food safety issues essay

81 Food Safety Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best food safety topic ideas & essay examples, 📌 good essay topics on food safety, 💡 simple & easy food safety titles.

Food Contamination and Adulteration: Environmental Problems, Food Habits, Way of Cultivation The purpose of this essay is to explain reasons for different kinds of food contamination and adulteration, harmful contaminants and adulterants and the diseases caused by the usage of those substances, prevention of food contamination […]
The Importance of Food Safety in Live The food control system is an internationally recognized system that details various elements that are involved in food handling and to ensure safety and fitness for human consumption.
Food Safety and Its Application The realization that low temperatures slow down the growth of microbes and the process of food spoilage led to the invention of refrigeration.
Food Hygiene Inspection of a Food Premises and the Intervention Strategies The need to conduct this inspection was necessitated by the complaints that were received from the customers about the food served at this store.
The Governmental Role in Food Safety The government has the mandate to supervise the overall procedures that are undertaken for food to be made from the farms to the shelves.
Food Safety Risk Assessment Poultry is a reservoir of salmonella in human being due to the ability of salmonella to proliferate in the intestines of poultry.
Food Safety Policy for a Music Festival Several food businesses are expected to be at the festival thus posing a threat to the health of the participants should the right measures fail to be implemented to avoid the spread of food-borne diseases.
Food Hygiene Legislation in the UK For comprehension purposes, the applicable food laws and powers of authorized officers who conducted the inspection are presented briefly in the first section of the report.
CookSafe Food Safety Management Audit The audit also highlights some of the major problems hindering the application and effectiveness of the CookSafe system. The suitability of HACCP in food safety management is made apparent in the wide scope of the […]
Food Safety at Introducing of New Meal The former is the most significant threat from the medium risk category due to its high presence, and the latter is the biggest issue out of all the factors listed above.
The Actuality of Issue of Food Safety Although the article does not explore specific strategies that can be utilized to increase food safety globally, identifying the necessity to promote food safety culture and behavioral change toward food safety make it a reliable […]
Safety of Food: Weaning Management Practices The methods have different significance in the efficiency and performance of the calves, but the main impact remains to prevent and reduce stress.
Operations to Ensure Food Safety The Preventive Controls for Animal Food regulation requires suppliers of animal food, particularly pet food, to apply the same careful preparation used to identify and avoid dangers in the growth of human food.
Food Safety Modernization Act and Its Importance Because of the increasing concerns about the food safety outbreak of foodborne diseases and other food contamination in the United States, sophisticated inspection-based procedures based on accurate detection technologies are necessary to ensure that food […]
Position on Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) The peer discusses the content of the law, the danger of foodborne illness, food pollution, and presents arguments supporting the position on the inefficiency of FSMA.
Preserving Food Hygiene and Safety Thirdly, assessment Apps have aided in the transition of audits from worksheets to a platform designed to implement and track food safety procedures.
Food Safety and Organic Growing in the USA According to Ehlermann, the technique allows to contain food spoilage, destroy foodborne pathogens, such as bacteria, and eliminate the effects of insect pests without significantly affecting the taste or smell of food.
Wildlife Conservation and Food Safety for Human From the epidemiological investigation, the seafood market in Wuhan was termed as the cause of the outbreak and Coronavirus was identified as of bat origin.
Food Safety and Information Bulletin Moreover, meat, poultry, fish and other fresh products should be packed in separate plastic bags in order not to spoil the rest of the products selected.

