “Teenage Pregnancy: A Socially Inflicted Health Hazard.” Indian Journal of Community Medicine 34 (2009): 227–231.

DOI: 10.4103/0970-0218.55289 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Early marriages are considered a threat to the physical and emotional health of young girls. It is a major concern in rural India. Three steps instituted to enhance family welfare programs improved efforts to prevent pregnancy complications and perinatal outcomes.

Calvin, John, Manouchka Colon, and Kacey Houston. “Decision-Making Rights of Teen Parents.” Michigan Child Welfare Law Journal 12 (2009): 29–42.

The legal right of teenage parents to make autonomous decisions about their children’s care continues to be a concern. The debate over parental rights of minors is in sharp contrast to the limited rights of minors in other areas of the law.

Chambers, Ruth, Gill Wakely, and Steph Chambers. Tackling Teenage Pregnancy: Sex, Culture and Needs . Abingdon, UK: Radcliffe Medical, 2001.

This is an account of Britain dealing with the highest rate of teen pregnancy in Europe. The debate over how to respond to the high rates of teen pregnancy and minimize the risk of social exclusion is delineated. It outlines basic principles that improve services and reduce pregnancy and childbearing.

Duncan, Simon, Rosalind Edwards, and Claire Alexandrer, eds. Teenage Parenthood: What’s the Problem? London: Tufnell, 2010.

This is an examination of why policymakers and the media claim that teenage parenthood ruins a girl’s life and that of her children. It also addresses assertions that teenage pregnancy threatens the wider social and moral fabric of society. Research increasingly shows teenage parenthood does not have to be harmful.

Holgate, Helen. “Young Mothers Speak.” International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 17 (2012): 1–10.

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This overview is written from a problems perspective . The author compares problems associated with teen pregnancy from different countries worldwide to illustrate broad variation in causes and problems. The author concludes that many factors are involved in teen pregnancy and many strategies are needed to reduce teen pregnancy rates.

Johnson, Clara L. “ Adolescent Pregnancy and Poverty: Implications for Social Policy .” The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare 1.1 (2014): 17.

This open access article presents research comparing wed and unwed teenage girls. The author concludes that the rate of poverty is the about the same. Both groups were very similar in terms of birth at a young age, incomplete education, low income level, psychological and developmental issues, and social dependency.

Lawlor, Debbie A., and Mary Shaw. “Too Much Too Young? Teenage Pregnancy Is Not a Public Health Problem.” International Journal of Epidemiology 31 (2002): 552–553.

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The concern over the age at which a young woman should give birth has existed throughout human history. The authors argue that labeling teen pregnancy as a public health problem has little to do with public health and more to do with it being socially, culturally, and economically unacceptable.

Linders, Annulla, and Cynthia Bogard. “Teenage Pregnancy as a Social Problem: A Comparison of Sweden and the United States.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 147–157. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

Adolescent pregnancy in the United States is treated as an urgent social problem. Scholars, politicians, interest groups, and media have contributed to this view. In sharp contrast, teenage pregnancy in Sweden is not considered a problem in its own right. The differences are explained and discussed.

Macleod, Catriona. “Adolescent Pregnancy: A Feminist Issue.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 129–145. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

This chapter critically examines teen pregnancy from a feminist perspective. The author examines the power relations implicit in the technologies of representation and the technologies of intervention that cohere around the pregnant and parenting teenager.

Montgomery, Tiffany M., Lori Folken, and Melody A. Seitz. “Addressing Adolescent Pregnancy with Legislation.” Nursing for Women’s Health 18.4 (2014): 277–283.

DOI: 10.1111/1751-486X.12133 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article is helpful in better understanding legislation that addresses adolescent pregnancy. The focus is on legislation related to prevention and education about adolescent pregnancy. Prevention legislation that affects health care clinics, schools, and adolescent-friendly community-based organizations is highlighted. Legislative efforts are viewed as helping address the issue on a macro level.

Rich-Edwards, Janet. “Teen Pregnancy Is Not a Public Health Crisis in the United States: It Is Time We Made It One.” International Journal of Epidemiology 31 (2002): 555–556.

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The perception of opportunity is postulated as a major factor involved in adolescent pregnancy. The author submits that it is not simply poverty that increases teenage pregnancy it is low levels of optimism about their future among impoverished girls. Adolescent girls with expectations and perceived opportunity do not give birth.

Upadhya, Krishna K., and Jonathan M. Ellen. “Social Disadvantage as a Risk for First Pregnancy among Adolescent Females in the United States.” Journal of Adolescent Health 49 (2011): 538–541.

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This study examines the underlying determinants of teenage pregnancy that are associated with social disparities that are different for older teens than younger teens. Authors make the case that prevention programs targeting social risk could be improved by addressing developmental stages related to sexuality.

To understand the extent of sexuality among teenagers is to begin to understand teenage pregnancy. Adding ethnic, economic, and global demographics into the calculus helps explain the complexity of what is referred to as teen pregnancy. As well, when teenage fertility is examined over time, in the United States and among the rest of the developed nations, it is clear that teenage pregnancy has been on the decline since the mid-1990s. A good example of the history of the numbers is Smith, et al. 1996 , which looks at trends in the United States from 1960 to 1992, and Abma, et al. 2010 and Ventura, et al. 2011 , which compile data from the National Survey of Family Growth (1991–2008). Dallas 2011 focuses on an area where little research has been conducted, the response by families to the pregnancy of an adolescent. Then again, as Kaufmann, et al. 1998 shows, the decline in teen pregnancy rates is the real story. The conditions that tend to increase and reduce teen pregnancy are more understandable when cross-national social differences are studied. This type of investigation can also benefit from comparing ethnic and racial groups within countries. It is also evident that many of the educational and economic problems identified and faced by pregnant and parenting teens have little or nothing to do with the pregnancy and everything to do with social sanctions and disapproval.

Abma, J. C., G. M. Martinez, and C. E. Copen. “Teenagers in the United States: Sexual Activity, Contraceptive Use, and Childbearing, National Survey of Family Growth 2006–2008.” Vital and Health Statistics 23 (2010): 1–47.

Estimates on the sexual behavior of boys and girls fifteen to nineteen years old regarding sexual activity, contraceptive use, and births are presented from the 1988, 1995, and 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. Additional data are reported from two National Survey of Adolescent Males (1988 and 1995).

Dallas, Constance M. Redefining Family for Low-Income, Unmarried African American Adolescent Parents . In Virginia Henderson International Nursing Library’s Online Repository , 2011.

The response by families to the pregnancy of an adolescent is an area where little research has been conducted. In this study the challenges faced by families of unmarried pregnant and parenting girls are studied in light of culture influences and family systems.

Kaufmann, Rachel B., Alison M. Spitz, Lilo T. Strauss, et al. “The Decline in US Teen Pregnancy Rates, 1990–1995.” Pediatrics 102 (1998): 1141–1147.

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While teen pregnancies between 1985 and 1990 increased approximately 9 percent, starting in 1991 the rate began to decline. Between 1991 and 1995 teen pregnancies fell about 13 percent to 83.6 per 1,000 births. The conditions and statistics of a decline in pregnancies and abortions are also presented.

Smith, Herbert L., S. Philip Morgan, and Tanya Koropeckyj-Cox. “A Decomposition of Trends in the Nonmarital Fertility Ratios of Blacks and Whites in the United States, 1960–1992.” Demography 33 (1996): 141–151.

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Demographic factors believed to increase childbirth among non-married African American and white females in the United States is the subject of this monograph. The rate of the increase in childbearing for all women and teenagers over thirty years (1960–1992) is examined.

Ventura, Stephanie J., Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, T. J. Mathews, Brady E. Hamilton, Paul D. Sutton, and Joyce C. Abma. “Adolescent Pregnancy and Childbirth: United States, 1991–2008.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Surveillance Summaries 60 (2011): 105–108.

Long-term adverse consequences for adolescent mothers and their children are often associated with poorer outcomes than for children of mothers in their early twenties. Fragile family structure, limited long-term resources, and poor social supports rather than age are contributors to poor outcomes. An estimated 82 percent of pregnancies in 2001 among adolescents were unintended.

The decreasing age of menarche (the first period) has influenced fertility rates. In current models used to explain teen pregnancy, as Aruda, et al. 2010 suggests, the earlier in age that girls experience a pregnancy the higher the adolescent fertility rates. Additionally, most of the medical problems that are linked with nulliparous adolescent pregnancy ( Hueston, et al. 2008 and Zeck, et al. 2008 ) are associated with the lack of health care or inadequate health care for this group of girls. This is especially problematic because studies also show that teen girls in large number fail to access prenatal care or start prenatal care late into their pregnancy even when prenatal care is readily available. This often results in subsequent physical complications for the mother and her child. This lack of health care for pregnant teens is a global concern; Wamala 2009 provides a global view of maternal and child health. Bearinger, et al. 2007 examines global efforts related to sexual and reproductive health patterns, prevention, and potential of adolescents. An important issue, postpartum depression, is discussed by Kleiber 2014 . Outcomes among adolescent girls enrolled in care programs are described by Haeri, et al. 2009 . As a point of reference, Usta, et al. 2008 compares obstetric outcome of teenage pregnancies with adult pregnancies. Another area that is often overlooked teen moms and their leisure experiences. An overview is provided by Clark and Anderson 2014 . An international perspective is provided by Kunaviktikul 1987 , which describes health care for pregnant teens in Thailand. Teenage girls who do not access prenatal care in a timely way are less likely to follow through with postpartum care. Furthermore, these teen moms (typically younger) are less likely to follow through with healthy baby clinics. Subsequently, these teenage mothers are at an elevated risk of a repeat pregnancy. Cortez, et al. 2014 addresses the challenges for adolescent sexual and reproductive health within the context of universal health coverage. To round out this section, Baltag and Chandra-Mouli 2014 describes the needs of adolescents as outlined in the WHO Global Reproductive Health Strategy; and Tahrir 2014 discusses strategies to sustain advances in global adolescent sexual and reproductive health through organizational capacity building.

Aruda, Mary M., Kathleen Waddicor, Liesl Frese, Joanna C. M. Cole, and Pamela Burke. “Early Pregnancy in Adolescents: Diagnosis, Assessment, Options Counseling, and Referral.” Journal of Pediatric Health Care 24 (2010): 4–13.

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Pregnant teens often present at medical facilities with physical complaints not necessarily related to pregnancy. Diagnosis assessment and referral are critical for prenatal, postnatal, and positive outcomes for the teen mother and her child.

Baltag, Valentina, and Venkatraman Chandra-Mouli. “Adolescent Pregnancy: Sexual and Reproductive Health.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 55–78. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

In many parts of the world the sexual and reproductive health needs of adolescents are either poorly understood or not fully appreciated. This chapter discusses the sexual and reproductive health needs of adolescents as outlined in the WHO Global Reproductive Health Strategy.

Bearinger, Linda H., Renee E. Sieving, Jane Ferguson, and Vinit Sharma. “Global Perspectives on the Sexual and Reproductive Health of Adolescents: Patterns, Prevention, and Potential.” Lancet 369 (2007): 1220–1231.

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Global data are used to show the importance of investment in programs that are shown to be effective prevention and treatment interventions for reducing the risk to adolescents that threaten their reproductive and sexual health. Strategies based on the adolescent’s developmental stage and social contexts are emphasized.

Clark, Brianna S., and Denise M. Anderson. “Not Yet a Woman, Not Yet a Mom: The Leisure Experiences of Pregnant Adolescents.” Journal of Leisure Research 46 (2014): 509–524.

This article examines an issue that is often overlooked, the leisure experience of a teen mother from her point of view. The findings suggest that adolescents make the effort to change their leisure behavior towards behaviors that help the unborn child. They also tend to develop new forms of child-centered leisure activities.

Cortez, Rafael, Meaghen Quinlan-Davidson, and Seemeen Saadat. Challenges for Adolescents’ Sexual and Reproductive Health within the Context of Universal Health Coverage . No. 91292. The World Bank, 2014.

This report about young people (ten to twenty-four years of age) from around the world describes the tremendous challenges they face in their efforts to access sexual and reproductive health care. Inadequate health information and services, and inequitable gender norms, contribute to a lack of knowledge about sexuality and basic human rights.

Haeri, Sina, Isabelle Guichard, and Stephanie Saddlemire. “Maternal Characteristics and Outcomes Associated with Late Enrollment for Care in Teenage Pregnancies.” Southern Medical Journal 102 (2009): 265–268.

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Adolescent pregnancy is associated with adverse maternal and fetal outcomes including premature and low-weight births, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and anemia. Third trimester enrollment for prenatal care among adolescents is particularly associated with higher rates of adverse perinatal outcomes. Improved prenatal care and early enrollment is proposed to improve birth outcomes.

Hueston, William J., Mark E. Geesey, and Vanessa Diaz. “Prenatal Care Initiation among Pregnant Teens in the United States: An Analysis over 25 Years.” Journal of Adolescent Health 42 (2008): 243–248.

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This twenty-five-year-long longitudinal study highlights changes in patterns of adolescent pregnancy. The reduction in pregnancies among adolescents, particularly high-risk adolescents, and differences in the use of abortion are examined to identify characteristics that contributed to these changing patterns.

Kleiber, Blair Vinson. “Postpartum Depression among Adolescent Mothers: Examining and Treating Low-Income Adolescents with Symptoms of Postpartum Depression.” PhD diss., University of Colorado at Boulder, 2014.

Because both depression and teenage pregnancy emerge during adolescence the author examines conditions correlated with adolescent postpartum depression among low-income adolescent mothers. Perceived stress and anxiety severity were the best predictors of adolescent postpartum depression symptom severity.

Kunaviktikul, Chairat. “ Outcome of Adolescent Pregnancy .” Chiang Mai Medical Journal 26 (1987): 87–97.

A yearlong study (1 January to 31 December 1985) of adolescent pregnancy at the obstetrical unit of Chiang Mai Hospital School in Thailand; some 4.84 percent or 5,336 were adolescent deliveries. Findings show that adolescents experienced more problems related to pregnancy and childbearing than women who were twenty years old or older.

Tahrir, Esther. “Sustaining Advances in Global Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health through Organizational Capacity Building.” In 142nd APHA (American Public Health Association) Annual Meeting and Exposition (15 November–19 November 2014) . APHA, 2014.

Building organizational capacity to improve adolescent sexual and reproductive health is an effective way to initiate and sustain advances in adolescent sexual and reproductive health globally. The role of a youth perspective and of participation in adolescent sexual and reproductive health program development and decision-making is emphasized.

Usta, Ihab M., Dani Zoorob, Antoine Abu-Musa, Georges Naassan, and Anwar H. Nassar. “Obstetric Outcome of Teenage Pregnancies Compared with Adult Pregnancies.” Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 87 (2008): 178–183.

DOI: 10.1080/00016340701803282 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this study from Beirut, adolescent girls more often delivered preterm when compared to older women. Adolescent girls were more likely to experience anemia and pre-eclampsia. Nulliparous girls went into labor quicker than adolescents giving birth to their second child. Overall, teens had comparable maternal and perinatal morbidity.

Wamala, Sarah. “The Impact of Globalization on Maternal and Child Health.” In Maternal & Child Health: Global Challenges, Programs, and Policies . Edited by J. Ehiri, 135–150. Washington, DC: Springer, 2009.

This edited book for the most part addresses issues related to adult maternal and child health care. Several chapters (such as chapter eight) deal with health issues related to all women, including teenage pregnancy. Almost half of all births worldwide are among teens.

Zeck, Willibald, Wolfgang Walcher, Karl Tamussino, and Uwe Lang. “Adolescent Primiparas: Changes in Obstetrical Risk between 1983–1987 and 1999–2005.” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 34 (2008): 195–198.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1447-0756.2007.00688.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors make the argument that adolescent pregnancy is more of a public health and social issue than it is a medical problem. Even so, socioeconomic issues have to be considered when planning and implementing programs to reduce the risks associated with teenage pregnancy.

One of the theoretical perspectives that inform practitioners in their efforts to prevent risky adolescent sexual behavior and pregnancy is the concept of resiliency. East, et al. 2006 identifies the risk and protective factors that differentiate girls who experience an early pregnancy and girls who delay their first pregnancy. This is the type of information that can contribute to the development of policy and services that support a girl’s decision to delay pregnancy and childbirth. Among the protective factors are parents and family. Parents, as Commendador 2010 , explains can be very important in shaping teenage sexual behavior, that is, if the teenager has a parent or surrogate parent who is a positive role model. Tang, et al. 2014 explores protective factors associated with intergenerational parenting. In the public mind, however, teenage pregnancy is a threat to the young mother’s health and has tremendous social costs. Dallas 2009 suggests that the often overlooked factor of whether health care professionals interact or fail to interact in a positive way with adolescent fathers is important in providing care to the adolescent mother. This is related to the review of factors associated with prenatal and postpartum care and health in Sagili, et al. 2012 . The results of this line of research, described by Vesely, et al. 2004 , have clearly shown that in the majority of countries, the outcomes of teenage pregnancy are less positive than the outcomes among young women. Finally, Lyra and Medrado 2014 addresses the positive role that adolescent fatherhood can play if supported. There are educational and health programs for both female and male adolescents that have been shown to increase adolescents’ assets and protective factors.

Commendador, Kathleen A. “Parental Influences on Adolescent Decision Making and Contraceptive Use.” Pediatric Nursing 36 (2010): 147–156.

The numbers of teenage pregnancies began to decline in the 1990s. Even so, the high rate of teenage pregnancy in the United States continues to generate public concern. Partly, this is because the public views adolescent pregnancy as a threat to the young mother’s health and as having serious social costs.

Dallas, Constance M. “Interactions between Adolescent Fathers and Health Care Professionals during Pregnancy, Labor, and Early Postpartum.” Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing 38 (2009): 290–299.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.2009.01022.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a view of how professionals in the health care community interact or fail to interact in a positive way with adolescent fathers. Based on interviews with families of adolescent fathers, the experiences of adolescent fathers during prenatal and postpartum care are examined.

East, Patricia L., Siek Toon Khoo, and Barbara T. Reyes. “Risk and Protective Factors Predictive of Adolescent Pregnancy: A Longitudinal, Prospective Study.” Applied Developmental Science 10 (2006): 188–199.

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This longitudinal study identifies protective factors that reduce the likelihood of pregnancy among at-risk girls. A group of Latina and African American girls between the ages of thirteen and nineteen participated in the study. Strict parenting and low childbearing intentions during early adolescence reduced teenage pregnancy in this study.

Lyra, Jorge, and Benedito Medrado. “Pregnancy, Marriage, and Fatherhood in Adolescents: A Critical Review of the Literature.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 103–128. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

There has been very little published on adolescent fathers. This chapter gives an overview of what is available. Given the desire and potential of adolescent parents, the authors advocate for policies and programs that provide a role for teen fathers.

Sagili, Haritha, N. Pramya, Karthiga Prabhu, Mariano Mascarenhas, and P. Reddi Rani. “Are Teenage Pregnancies at High Risk? A Comparison Study in a Developing Country.” Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics 285 (2012): 573–577.

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This is a comparison between obstetric and perinatal outcome among teen and non-teen pregnancies. Some of the obstetric risks identified in this study supported previous findings while others refuted several long held beliefs about the risks in teenage pregnancy. Early and adequate antenatal care and delivery should improve outcomes.

Tang, Sandra, Pamela E. Davis-Kean, Meichu Chen, and Holly R. Sexton. “Adolescent Pregnancy’s Intergenerational Effects: Does an Adolescent Mother’s Education Have Consequences for Her Children’s Achievement?” Journal of Research on Adolescence (2014).

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Using the adolescent mother’s level of educational attainment, the authors found that their children did not do as well on reading and math measures through the eighth grade when compared to children born to mothers who were not teen moms.

Vesely, Sara K., Vicki H. Wyatt, Roy F. Oman, et al. “The Potential Protective Effects of Youth Assets from Adolescent Sexual Risk Behaviors.” Journal of Adolescent Health 34 (2004): 356–365.

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In this article, five sexual risk behaviors were examined. Non-Parental Adult Role Models, Peer Role Models, Use of Time (Religion), and Future Aspirations reduced the risk of sexual initiation. Peer Role Model and Family Communication increased the use of birth control methods by sexually active youth. Examines the relationship among individual youth assets and adolescent sexual risk behaviors.

Those who view teenage pregnancy as a problem can provide a plethora of research that compares the teen mom to her peers and peers of her children. Studies such as Miller, et al. 2010 highlight the risk of teen pregnancy associated with intimate partner violence, while Chen, et al. 2008 identifies potential links between teenage pregnancy and neonatal and post neonatal mortality. Some of the differences are that the children of teen mothers are more likely to experience poorer health, emotional, and educational outcomes—outcomes that are strongly correlated with poverty, a lack of effective sexual education, experience with domestic violence, and childhood sexual assault. One group at risk of adolescent pregnancy, described by McCoy 2015 , are former foster youth with histories of sexual abuse. And, as Barnet, et al. 2008 shows, risk of a second teen birth adds to these risk factors, depression among teenage mothers. Sipsma, et al. 2010 adds another dimension of risk, a view of the adolescent father. These and other antecedents have been identified and are proposed by Kirby 2002 to be associated with adolescent sexual initiation, the use of contraception, and pregnancy. These and other risk factors result in increased risky sexual behavior and teenage pregnancy. These outcomes have been found in virtually all developed countries and can be observed in varying degrees in the majority of countries worldwide.

Barnet, Beth, Jiexin Liu, and Margo DeVoe. “Double Jeopardy: Depressive Symptoms and Rapid Subsequent Pregnancy in Adolescent Mothers.” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 162 (2008): 246–252.

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This study examined the proposal that depression puts teenage moms at risk for a second pregnancy. Some 269 teenagers, mostly low-income African American girls, participated in the study. Girls who scored high on depression experienced more subsequent pregnancies than girls with lower depression scores.

Chen, Xi-Kuan, Shi Wu Wen, Nathalie Fleming, Qiuying Yang, and Mark C. Walker. “Increased Risks of Neonatal and Post Neonatal Mortality Associated with Teenage Pregnancy Had Different Explanations.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 61 (2008): 688–694.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2007.08.009 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study identifies potential links between teenage pregnancy and neonatal and post neonatal mortality. It is a retrospective cohort study of 4,037,009 nulliparous pregnant girls and women under twenty-five years of age in the United States. Risk associated with neonatal death was for the most part caused by preterm births.

Kirby, Douglas. “Antecedents of Adolescent Initiation of Sex, Contraceptive Use, and Pregnancy.” American Journal of Health Behavior 26 (2002): 473–485.

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The antecedents thought to be associated with adolescent sexual initiation, use of contraceptive, and pregnancy were examined in this study. Antecedents such as adolescent demographics, their partners, peers, families, schools, and communities were among one hundred possible antecedents examined.

McCoy, Jazmine J. “Maternal Perceptions and Pregnancy Experiences of Former Foster Youth with Histories of Sexual Abuse.” PhD diss., Alliant International University, 2015.

This study describes the pregnancy experiences and maternal perceptions of six former foster youth (African American and biracial) teenage mothers with histories of sexual abuse. The purpose was to describe their pregnancy experiences and social support.

Miller, Elizabeth, Michele R. Decker, Anita Raj, Elizabeth Reed, Danelle Marable, and Jay G. Silverman. “Intimate Partner Violence and Health Care-Seeking Patterns among Female Users of Urban Adolescent Clinics.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 14 (2010): 910–917.

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This study looked at the prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) and health care–seeking patterns found among female patients at several adolescent clinics. Recent IPV was found to be prevalent among the girls. Poor health status and lack of medical treatment was significantly higher for girls who experienced IPV.

Sipsma, Heather, Katie Brooks Biello, Heather Cole-Lewis, and Trace Kershaw. “Like Father, Like Son: The Intergenerational Cycle of Adolescent Fatherhood.” American Journal of Public Health 100 (2010): 517–524.

DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2009.177600 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study identified an intergenerational cycle of adolescent fatherhood. The participants were adolescent fathers nineteen years old or younger when their first child was born. Findings reveal that an intergenerational cycle of adolescent fatherhood is a contributing factor to the high rate of adolescent pregnancy in the United States.

Pregnancy prevention programs that have promoted abstinence have been shown to be ineffective. Sexual education starting early in primary school that provides age-appropriate and accurate information on sexuality and sexual behavior provides adolescents and teenagers options when making decisions about sexual behavior. A better term than “preventing teen pregnancy” would be “reduce the causes of teenage pregnancy.” Applying the least harm approach to reducing injury, parents are viewed as a viable resource. Examples of national policy for building state capacity to provide pregnancy prevention programs, as described by Rolleri, et al. 2008 , have been shown to be effective in delaying teenage pregnancy at the macro level. More at the micro level, Lederman, et al. 2008 reports on intervention programs designed to reduce risks at the individual level. On other issues related to pregnancy prevention programming, Daguerre and Nativel 2006 explains why it is in the common interest for the state to support programming for adolescent sexual and health care. One of the major impediments to a more pragmatic approach to pregnancy prevention programming, documented in Irvine 2002 , is the “battle” over sex education in the United States. Kohler, et al. 2008 looks at another strong influence and compares Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education on the age of sexual initiation. Mollborn and Sennott 2014 suggests a unique approach to understanding what norms shape the messages that teens hear about teenage pregnancy. Repeat pregnancies, which need programming to reduce the rate, are described by Crittenden, et al. 2009 , which explores mental health issues; Omar, et al. 2008 examines the impact of comprehensive young parent programming, and Milne and Glasier 2008 describes medical programming. Teenagers are a known at-risk population. Teenage pregnancy is a known risk. It is a situation that should not be ignored or given less attention than other threats to sexual and reproductive health.

Crittenden, Colleen P., Neil W. Boris, Janet C. Rice, Catherine A. Taylor, and David L. Olds. “The Role of Mental Health Factors, Behavioral Factors, and Past Experiences in the Prediction of Rapid Repeat Pregnancy in Adolescence.” Journal of Adolescent Health 44 (2009): 25–32.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.06.003 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study examined salient factors thought to be predictors of rapid repeat pregnancy among urban adolescent girls ( N  = 354)—twelve to nineteen years of age. The findings suggest that adolescent sexual behavior and individual mental health issues related to aggression should be addressed in preventing adolescent repeat pregnancy.

Daguerre, Anne, and Corinne Nativel. When Children Become Parents: Welfare State Responses to Teenage Pregnancy . Bristol, UK: Policy, 2006.

Becoming a teen parent puts one at a considerable disadvantage. It is associated with lower educational attainment and less income over time. This book delineated welfare state services to sexual active teenagers. Countries described are: Denmark, France, United Kingdom, United States, Italy, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Russia, and the province of Quebec.

Irvine, Janice M. Talk about Sex: The Battles over Sex Education in the United States . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

This is a retrospective study on the sexual education debate. Based on a long history of regulating all talk about sex, antagonists have paralyzed sexual education in US public schools. Even in the face of national public support for sexual education, sex education is framed as dangerous and immoral.

Kohler, Pamela K., Lisa E. Manhart, and William E. Lafferty. “Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education and the Initiation of Sexual Activity and Teen Pregnancy.” Journal of Adolescent Health 42 (2008): 344–351.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.026 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The effectiveness of sexual education in the United States continues to be questioned despite research supporting it. In part, the authors of this article suggest that questions about the contribution of sexual education to teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease (STD) persist because there are few epidemiologic evaluations of sexual education.

Lederman, Regina P., Wenyaw Chan, and Cynthia Roberts-Gray. “Parent-Adolescent Relationship Education (PARE): Program Delivery to Reduce Risks for Adolescent Pregnancy and STDs.” Behavioral Medicine 33 (2008): 137–144.

DOI: 10.3200/BMED.33.4.137-144 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The participants in this study were parent-adolescent dyads ( n  = 192) involved in an after-school prevention education program at several southeastern middle schools in Texas. The participants were in either an Interactive Program (IP) where resistance skills were practiced or in a treatment as usual group. Significant differences are discussed.

Milne, Dona, and Anna Glasier. “Preventing Repeat Pregnancy in Adolescents.” Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology 20 (2008): 442–446.

DOI: 10.1097/GCO.0b013e3283086708 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Girls who become pregnant are at a high risk for a repeat pregnancy. Preventing repeated pregnancies is one of the goals of virtually all pregnancy prevention programs. A number of interventions that could be useful in preventing a repeat pregnancy are examined in this article.

Mollborn, Stefanie, and Christie Sennott. “Bundles of Norms about Teen Sex and Pregnancy.” Qualitative Health Research (2014): 1049732314557086.

Using the concept of “norm bundles,” the authors suggest that norm bundles can be used as a succinct measure of related norms that shape the messages teens hear. The authors suggest that the norm bundles concept is relevant to teen pregnancy prevention and policy development.

Omar, Hatim A., A. Fowler, and Karen K. McClanahan. “Significant Reduction of Repeat Teen Pregnancy in a Comprehensive Young Parent Program.” Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 21 (2008): 283–287.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jpag.2007.08.003 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A comprehensive program designed to reduce repeat teenage pregnancy is described. The results were encouraging. Among participants, there was a significant reduction in repeat teen pregnancy over several years.

Rolleri, Lori A., Mary Martha Wilson, Patricia A. Paluzzi, and Valerie J. Sedivy. “Building Capacity of State Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Coalitions to Implement Science-Based Approaches.” American Journal of Community Psychology 41 (2008): 225–234.

DOI: 10.1007/s10464-008-9177-9 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Science-based approaches to pregnancy prevention in adolescent reproductive health stand the best chance of reducing unwanted teenage pregnancies and improving adolescent reproductive health. This article explores effective ways for disseminating research to practitioners that will result in more effective pregnancy prevention programs.

Adolescent abortion is extremely controversial in the United States, as Ely and Dulmus 2008 shows, in part because abortion for all females is controversial. Although legal under federal law, individual state laws have been written and passed that restrict or reduce access to abortion for both adolescents and adult women. In relationship to teenage pregnancy a number of laws require parental involvement and consent before a minor female can receive an abortion. Such laws have resulted in what Tomal 2001 finds is an increase in unwanted childbirth and illegal abortions. A description of a group of girls who requested an abortion is found in Coleman 2006 . Moreover, Donohue, et al. 2009 finds that childbearing declined 20 percent with legal abortion, and Coles, et al. 2010 shows that unintended teen births increase when abortion is restricted. Restricting contraceptive options and abortion in the United States as a strategy to reduce teen pregnancy and childbearing has had the opposite effect. In comparison to countries like France, described by Boonstra 2000 , the United States has some of the most restrictive laws on abortion among developed countries; yet, the United States has among the highest rates of teenage pregnancy, childbearing, and abortion in the developed world. How these laws create circumstances that result in greater risk for the adolescents whom we are trying to protect from risk, educates us. The effect of laws and policies targeting abortion highlight the complexity of teenage pregnancy and childbearing and the possibility for greatly reducing the harm experienced by the teenage mother and her child or children. Yet, Klick and Stratmann 2008 argues that laws requiring parental involvement and consent reduce risky adolescent sexual behavior.

Boonstra, Heather. “Promoting Contraceptive Use and Choice: France’s Approach to Teen Pregnancy and Abortion.” The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 3.3 (June 2000).

This article describes the French policy in 2000 that enabled nurses to offer emergency contraception in public high schools. Although reported in newspapers (for example the New York Times ) that the emergency contraception policy “unleashed a flurry” in France, this article suggests that the policy had strong public support.

Coleman, Priscilla K. “Resolution of Unwanted Pregnancy during Adolescence through Abortion Versus Childbirth: Individual and Family Predictors and Psychological Consequences.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 35 (2006): 903–911.

DOI: 10.1007/s10964-006-9094-x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study examined various demographic, educational, family, and psychological variables that were involved in adolescent abortion. Of seventeen variables only two (risk-taking and the desire to leave home) explained desire to terminate their pregnancy. These teens were more inclined to seek counseling, have problems sleeping, and used marijuana more frequently.

Coles, Mandy S., Kevin K. Makino, Nancy L. Stanwood, Ann Dozier, and Jonathan D. Klein. “How Are Restrictive Abortion Statutes Associated with Unintended Teen Birth?” Journal of Adolescent Health 47 (2010): 160–167.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.01.003 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a study of the impact of mandatory waiting statutes on the unintended births among teenage girls receiving Medicaid. Restrictions in Medicaid accounted for higher rates of unwanted births among African American teens. Among girls identified as white, parent involvement laws increased unwanted births.

Donohue, John J., III, Grogger, Jeffrey, and Steven D. Levitt. “The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Teen Childbearing.” American Law and Economic Review 11 (2009): 24–46.

DOI: 10.1093/aler/ahp006 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

There have been many explanations for the 20 percent decline in teenage childbearing between 1991 and 2002. The authors in this article use birth certificates as data and concluded that legalized abortion for females who became teenagers in the 1990s was one of the reasons for the decline in teenage childbearing.

Ely, Gretchen E., and Catherine N. Dulmus. “A Psychosocial Profile of Adolescent Pregnancy Termination Patients.” Social Work in Health Care 46 (2008): 69–83.