✍️ Food Safety Essay Topics for College

Food Safety in the Modern World It is evident that the process of delivering food to the table is highly complex and there are multiple points along the way where food may be mishandled leading to contamination.
Impacts of H7N9 Virus and Food Contamination at Maleic Acid on Inbound Tourism for Elderly to Taiwan In addition, health involves the advancement of the entire body of the individual with regard to the individual’s mind, spirit, or will to aid in his/her functionality.
The Sunshine Wok: Food Hygiene Inspection At the kitchen, the food handler was not aware of the requirement to maintain high-risk food at a temperature of not above 8 C and was at 9.4oC.
The Routine Food Hygiene Inspection The report will outline the conditions present in the food establishment that violate the food hygiene legislation and regulations. The main food legislations in the UK and Europe include the Food Safety Act 1990, the […]
The Food Industry as a Threat to Public Health and Food Safety Nestle examine the problem of food safety, but the main difference is that they focus on the practical aspect of the issue. The authors suggest the regulation and monitoring of the food industry by health […]
Public Service Bulletin: Food Safety Issues It should be noted that food itself does not cause illnesses but what causes illnesses are the pathogens and bacteria present in food. There are several illnesses commonly referred to as food borne diseases that […]
Food Safety Policy and Inspection Services To begin with, I would like to dwell upon the issue of food safety establishments’ attitude towards the complaints of the citizens. The friend’s story mentioned in the discussion serves as a vivid example of […]
Independent Food Safety Inspections in US Restaurants In order to take proper control over the quality of the food served in facilities, the Us Food & Drug Administration has implemented the system of regulatory inspections.
The Problem of Food Safety and the Spread of Various Diseases These days the low level of food safety, the absence of health infrastructure, and the inability of the authorities to take preventive measures contribute a lot to appearing emergencies in some countries.
Safety and Quality: Food Contaminants and Adulteration Food adulteration according to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act is any food that contains materials that are injurious or noxious to the health of a human being.
3D Printed Food and Utensils Safety The former is typically implemented in the production of simple foods and components, whereas the latter is used in combined culinary, with the implementation of both natural and printed ingredients.
Food Safety and Regulations in China Today, China, the world’s largest food producer, has chosen the path to reforming domestic legislation in the field of food safety, by eliminating the contradictions between national standards and technical regulations for food production.
Casa Vasca Restaurant’s Food Safety and Sanitation As the restaurant is open daily, I have visited it once during the working days and on the weekend to compare whether the restaurant practices or service differs on regular days and at the weekends […]
Food Poisoning and Hygiene Awareness in Saudi Arabia The primary aim of the research is to establish the extent to which hygiene awareness in Saudi Arabia helps in the prevention of disease.
Food Safety and Health Violation at Workplace This can give pests access to food and enhance the growth and spread of bacteria. This can cause a quick growth and spread of bacteria.
Food Safety: Washing Contact Surfaces and Cooking An important aspect of food safety is the personal hygiene practices of the food handlers as they make contact with the food.
Aspen Hills Inc.’s Food Safety and Quality Issues For most of the food companies and restaurants, food safety is one of the primary components of quality management. As a result of the letter, the company’s officials chose to shut down the production activity […]
The Mass Production of Food: Food Safety Issue The development of the food industry regarding the mass production of food globally led to the discussion of the food safety and nutrition issues at the international level because the violation of the food safety […]
Food and Environmental Hygiene Department He also claims that the attendance book was left unattended and thus he filled in information in the absence of the receptionist attendant.Mr.
Food Preparation: Workplace Hygiene Thus if the chicken is not properly cooked or stored the bacteria in it can survive and cause food poisoning. Thus the chickens were contaminated by the germs or bacteria that were in the hands […]
Recommendations for Ensuring Food Safety & Reducing Disease-Causing Mosquitoes As such, the focus should be to introduce mandatory employee training especially in areas of food safety to guarantee that appropriate practices in hygiene, food handling and preparation, and sanitation are put in place in […]
Consumer Attitudes Towards Food Safety Risks Associated With Meat Processing
Food Safety Risk Perceptions as a Tool for Market Segmentation
Balancing Food Safety and Risk: Do Restrictions Affect International Trade?
Food Safety Strategies in Hybrid Governance Structures
Food and Its Effects on Health and Food Safety
Breeding Crops for Enhanced Food Safety
Evolving Food Safety Pressures in California’s Central Coast Region
Food Safety and Network Governance Structure of the Agri-Food System
Assessing the Potential Impact of Strengthening Food Safety Regulations on Developing Countries
Efficient Food Safety Regulation in the Food Manufacturing Sector
Contradictions, Consequences, and the Human Toll of Food Safety Culture
Consumer Demand for Innovations in Food Safety
Food Safety and Social Capital: A Double Side Connection
Demand for Improved Food Safety and Quality: A Cross-Regional Comparison
Agriculture and Health Through Food Safety and Nutrition
Analyzing Food Safety and Labeling
Are Food Safety Standards Different From Other Food Standards?
Food Safety and Trade: Winners and Losers in a Non-harmonized World
Demographic and Socioeconomic Influences on the Importance of Food Safety in Food Shopping
Benchmarking International Food Safety Performance in the Fresh Produce Sector
Benefits of Food Safety Policies in Vegetable Preparation and Consumption
Food Safety: Strengthening the Present With an Eye to the Future
Mandatory Versus Voluntary Approaches to Food Safety
Global Initiative for Food Safety in Government Facilities
Improving Food Safety Management Practices
Geographical Indications, Food Safety, and Sustainability
Mycotoxin Food Safety Risk in Developing Countries
Welfare Losses Due to Food Safety Regulation
Opportunities for the Coregulation of Food Safety: Insights From the United Kingdom
Contracts in the Supply Chain and Food Safety in International Markets
Modeling Food Safety Strategies
Public and Private Food Safety Standards: Facilitating or Frustrating Fresh Produce Growers
The Economic Forces Driving Food Safety Quality in Meat and Poultry
Managing Food Safety Modernization: The Produce Industry Perspective
Free International Food Safety Regulations
Maximum Residue Limits: Protectionism or Food Safety
Food Safety Standards and Their Impact on the Small Farms of Developed Countries
Redesigning Food Safety: Using Risk Analysis to Build a Better Food Safety System
The Potential of Insurance to Improve Food Safety
Assessing the Benefits and Costs of Improving Food Safety
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Example Of Food Safety Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Health , Medicine , Security , Human , Study , Genetics , Food , Safety

Words: 2500

Published: 03/20/2020

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Food is a necessity because it is essential to human beings’ survival. For this reason, food production is a crucial function in modern life because processes and initiatives determine the quantity and quality of food produced and distributed to consumers. Food production, however, is not an easy process. In some cases, food consumed by people not only cause illnesses or various diseases but also lead to death. As a result, producers around the world adopted various measures to ascertain the quality of food and the health and safety of consumers. Solving food safety is a variable process primarily because issues that threaten this are diverse. The research focuses on identifying current and relevant issues that threaten food safety particularly improper food handling, preparation, and storage practices, and the strategies and practices that organizations employ in order to address food security that affect the health and wellbeing of people. The discussion focuses on the problems in food safety and their implications on human life. After presenting issues concerning food safety, the discussion also includes recommendations on how people would be able to address the foregoing problems to ensure that they consume high quality food. Solutions to food safety problems include increased awareness about food handling and storage, as well as increased reliance on organic food. Science could also contribute to the foregoing problems by introducing non-harmful ways to produce plant and animal food sources and offset the outcomes of climate change on agriculture and food production.