DOI: 10.1300/J010v46n03_04 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study of adolescents who requested an abortion investigated the psychosocial problems of a sample of 120 adolescent girls who requested an abortion from a family planning clinic in the southeastern United States. Scores on the Multidimensional Adolescent Assessment Scale suggest that overall the adolescents were stable and healthy.

Klick, Jonathan, and Thomas Stratmann. “Abortion Access and Risky Sex among Teens: Parental Involvement Laws and Sexually Transmitted Diseases.” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 24 (2008): 2–21.

DOI: 10.1093/jleo/ewm041 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This examination of teenage pregnancy from a legal perspective attempts to explain the impact of parental-involvement laws, which require a parent’s permission before a minor person can request a legal abortion. Based on the decline in gonorrhea rates, the authors concluded that the law did reduce risky sexual behavior.

Tomal, Annette. “The Effect of Religious Membership on Teen Abortion Rates.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 30 (2001): 103–116.

DOI: 10.1023/A:1005229022799 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Religious membership has a restraining effect on teenage abortion rates. Where religiosity is strong the abortion rate is influenced both directly by antiabortion sentiment and indirectly by parental-involvement laws. These laws are enacted in states where there are large numbers of religious residents in the state.

Global Perspective

Teenage pregnancy is not a stagnant condition, nor is it the same issue worldwide. Knowledge of global issues and responses to teenage pregnancy can be extremely instructive. Cherry, et al. 2001 is a first effort to organize profiles of representative countries from different regions around the world and their response to teenage pregnancy. It is a cross-sectional view of countries worldwide that allows for a contextual comparison. Shared knowledge gained from an international perspective provides insight and direction. Catalano, et al. 2012 makes a case that prevention science in adolescent health has developed effective programs that should be implemented worldwide. Inadequate nutrition among girls in some of the developing and many of the least developed nations is a significant problem and is explored as a global gender issue by Wallace, et al. 2006 . In some cultures girls are still not as valued as boys. Haley, et al. 2004 provides an example of efforts to work with stigmatized adolescent girls who have a history of pregnancy. On other global issues, Lawlor and Shaw 2004 points to the sensationalizing of teen pregnancy as the cause of the “global crisis,” while Call, et al. 2002 lays out a practical plan for reaching a goal of global adolescent health and well-being in this century. All aspects of children’s sexual and reproductive health related to physical and emotional development can be effectively managed. Additionally, social trends have been identified and their impact isolated. Growing poverty and income disparities, government instability, changing health care systems, and excluding adolescents from social systems because of pregnancy threatens the future health of adolescents and their children. The inevitable conclusion is that in the 21st century we will need to find strategies and programs to reduce the risk of adolescent sexual experimentation and behavior.

Call, Kathleen T., Aylin A. Riedel, Karen Hein, Vonnie McLoyd, Anne Petersen, and Michele Kipke. “Adolescent Health and Well-Being in the Twenty-First Century: A Global Perspective.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 12 (2002): 69–98.

DOI: 10.1111/1532-7795.00025 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article points out a number of societal trends such as growing poverty and income disparities, government instability, the changing health care system, alienating rather than integrating adolescents into society, and so on, that threaten the future health of adolescents and society as a whole. The impact in the 21st century is discussed.

Catalano, Richard F., Abigail A. Fagan, Loretta E. Gavin, et al. “Worldwide Application of Prevention Science in Adolescent Health.” Lancet 379 (2012): 1653–1664.

DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60238-4 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article describes the principles of prevention science and the role it can play in improving adolescent health. The authors describe effective preventive interventions, challenges, and possible solutions when implementing prevention policy and programming. The authors recommend preventive intervention to reduce the burden of adolescent mortality and morbidity worldwide.

Cherry, Andrew L., Mary E. Dillon, and Douglas Rugh, eds. Teenage Pregnancy: A Global View . Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.

Teenage pregnancy is a worldwide phenomenon. This book explores fifteen countries in different regions of the world to provide a history of teenage pregnancy and how it is viewed both socially and politically in each of the countries. It addresses the question of how different cultures deal with teenage pregnancy.

Haley, Nancy, E. Roy, P. Leclerc, J.-F. Boudreau, and J.-F. Boivin. “Characteristics of Adolescent Street Youth with a History of Pregnancy.” Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 17 (2004): 313–320.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jpag.2004.06.006 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors of this article ask the question: What is the best approach for providing health care for adolescent street girls with a history of pregnancy? Considering histories of sexual abuse and early-age drug injection, there is a critical need to address these issues when providing health services to this group of teen girls.

Lawlor, Debbie A., and Mary Shaw. “Teenage Pregnancy Rates: High Compared with Where and When?” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 97 (2004): 121–123.

DOI: 10.1258/jrsm.97.3.121 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Discusses when teenage pregnancy (among health concerns like cancer, cardiovascular disease, and mental health) was designated a problem requiring targeted interventions; in the case of teenage pregnancy, the reason for political and policy action in large part was because of the media sensationalizing pregnancy among adolescents. The authors explain their reasoning.

Wallace, J. M., J. S. Luther, J. S. Milne, et al. “Nutritional Modulation of Adolescent Pregnancy Outcome: A Review.” Placenta 27 (2006): 61–68.

DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2005.12.002 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article presents data from research in veterinary science to make the point that there are biological reasons for the risks of miscarriage, prematurity, and low birth weight among adolescent girls who become pregnant. The assumptions are based on studies of young female sheep and the effects of early pregnancy.

Rates and programs related to teenage pregnancy from countries around the world are compared to teenage pregnancy in the United States. Not because the United States is an example of how to cope with teenage pregnancy but because the United States is an example of how to develop social policies and programs that often increase teenage pregnancy and the ancillary problems typically associated with a socially constructed problem. Compared to Canada and European countries, the United States has more in common with developing countries in terms of the rate of teenage pregnancy, childbirth, and abortion. In the United States, the response to teen pregnancy varies across states. On a continuum, the states employ programs that vary from programs based on conservative religious models to programs based on public health models. This conceptualization and approach for measuring the response to teen pregnancy allows for the grouping of interventions by the level of conservatism. This knowledge is useful for improving program planning and advocacy. This continuum also is evident among Central and South American countries. de Almeida and Aquino 2009 examines the patterns of pregnancy in Brazil with international trends. The authors make the case that the influence of tradition and religion is still instrumental in shaping teen sexual behavior in the Americas. Much like other developing countries that are evolving from a rural-based economy into urban economic centers, many countries in Central and South America are facing similar challenges faced by policymakers in developed countries. One of the consequences of a lack of adolescent sexual and reproductive health services can be psychological distress, and suicidal behavior. Wilson-Mitchell 2014 explores these behaviors among a group of adolescent Jamaicans. The impact of adolescent mortality during pregnancy is explained by Conde-Agudelo, et al. 2005 as a clash between tradition and modernization. This struggle is played out with all its nuances in how these countries respond to the increase in the rate of teen pregnancy or to the increase in moral outrage by ambitious politicians, conservatives, and religious leaders in their effort to impose a policy of obscurantism related to sexual information and sexual education. Even so, the rate of teenage pregnancy fell in the 1990s. Santelli, et al. 2007 tries to explain the decade-long decline in teenage pregnancy as resulting from abstinence and improved contraceptive use. Santelli and Melnikas 2010 covers “a teen’s fertility in transition.” Issues vary from country to country. Al-Sahab, et al. 2012 describes the characteristics of teen moms in Canada, while Saewyc, et al. 2008 and Saewyc 2014 provide a view of teen pregnancy among gay, lesbian, and bisexual students in British Columbia, Canada. In Mexico, the issues are very basic. Atienzo, et al. 2009 reports on a study there of parent-adolescent communication as a way to reduce unwanted sexual behavior. Perez-Brena, et al. 2015 describes coparenting (mothers and daughters) in Mexico. The quality of the relationship and the adjustment in the relationship are described. Gogna, et al. 2008 describes issues of service and health care needs that are a major focus in Argentina.

Al-Sahab, Ban, Marina Heifetz, Hala Tamim, Yvonne Bohr, and Jennifer Connolly. “Prevalence and Characteristics of Teen Motherhood in Canada.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 16 (2012): 228–234.

DOI: 10.1007/s10995-011-0750-8 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study identified the prevalence and characteristics of adolescent mothers in Canadian provinces and territories. The data revealed that teen mothers compared to older mothers were more likely to have low socioeconomic status, be nonimmigrants, have no partner, reside in the Western Prairies, and have been physically or sexually abused.

de Almeida, Maria da Conceição Chagas, and Estela M. L. Aquino. “The Role of Education Level in the Intergenerational Pattern of Adolescent Pregnancy in Brazil.” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 35 (2009): 139–146.

DOI: 10.1363/3513909 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The findings reported from Brazil are similar to findings from other countries regarding the cause of intergenerational adolescent pregnancy and the effect of educational opportunity. This supports the assumption that while a daughter of a teenage mother is more likely to be a teen mother herself, educational opportunity reduces the chance of early childbearing.

Atienzo, Erika E., Dilys M. Walker, Lourdes Campero, Héctor Lamadrid-Figueroa, and Juan Pablo Gutiérrez. “Parent-Adolescent Communication About Sex in Morelos, Mexico: Does It Impact Sexual Behaviour?” European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 14 (2009): 111–119.

DOI: 10.1080/13625180802691848 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The level of communication between adolescents and their parents about sexual matters has been shown to affect teenage sexual behavior in the United States. This study replicates the protective effect of parent and child communication in Mexico. Improving communication between family members on sexual matters was found to contribute to safer sex practices.

Conde-Agudelo, Agustin, José M. Belizán, and Cristina Lammers. “Maternal-Perinatal Morbidity and Mortality Associated with Adolescent Pregnancy in Latin America: Cross-Sectional Study.” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 192 (2005): 342–349.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.10.593 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study looked at risk associated with adolescent pregnancy in Latin America (Montevideo, Uruguay). Among the findings based on a perinatal information system was that adolescent girls as opposed to young women twenty-five years of age or older were at higher risk of specific adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Gogna, Mónica, Georgina Binstock, Silvia Fernández, Inés Ibarlucía, and Nina Zamberlin. “Adolescent Pregnancy in Argentina: Evidence-Based Recommendations for Public Policies.” Reproductive Health Matters 16 (2008): 192–201.

DOI: 10.1016/S0968-8080(08)31358-5 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study describes characteristics of pregnant and parenting teens in Argentina and their service and health care needs. Improving sexual education to address safer sex and issues related to power relationships was recommended. Best practices endorsed are information and access to contraceptive options and antenatal, postpartum, and postabortion care.

Perez-Brena, Norma J., Kimberly A. Updegraff, Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor, Laudan Jahromi, and Ami Guimond. “Coparenting Profiles in the Context of Mexican-Origin Teen Pregnancy: Links to Mother–Daughter Relationship Quality and Adjustment.” Family Process 54.2 (2015): 263–279.

DOI: 10.1111/famp.12115 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study looks at the multifaceted nature of the relationship between the teen mother and her mother in terms of coparenting of the teen mother’s child. There were three profiles of mother–adolescent coparenting identified. They were “communication, involvement, and conflict.” Implications for these coparenting styles are discussed.

Saewyc, Elizabeth M. “Adolescent Pregnancy among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Teens.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 159–169. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

This chapter focuses on a rarely explored issue, teen pregnancy among lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB) youth. A growing body of evidence suggests that not only do some LGB adolescents become pregnant or get someone pregnant, they are actually at higher risk for pregnancy involvement than their heterosexual peers.

Saewyc, Elizabeth M., Colleen S. Poon, Yuko Homma, and Carol L. Skay. “Stigma Management? The Links between Enacted Stigma and Teen Pregnancy Trends among Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Students in British Columbia.” Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality 17 (2008): 123–139.

This study focuses on the context in which LGBT adolescent sexuality develops. LGBT youth in Canada and the United States have documented health disparities that have been linked to “enacted stigma.” Trends in teen pregnancy and related sexual behaviors related to stigma are discussed.

Santelli, John S., Laura Duberstein Lindberg, Lawrence B. Finer, and Susheela Singh. “Explaining Recent Declines in Adolescent Pregnancy in the United States: The Contribution of Abstinence and Improved Contraceptive Use.” American Journal of Public Health 97 (2007): 150–156.

DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.089169 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study is another effort to explain the decline in teen pregnancy rates in the United States. Declining sexual activity and improved contraceptive use were used to determine if they explained part of the decline in teen pregnancy rates. The authors attributed 86 percent of the decline to improved contraception.

Santelli, John S., and Andrea J. Melnikas. “Teen Fertility in Transition: Recent and Historic Trends in the United States.” Annual Review of Public Health 31 (2010): 371–383.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090830 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

To explain the decline and then short period of increased teen pregnancy rates (2006–2007), the authors examined historical changes in sexuality, social forces, and public policies that may have influenced teenage fertility. Public policies related to HIV prevention and sexuality education may have also played a role in fertility rates.

Wilson-Mitchell, Karline. “Factors Associated with Adolescent Pregnancy, Psychological Distress, and Suicidal Behavior in Jamaica: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health 59.5 (2014): 552.

DOI: 10.1111/jmwh.12248 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The purpose of the Jamaican Global School-Based Health Survey (2010) was to develop a sociodemographic profile of pregnant Jamaican adolescents and explore the personal experiences of these teens. The survey covered maternal mortality, premature newborns, low birth weight, and low and poor utilization of antenatal health care.

Health targets that have profoundly affected teen pregnancy in a positive way are based on the World Health Organization’s strategies for Europe in 2001 and global strategies articulated in 2004. European countries, particularly those in the European Union, as Moore 2000 and Avery and Lazdane 2008 explain, tend to follow best practices in program development rather than develop programs outlined by Ferguson, et al. 2008 and Selman 2003 that are designed to impose moral, traditional, or religious values on a vulnerable segment of society. Heath care and women’s rights are codified and each country seeking to become a member of the EU is required to sign a treaty and enforce women’s rights. This is extremely important to the sexual and reproductive health of adolescent girls. In one study, Zapata, et al. 2011 reported that pregnancy rates were greater than 70 percent among girls who became sexually active at twelve years old or younger. Examples of programs that have been developed in EU member countries are described by Fronteira, et al. 2009 and Teva, et al. 2009 , which are often compared on effectiveness to US teen sexual behavior programs and outcomes.

Avery, Lisa, and Gunta Lazdane. “What Do We Know about Sexual and Reproductive Health of Adolescents in Europe?” European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 13 (2008): 58–70.

DOI: 10.1080/13625180701617621 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Adolescent sexual and reproductive health is viewed as essential for sustainable development in both developed and developing countries. New reproductive health programs and policies have been developed based on the World Health Organization’s strategies for Europe in 2001 and globally in 2004. Regardless, adolescents still receive poor reproductive health care.

Ferguson, Rebecca M., Ine Vanwesenbeeck, and Trudie Knijn. “A Matter of Facts . . . and More: An Exploratory Analysis of the Content of Sexuality Education in the Netherlands.” Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and Learning 8 (2008): 93–106.

DOI: 10.1080/14681810701811878 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors compare sexual education in the Netherlands, which has one of the lowest rates of teen pregnancy and one of the highest of contraceptive use among adolescents with sexual education in the United States. A content analysis of sexuality education materials in the Netherlands and the United States is discussed.

Fronteira, Ines, Miguel Oliveira da Silva, Vit Unzeitig, Helle Karro, and Marleen Temmerman. “Sexual and Reproductive Health of Adolescents in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Estonia and Portugal.” Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 14 (2009): 215–220.

DOI: 10.1080/13625180902894524 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study examined the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents in four countries in the European Union. Differences between countries indicate that common measurement tools and targets are needed to inform policymakers and service providers about the effectiveness of programs designed to reduce teenage pregnancy and STDs.

Moore, Mary Lou. “Adolescent Pregnancy Rates in Three European Countries: Lessons to Be Learned?” Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing 29 (2000): 355–362.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.2000.tb02057.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This comparison between the Netherlands, France, and Germany and the United States examines factors associated with higher teen pregnancy and abortion rates in the United States. Factors that differentiated the countries were differences in perspective related to sexual education, the rights and responsibilities of adolescents, access to contraceptives, and mass media campaigns.

Selman, Peter. “Scapegoating and Moral Panics: Teenage Pregnancy in Britain and the United States.” In Families and the State: Changing Relationships . Edited by Sarah Cunningham-Burley and Lynn Jamieson, 159–186. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

DOI: 10.1057/9780230522831 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study highlights differences between the rates of teen pregnancy in Britain and the United States and in other mainland European countries. One difference was that in both countries teenage mothers were subjected to hostility from the media and politicians as symbolic of declining morality and the collapse of the traditional family.

Teva, Inmaculada, M. Paz Bermúdez, G. Buela-Casal. “Characteristics of Sexual Behavior in Spanish Adolescents.” Spanish Journal of Psychology 12 (2009): 471–484.