Consumption and Food Safety

One of the most important issues when it comes to food and consumption is safety. Food is a basic necessity because it perpetuates the survival of human beings. Nonetheless, food could place people’s lives at risk. People die after consumption if food contains deadly organisms such as bacteria or virus, poison, and other harmful substances. Some sources of food in nature are also prohibited for consumption because they are harmful to people’s health. For the foregoing reasons, food safety is important when it comes to curbing incidences of death and illness due to food. Aside from the presence of deadly organisms on food, other reasons or factors that contribute to food safety issues include improper handling and storage of food. Food items formulate bacteria, for instance, when they are kept under conditions that do not favor the preservation of the food’s quality. Some food items must be frozen, while others must be heated or cooled. Food must also be stored properly to prevent bacteria from formulating on the surface of the food. The foregoing problems have plagued the food production industry for many years. Proposed solutions include the inclusion of ingredients in food to improve its quality and prevent it from decomposition or contamination. Other solutions include standards or guidelines and their implementation in food preparation particularly in restaurants and other food establishments. In recent years, however, one of the primary social issues related to food safety include the quality of food. Various health institutions raised this issue because of the increasing number of illnesses caused by low food quality. Some of these illnesses are also serious and the leading causes of death around the world. Illnesses such as cancer, heart diseases, and diabetes, for instance, are outcomes of poor food quality. Proof to the alarming rate of unfortunate circumstances linked to food safety is the growing number of cases involving food poisoning or the onset of diseases due to consumption of unsafe food. The number of articles about food safety published over the years (See Figure 1) have significantly increased over time, thus, signaling the growing number of issues related to safety and intensifying the need to immediately address the problem.

Cultural and Sociological Relevance of Food Safety

Since the objective of the research is to view a specific issue from the cultural and sociological perspective, we are going to explore some of the issues linked to food quality. Aside from the content of food, this issue is also cultural in nature because it is tied to the food consumption practices in other countries. In a discussion about food quality, Kent (2012) pointed out that food choices often affect our health. Hence, in countries where people’s choices are scarce or are limited to specific types of food following cultural practices such as religious traditions, the quality of their food and consumption differs from that of others. Aside from religion and culture, lifestyle and beliefs as well as personal preferences as influenced by news and science are also some of the factors that affect people’s choices when it comes to food consumption. Kent mentioned Jews and Muslims as examples. Due to their religion, Jews and Muslims follow restrictions when it comes to food consumption. Both groups are averse to the consumption of pork, which may be an outcome of their religion rather than health concerns. Nonetheless, because of Jews and Muslims’ aversion to pork, they consume better food choices because pork is excluded from their diet. Due to safety issues concerning pork, such as contaminations with various bacteria (Bottemiller, 2012) as well as drugs and other substances that may harm human beings upon consumption (Consumer Reports, 2013), Jews and Muslims are saved from various hazards that may arise if they consumed pork (Kliebenstein, n..d). Aside from Jews and Muslims or other groups that set restrictions about their diet, other people that choose to live a healthy lifestyle are those that are also at lesser risk of being affected by food safety issues. Often, these people learn about food production so they would be aware about the origin, production, and handling of their food. People living a healthy lifestyle prefer less processed organic food handled delicately to preserve the freshness and the nutritional content of these food items. Furthermore, they learn how to prepare food so they would obtain nutritional benefits of organic food. Overall, people that follow rigid cultural or lifestyle practices when it comes to food consumption consume healthier and therefore, safer food products.

Food Security and Food Safety

Kent (2012) also raised another issue concerning food safety and quality. One of the main problems regarding food is security. Various factors threaten food security especially during the next decades. The increasing population threatens food supply since it would be inadequate in meeting the needs of billions of people around the world. Another factor affecting food security is climate change. Global warming, the continued warming of the earth, contributes to climate change. Climate change consequently affects agriculture. Unpredictable rain patterns bring drought in farm lands particularly in Africa because unlike before, long gaps between downpours dry the land damaging plants in the process. It is for this reason that starvation and malnutrition persist in various African countries as well as other regions experiencing climate change. To offset the outcomes of overpopulation and climate change on food supply, as well as issues concerning food security, scientists introduced the genetic medication of plants and animals as one of the solutions to produce more food and meet consumption demand and ease food security around the world (Schmidhuber & Tubiello, 2007).

Genetic Modification of Food

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) were injected with specific substances that would allow them to produce food even under difficult conditions or in bigger and greater amounts than organic food sources. Through genetic modifications, for instance, poultry are able to produce more eggs. Moreover, poultry mature faster than free range chickens. In this way, poultry producers would be able to meet the demand for this product. Some animals such as salmon are genetically modified to grow to bigger sizes than the average size of this species. Genetically modified plant sources, on the other hand, also mature faster than organic plants and yield bigger produce. Although the genetic modification of plants and animals is well-intentioned, the outcomes of which challenge food safety because of the possible impact of GMOs on people’s health. While some people embrace genetic modification as one of the viable solutions to food supply and security issues, others question it because of health implications. People who protest against companies or organizations that produce GMOs not only argue against the ethical implications of genetic modification but also raise the issue of health. Although some studies prove that GMOs are healthy and safety for consumption, hence their widespread distribution and production, some research studies link consumption of GMOs to diseases including cancer. For this reason, genetic modification is a food safety issue because it could possible affect people’s health in the long run. In one study, researchers fed laboratory rats with GMOs for a long period of time. After doing so, the researchers then studies the subjects’ anatomy and discovered that the rats’ continuous consumption of GMOs damaged their major organs – the kidney and liver (Walia, 2014). Moreover, the content of GMOs greatly disrupted the subjects’ hormonal levels. Although supporting research studies are scarce as of the moment, the study was published in a reputable journal publication. If we are to base our conclusions about GMOs on the research study, we may then surmise that people’s continuous consumption of genetically modified food could also eventually lead to human kidney and liver damage, as well as hormonal imbalance.