DOI: 10.1017/S1138741600001852 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study describes adolescent sexual behavior in Spain. Among the findings, boys and girls differed regarding sexual partners. Some 63 percent of males compared to 90.5 percent of females had a steady sexual partner. The average number of sexual partners over the last twelve months was slightly higher for boys than girls.

Zapata, Lauren B., Dmitry M. Kissin, Cheryl L. Robbins, et al. “Multi-City Assessment of Lifetime Pregnancy Involvement among Street Youth, Ukraine.” Journal of Urban Health 88 (2011): 779–792.

DOI: 10.1007/s11524-011-9596-z Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The prevalence of risk factors associated with pregnancy among street youth was studied in the Ukraine. Findings reported a significantly elevated pregnancy rate of greater than 70 percent among girls who were initiated into sexual activity at twelve years old or younger, girls who reported lifetime anal sex, and survival sex.

Africa faces some of the most daunting public health problems in the world. Jewkes, et al. 2009 makes the point that to meet the Millennium Development Goals African countries need to reduce teenage pregnancy. This will be difficult in some countries where traditional Muslim religious practices have great sway. In mid-continent African countries like Cameroon, health workers are faced with, as Kongnyuy, et al. 2008 explains, the task of improving fetal outcomes. It is not a question of what works but how to encourage teens to utilize services. Nigeria has a population that is about half Muslim and half Christian with small numbers of Nigerians who adhere to traditional African religions. Okonofua, et al. 2009 studies the problem of unsafe abortions in Africa that result from the unwillingness to address the abortion issue in the face of religious resistance. In another example, Turkey, as described by Canbaz, et al. 2005 , is a nation that has joined the European Union and is working to meet the EU health standards affecting adolescent pregnancy. In this religious context, African nations struggle with some of the most serious public health challenges in the world. Clark, et al. 2006 makes the point that HIV/AIDS has changed the structure of the family in large swaths across Africa. Another important issue in many African countries, reported by Roudi-Fahimi and Monem 2010 , is that for many adolescent girls, the risks of unintended pregnancy they face are often within marriage. Their sexual and reproductive health is threatened because they are child brides. Becoming pregnant before the adolescent is physically mature enough to give birth, vaginal mutilation, and other risks are far too common in many African countries where the political leaders, religious leaders, health professionals, and the public fail to act responsibly in providing for teenage reproductive and sexuality health. To better understand sexual behavior in this region, Plummer, et al. 2004 explains how accurate data help in the design of services to reduce sexually transmitted disease. Toska 2015 explores the pathway between age-disparate sexual relationships, condom use, and adolescent pregnancy in South Africa’. Finally, Macleod and Tracey 2010 delineate efforts in South Africa over ten years to improve the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents in the African context.

Canbaz, Sevgi, Ahmet T. Sunter, Cetin E. Cetinoglu, and Yildiz Peksen. “Obstetric Outcomes of Adolescent Pregnancies in Turkey.” Advances in Therapy 22 (2005): 636–641.

DOI: 10.1007/BF02849957 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study examined obstetric outcomes among adolescents in Samsun, Turkey. Findings show that cesarean sections were about 55 percent. Some 12 percent gave birth to low birth weight infants. Preterm births made up 9.5 percent of deliveries, while 1.7 percent of infants were stillborn. No children were born with congenital deformity.

Clark, Shelley, Judith Bruce, and Annie Dude. “Protecting Young Women from HIV/AIDS: The Case against Child and Adolescent Marriage.” International Family Planning Perspectives 32 (2006): 79–88.

DOI: 10.1363/3207906 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In developed countries the majority of teenage sexual activity is between nonmarried adolescents. In developing countries the majority of teenage sexual activity is among married adolescent girls. The many HIV/AIDS risks faced by these girls, because of their youth and lack of power in the relationship, are described.

Jewkes, Rachel, Robert Morrell, and Nicola Christofides. “Empowering Teenagers to Prevent Pregnancy: Lessons from South Africa.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 11 (2009): 675–688.

DOI: 10.1080/13691050902846452 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

To meet the Millennium Development Goals, every nation will need to reduce its rate of teenage pregnancy. South Africa has struggled with a high rate of teen pregnancy but has reduced the rate substantially since the late 1980s. The programming and interventions that proved effective are discussed.

Kongnyuy, Eugene J., Philip N. Nana, Nelson Fomulu, Shey C. Wiysonge, Luc Kouam, and Anderson S. Doh. “Adverse Perinatal Outcomes of Adolescent Pregnancies in Cameroon.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 12 (2008): 149–154.

DOI: 10.1007/s10995-007-0235-y Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study from Cameroon identifies adverse fetal outcomes associated with adolescent pregnancies. The findings are similar to the findings from other countries. Adolescent pregnancies are associated with both adverse fetal and maternal outcomes in Cameroon. Improving compliance with prenatal care could significantly reduce adverse outcomes in Cameroon.

Macleod, Catriona I., and Tiffany Tracey. “A Decade Later: Follow-Up Review of South African Research on the Consequences of and Contributory Factors in Teen-Aged Pregnancy.” South African Journal of Psychology 40 (2010): 18–31.

DOI: 10.1177/008124631004000103 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article examines research conducted in South Africa on the consequences and factors contributing to teenage pregnancy over ten years. The authors reported that there was an improvement in the data available as a result of several representative national and local surveys. Changes in theoretical issues are also discussed.

Okonofua, Friday E., Afolabi Hammed, Emily Nzeribe, et al. “Perceptions of Policymakers in Nigeria toward Unsafe Abortion and Maternal Mortality.” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 35 (2009): 194–202.

DOI: 10.1363/3519409 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Nigeria like many other developing countries restricts abortion except to save the mother’s life. One consequence of this restrictive law in Nigeria is a high rate of unsafe abortions resulting in death and injury. A survey revealed that policymakers were guided by moral and religious forces not evidence-based approaches.

Plummer, M. L., D. A. Ross, D. Wight, et al. “‘A Bit More Truthful’: The Validity of Adolescent Sexual Behaviour Data Collected in Rural Northern Tanzania Using Five Methods.” Sexually Transmitted Infections 80 (2004): ii49–ii56.

DOI: 10.1136/sti.2004.011924 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a discussion of an effort to check the validity of self-reported sexual behavior data from African adolescents living in rural Tanzania. Participant observation was reported as the most successful approach for gathering and understanding the complexity and the extent of sexually transmitted infection.

Roudi-Fahimi, Farzaneh, and Ahmed Abdul Monem. Unintended Pregnancies in the Middle East and North Africa . Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau, 2010.

In this report, circumstances and context of unintended pregnancies occurring in the Middle East and North Africa are described. An important finding, unintended pregnancies jeopardize the health of many girls and women who have little or no access to contraception or control over their own pregnancies.

Toska, Elona, Lucie D. Cluver, Mark Boyes, Marija Pantelic, and Caroline Kuo. “‘From “Sugar Daddies” to “Sugar Babies”: Exploring a Pathway between Age-Disparate Sexual Relationships, Condom Use, and Adolescent Pregnancy in South Africa’.” Sexual Health (2015).

DOI: 10.1071/sh14089 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study identified factors in South Africa which were associated with adolescent pregnancy, in particular the pathway of risk when there is an age-disparate sexual relationships (having ever had a sexual partner more than five years older).

The Asian and Pacific region is primarily influenced by two different cultures. One culture is Western European, which is best represented by Australia and New Zealand. The more influential culture is Asian. Keep in mind, however, that there is a great deal of variation in culture and tradition within the broader assemblage of countries with Asian-based cultures. Lee, et al. 1997 and Wang, et al. 2007 provide a view of girls in Asian-based cultures who become pregnant. Abortion plays an important role in sexual health services in these cultures. In Vietnam, for example, wars, communist rule and the transition to a capitalistic economy have created numerous challenges for adolescents who become pregnant. Wolf, et al. 2010 outlines the history, culture, and politics of the struggle over abortion services in Vietnam. Japan is very different from the majority of other countries in the region with Asian-based cultures. Nagamatsu, et al. 2008 shows that issues related to teenage pregnancy in Japan are very different. Another country that is unique in the region is India. As Raj, et al. 2009 reports, knowledge about child marriage and its effect on fertility-control outcomes is viewed as essential to dealing with teen pregnancy. Typically, public opinion about sexual education evolves over time. Rawat 2014 provides a good example of a debate over providing basic sex education to students in India. In Australia and New Zealand, as described by Skinner, et al. 2008 , the response to teen pregnancy is more European than that in the United Kingdom or the United States. In the rest of the region, the issues are about contraception availability, delaying sexual initiation, and delaying the first birth. Serquina-Ramiro 2005 discusses the concern over unmarried Filipino adolescents and sexual coercion in adolescent intimate relationships. Finally, looking at this area of the world more broadly, Gubhaju 2002 provides an overview of the challenges to provide adequate adolescent sexual and reproductive health in the Asia and Pacific region.

Graham, Maxine. “Enabling Tertiary Education for Teen Mothers: Organisational Insights.” PhD diss., Auckland University of Technology, 2014.

This model of tertiary education symbolically represents the key themes of “self-attributes” of the teen mother, “stigma,” and “support.” Identification of these factors is used to enable teen mothers (all of whom were of Māori ethnicity) through the transition to tertiary education (New Zealand’s term for education at universities and/or polytechnic level). Gaining a university polytechnic education is closely linked to income and general well-being.

Gubhaju, Bhakta B. “Adolescent Reproductive Health in Asia.” Paper presented at the 2002 IUSSP Regional Population Conference, South-East Asia’s Population in a Changing Asian Context, Bangkok, Thailand, 10–13 June 2002.

This paper delineates reasons for concern about the state of adolescent sexual and reproductive health and reports on programs adopted at the International Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo in 1994. Promoting responsible sexual and reproductive behavior among adolescents was endorsed.

Koranne, Prachi Sauarbh, and Aparna R. Wahane. “Pregnancy in Adolescence: Is It Really a Concern?” Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 13 (2014): 7659–7668.

DOI: 10.14260/jemds/2014/2952 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a report on a cross-sectional institution-based study undertaken at a government medical college, Akola in central India, from January 2011 to December 2013. The magnitude of teenage pregnancy, especially among very young and physically immature girls, is presented. Risks and complications faced by these young mothers are described.

Lee, Meng-Chih, Tsung-Hsueh Lu, and Ming-Chih Chou. “Characteristics of Adolescent Pregnancy in Taiwan.” International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 9 (1997): 213–216.

DOI: 10.1515/IJAMH.1997.9.3.213 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In Taiwan, much like in the United States, adolescent pregnancy was a major concern in the 1990s. There was widespread concern among the public and professionals involved in policy development and the delivery of services. Birth rates among girls between fifteen and nineteen years of age were considered high at 17 percent.

Nagamatsu, Miyuki, Hisako Saito, and Takeshi Sato. “Factors Associated with Gender Differences in Parent-Adolescent Relationships That Delay First Intercourse in Japan.” Journal of School Health 78 (2008): 601–606.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00352.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this study, gender differences in parent-adolescent relationships were examined to identify factors that delayed sexual initiation for both boys and girls. The authors report that parental monitoring, parental disapproval of the adolescent’s sexual behavior, parental control, and satisfaction with the parent-adolescent relationship was important in delaying first intercourse.

Raj, Anita, Niranjan Saggurti, Donta Balaiah, and Jay G. Silverman. “Prevalence of Child Marriage and Its Effect on Fertility and Fertility-Control Outcomes of Young Women in India: A Cross-Sectional, Observational Study.” Lancet 373 (2009): 1883–1889.

DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60246-4 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In India, child marriage is viewed as a primary concern related to women’s health and, as such, a barrier to social and economic development in India. Associated with child marriage were no contraceptive use before first childbirth, high fertility, rapid repeat childbirth, multiple unwanted pregnancies, pregnancy terminations, and sterilization.

Raut, Dharmendra, and Amol Patil. “ Study of Comparison of Pregnancy and Foetal Outcome among the Pregnant Adolescent (13-19yrs) and Control (20-25yrs) Groups .” Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 3 (2014): 15374–15380.

DOI: 10.14260/jemds/2014/4072 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study suggests the extent of the risk of adolescent pregnancy in India. Adverse outcomes because of an adolescent pregnancy varied by region and were associated with higher risk of adverse pregnancy and fetal outcomes. The authors suggest that comprehensive adolescent pregnancy programs could be effective.

Rawat, Seema. Is Youth of India Ready for Sex Education? A Study on Opinions towards Sex Education among Adolescent Students, their Parents and Teachers in Mumbai City . 2014.

This study is a good example of a debate over providing basic sex education to students in the state of Maharashtra in India. To determine the support of sexual education, the authors assessed the students’ knowledge of sex, and the attitudes of the adolescents, their parents, and teachers toward sexual education.

Serquina-Ramiro, Laurie. “Physical Intimacy and Sexual Coercion among Adolescent Intimate Partners in the Philippines.” Journal of Adolescent Research 20 (2005): 476–496.

DOI: 10.1177/0743558405275170 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Sexual coercion among unmarried Filipino adolescents was the focus of this study. The results suggest that sexual coercion was common in adolescent intimate relationships. Almost 65 percent reported that they had been involved in a coercive intimate relationship. Some 42 percent of victims were boys and 64.6 percent were girls.

Skinner, S. Rachel, Jennifer Smith, Jennifer Fenwick, Sue Fyfe, and Jacqueline Hendriks. “Perceptions and Experiences of First Sexual Intercourse in Australian Adolescent Females.” Journal of Adolescent Health 43 (2008): 593–599.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.04.017 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A better understanding of the influences on sexual initiation provides information that can help reduce adolescent risk taking behavior. Those who said they were “ready” were more likely to have delayed intercourse until they were ready. Peer norms and intoxication were typical reasons for unwanted sexual initiation.

Wang, Bo, Xiaoming Li, Bonita Stanton, et al. “ Sexual Attitudes, Pattern of Communication, and Sexual Behavior among Unmarried Out-of-School Youth in China .” BMC Public Health 7 (2007): 189.

DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-7-189 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study provides data for China’s prevention and intervention efforts related to reducing risk among out-of-school adolescents engaging in premarital sex. Approximately 60 percent of adolescents surveyed approved of premarital sex. Boys generally did not talk with either parent about sex. One-third of girls talked to their mothers about sexual matters.

Wolf, Merrill, Phan Bich Thuy, Alyson Hyman, and Amanda Huber. “Abortion in Vietnam History: Culture and Politics Collide in the Era of Doi Moi .” In Abortion in Asia: Local Dilemmas, Global Politics . Vol. 20. Edited by Andrea Whittaker, 149–174. New York: Berghahn, 2010.

Culture and politics collide in the era of Doi Moi (renovation). The Vietnamese government’s effort to reduce population growth began in the 1960s. The national family planning program limited families to two children. Contraceptive methods were in short supply. Abortion and IUD’s were the common methods available to most women.

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112 Teenage Pregnancy Essay Topics + Examples

Early motherhood is a very complicated social problem. Even though the number of teenage mothers globally has decreased since 1991, about 12 million teen girls in developing countries give birth every year.

Our specialists will write a custom essay specially for you!

If you need to write a paper on the issue of adolescent pregnancy and can’t find a good topic, this article by our custom-writing experts will help you. Here, you will find:

• research topics about teenage pregnancy
• great essay prompts
• writing tips with examples.
• 🔝 Top-12 Teenage Pregnancy Topics
• 🚀 Research Topics about Teenage Pregnancy
• 🔮 Creative Essay Topics
• 💡 Essay Prompts
• 📑 Top 10 Examples
• 🤔 Writing Tips

🔗 References

🔝 top-12 teenage pregnancy essay topics.

• Effect of early childbearing on society.
• Risk factors for teenage fatherhood.
• Teenage pregnancy in developing countries.
• Risk of eclampsia in adolescent mothers.
• Early childbearing in industrialized countries.
• Low-income level and adolescent pregnancy.
• Preterm birth problems in adolescent mothers.
• Child neglect as a cause of teenage pregnancy.
• Socioeconomic factors of adolescent pregnancy.
• Psychological consequences of teenage pregnancy.
• Lack of education as the leading cause of early childbearing.
• Is lack of contraception the only cause of teenage pregnancy?

🚀 Research Topics about Teenage Pregnancy: Top Ideas for 2024

• Discuss the hidden factors behind alarming teen pregnancy statistics.
• Analyze the relationship between poverty and early pregnancy .
• What is the impact of teen pregnancy on maternal health ?
• Write about the impact of early pregnancy on a child’s development and well-being.
• Explore the psychological challenges faced by teenage mothers.
• The role of government policies in preventing teen pregnancy.
• Teenage mothers in foster care : risk factors and outcomes for teens and their children.
• The impact of early pregnancy on career opportunities for teenage mothers.
• Discuss the impact of media on attitudes toward teen pregnancy .
• Analyze the relationship between race and early pregnancy rates.
• Study the issue of teen pregnancy and the mental health needs of young mothers .
• What role can a healthcare provider play in preventing teenage pregnancy ?
• Analyze family relationships in a teenage couple post-pregnancy.
• Discuss the role of fathers in preventing teen pregnancy.
• Study a number of teen pregnancy prevention programs and evaluate their effectiveness.
• Young, pregnant, and incarcerated: the impact of teen pregnancy on the juvenile justice system .
• What is the relationship between teenage pregnancy and substance abuse?
• Write about the impact of abortion on teenage mothers as opposed to early motherhood.
• What is the role of schools in preventing teen pregnancy ?
• Conduct a correlational analysis of teenage pregnancy and maternal mortality rates in the United States .
• How do teen pregnancy and domestic violence impact the unborn baby?
• Discuss the impact of teenage pregnancy on child abuse and neglect rates.
• Write about a possible solution to the problem of teen pregnancy and healthcare disparities in marginalized communities.
• What is the impact of teenage pregnancy on intergenerational poverty?
• Is there a correlation between socioeconomic status and teen pregnancy rates in developed countries?
• Analyze some of the factors that contribute to increased rates of teen pregnancy in Southern African countries.
• Explore the impact of teenage pregnancy on high school completion rates in Texas, US.
• What role do healthcare providers have in addressing the reproductive health needs of teenagers?
• Elaborate on why easy access to contraception is pivotal in reducing teen pregnancy rates.
• Discuss psychological and socioeconomic challenges faced by teenage fathers.
• What is the impact of teen pregnancy on rates of child poverty ?
• Explain the importance of family planning in preventing early pregnancy.
• Critically evaluate the influence of peer pressure on teenage sexual behavior.
• What is the psychological impact of the stigma associated with teenage pregnancy ?
• Suggest ways to address the impact of teenage pregnancy on young mothers’ ability to attain financial independence.
• Discuss the importance of community support for teenage parents .
• What is the role of government policies in addressing the root causes of teen pregnancy ?
• Describe the impact of teenage pregnancy on young mothers’ self-esteem .
• A possible solution found: parental involvement in preventing teenage pregnancy.
• Speak about the impact of family, peer, and school context on teen pregnancy and childbearing .
• What is the role of technology in teen pregnancy prevention and intervention?
• Discuss the impact of parent-child communication on teen pregnancy prevention.
• A comparative study of teen pregnancy rates in urban and rural areas.
• Examine the relationship between teen pregnancy and risky sexual behavior .
• Write about the effectiveness of long-term contraceptive methods for teen pregnancy prevention.
• What impact do early childhood experiences have on teen pregnancy and childbearing ?
• To what extent does teen pregnancy and intimate partner violence correlate?
• Explain the role of gender and sexuality in teen pregnancy rates and prevention.
• Elaborate on the relationship between teen pregnancy and poverty.
• What is the impact of early pregnancy on mental health outcomes for children?
• Speak about the effects of social media on teenage pregnancy and parenting behaviors.
• How does teenage pregnancy affect academic achievement and educational attainment?
• How school-based health clinics can assist in reducing teenage pregnancy rates.
• What is the relationship between teenage pregnancy and mental health outcomes for adolescent mothers ?
• How can media portrayals of pregnancy affect the behaviors of young mothers?
• Write about the effects of early childhood interventions on improving outcomes for children of teenage mothers.
• Speak about the role of healthcare providers in promoting family planning and reducing teen pregnancy rates.
• What effect can teenage pregnancy have on relationships between romantic partners?
• Explain the correlation between the COVID-19 lockdown and teenage pregnancy rates.
• Alarming statistics: sexual abuse as a contributing factor in teenage pregnancy.
• Discuss the complications after having an unwanted teenage pregnancy .
• What is the impact of gender roles and expectations on teenage pregnancy rates?
• Speak about the effects of pregnancy prevention programs on reducing repeat teen pregnancies.
• Analyze the relationship between early pregnancy and sexual and reproductive health outcomes.
• What are the major economic effects of increased contraceptive access among young women?
• Analyze the role of family dynamics and structure in teenage pregnancy prevention efforts.
• Write about the impact of legal and policy interventions on reducing teenage pregnancy rates in the United States.
• What are some cultural stereotypes regarding teen pregnancy?
• How does stigma affect attitudes toward teenage pregnancy and parenting?
• What are some of the determinant factors of the high adolescent pregnancy rate in Africa?

Teenage Pregnancy Topics for Quantitative Research

• Factors affecting teen pregnancy rate among African Americans.
• Teen birth rate disparity in underrepresented groups.
• Why has teen pregnancy been on the decline?
• An international perspective on the teen pregnancy rate in the US.
• Is sexual abstinence effective against early childbearing ?
• The median age of sexual activity: teen pregnancy implications.
• How can we prevent adolescent pregnancies in catholic schools?
• How does sex education impact Hispanic teen pregnancy rates?
• The birth rate of American Indian and Alaska Native teens.
• How does teen pregnancy affect the rate of graduation from high school?

Recent quantitative research shows us that the teenage pregnancy rate decreases every year. This tendency started in 1991 and it still continues. Quantitative studies use numbers and statistics, and they help estimate the problem’s scope. You can write a survey of your own using the topics above.

Qualitative Research Topics about Teenage Pregnancy

• Educational factors affected by teen pregnancy.
• Teen pregnancy in Nebraska: qualitative analysis.
• Chicago African American teen pregnancies: insights from the community.
• Community leadership and teen pregnancy: core preventers.
• Teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases : an interview-based study.
• How to address the issue of access to sex education among Hispanic teen mothers.
• Teen pregnancy risk factors: things we still need to address.
• Sexual abuse and teen pregnancy: victim analysis.
• Determine essential areas of assistance for teen mothers.

Qualitative research deals with personal perspectives and often uses methods such as questionnaires. It helps determine the causes that lead to teenage pregnancy. Unhealthy childhood environments, domestic violence, and inaccessibility of education are the major factors influencing the chances of early pregnancy that you can research in your paper.

🔮 Creative Teenage Pregnancy Essay Topics

• Teen pregnancy among African Americans: a call for help.
• Adolescent pregnancy rates in Catholic schools.
• Sexual abstinence education and the Holy Bible.
• Explore the role of influencers, peer pressure, and online communities on teen pregnancies.
• Assistance for teen mothers: stopping the shaming.
• Spotting a sexual abuse victim: do not ignore teens.
• Compare different approaches to sex education and evaluate their effectiveness.
• The median age of sexual activity: what our leaders must do.
• God, adolescence, and motherhood: a catholic perspective.
• Explore the intersectional issues of sexism, racism , and classism in early parenthood.

In your essay on teenage pregnancy, you may look at the problem of early motherhood from a more unusual angle. For example, study the threats to young mothers, such as the absence of proper healthcare, illegal abortion, and family abuse. Make sure to read plenty of scientific literature while writing your paper on one of our creative topics.

Causes of Teenage Pregnancy Essay Topics

• Evaluate the role of proper sex education in reducing teenage pregnancies.
• How do parental relationships impact the likelihood of teen pregnancy?
• Assess the effect of substance abuse on adolescent pregnancy rates.
• Cultural and religious influences on teenage pregnancy rates in the US.
• Is academic pressure a contributing factor in teen pregnancy?
• Different family structures and teen pregnancy: a comparison.
• What mental disorders are likely to lead to an early pregnancy?
• Evaluate the effects of early sexual activity on the likelihood of teen pregnancy.
• Analyze various community programs and their impact on reducing teen pregnancy.
• How do various parenting styles influence early pregnancy rates?
• Psychological factors and emotional drivers of adolescent pregnancy.
• Does lack of communication contribute to teen pregnancy?
• How do disparities in education contribute to teenage pregnancy rates?

The causes of teenage pregnancy are numerous, and some are more studied than others. For example, the effect of social media on early motherhood is a relatively new phenomenon that you can research in your essay about teenage pregnancy.

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💡 Teenage Pregnancy Essay Prompts

Does access to condoms prevent teenage pregnancy: essay prompt.

• Access to condoms might result in an even higher rate of teenage pregnancies. In your essay, you can analyze previous research about the increase in adolescent pregnancies due to widespread condom distribution in schools.
• Access to condoms should come together with mandatory counseling. You might suggest this or other ways to make access to contraception methods more efficient in preventing teenage pregnancies.
• Sex education should be offered in all schools. Teenagers should have access to birth control and know how to use it to prevent unintended teenage pregnancy. Do you agree with this idea?

Teenage Pregnancy Solution Essay Prompt

• Ways in which parents and guardians can prevent early pregnancies. For example, parents can ask healthcare providers to educate their teenage children on the topic of contraception. Analyze these and other ways in which they may prevent adolescent pregnancies.
• The role of governments in teenage pregnancy prevention. Governments should raise awareness of the issue by developing programs and providing affordable family planning services. You might suggest other ways for the governments to contribute.
• What should teenagers do to avoid unwanted pregnancies? Some of the options are birth control methods and open conversations with their parents. What other options are there?

Teenage Pregnancy and Poverty Essay Prompt

• The correlation between poverty rate, education level, and teenage pregnancy. Many adolescent mothers live in poverty and lack education due to their social status. Your essay can analyze how these factors interact and result in early pregnancies.
• How does poverty lead to health issues in teenage mothers? Young mothers and children born in poverty have a high chance of developing health problems. Pregnancy is a vulnerable period in a woman’s life, and poverty only aggravates it. The risks include preterm birth and even infant death.

Causes and Effects of Teenage Pregnancy Essay Prompt

• The effect of alcohol and drugs on teenage pregnancy rates. Due to frequent social gatherings, alcohol, and drugs might become a part of a teenager’s life. Your cause-and-effect essay may analyze how substance use may lead to early unwanted pregnancy.
• How do TV shows influence teen pregnancy rates? The media often romanticizes this issue, which is why some teenagers may fail to understand the actual consequences of their decision to have children early. You may also analyze reality shows about teen pregnancy that take a more realistic approach, like 16 and Pregnant .
• The effect of early pregnancy on the future child’s parenting approach. Research shows that a teen mother’s child has a high chance of also becoming a teen parent . You might analyze this phenomenon in your paper.

📑 Teenage Pregnancy Essay Examples: Top 10

Want some more inspiration? Check out these outstanding examples:

• Teenage Pregnancy in Barking and Dagenham Borough
• Teenage Pregnancy in Columbia District
• Wealth, Opportunity, and Teen Pregnancy Relationship
• School Sex Education and Teenage Pregnancy in the United States
• Teen Pregnancy and Father Teens
• Teenage Pregnancy: Causes, Education, Prevention
• Teenage Pregnancy, Its Health and Social Outcomes
• Teenage Pregnancy and Its Negative Outcomes
• Teenage Pregnancy and Bioethical Decision-Making
• Teenage Pregnancy in the United Kingdom

🤔 Teenage Pregnancy Essay Writing Tips

Now that you’ve chosen a topic, it’s time to write an excellent teenage pregnancy essay. But how do you do it? Follow our helpful tips!

Teenage Pregnancy Essay Introduction

When writing an introduction , use a traditional structure:

• Present the problem you are addressing with some background info.
• State your position and the main points of your argumentation in a thesis statement .

Teenage pregnancy is among the leading causes of maternal mortality. Complicated pregnancy or traumatic childbirth causes the death of almost 30,000 adolescent girls every year. These alarming statistics prove that it is crucial to search for more efficient ways of reducing the teenage pregnancy rate.

Teenage Pregnancy Essay Body

The body paragraphs help you develop your argumentation. A standard 5-paragraph essay includes three body paragraphs. Each one conveys a key idea supported by evidence, such as interviews, statistics, and journal articles.

Here’s what one such paragraph may look like:

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Research shows that proper sex education helps reduce the number of teenage pregnancies. According to a recent study by the University of Washington based on a national survey of 1,719 teenagers, comprehensive sex education more effectively reduces the early birth rate than the traditional abstinence-only approach.

Conclusion for an Essay About Teenage Pregnancy

An effective conclusion should draw attention to the problem and key points of the essay. Rephrase your thesis and give a short summary of your arguments:

Education is the key factor that leads to a reduction in teenage pregnancy. Statistical analysis shows that girls who do not get the proper education more often get pregnant before reaching adulthood. Literature analysis proves that adding comprehensive sex education to the school curriculum effectively reduces the teenage pregnancy rate. Thus, providing girls with proper education is an effective way to reduce the number of adolescent mothers.

Share this article with your friends and leave your comments below if you liked it! We are always happy to receive your feedback. Can’t choose the topic for your essay? Feel free to use our topic generator .

Further reading:

• Teenage Smoking Essay: Writing about Smoking Students
• 290 Good Nursing Research Topics & Questions
• 380 Powerful Women’s Rights & Feminism Topics [2024]
• 590 Unique Controversial Topics & Tips for a Great Essay
• How to Write a 5-Paragraph Essay: Outline, Examples, & Writing Steps
• Adolescent Pregnancy: World Health Organization
• About Teen Pregnancy: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Teenage Pregnancy: WebMD
• Teenage Pregnancy: American Pregnancy Association
• Adolescent Pregnancy: UNFPA
• Teenage Pregnancy: Healthline
• Trends in Teen Pregnancy and Childbearing: US Department of Health & Human Services
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Adolescent Pregnancy Outcomes and Risk Factors

Jana diabelková.

1 Department of Public Health and Hygiene, Medical Faculty, University of Pavol Jozef Šafárik, Šrobárova 2, 041 80 Košice, Slovakia

Kvetoslava Rimárová

Peter urdzík.

2 Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Medical Faculty, Louis Pasteur University Hospital, University of Pavol Jozef Šafárik, Trieda SNP 1, 040 11 Košice, Slovakia

Andrea Houžvičková

Ľubica argalášová.

3 Institute of Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Špitálska 24, 813 72 Bratislava, Slovakia

Associated Data

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

One of the major social and public health problems in the world is adolescent pregnancy. Adolescent pregnancy is strongly associated to less favorable results for both the mother and the newborn. We conducted this research to ascertain the impact of teenage age on neonatal outcomes and also observed the lifestyles of pregnant teenage girls. We conducted a study of 2434 mothers aged ≤19 years (n = 294) or 20–34 years (n = 2140) who gave birth in 2019–2020 at the Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics of Louis Pasteur University Hospital in Košice. The data on mothers and newborn infants have been reported from the reports on mothers at childbirth. Women between the ages of 20 and 34 served as the reference group. The teenage mothers were more likely to become pregnant if they were unmarried (OR = 14.2; 95% CI = 9.3–21.6; p < 0.001) and had a basic education or lack of education (OR = 16.8; 95% CI = 11.5–24.6; p < 0.001). Additionally, they were more likely to smoke when pregnant (OR = 5.0; 95% CI = 3.8–6.6; p < 0.001). Low birth weight was more common in newborns born to adolescent mothers than in those born to adult mothers ( p < 0.001). Our findings showed that infants of teenage mothers often had lower birth weights (−332.6 g, p < 0.001). Adolescent mothers were associated with lower Apgar scores at the first minute ( p = 0.003). As compared with the control group, pregnant teenage girls had a greater prevalence of preterm deliveries in our research ( p = 0.004). This study finds significant age-related disparities in neonatal outcomes between mothers. These results might be used to identify vulnerable groups who need special assistance and actions to reduce the probability of negative outcomes for such groups.

1. Introduction

Adolescent pregnancies are a global public health problem. Teenage pregnancy is the pregnancy of 10- to 19-year-old girls [ 1 ]. Adolescents are further divided into early (10–14 years old), middle (15–17 years old), and late adolescents (over 17 years old) [ 2 ].

According to the World Health Organization, adolescent pregnancies are a global problem for both developed and developing countries. Although the global teenage birth rate has decreased, there are regional differences in the rates of change. Adolescent pregnancies have decreased globally, from 64.5 per 1000 women in 2000 to 42.5 per 1000 women in 2021. However, there are huge differences in levels between and within countries. While the estimated global teenage birth rate has decreased, the actual number of childbirths to teenagers continues to be high. Pregnancy in girls under the age of 19 is severe in every aspect and requires very complex and long-term solutions [ 1 ].

The transition from childhood to adulthood occurs during the phase of adolescence, during which there are numerous changes in the physiological, anatomical, structural, and psychological aspects. Because many teenagers are not physically or mentally prepared for pregnancy and childbirth, they are more likely to experience complications that can have serious health consequences. Giving birth during adolescence has serious consequences for the health of the mother and her infant [ 1 ]. The adolescent age group is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes [ 2 , 3 ].