The Use of Drugs in Food Production

In relation to food security, many farmers rely on different substances or drugs to increase their yield. Illness is one of the reasons, for instance, that lower the number of poultry and livestock production. To solve the problem, farmers administer drugs to animals in order to increase their immunity to diseases (Consumer Reports, 2013). Although this practice is not questionable per se because using antibiotics helps increase the life span of animals and ascertain their maturity prior to production and distribution, antibiotic use is a food safety issue because of its implications on food consumption. Prior to distribution, some farmers feed livestock and poultry with substances to flush out antibiotics from their system. Nonetheless, this is not always the case as this process is not full proof. Scientists studied cooked meat to determine if they contain drugs or substances. Research outcomes show that traces of drugs were found in meat even if it was cooked (Consumer Reports, 2013). Furthermore, scientists found antibiotic-resistant bacteria on the same product. The implications of which are far-reaching and alarming because if drugs and antibiotic-resistant bacteria remain and survive in cooked food, human beings would consume it. People would be affected by veterinary drugs injected to livestock and poultry and worse, they would ingest bacteria and get sick but will not be able to treat their illness with antibiotics. If the bacteria ingested by people is deadly, then they would pass on because medicine would not work against antibiotic-resistant organisms.

Solutions to Food Safety Issues

As formerly noted, food safety relates to culture and sociological practices including lifestyle. Jews and Muslims who avoid consuming pork are less at risk for contracting diseases brought about by consumption of meat. Individual preferences also affect food consumption and therefore, safety. Hence, one of the solutions in maintaining food safety is people’s adoption of positive habits or activities, even if borrowed from other cultures or religions, towards the goal of consuming healthy and safe food. Awareness plays an important role in accomplishing this objective. People must be aware of food safety issues so that they would be more welcoming of various options that would help them prepare and consume healthier and safer food options. One of the more relevant outcomes of the research is the urgency of solving food safety issues. In the foregoing discussion, we pointed out the increasing need to resolve food safety issues because of mounting evidence about risks involving food. Figure 1 shows the significant rise of cases and articles about food safety issues, thus, highlighting this as a pressing global issue. People can become more aware about issues, and therefore, adopt better strategies to safeguard their health and wellbeing by reading these cases and articles. Online and physical news and sources carry different stories and information about food safety. Some articles show proper food handling, preparation and storage while research studies illustrate the impact of certain food items on the health and wellbeing of people. By reading articles related to the issue, people would know how to prepare and handle food properly, and what to do to ensure that they consume healthy and safe food products. Awareness in people could also enable them to come up with solutions themselves and contribute to the body of literature and solutions to address food safety. Scientific and technological developments may also be introduced to address the foregoing problems. Since scientists introduced genetic modification, they could also conduct research studies in order to determine solutions to the detrimental impact of GMOs on human beings’ health. Addressing food security through genetic modification is essential but the health and safety of consumers around the world is paramount. Scientists should therefore prioritize human health over the discovery and development of processes and strategies to increase the number or size of food produced over time. Recommendations, therefore, focus on continued research about food safety and the link between studies in this field to food security in order to prevent practices and strategies in food production that are detrimental to the health of human beings. Figure 1. Number of Articles in Google News Archive Related to ‘Food Safety’

Bottemiller, H. (2012). Consumer reports finds most pork contaminated with Yersinia. Retrieved from: http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2012/11/consumer-reports-finds-most-pork-positive-for-yersinia/#.VIScYTGUeSo Consumer Reports. (2013). What’s in that pork? Retrieved from: http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2013/01/what-s-in-that-pork/index.htm Kent, G. (2012). Food quality: An issue as important as safety. Retrieved from: http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2012/07/food-safety-not-just-an-issue-of-immediate-threats/#.VIRvhDGUeSo Kliebenstein, J. B. (n.d.). Pork production contracts and food safety issues. Retrieved from: http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Pages/ansci/swinereports/asl-1516.pdf Schmidhuber, J. & Tubiello, F. N. (2007). Global food security under climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(50), 19703-19708. Walia, A. (2014). New study links GMOs to cancer, liver/kidney damage & severe hormonal disruption. Retrieved from: http://www.collective-evolution.com/2014/07/15/new-study-links-gmos-to-cancer-liverkidney-damage-severe-hormonal-disruption/

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127 Food Safety Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Food safety is a critical issue that affects everyone, from consumers to food producers. With the rise of foodborne illnesses and contamination incidents, it is more important than ever to raise awareness about the importance of food safety practices. To help you get started on your food safety essay, here are 127 topic ideas and examples to consider:

The impact of foodborne illnesses on public health
The role of government regulations in ensuring food safety
Food safety practices in the restaurant industry
The importance of proper handwashing in food preparation
How to prevent cross-contamination in the kitchen
The dangers of consuming raw or undercooked meat
Food safety guidelines for handling poultry
The risks of eating expired or spoiled food
How to properly store leftovers to prevent foodborne illnesses
The importance of washing fruits and vegetables before consumption
Food safety practices for outdoor grilling
The role of temperature control in preventing foodborne illnesses
Food safety guidelines for packing school lunches
The dangers of consuming raw seafood
Food safety practices for handling eggs
The risks of consuming unpasteurized dairy products
How to prevent foodborne illnesses in the home kitchen
The impact of food safety on the economy
Food safety practices for preventing food poisoning
The role of food safety education in preventing contamination incidents
The dangers of consuming foods with allergens
Food safety guidelines for handling and storing raw meat
The risks of consuming foods that have been stored at improper temperatures
How to properly clean and sanitize kitchen surfaces
Food safety practices for preventing foodborne illnesses during pregnancy
The importance of proper food handling techniques in preventing contamination
Food safety guidelines for preventing foodborne illnesses in elderly populations
The risks of consuming foods that have been contaminated with pesticides
How to prevent foodborne illnesses in childcare settings
The impact of food safety on vulnerable populations
Food safety practices for preventing foodborne illnesses in developing countries
The dangers of consuming foods that have been tampered with
Food safety guidelines for preventing foodborne illnesses in healthcare settings
The risks of consuming foods that have been genetically modified
How to prevent foodborne illnesses in disaster situations
The importance of food safety inspections in preventing contamination incidents
Food safety practices for preventing foodborne illnesses in food processing facilities
The impact of food safety on food security
Food safety guidelines for preventing foodborne illnesses in food service establishments
The risks of consuming foods that have been contaminated with pathogens
How to prevent foodborne illnesses in food distribution networks
The role of food safety certifications in ensuring safe food products
Food safety practices for preventing foodborne illnesses in food packaging
The dangers of consuming foods that have been adulterated
Food safety guidelines for preventing foodborne illnesses in food transportation
The risks of consuming foods that have been contaminated with heavy metals
How to prevent foodborne illnesses in food storage facilities
The importance of food safety training in preventing contamination incidents
Food safety practices for preventing foodborne illnesses in food retail establishments
The impact of food safety on consumer trust
Food safety guidelines for preventing foodborne illnesses in food marketing
The risks of consuming foods that have been contaminated with toxins
How to prevent foodborne illnesses in food labeling
The dangers of consuming foods that have been contaminated with allergens
Food safety guidelines for preventing foodborne illnesses in food packaging
How to prevent foodborne illnesses in food transportation

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‘If It Isn’t Safe, It Isn’t Food’: Building Food Safety into Global Food Security Efforts

Photo: FADEL SENNA/AFP/Getty Images

Commentary by Caroline Smith DeWaal and Lawrence Haddad

Published October 21, 2020

The Reset the Table essay series is published weekly, describing today’s challenges to global food security and proposing U.S. government responses.

Unsafe food and malnutrition can be twin threats to consumer health and create hurdles to achieving food security for consumers. Yet addressing these twin threats is vital to meet the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 2, a bold call to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition by 2030. Achieving this goal will take aggressive action by all countries, especially as pre-pandemic global food security challenges are further exacerbated by Covid-19.

Though access to safe food is essential for food security, many international development experts and donors are unaware of this connection. Food contaminated with pathogens, or chemical or physical adulterants, can interfere with the uptake of nutrients, worsening malnutrition and affecting developmental outcomes in children. Malnutrition can increase an individual’s susceptibility to infections, including diarrhea. There is a strong relationship between gastrointestinal illness and growth impairment in children, including links to stunting. In fact, diarrhea was identified as the greatest single cause of stunting, and even mild diarrheal disease can have long-term effects on child development and adult health.

In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that unsafe food causes 1 in every 10 people to fall ill each year, leading to 600 million cases of foodborne-related illness and 420,000 deaths a year worldwide. Children under five are uniquely vulnerable, and consumers in sub-Saharan Africa face the greatest disease burden. Almost one-third (30 percent) of all deaths from foodborne diseases are in children under the age of 5 years, estimated at 125,000 per year.

The economic consequences of foodborne disease for countries are also significant; the World Bank estimates approximately $110 billion is lost in productivity and medical expenses each year. For consumers, this can mean an inability to provide and care for oneself and one’s family, perpetuating cycles of poverty and hunger. These costs also impact national economies, trade, tourism, and ultimately sustainable development.

Foodborne disease is frequently linked to highly nutritious foods, like fresh vegetables or animal products high in protein, because such food items are susceptible to contamination. Animals harbor pathogens, including strains of E. coli or Salmonella , that can be transferred to food during slaughter or harvesting. These risks are especially severe in countries where regulation of food production and food handling are less restrictive, and where consumers and food handlers have less access to clean water sources and adequate food storage. Limited cold chain infrastructure and longer supply chains can increase the likelihood of survival and growth of pathogens in food. Amid the Covid-19 pandemic, some food supply chains have been disrupted, and market surveys in several countries by EatSafe find that fresh fruits and vegetables are most impacted. Ensuring that traditional markets for safe nutritious food are supported during the pandemic is central to ensuring food security for low-income consumers globally.

The Role of Markets

In promoting World Food Safety Day, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has said, “if it isn’t safe, it isn’t food.” The United States has included food safety issues within the framework of its food security and nutrition work in recent years, and those efforts should continue. The Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) is partnering with the Feed the Future Initiative and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) on a new project, EatSafe, to help safeguard consumer access to safe and nutritious food in informal markets. Although GAIN has traditionally focused on fighting malnutrition globally, EatSafe is one of GAIN’s first projects focused exclusively on food safety.

A recent report by the World Bank emphasized the need to focus efforts to address food safety in sub-Saharan Africa at the level of the traditional markets where many consumers buy their food. These informal markets are generally subject to minimal regulation or oversight. They also frequently lack essential infrastructure, like clean water, safe storage, a cold chain, sanitary facilities, effective processing equipment, and adequate food service facilities. Informal markets are often located in urban and peri-urban areas, where they are a critical source of food for nearby residents. Incentivizing informal markets and their vendors to improve food safety practices may be the key to improve food safety. As one example, training programs for vendors could improve food handling to increase food safety, and publicizing market training programs might drive consumers to purchase from markets and vendors with the food safety training programs.