The rate of teenage pregnancies has recently been greatly affected by several significant factors. The decreasing age at menarche is one of the factors that can affect a woman’s fertility. Since the 19th century, the age at menarche has been decreasing at a rate of 2–3 months per decade in many European countries, resulting in an overall decrease of about 3 years. Most of the decrease in menarche age is related to better nutrition and health. The onset of first sexual activity occurs at a significantly younger age, which is another contributing element. Teenage pregnancy, therefore, remains a serious social, economic, and health problem [ 4 ].

Young maternal age is more likely a marker for one or more other maternal risk factors associated with poor birth outcomes. Poverty, low education, and inadequate family support are also problems. These factors increase the risk of sexually transmitted infections, unsafe abortions, and birth complications, all of which are exacerbated by inadequate prenatal care [ 5 ]. For girls, early pregnancies can have social consequences such as lower status in the household and community; stigmatization; abuse by family, peers, and partners; and early and forced marriage. Early pregnancy and childbirth during adolescence can hinder a girl’s otherwise healthy development into adulthood and negatively affect her educational opportunities, financial security, and health. Many teenage girls who are pregnant cannot continue their education or work because they are pregnant. This can have a big impact on their future [ 6 ]. In addition, children born to parents who cannot care for them face additional dangers. In the first few years of a child’s life, the mother–child relationship declines. This is primarily due to the mother’s immaturity. When teenage mothers are victims of sexual assault, the situation is even worse. Apart from their mothers, these children tend to be brought up by their grandparents and relatives, with frequent changes in caregivers. Children have a higher risk of being abused or neglected and a higher risk of failing in school and are more likely to engage in criminal behavior later on [ 7 ].

The economic, social, and political development and progress of any country depend on the healthy size of adolescents and children. As a result, the healthier the teenager is, the healthier the nation and future generations will be. Teenagers thus need special attention from us.

Understanding the issue is necessary to develop and carry out prevention initiatives to decrease teen pregnancy. Knowledge about the target groups, teenage pregnancy and birth outcomes, and the risk and preventive factors related to teenage pregnancy is needed. This information is important in choosing which risk and protective factors to target and, thus, better implementing the effective implementation of evidence-based adolescent pregnancy prevention practices.

Examining the newborn outcomes and risk variables associated with adolescent pregnancies was the aim of the present research.

2. Materials and Methods

The research took place in the years 2019–2020 in eastern Slovakia. This study included 2434 newborns and their mothers. Data were collected at the University of Pavel Jozef Šafárik’s Faculty of Medicine and the Louis Pasteur University Hospital’s Gynecology and Obstetrics Clinic in Košice. This hospital has a higher prevalence of mothers with high-risk pregnancies because it is the East Slovakian center for low birth weight and preterm birth.

The data were obtained from hospital records. Available information included the mother’s education, marital status, lifestyle, and when prenatal care began. Additionally, the Apgar scores at 1 and 5 min, the newborn’s gestational age, and the newborn’s weight were recorded. The total number of mothers in the results tables was different because not all the data for each mother were available in the clinical records. The study excluded women who were carriers of multiple pregnancies because they had a higher risk of preterm birth and lower birth weights of their newborns. Thus, women with multiple pregnancies were not included among the participants.

Maternal age was defined as the mother’s age in completed years at the time of delivery. The youngest women recruited to the cohort were 14 years old; therefore, the data for this study were limited to women aged 14–34 years at delivery who had a singleton pregnancy. The results for women under the age of 19 were compared with the results for women in the reference group (20–34 years). The age range of 20 to 34 years was chosen as the reference group because this age range had the lowest risk of developing age-related problems.

In our records, a woman who smoked at least one cigarette per day while pregnant was considered a smoker. All women who consumed 15 g of alcohol per day were considered alcohol consumers. This is equivalent to 0.5 L of 12-degree beer, 0.3 L of wine, or 0.5 dL of strong alcohol.

The neonatal outcome variables of interest in this study were low birth weight (less than 2500 g), very low birth weight (less than 1500 g), extremely low birth weight (less than 1000 g), macrosomia (birth weight greater than 4000 g), preterm birth (less than 37 weeks gestation), very preterm birth (less than 32 weeks gestation), extremely preterm birth (less than 28 weeks gestation), and low Apgar score at the first and fifth minutes (less than 7).

Most mothers completed eight prenatal care visits. Thus, we divided the group of mothers into two groups: those who had fewer than eight antenatal visits and those who had eight or more visits.

The IBM SPSS Statistics 23.0 program (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 23.0. IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) was used to analyze the data. The data were given as median (min–max), mean (standard deviation), and number (percent).

The data were processed using both primary characters and modified characters (categorized). Most of the findings were statistically significant, and the analysis included important discoveries that were related to the collected empirical data. The χ2 independence test, with a significance level of 0.05, was used to assess the frequency of individual variations of characteristics in the analyzed groups and subgroups. The Student’s t -test was used to compare the arithmetic means of continuous variables. The odds ratio, or, was used to compare the frequency of social and anamnestic variables in the adolescent mothers and mothers from the reference group.

Data were available for 2434 pregnancies for this analysis. A total of 294 (12.1%) of these births included teenagers between the ages of 14 and 19. The controls were 27.9 ± 3.9 years old on average, whereas the adolescents’ mean age was 17.4 ± 1.4. Table 1 displays the characteristics of the study’s participants.

Characteristics of the sample by maternal age.

Numbers in bold indicate statistically significant values.

Our study demonstrated that adolescent mothers had lower levels of education ( p < 0.001), only primary school (84.1%). About 46% of teenage girls reported smoking during pregnancy. In the reference group, the proportion of smokers was 14.6% ( p < 0.001). Alcohol consumption during pregnancy was relatively low at 0.6%, and the data on alcohol use were not statistically significant ( Table 1 ).

In the adolescent group, there were up to 45.7% of women ( p < 0.001) who went to the doctor after the first trimester. Most mothers completed eight prenatal care visits. Therefore, we divided the group of mothers into two groups: those who had fewer than eight antenatal visits and those who had eight or more visits. Up to 75.9% of teenage girls who were pregnant had fewer than eight clinic visits ( p < 0.001) ( Table 2 ).

Antennal care received by the respondents.

Adolescent girls were significantly more likely to be single (OR = 14.2; 95% CI = 9.3–21.6; p < 0.001), to have less education (OR = 16.8; 95% CI = 11.5–24.6; p < 0.001), and to smoke during pregnancy (OR = 5.0; 95% CI = 3.8–6.6; p < 0.01). They were more likely to visit a doctor for the first time during pregnancy after the first trimester (OR = 0.3; 95% CI = 0.2–0.3; p < 0.001) and were more likely to visit a doctor fewer than eight times (OR = 4.0; 95% CI = 3.0–5.3; p < 0.001) during pregnancy ( Table 3 ).

OR of various risk variables for adolescent mothers’ reproductive outcomes.

OR—odds ratio; CI—confidence interval. Numbers in bold indicate statistically significant values.

Table 4 shows the results for newborns. Infants born to teenage mothers had a significantly higher rate of low birth weight than those born to women who were adults ( p < 0.001). Our findings showed that children born to teenage mothers weighed less on average (−332.6 g, p < 0.001). In contrast to the control group, pregnant adolescents in our analysis had a higher prevalence of premature births ( p = 0.004). Children of adolescent mothers had a lower first-minute Apgar score ( p = 0.003).

Neonatal outcomes.

4. Discussion

Pregnancy in adolescence is a health problem worldwide. Teenagers themselves are a high-risk group in need of high-priority interventions. In general, most pregnancies in adolescence are extra-marital and unintended [ 2 ]. The teenage mothers in this research were more likely to be single (OR = 14.2; 95% CI = 9.3–21.6; p < 0.001), which is similar to previous studies [ 5 , 8 , 9 , 10 ].

Psychological immaturity is common among adolescent mothers. Because they do not understand the value of family planning, they often engage in risky sexual behavior and become pregnant while still in school and still living with their parents [ 9 ]. This study confirms that teenage mothers are significantly more likely to have a low level of education ( p < 0.001). These findings agreed with those of other research investigations carried out in other nations [ 2 , 9 ]. Adolescent girls often drop out of school due to pregnancy or childbirth. Sometimes problems at school and poor school performance appear even before pregnancy. Some teenage girls who are not doing well in school may find motherhood an attractive option. When these variables combine, young mothers have fewer career possibilities, often resulting in lower earnings for the rest of their lives [ 9 , 11 ]. Early pregnancies are significantly reduced by education; the more years of education, the lower the rate of early pregnancies [ 1 ].

Quitting smoking has a direct impact on the health of the fetus. Teenagers in our research were more likely to smoke during pregnancy (OR = 5.0; 95% CI = 3.8–6.6; p < 0.001). Previous research has shown that several high-risk activities are associated with a higher likelihood of pregnancy. These activities included the use of tobacco products, drinking alcohol, drug use, and risky sexual behavior [ 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 ].

Teenagers need accurate information about where to go when they need advice and help. Numerous studies have highlighted the benefits of prenatal care in minimizing pregnancy risks [ 9 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Unlike controls, pregnant adolescent girls in our study used prenatal care services less frequently. This was confirmed by a later gestational age at the first visit ( p < 0.001) and a lower number of visits to the doctor during pregnancy ( p < 0.001). This may be a result of a lack of information about the community services offered and the benefits of providing early and routine care. Teenagers may think they are not entitled to prenatal care, or they may choose to keep the pregnancy a secret [ 9 , 11 , 18 ]. Pregnant teenagers often interrupt school attendance, partly because of their participation in prenatal care. If clinic times are compatible with school attendance and medical staff are sensitive to adolescent needs, antenatal visits are more likely to be attended. Therefore, the needs of adolescents must be taken into account when providing prenatal care. However, direct study comparisons are difficult as there are different definitions of appropriate prenatal care. Regardless of how prenatal care is defined, the data suggest that adolescents tend to receive less adequate care than adult women [ 3 , 8 , 14 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Similar findings were obtained by Kassa et al. [ 22 ], who found that the number of antenatal care visits was lower in the teenage group and that doctor visits started later in pregnancy in this group. De Vienne et al. [ 23 ], on the other hand, did not find a difference between younger and older women in the analyzed age categories. Quinlivan and Evans published a study [ 24 ] comparing the outcomes of adolescents attending either a general or a specialist antenatal clinic for teenagers. In adolescent pregnancy clinics, prenatal care was provided by a multidisciplinary team and included social support and thorough infection screening. The rate of preterm births has decreased significantly as a result of the care provided at teen pregnancy clinics. According to the authors, the key strategies were the prevention of ascending infections of the genital tract and the provision of comprehensive treatment for teenagers. Healthcare professionals should be aware that teenage pregnancies are high-risk pregnancies and educate young women about the value of prenatal care and frequent antenatal visits.

In our study, preterm births were more common among pregnant teenage mothers than in controls ( p = 0.004), which is similar to previous studies [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Due to the fact that preterm birth is a complex pregnancy problem, it is complicated to identify the exact cause. According to Debiec et al. [ 17 ], preterm birth is more common in teenagers who receive insufficient prenatal care, which supports the hypothesis that poor prenatal care is a risk factor for preterm birth. However, Chen et al. [ 4 ] point out that the risk of preterm birth persisted even in women who received adequate prenatal care. Yadav et al. [ 10 ] found that preterm birth was significantly more common in teenagers. According to them, the rise might be attributed to biological immaturity and socioeconomic deprivation. Clinically indicated preterm births may be the result of medical conditions such as intrauterine growth restriction or spontaneous labor. Both spontaneous preterm birth and intrauterine growth restriction are associated with maternal malnutrition, and there is strong evidence linking both conditions to maternal smoking during pregnancy [ 13 , 18 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ]. Adolescent mothers are more likely to deliver preterm due to gynecological immaturity (such as a short cervix [25 mm] and a small uterine volume) and susceptibility to subclinical infections. Other studies suggest that these risks are related to biological immaturity in adolescent females and are not related to social deprivation, smoking, or inadequate prenatal care [ 27 , 36 , 37 ].

In this study, the percentage of low birth weight in infants born from adolescent mothers was higher than in mothers who gave birth in adulthood ( p < 0.001), which is similar to previous studies [ 23 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 38 , 39 ]. It is thought that growing adolescents may compete with the fetus for resources, which might hinder fetal development and lead to low-birth-weight newborns or newborns that are small for their gestational age [ 40 ]. Marvin-Dowle et al. [ 40 ] conducted research in England among women aged 19 years and 20–34 years to examine the relationship between maternal and newborn outcomes in teenage women. Extremely low birth weight was found to be significantly more common in the teenager group compared with the control group.

Extremely underweight newborns have a higher risk of death within the first few months of life [ 12 ] as well as long-term problems with their physical and cognitive development [ 9 , 11 ]. Extremely low birth weight was not more common in our study cohort of adolescent mothers ( p = 0.246).

The term Apgar, or appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration, was created by Doctor Virginia Apgar. This score is a simple method for evaluating neonates one and five minutes after birth. A newborn’s Apgar score is determined by several variables, including color, heart rate, reflexes, muscle tone, and breathing. Scores for each item range from 0 (zero), 1, or 2, with a total score of 7 to 10 considered good [ 41 ]. No significant difference in the low Apgar score between adolescent and adult pregnancies was found when compared with hospital-based retrospective cohort research in Nepal by Yadav et al. [ 10 ]. Due to several sociodemographic, obstetric, and dietary factors, low Apgar scores occur more frequently in teenage pregnancies than in adult pregnancies [ 3 , 22 ]. In a study conducted over 6 years in Japan with 30,831 women under the age of 25 who were pregnant with a singleton, Ogawa et al. [ 29 ] examined the relationship between adolescent pregnancy and adverse outcomes. They found that low Apgar scores were significantly more common among adolescent mothers than among mothers aged 20 to 24 [ 29 ]. Low Apgar scores are associated with infant complications such as breathing difficulties, feeding problems, hypothermia, and seizures [ 42 ]. Low Apgar scores at five minutes correlate with mortality and may indicate a higher likelihood of cerebral palsy [ 41 ]. In our study, the difference in the prevalence of low Apgar scores between adolescent mothers and the control group was confirmed only when the Apgar score was evaluated after the first minute ( p = 0.003).

The development of social policy can be improved by having a thorough understanding of all these socioeconomic factors that influence teen pregnancy.

The first and most important step in strategies to reduce adolescent pregnancies and associated poor neonatal outcomes should be to “prevent it”. Measures to reduce the prevalence of teenage pregnancy also include increasing the importance of education. Although there are many different techniques to prevent a young girl from becoming pregnant, sexual abstinence is the only one that is 100% successful. This approach is the only one that ensures zero pregnancy risk and safeguards the adolescent from contracting any STDs. It is important to make teenagers aware of the responsibility that comes with sexual activity. The more information teenagers receive about this topic, the higher the chance that they will behave cautiously.

Teenagers should be educated about the negative consequences of teenage pregnancy, especially by their parents and at school. Building adolescents’ knowledge, skills, resilience, and aspirations through relationships and education helps them delay sexual activity until they are ready; enjoy healthy, consensual relationships; and use family planning methods. Schools may play a role by encouraging students to make mature decisions about their sex and by disseminating the knowledge needed to prevent adolescent pregnancy.

Teenagers are more likely to have their first sexual experience later in life if they and their parents have open discussions about relationships and sexual health from a young age. When parents spend time discussing sex and family planning with their children, they can have a significant impact on their decisions. Some parents have trouble talking about this topic. The barriers to parental communication include embarrassment, concern that discussion may encourage early sexual activity, and uncertainty about how to properly answer questions. Parents and all practitioners who come into contact with young people therefore need guidance on how to talk to them.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, pregnancies in adolescents should be considered high-risk pregnancies. It is necessary to emphasize the need for comprehensive prenatal care for pregnant adolescent children because insufficient prenatal care can be harmful to both the mother and her fetus. Promoting early and thorough prenatal care is a key strategy if adolescent pregnancy outcomes are to be improved. Addressing teen pregnancy also requires a major effort by families, service providers, schools, faith-based and community organizations, recreation centers, policymakers, and youth. Teenagers should be educated about the negative consequences of teenage pregnancy, especially by their parents and at school. Our results confirm the relatively high prevalence of pregnant adolescent girls who smoked. Education should therefore also focus more on the risks associated with the use of substances during pregnancy.

The most important elements in preventing unwanted teenage pregnancies are a functional and stable family, good relations between parents, and good relations between parents and children. Parents should be the main source of information about sex. Adolescent pregnancy is not only a medical problem but also a social and societal problem, so society also plays an important role in preventing unwanted pregnancies, spreading awareness among young people, and holding them accountable for their actions.

6. Limitation

The conclusions of this study must be interpreted in light of limitations in the dataset and study design. For example, this study cannot adequately control for such factors as infectious exposure and drug use, which may differ between the groups.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by grants KEGA No. 008UPJŠ-4/2020, KEGA 010UPJŠ-4/2021 of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovakia and 015UK-4/2022. We also thank the directory board of the Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics at Louis Pasteur University Hospital in Košice for assistance with organization of sample collection at the hospital wards.

Author Contributions

J.D., K.R. and P.U. designed the project; J.D. and A.H. participated in data analysis; J.D. was responsible for interpretation and writing of the final version for publication; K.R. and E.D. were responsible for funding acquisition and project administration; J.D. performed the literature search and drafted sections of the manuscript; K.R., E.D. and Ľ.A. provided critical revision of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Louis Pasteur University Hospital, Košice, Slovakia, 2019/EK/2014.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

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Teenage Pregnancy (Argumentative Essay Sample)

Teen pregnancy is when a girl becomes pregnant at a very young age between 15-19 years. Going through this phase is not easy and in most countries being pregnant as a teen is highly discouraged. Well, it’s hard enough being a teenager, and pregnancy makes it even more challenging. Young women push through the trials of teen pregnancy every day. Life becomes hard for them as well as their child after they give birth. It also negatively impacts their emotional, physical, and mental well-being. In this essay, I will present arguments against teen pregnancy so that you will also start to agree with me.  

Table of Contents

Argumentative Essay About Teenage Pregnancy – 700 Word Long Essay

Teenage pregnancy is understood as pregnancy among girls at a young age. Teen mothers are aged 18 years and below. Teen pregnancy has the highest incidences recorded in the USA apart from other issues such as abortion and childbirth. However, the teen pregnancy rate has significantly reduced since 1990. Most teens nowadays avoid unwanted pregnancies because of government sexual education campaigns. The reduction in birth rate is because most teenage girls use birth control methods and have education about sexual activity. A teen mom usually drops out of school and faces many hardships. In this argumentative essay, I will present arguments on why teen pregnancy should be avoided.

Teenage pregnancies should be discouraged since they put a strain on the parents of that teen. Teen moms usually face numerous problems during their early parenthood. Parents of the teen mother have to incur expenses regarding medication. Teen mothers also have to carry out parenthood activities besides making ends meet for other expenses. Therefore, adolescent pregnancy should be eliminated through awareness of these negative impacts. Every teenager should know about safe sex and sex education from a young age.

Teen pregnancies should be eradicated due to their impact on the rise of social responsibility. The current society is burdened with social responsibility due to increased birth rates. There is a high cost of living due to population growth, high medication costs, and loss of human capital. Teen parents should be counseled and allowed to stay in schools and colleges. There should be advertisements on sex education by the government to control teen pregnancy rates so that teen birth rates can be controlled. Pregnant teens should not be allowed to go to school or college so that these pregnant teenagers don’t have a bad influence on others.

Teen pregnancy leads to increased poverty in society hence it should be abolished. The poverty status of teenage mothers is currently on the rise because they don’t have a source of income. This poverty situation is typically prolonged as the child is unable to get better education due to the limited resources. Poverty in children born to teen parents leads to health deterioration due to depression and low self-esteem.

Teenage pregnancies are responsible for high risks of health-related infections among teen mothers and their babies. Teen parents usually exhibit mental problems due to stress and depression as well as physical injuries. These problems sometimes lead to death at the time of delivery. Other health-related problems include anemia, hemorrhage, STD infections, and low birth weight. Teen mothers don’t know how to take care of themselves when they are pregnant which also leads to miscarriages. Even if there are no miscarriages, babies are prematurely born and have poor nutrition.

In conclusion, teen pregnancy even though it is reduced due to awareness, negatively impacts the mother, baby, and society. Teenage mothers, as well as their children, usually suffer for their whole life because of this mistake. Therefore, it is critical to educate teens on better methods of birth control while encouraging sexuality education.

Short Argumentative Essay About Teen Pregnancy – 300 Word Short Custom Essay

Teenage pregnancy is defined as the occurrence of pregnancy among young girls aged 10 to 19 years old. Teen moms suffer their whole life due to a lack of information about safe sex and reproductive health. The tread in most schools as soon as the children hit puberty is towards having a relationship with the opposite sex and losing virginity. Most teens are not even aware of the consequences before they indulge in such relationships. They don’t realize how they have damaged their health, self-esteem, social stature,  future of education, and most importantly the future of their offspring. In this essay, I will present arguments on why teenage pregnancies should always be discouraged.

Young people usually have very little or no sex education at all. Nowadays teenagers and adolescents are influenced by social media and tv shows that promote sexual interactions. These shows give these young minds a false idea about this world and life goals. Sexually explicit content on the internet and no sex education makes them take bad decisions in life. One of the worst outcomes of all this is teenage mothers having no idea of what to do. This leads to more and more problems in life and can even affect families.

Teen pregnancy should be discouraged because it negatively affects the social, physical, and mental wellbeing of the teen parent as well as their child. Teens are challenged to carry out early parenthood responsibilities, they drop out of school, they don’t even get enough money to afford these expenses.  On top of all anxiety, stress, shame, and fear during teenage pregnancy may even cause death during childbirth. A child born after unwanted pregnancy also suffers all his/her life because of this mistake. The child never gets the deserved love, respect, and resources to fulfill his/her basic needs. These children fall easy prey to anxiety, depression, and emotional stress.

In conclusion, the government should take measures by promoting sex education among teenagers. premarital sex in teenagers should be discouraged. Problems that arise after becoming a teen parent should be highlighted so that everyone should be safe from health issues in this age bracket.

Like these argumentative essay samples about teenage pregnancy? Reach out to Essay Basics to get a professionally written plagiarism-free custom essay on any topic in less than 3 hours.

FAQ About Effects of Early Pregnancy in Teens

What is the main problem of teenage pregnancy.

The main problem of teen pregnancy is guilt and shame that makes you leave school or college. It also negatively affects the social, physical, and mental well-being of the teen mom.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of teenage pregnancy?

The disadvantage of teen pregnancy is that it destroys the social, physical, and mental well-being of the teen mother. The advantage of teen pregnancy is that teen mothers heal super fast after giving birth and are closer to their kids.

• https://americanpregnancy.org/unplanned-pregnancy/teen-pregnancy-issues-challenges/

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Teenage Pregnancy Speech

• Categories: Teenage Pregnancy

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Published: Mar 20, 2024

Words: 541 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

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Causes of teenage pregnancy, consequences of teenage pregnancy, prevention and intervention.

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Teen Pregnancy Linked to Premature Death, Study Finds

A large analysis in Canada finds that teenagers who had babies were twice as likely to die before age 31.

By Roni Caryn Rabin

Teen pregnancy increases the chances that a young woman will drop out of school and struggle with poverty, research has shown. Teenagers are also more likely to develop serious medical complications during pregnancy.

Now a large study in Canada reports another disturbing finding: Women who were pregnant as teenagers are more likely to die before their 31st birthday. The trend was observed among women who had carried teen pregnancies to term, as well as among those who had miscarried.

“The younger the person was when they became pregnant, the greater their risk was of premature death,” said Dr. Joel G. Ray, an obstetric medicine specialist and epidemiologist at St. Michael’s Hospital in Toronto and the first author of the study. It was published in JAMA Network Open on Thursday.

“Some people will argue that we shouldn’t be judgmental about this, but I think we’ve always known intuitively that there’s an age that is too young for pregnancy,” he added.

The study made use of a provincial health insurance registry to analyze pregnancy outcomes among some 2.2 million teenagers in Ontario, Canada, including all girls who were 12 years old between April 1991 and March 2021.

Even after the researchers accounted for pre-existing health problems the girls may have had, and for income and education disparities, teenagers who carried pregnancies to term were more than twice as likely to suffer premature death later in life.

The researchers found similar odds among women who as teenagers had ectopic pregnancies, in which the fertilized egg grows outside the uterus, or pregnancies that ended in a stillbirth or miscarriage.

The danger was substantially lower among women who had terminated a pregnancy as teenagers — however, they were still 40 percent more likely to die prematurely, compared with those who had not been pregnant.

Dr. Ray and his colleagues found the greatest odds of premature death among women who became pregnant before the age 16 and those who were pregnant more than once as teenagers.

Injuries — both self-inflicted and unintentional, like assaults — caused most of the premature deaths, the analysis found.

Women who had been pregnant as teenagers were more than twice as likely to die young of an unintentional injury, compared with those who had not been pregnant as teenagers — and they were also twice as likely to die from a self-inflicted injury.

In a commentary accompanying the article, Elizabeth L. Cook, a scientist with Child Trends, a research organization focused on children and youth, noted that teen pregnancy may not be a causal factor in premature mortality.

Rather, it may be a proxy for an array of other influences, including adverse childhood experiences, that raise the odds of an early death. She called for more research to understand these causes.

While some teens choose to become pregnant, “most teen pregnancies are unintended, which exposes shortcomings in the systems that exist to educate, guide and support young people,” Ms. Cook wrote. The stigma and isolation that many pregnant teens experience “can make it more difficult to thrive in adulthood,” she added. The new study is not the first to find an association between teen pregnancy and premature death but appears to be one of the largest and most robust.

A Finnish study reported in 2017 that women who had experienced a teen pregnancy were more likely to die prematurely as a result of suicide , alcohol-related causes, circulatory disease and car accidents. That study attributed the excess risk to low educational attainment.

Although the risks of pregnancy generally increase with age, pregnant adolescents are more likely than women in their 20s and 30s to develop pregnancy-related high blood pressure and a life-threatening condition called pre-eclampsia.

They are more likely to give birth prematurely and to have babies who are small at birth, and their babies often have other serious health problems and are at greater risk of dying during their first year of life.

Pregnancy, Childbirth and Postpartum Experiences

Teen Pregnancies: A large study in Canada found that women who were pregnant as teenagers were more likely to die before turning 31 .

Weight-Loss Drugs: Doctors say they are seeing more women try weight-loss medications in the hopes of having a healthy pregnancy. But little is known about the impact of those drugs  on a fetus.

Premature Births: After years of steady decline, premature births rose sharply in the United States  between 2014 and 2022. Experts said the shift might be partly the result of a growing prevalence of health complications among mothers .

Depression and Suicide: Women who experience depression during pregnancy or in the year after giving birth have a greater risk of suicide and attempted suicide .

A Long Awaited Breakthrough: Scientists said they had pinpointed the cause of severe morning sickness — a discovery could lead to better treatments for severe nausea and vomiting  during pregnancy.

Cutting Babies’ Tongues: Dentists and lactation consultants are pushing “ tongue-tie releases ” on new mothers struggling to breastfeed. Here’s what to know .

Youth Issue: Teen Pregnancy Essay

Introduction.

Teenage is a very difficult time. Youths tend to indulge in sex during this period influenced by sexual depiction in the popular culture. This creates interest in sexual acts and this often results in teenage pregnancies. It is the responsibility of the family members and peers to choose the right lifestyle. Once this is achieved a teen can avoid teenage pregnancy and lead a life inclined towards a better career and a better life in the future.

With the commercialization of sex, more people, especially teenagers, feel the pressure of taking part in premarital sex not realizing the difficulties the girls might have to face once they become pregnant. Teenagers should not have sex just to fit in or feel grown up and be popular among their friends. Most teen parents enjoy raising a child, as they feel responsible for it. Sex should be a wonderful emotional experience and not out of pressure. By avoiding sex at early age, these teenagers prevent teen pregnancies and single parent families and secure their bright futures. Only when the parents of these teenagers openly discuss sexuality and the harmful effects of teen pregnancy with their teenagers are they most likely to understand the risks involved with sex and pregnancy and thus will act in a more responsible manner. A single parent or teen parents have to give up their youth to raise another. Babies also affect the emotional state of its parents causing changes in their relations. Most of the teenagers succumb to pressure and their lack of boldness prevents them from saying no to sex at a young age. Thus, teenagers should realize the problems they and their families can face if they get pregnant.

With the commercialization of sex, more people, especially teenagers, feel the pressure of taking part in premarital sex not realizing the difficulties the girls might have to face once they become pregnant. These teenage girls, and even boys, need to understand that one of the major ways by which teen pregnancy and even single parent families can be avoided is by saying no to sex. Teenagers must be sexually responsible in order to prevent unplanned or unwanted pregnancy. If they do not feel ready to have sex, they should choose to boldly say no to their partners and not succumb to pressures from their partners. Teenagers should never assume that just because theirs friends are having sex they should too since their friends might just be bragging about it. Everybody should make the choices for themselves since no one has the right to tell them what they should do with their body. It is a private and individual decision. Teenagers should not have sex just to fit in or feel grown up and be popular among their friends. (Mayers, 2008)

Most of the teenagers who have sex and end up pregnant have to take care of their family alone and thus, end up regretting their decision. Some of them go through the pregnancy and have to face the hardships of having to raise a child, at times even alone. However, most of them opt for abortions, which create further complications and health problems for them. They should talk to their parents and friends who can make them realize having sex until a person is old enough, may not always be good. They should properly understand their feelings and make the best choice for their future by saying no to sex until and unless they want to and are of the proper age. (Wells & Feinberg, 2009)

Sometimes the body may make a person feel that he or she is ready but an individual should also give importance to his or hers emotions, values and beliefs and should think about the difficulties they will face if the girl involved gets pregnant. Therefore, if one feels unsure and nervous then they should take a step back and think about the real reason for having sex. The choice is up to the teens themselves and by saying no to sex before age, not only do they secure their futures but also avoid health related problems. (Wells & Feinberg, 2009)

Most teen parents enjoy raising a child, as they feel responsible for it. It takes a lot of hard work, time, energy and dedication in raising a life and support from the family. However, the pros of teen pregnancy are outweighed by the cons. Although a child becomes the greatest source of satisfaction and joy for its parents, most of the teen parents are not able to deal with the demands of a baby. Grown adults have proper education, are financially stable and have the emotional support of their families. Most of the teen parents are single and do not have the emotional support of either their family or partners. Pregnancy can cause a lot of complications since the bodies of the teenage girls are not properly developed, strong and mature enough to bear a child. This can also affect the baby’s health. Most of the teen mothers do not get proper nutrition and thus, the babies are born prematurely having low weight. Even the mothers have to face problems like anemia, high blood pressure, risk of catching STDs and obesity. (Dickens, 2000)

Sex should be a wonderful emotional experience and not out of pressure. Thus, teenagers need to wait till they reach a proper age and are in an adult and committed relation or are married. It is best for them to abstain until they are ready to build their own family and are able to take care of it. In addition, sometimes these teenagers feel guilty for having sex and this weighs heavily on their conscious. If they are pressured into it then they start to wonder whether their partners truly care for and respect them. Thus, sex sometimes causes problems among the couples as they lose their faith and trust in each other. They should avoid sex and rather indulge themselves in activities and dating only. (Bensussen-Walls & Saewyc, 1999)

Teenagers should also not have boyfriends and girlfriends and have sexual activities among themselves just because they are bored but rather enjoy their adolescence with their friends. Even if they have boyfriends and girlfriends, they should be able to decide for themselves and have a say in the relation. Teenagers need to stay away from people who pressurize them into having sex and they should be bold enough to say a firm no and even report people who force them, since it is almost like rape. In addition, parents need to talk openly with their teenagers about sex, use of contraception and build their values and morals so that they understand that by deciding to abstain from sex they are doing the right thing. By avoiding sex at early age, these teenagers prevent teen pregnancies and single parent families and secure their bright futures. Only when the parents of these teenagers openly discuss sexuality and the harmful effects of teen pregnancy with their teenagers are they most likely to understand the risks involved with sex and pregnancy and thus will act in a more responsible manner. Until and unless these teenagers understand the values, behaviors and roles that a mature man and woman have to play in society they should not indulge in casual sexual activities. (Kennedy, 2006)

A single parent or teen parents have to give up their youth to raise another. They will no longer be able to socialize anytime they want to and party at night. They also have to finish their schooling while taking care of their babies, uptime. Their responsibilities increase since they are solely responsible for the baby and have to take care of its need, like dressing, bathing, changing and feeding. Since the baby is completely dependent on its mother, she has to provide love and attend to it when it cries or falls sick. Raising a child is also very expensive. As most of these teen mothers lack proper education and even financial support from their families, they do not get proper jobs or places to live. Most of them cannot go to college and finish their education since having a child affects their plans too. (Allen, 2006)

College becomes very tough if one has a child to care for. They also cannot afford babysitters and thus, have to tend to the babies themselves all the time. Financial instability also has an effect on the living conditions of the child and its future. Babies also affect the emotional state of its parents causing changes in their relations. The demands of raising a child could be very stressful for its young parents, especially for the single parents, since they are completely new to parenting. They have to juggle between their jobs and schooling and at the same time take care of the child. (Jaccard, Dodge & Dittus, 2002)

The life of a teenager is not an easy one. They frequently have to face difficult and important decisions that affect their entire life. Most of the teenagers succumb to pressure and their lack of boldness prevents them from saying no to sex at a young age. Thus, teenagers should realize the problems they and their families can face if they get pregnant. They will have to face problems in school and discrimination from friends. Their families may not support them and some even have to face poverty. They have to understand that by saying no to sex, and saying it repeatedly till they are ready, saves them from a lot of trouble and tension. They have to maintain a strict body language and speak confidently and clearly so that their partners get the point. They also need to be cautious of pressure lines and not fall for them. Even though at that time the decision not to have sex may not seem proper, eventually it saves one from a lot of hardships. Teenagers need to understand that just because everyone is having sex does not mean that even they should since they are not everybody are should maintain their individuality and self-respect. (Kirby & Miller, 2002)

Allen, J.P. (2006). Preventing teen Pregnancy and Academic Failure: Experimental Evaluation of a Developmentally Based Approach. Child Development , 68(4), 729-742.