The lowest-income consumers, those most vulnerable to food insecurity, frequently shop at informal markets. Therefore, it is essential to look at how both food vendors and consumers conceptualize food safety, what incentives improve food safety practices, and how demand can drive the supply of safe food. As food safety practices vary from country to country, understanding consumer and food vendors interactions is important to develop effective, targeted interventions to improve food safety. Central to the approach of EatSafe is the concept, tested through research, that the interaction between consumers and vendors in traditional markets offers a food safety leverage point by empowering consumers to demand safe food, and vendors to deliver it. We are examining whether improving consumer demand can significantly improve food safety in lower-income countries using market-based approaches.

Prevention is key. Assisting food suppliers and vendors to develop effective food safety practices can protect livelihoods and consumer health while also preventing food safety problems before food reaches the marketplace. Promoting a cadre of well-informed consumers who shop and prepare food is important to creating consumer demand for safe, nutritious food. Identifying key consumers and finding the opportunities to share information in a manner where those consumers are likely to see and learn food safety information is critical.

The Role of Governments

In the first-ever World Risk Poll , the Lloyd’s Register Foundation and Gallup recently surveyed 150,000 consumers in 142 countries and reported on the public perceptions of food-related risks and government food safety performance. The poll found that one in six consumers said they or someone they know had experienced serious harm from eating unsafe food in the last two years, showing the burden of foodborne disease remains high. Governments suffered from gaps in trust on food safety response in many regions.

Prevention of foodborne illness is a shared responsibility across the food chain, including consumers, producers, processors, vendors, and even transporters and farmers. At the local level, improving the food safety practices of stakeholders (such as farmers, vendors, and consumers) can help reduce the burden of foodborne disease in those communities, thus making them healthier and more economically sustainable.

Providing incentives for governments to enhance their food safety systems over time will also be a welcome improvement, especially if those systems are refocused on the needs of their domestic consumers, rather than those of their trading partners. As it works to make nutritious diets accessible to the world’s malnourished, USAID through its Feed the Future Initiative is also exploring how to ensure the safety of those foods—because if it isn’t safe, it isn’t food.

Caroline Smith DeWaal is the deputy director of Feed the Future’s EatSafe, a new food safety program led by the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN). Lawrence Haddad is the executive director of GAIN and a 2018 World Food Prize laureate for his work in fighting malnutrition.

Commentary is produced by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), a private, tax-exempt institution focusing on international public policy issues. Its research is nonpartisan and nonproprietary. CSIS does not take specific policy positions. Accordingly, all views, positions, and conclusions expressed in this publication should be understood to be solely those of the author(s).

Caroline Smith DeWaal

Lawrence haddad, programs & projects.

70 Food Safety Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on food safety, ✍️ food safety essay topics for college, 👍 good food safety research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting food safety research titles.

Food Safety Issues in Modern Agriculture
The Six Major Elements of a Food Safety Plan (FSP)
Food Safety and Information Bulletin
Discussion of Food Safety Issues
Food Safety Sanitation Requirements for a Child’s Health
Food Safety and Hazards
Food Donation and Food Safety: Environmental Health
Food Safety Issues and Standards Food hygiene standards are perhaps the most important for any country to observe due to the damage which the food of poor quality may bring to the health of the population.
Food Safety: A Policy Issue in Agriculture Today Food safety constitutes proper preparation, storage and preservation of all foods. Markets are increasingly calling for improvement in the quality and safety standards of food crops.
Behavior-Based Safety in the Food Industry: DO IT Method The so-called DO IT method is useful when applied to jobs in the restaurant industry, leading to an improvement in the work behavior of employees.
How Canadian Government Could Improve Food Safety? The paper points out how the government can cooperate with other stakeholders in the food industry to improve the existing standards.
Packaging in Marketing, Food Safety, Environment The principal functions of packaging are protecting products from the deterioration and external influences and providing important nutritional and marketing information.
Hazard Analysis in Food Safety In the United States, just like in any other country, it is the manufacturers’ responsibility to produce fairly safe products.
Scientific Approach to Food Safety at Home The paper states that a scientific approach to handling, preparing, and storing food that explains how to prevent sickness is known as food safety.
Food Safety in the Commercial Industry In considering food safety in the commercial industry, it is important to consider this seriously since food production is carried out on a large scale to serve many people.
The Lack of Food Safety in Kansas City, Missouri Food safety is crucial in storing, preparing, and handling food in restaurants and other establishments where meals and refreshments can be ordered.
Food Industry: The Safety Issues Among the many problems of the food industry, the identification of food products is the most relevant and multifaceted.
Agriculture and Food Safety in the United States Agriculture in the United States has grown progressively centralized. The shortcomings in the 2018 U.S. farm legislation resulted in multiple challenges in the food system.
Nurse-Led Program on Food Safety Problem The problem of food safety is on the world agenda today due to multiple cases of existing infections and contaminations.
Genetically Modified Food Safety and Benefits Today’s world faces a problem of the shortage of food supplies to feed its growing population. The adoption of GM foods can solve the problem of food shortage in several ways.
Agricultural Marketing and Food Safety in China
The Importance of Food Safety in Public Health
Food Safety and Botulism Disease Prevention
Risk Analysis of Food Safety Hazards
The Economics of Food Safety: Costs and Benefits
A Historical Overview of Food Safety Regulations
The Role of Government Agencies in Food Safety Oversight
Food Safety Training and Education: Impact on Industry Practices
The Importance of Food Safety in Manufacturing
Food Safety and Consumer Confidence: Building Trust
The Relationship Between Health and Food Safety: Rules to Follow
Food Safety in Canning and Preservation Techniques
The Globalization of Food Supply Chains and Food Safety Challenges
Emerging Technologies in Food Safety Monitoring
Food Safety Compliance: Essential for Businesses and Handlers
The Importance and Conduction of Food Safety Training
Applications of Noble Nanomaterials in Ensuring Food Safety
Food Safety Culture: Nurturing a Safe Food Environment
Modern Food Safety and Its Issues: Bioterrorism and Tampering Risks
Norovirus Outbreaks and Food Safety Protocols
Chinese Frequent Food Safety Incidents
Food Safety in Meat and Poultry Processing
Dairy Products and Food Safety: Ensuring Quality
Food Safety and Hygienic Practices of Street Food
The Role of Irradiation in Food Safety
Food Safety in Beverage Production: Challenges and Regulations
Assessing the Impact of Food Safety Certification Programs
Food Safety and Sanitation: Essential Practices for Healthy Living
Achieving Food Safety in a Global Environment
Proper Handwashing Techniques: A Critical Component of Food Safety
Food Law, Food Safety, and Risk Management
Changing Behavior, Attitudes, and Beliefs About Food Safety
Advances in Food Safety Testing Methods
The Importance of Traceability in Food Safety
Food Safety in Home Cooking: Tips for Consumers
Consumers and Food Safety: A Food Industry Perspective
Food Safety Inspections and Audits: Ensuring Compliance
Importance of Knowledge in Food Safety
Big Data and Predictive Analytics in Food Safety
Communication and Culture: Imperative for Food Safety
Nanotechnology in Food Safety: Opportunities and Concerns
Improving Food Safety and Risk Communication
Using Artificial Intelligence for Food Safety Monitoring
Food Safety in an International Perspective
Consumer Attitudes Toward Food Safety Issues
Food Safety and Food Packaging Innovations
Global Food Safety Initiatives (GFSI) and Their Significance
How Behavior Affects Food Safety
Food Safety in Supply Chains: Collaboration and Accountability
Emerging Legal Issues in Food Safety Litigation

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These essay examples and topics on Food Safety were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

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Food waste: a global problem that undermines healthy diets

Food waste, pictured here at Lira market in Uganda, is a significant challenge for farmers and vendors alike.

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A lack of food, hunger and malnutrition affect every country in the world, the UN said on Tuesday, in an urgent appeal for action to reduce the amount of food that’s wasted.

The call comes as the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) said that 17 per cent of all food available to consumers in 2019, ended up being thrown away.

When we don't waste food we aren't just saving it from the bin. Reducing your #foodwaste has so many more benefits 👇#FLWDay pic.twitter.com/JncHzBzSI3 FAO FAO

An additional 132 million people face food and nutrition insecurity today because of the COVID-19 pandemic, FAO said, ahead of the International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste , on Wednesday 29 September.

Global problem

The problem of food waste is a global one and not limited to wealthy nations alone, said Nancy Aburto, Deputy Director of FAO’s Food and Nutrition Division Economic and Social Development Stream, speaking at a press conference in Geneva.

“Food insecurity, hunger and malnutrition are impacting every country in the world and no country is unaffected; 811 million people suffer hunger, two billion suffer micronutrient deficiencies – that’s vitamin and mineral deficiencies - and millions of children suffer stunting and wasting, deadly forms of under-nutrition.”

The FAO official warned that the high cost of “healthy” diets, meant that they were now “out of reach” of every region in the world, including Europe.

She also said that more countries needed to embrace innovation to reduce waste, such as new packaging that can prolong the shelf-life of many foods, while smartphone apps can bring consumers closer to producers, reducing the time between harvest and plate.

Repercussions of food waste

Reducing food loss and waste would improve agri-food systems and help towards achieving food security, food safety and food quality, all while delivering on nutritional outcomes.

According to FAO, it would also contribute “significantly to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, as well as pressure on land and water resources”.

With less than nine years left to reach Sustainable Development Goal ( SDG ) 12 on ensuring sustainable consumption, and target 12.3 to halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels, there is an urgent need to accelerate action, up to the 2030 deadline.

Takeaways for action:

Reducing food loss and waste, strengthens the sustainability of food systems and improves planetary health.
Increasing the efficiency of food systems and reducing food loss and waste, requires investment in innovation, technologies and infrastructure.
Composting food waste is better than sending it to a landfill, but preventing waste in the first place, lessens its impact on the environment.
Maximizing the positive impacts of reducing food loss and waste, requires good governance and human capital development.

However, this requires national and local authorities along with businesses and individuals to prioritize actions in this direction and contribute to restoring and improving agri-food systems.

Fruit and veg

And with just three months to go, during this International Year of Fruits and Vegetables , FAO has reminded that produce provides human nutrition and food security while working to achieve the SDGs.

“In the current health crisis we are facing around the world, promoting healthy diets to strengthen our immune systems is especially appropriate”, FAO chief QU Dongyu said , kicking off the year last December.

He also noted that food loss and waste in the fruits and vegetables

sector remain a problem with considerable consequences, pointing out that “innovative technologies and approaches are of critical importance”, as they can help maintain safety and quality, “increasing the shelf life of fresh produce items and preserving their high nutritional value”.