Bensussen-Walls, W., & Saewyc, E.M. (1999). Teen-Focused Care Versus Adult-Focused Care for the High-Risk Pregnant Adolescent: An Outcomes Evaluation. Public Health Nursing , 18(6), 424-435.

Dickens, H.O. (2000). Teenagers, Contraception, and Pregnancy. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 1(2), 175-181.

Jaccard, J., Dodge, T., & Dittus, P. (2002). Parent-adolescent communication about sex and birth control: A conceptual framework. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development , 2002(97), 9-42.

Kennedy, P. (2006). Saving Our Children from Children: Conquering Teen Pregnancy Challenges for Our Youngest Mothers. AWHONN LIFELINES , 1(2), 13-16.

Kirby, D., & Miller, B.C. (2002). Interventions designed to promote parent-teen communication about sexuality. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development , 2002(97), 93-110.

Mayers, H.A., (2008). The Chances for Children Teen Parent-Infant Project: Results of a pilot intervention for teen mothers and their infants in inner city high schools. Infant Mental Health Journal, 29(4), 320-342.

Wells, R., & Feinberg, M. (2009). Factors affecting member perceptions of coalition impact. Nonprofit Management and Leadership , 19(3), 327-348.

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IvyPanda. (2021, November 18). Youth Issue: Teen Pregnancy. https://ivypanda.com/essays/youth-issue-teen-pregnancy/

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Bibliography

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Opinion Outlawing abortion is just the start for some conservative judges

More proof that the assault on reproductive freedom doesn’t stop with abortion : Now teens in Texas can’t obtain contraceptives without their parents being informed and granting approval. The inevitable result will be more unintended pregnancies and more desperate girls in a state where almost all abortions are banned.

You can thank the state of Texas and the ultraconservative U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit for this situation. The sensible thing to do to prevent unwanted pregnancy is to make access to contraceptives as easy and risk-free as possible. Forcing children to have children is not in anyone’s interest.

I have experienced this debate from both sides now — as a teenager and as a mother of teenagers. And while I agree that parental involvement is preferable and think it’s understandable that parents want a say in their children’s medical decisions, I also know those discussions are not always going to happen. In many families, the consequences could be far worse than invasions of privacy and uncomfortable conversations.

Congress understood this, too, when it provided federal funding for family planning clinics and, in 1978, worried about the explosion in teen pregnancy, explicitly amended the Title X law to include contraceptive coverage for adolescents. In 1981, it further changed the law to “encourage family participation,” to “the extent practical.”

The Reagan administration tried to seize on this language a few years later to require that parents be notified when their children sought contraception from federally funded clinics. This so-called squeal rule was struck down by two federal appeals courts. In addition, every appeals court to address the conflict between state parental consent rules and Title X has found that the state rules conflict with Title X and can’t be enforced.

In short, for four decades now, the rules have been clear: Teenagers can obtain contraception in confidence. Or so we thought. Texas law gives parents the right to consent before their children get contraceptives. Alexander Deanda, who said he was raising his three daughters to conform to his Christian beliefs that they should abstain from premarital sex, filed suit to challenge the administration of Title X as a violation of Texas law and of his constitutional right to direct his children’s upbringing. U.S. District Judge Matthew Kacsmaryk, a Trump nominee famous for his ruling against the abortion drug mifepristone , agreed.

Last week, the 5th Circuit sided with Deanda . The all-Republican panel — two George W. Bush nominees and Trump nominee Stuart Kyle Duncan — brushed aside the Biden administration’s argument that Deanda lacked standing because he hadn’t shown any real risk of being harmed by the confidentiality policy. There was no assertion that his daughters had obtained contraceptives from a Title X clinic or were inclined to do so.

That didn’t concern the 5th Circuit, in an opinion written by Duncan. (You may recall him from being shouted down by Stanford Law School students unhappy with his position on LGBTQ+ rights.) “The Secretary’s policy is to spend millions to get contraceptives to minors without telling their parents,” Duncan wrote. “It should not come as a shock that there could be a correspondingly large number of parents who can challenge it in court.”

Duncan said the federal law didn’t interfere with — and therefore didn’t preempt — the Texas rule. Really? One — the federal law, the one that’s supposed to take precedence — says that family participation should be “encourage[d],” so far as “practical.” The other — the Texas law, which is supposed to give way under the supremacy clause — mandates parental consent.

Duncan looked at the two laws and said he discerned “no conflict between Title X’s objectives and Texas’s.” Both want to encourage family participation — Texas, he said, just “establishes a specific means of achieving that goal.” So much for paying attention to the statutory text.

Still, the 5th Circuit didn’t go as far as Kacsmaryk, something that’s becoming a trend with this extremist judge . Having concluded that the federal law didn’t preempt the Texas consent requirement, the appeals court didn’t answer the broader constitutional question of whether Title X violated Deanda’s rights as a parent to control his children’s upbringing.

One additional wrinkle: In 2021, after Deanda’s lawsuit was filed, the Biden administration issued a regulation providing that recipients of Title X funds can’t require parental consent or notify parents that minors have requested contraceptive services. Kacsmaryk declared the new rule unlawful. But the appeals court said that went too far because Deanda hadn’t properly challenged it.

In other words, watch this space. But don’t sleep easy. As we’ve seen with interference with in vitro fertilization in Alabama , and as we see with contraceptives in Texas, outlawing abortion is just the start.

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10 Social Issues and Problems That Trouble Today's Teens

Technology and social media can amplify the struggles teens face, but they aren't the only issues they encounter.

Social Media

Peer pressure, on-screen violence, sexual activity, alcohol use, academic problems, how to talk to your teen.

Just like adults, teens nowadays often face social problems. They may also be more susceptible to challenges because their brains are still developing and their bodies are changing quickly. Combine that with advances in technology, and today's teens are facing new and different social issues than their parents may have.

Not only has electronic media amplified some teenage troubles, but digital communication and social media have also changed the way teens interact with their peers and romantic interests. The end result is a group of young people who struggle with essential interpersonal communication skills like picking up on social cues.

Some of this dysfunction can be linked to technology—especially since the average teen spends more than eight hours each day using electronic devices.  That said, not all teen social issues are linked to the digital world. Teens also are at a higher risk for overdose, might not practice safe sex, and are facing increasing academic pressures.

Here's a closer look at the top 10 social issues teens nowadays struggle with.

Brianna Gilmartin 

Instagram, Twitter, and SnapChat  can be great ways for teens to connect, but social media can be problematic for several reasons. It can expose your teen to cyberbullying, slut-shaming, and so much more.  

Social media can hurt friendships, and it's changing the way teens date. Research shows it can impact their mental health.  And no matter what precautions you take, teens are likely to be exposed to unsavory people, unhealthy images, and sexual content online.

Help your teen learn to navigate social media in a healthy way by following these tips:

• Talk about ways to stay safe online.
• Ask what your teen is doing on social media.
• Educate yourself about the latest apps, websites, and social media pages teens are using.
• Consider  limiting your teen's screen time .

While peer pressure has affected teens for generations, social media brings it to a whole new level. Sexting, for example, is a major cause for concern. Many teens don't understand the lifelong consequences that sharing explicit photos can have. 

But sending inappropriate photos isn't the only thing kids are coerced into doing. Teens face pressure to have sex, use drugs or alcohol, and even bully others.  

To keep your kids from falling victim to peer pressure, consider these tips:

• Give them skills to make healthy choices and resist peer pressure.
• Talk to teens about what to do if they make a mistake.
• Let them know it's safe to come to you when they have problems or make poor choices.
• Demonstrate that you can listen without judging or overreacting.
• Help them find healthy ways to make amends and move on if they peer pressure others.

Teenagers are going to witness some violent media at one time or another. And it's not just TV, music, and movies that depict violence. Many of today's video games portray gory scenes and disturbing acts of aggression. Over the past couple of decades, studies have linked these violent images to a lack of empathy and aggressive behavior .

Other studies have shown the top factor in determining the way kids relate to media is how their parents think and act.  That means the more violence parents watch, the more likely their kids will think it's OK.  

To help limit exposure to on-screen violence, pay attention to your teen's media use and consider implementing these guidelines:

• Restrict or limit your teen from watching R-rated movies or playing M-rated video games. Consuming that material excessively (and unsupervised) is not healthy. 
• Talk about the dangers of being exposed to violent images and monitor your teen's mental state.
• Discuss sexual situations and racial stereotypes that your teen might see.
• Help them identify what's good and what's bad about the media.
• Boost their media literacy by helping them think objectively about what they're seeing on television, TikTok, in the movie theater, or in a video game.

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), an estimated 5 million adolescents in the U.S. have had at least one major depressive episode . That means 20% of American teenagers may experience depression before reaching adulthood. Data from NIMH also shows that depression is much more prevalent in female teens (29.2%) than male teens (11.5%) and among teens who reported two or more races (27.2%).

Spending too much time on electronic devices may be preventing young people from in-person activities with their peers, such as sports or other physical activities, that can help ward off depression.  They're also experiencing new conditions like "fear of missing out" or FOMO, which further leads to feelings of loneliness and isolation.

Keep in mind that depressive disorders are treatable, but it's important to seek professional help. Here's how to navigate this situation:

• Schedule an appointment to a health care provider or contact a mental health professional if your teen seems withdrawn, experiences a change in sleep patterns, or starts to perform poorly in school.
• Consider online therapy as an option if your teen is reluctant to meet with a therapist in person.
• Be willing to discuss what they're thinking or feeling, including their thoughts of suicide. Having these conversations can reduce their fears and let them know someone is willing to listen, but it also needs to be handled thoughtfully.
• Call the  National Suicide Prevention Lifeline  at  988  or  911 if they are in immediate danger.

Nearly one in four teens between the ages of 12 and 18 report being bullied each year.  Research suggests that social media has made bullying much more public and more pervasive. In fact, cyberbullying has replaced in-person bullying as the most common type of harassment that teens experience.

To help guard against these kinds of teenage troubles, regularly talk to your teen about bullying and consider utilizing these tips to help:

• Discuss what they can do when they witness bullying.
• Talk about options if they become a target themselves.
• Recognize that being proactive is key to helping your child deal with a bully.
• Talk to your child about when and how to get help from a trusted adult.
• Acknowledge that talking about how someone has humiliated them is never an easy topic.
• Remind them that asking for help isn't a sign of weakness; it's a show of courage.

According to the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) survey, 30% of high school students reported having had sex and 21% said they were currently sexually active . That represents a decline over the past decade (47% had had sex in 2011; 34% were currently sexually active).

This decline in sexual activity doesn't necessarily mean teens nowadays are using contraceptives, though. Just over half of sexually active teens reported using a condom in their last sexual encounter, according to YRBSS data, while about one-third used hormonal birth control and 10% used both.

This may explain why more than half of the 26 million new sexually transmitted infections in the U.S. are among young people between the ages of 15 and 24. Here are some things you can do to ensure that your teen understands the risks of teen sex and how to be safe:

• Talk to your teen about sex and allow them to ask questions.
• Let them know they can come to you about anything and that no questions are off-limits.
• Do your best to not shame them or make them feel embarrassed by their inquiries.
• Instill the importance of safe sex practices—even if you don't think your child is engaging in sexual activity.
• Discuss contraception options and make sure they have access to contraception if they're sexually active.
• Give them resources to learn about safe sex.

The percentage of teens nowadays using illicit substances is roughly 10.9% of eighth graders, 19.8% of 10th graders, and 31.2% of 12th graders, according to most recent data from the Monitoring the Future Survey published by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. While this decline has been noted since the survey began in 1975, there has been a dramatic rise in overdoses among teens.

Illicit fentanyl, a powerful synthetic drug, is largely responsible for these overdoses. Drug dealers are adding it to counterfeit pills made to resemble prescription medications, which means that although teen drug use is declining, it's becoming more risky for those who do partake.

It's important to have regular conversations with your teen about the dangers of drugs. Here are some key topics you need to discuss:

• Mention the dangers of over-the-counter drugs and prescription medications. Many teens don't recognize the risks associated with taking a friend's prescription or popping a few pills.
• Tell your teen that drug use during adolescence increases their risk for developing a substance use disorder later in life.
• Address how easily addictions can happen.
• Discuss how drug and alcohol use can affect their brain development.
• Talk about the risks associated with overdosing.
• Explain the danger of illicit fentanyl contaminating counterfeit drugs.
• Recognize talks about drug use are not one-and-done conversations, but something you should be discussing on a consistent basis.

Alcohol use and binge drinking continue to decline among teenagers. Still, 15.1% of eighth graders, 30.6% of 10th graders, and 45.7% of seniors say they used alcohol in the past year. The forms of alcohol teens are using have also changed. More kids are choosing flavored alcohol (also called "alcopops") and alcohol with caffeine in it. About 36% of seniors reported drinking flavored alcohol.

It's important to talk to your teen about the risks of underage drinking. Here are some tips on how to navigate those conversations.

• Educate them about the dangers of alcohol use, including the fact that alcohol can take a serious toll on their developing brain.  
• Express your disapproval of underage drinking. Saying you don't approve can make a big difference in whether your teen decides to drink.
• Discuss the dangers of drinking and driving.
• Let them know that if they do decide to drink, they should call you or another trusted adult for a ride rather than risk getting behind the wheel.
• Assure your teen that it's safe to reach out to you if they make a mistake and need help.

About 22% of 12- to 19-year-olds in the U.S. are obese, according to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) data. Hispanic and Black children are more likely to be overweight or obese than White or Asian children.

Children and teens who are overweight or obese are often targeted by bullies and are at a much greater risk of lifelong health problems such as diabetes , arthritis, cancer, and heart disease.  They may also struggle with body image issues or develop eating disorders as a way of changing their appearance.

But surveys show parents may not recognize when their kids are overweight.  They tend to underestimate their child's size and the risks associated with being overweight. Here are some ways you can help:

• Ask their health care provider privately about their weight in comparison to their height and age—though many health care providers will alert you to an issue without asking.
• Find ways to support and empower your teen , especially if their doctor recommends a different eating plan or exercise.
• Ensure your teen has the necessary tools to make changes, but recognize that they must want to change. You can't force the issue, nor should you try to control them,
• Avoid shaming or embarrassing your teen about their weight, but instead communicate acceptance for who they are as a person. They need to know their worth is not tied to their weight.

About 5% of high school students drop out of high school each year in the United States, according to the National Center for Education Statistics.  A high school dropout is likely to earn significantly less over their lifetime when compared to a high school graduate, which can have a significant impact on a young person's future.

But it's no longer just "troubled teens" who are dropping out of school. Some teens feel so much pressure to get into a good college that they're burning themselves out before they graduate from high school.

Here are some ways you can help your teen avoid academic problems:

• Stay involved in your teen's education.
• Provide support and guidance when needed.
• Be ready to assist your teen if they encounter problems.
• Try to remove some of the pressure they may be facing by not placing so much emphasis on grades, achievements, and college acceptances.

Bringing up any difficult subjects with your teen can feel uncomfortable. And your teen isn't likely to respond well to a lengthy lecture or too many direct questions. But having a conversation with your teen about social issues and other teenage troubles isn't something you should shy away from.

Even when it seems like they're not listening, you're the most influential person in your teen's life. It's important to lay a strong foundation before the window of opportunity closes. A good way to strike up a conversation about drugs, sex, vaping, or other uncomfortable situations is to ask a question like, "Do you think this is a big issue at your school?"

Listen to what your teen has to say. Try not to be judgmental, but make your expectations and opinions clear. It's important that your teen understands that you don't condone certain behaviors and that they know the consequences of breaking the rules. That said, you also need to communicate that if they do make a poor choice, it's not the end of the world and that you're there to help.

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