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The Importance of Food Safety: Top Food-Related Public Health Issues

November 8, 2023

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A lab technician tests produce for contaminants using a microscope.

Food is key to achieving and maintaining good health — and to promote healthy behaviors, food must be accessible and safe. Anything less can increase the challenges to communities and individuals who seek to be healthy and well-nourished.

Public health professionals play a vital role in maintaining a high level of food safety and security. It’s an important area of focus, as food safety impacts people of every age, race, gender and income level. There are several key elements of food safety for officials to consider, from rapidly advancing technology and growing worries over food security, to lingering post-pandemic impacts and persistent concerns over chemicals. Public health professionals with the right education should fully understand the importance of food safety and its impacts on society.

Why Is Food Safety Important?

Maintaining a consistent level of food safety is critical to a fully functioning society. Consuming unsafe foods or not having access to food can have profound negative ramifications and cause a plethora of public health issues. As of 2022, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates 1 in 6 Americans fall ill each year due to contaminated food, and around 3,000 Americans die annually because of various foodborne illnesses.

The impact of food safety issues can also carry an economic impact, as falling ill from unsafe foods can lead to a loss of work productivity and increases in medical expenses. According to the CDC, the U.S. incurs a cost of around $15.6 billion annually due to foodborne illnesses.

Public health officials are in a position to be stewards of food safety. They can minimize food safety through coordinated efforts with state and local health departments and federal agencies like the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA’s) Food Safety and Inspection Service.

4 Food-Related Public Health Issues

The challenges to food safety and security cover a broad scope, and this means they can impact communities and individuals differently. The scope of these challenges can also be fluid, as new threats to food safety may emerge to create new issues. As such, public health officials must be aware of the key food safety issues as they arise and as they evolve, so they can effectively minimize their impact.

Food Insecurity

Food insecurity is a term ascribed to a socioeconomic condition where a household has uncertain or limited access to adequate food. It’s a situation shaped by complex factors, including employment, income, racial inequities and neighborhood conditions. Lack of transportation to grocery stores or the proliferation of “food deserts” — areas with limited access to full-service grocery stores — can also fuel the issue.

The USDA divides food insecurity into two separate classifications. The first, low food security, indicates “reduced quality, variety or desirability of diet” with “little to no indication of reduced food intake.” The second, very low food security, indicates “multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake.”

Food insecurity is a widespread issue that carries a disproportionate impact. A USDA study found 10.2% of American households experienced food insecurity at one point in 2021, a percentage that translates to 13.5 million individuals. That included 26.5% of low-income households; 19.8% of Black, non-Hispanic households; and 16.2% of Hispanic households.

The New Era of Smarter Food Safety

In 2020, the FDA launched a blueprint called the New Era of Smarter Food Safety. Its goal is to use technology to improve food safety. This strategy advances the objectives put forth by the FDA’s Food Safety Modernization Act by providing public health officials with more ways to address food safety proactively.

The blueprint features the following four core elements.

Tech-Enabled Traceability: Creates a system that allows for the rapid tracking of food, enabling public health officials to find foods that may cause outbreaks with greater efficiency
Smarter Outbreak Response Tools: Combine root-cause analyses of past outbreaks with predictive analytics to predict future outbreaks, allowing public health officials to take steps to prevent outbreaks before they occur
Food Safety Culture: Encourages and promotes a culture that acknowledges the importance of food safety
Retail Modernization: Seeks to integrate food safety with online grocery services by educating key points on the supply chain about safety practices

Modern technologies are also having an impact on food safety. Safety in online food shopping is becoming increasingly important, as trends suggest that Gen Zers are having a greater influence on retail shopping as they enter adulthood. According to Food Insight’s 2022 Food and Health Survey, 35% of adults aged 18–24 grocery shopped online at least once a week in 2022. Overall, 25% of American adults shopped for groceries online at least once a week.

Chemical Contaminants in Food

Chemical contaminants such as food additives and food preservatives remain a top concern not only for public health officials but also for consumers. The 2022 Food Insight survey noted 48% of polled consumers listed chemicals as their chief food safety concern, the eighth year in a row that this particular subject topped the list. In this case, “chemicals” represented a host of sub-categories, including cancer-causing chemicals, pesticides, food additives and ingredients and heavy metals.

Another longstanding concern is bisphenol A (BPA), a food and beverage packaging chemical. While many individual countries have restricted its use, its continued use in other countries draws concern. These worries come in the wake of studies suggesting correlations between BPA and asthma in school-age girls.

The Lingering Impact of COVID-19

Public health officials played vital roles during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. While COVID-19 was not spread through food, the pandemic did encourage the food industry to improve awareness of food hygiene and virus transmission. These practices, such as an increased focus on proper hand-washing, food and utensil washing, cooking temperatures and guarding against food cross-contamination, have remained in place as the pandemic wanes. This promises to help mitigate the spread of other pathogens.

The pandemic also exponentially increased food deliveries, which ballooned to a $150 billion global industry in 2021 — more than three times the total in 2017, according to McKinsey & Company. This growth caused consumers to consider other aspects of food safety, such as possible tampering and delays in grocery storage.

Promote the Importance of Food Safety as a Public Health Professional

Knowledge is power when it comes to keeping people safe from foodborne illnesses. Public health professionals are uniquely positioned to help inform and educate the public about the importance of food safety, as well as any persistent and evolving concerns. They can apply their skills to prepare the population to face foodborne illnesses before they can become major health crises.

USC’s online Master of Public Health program can help you take a bold step toward a career in public health. The program offers personalized guidance from public health thought leaders, giving you access to insights on topics such as environmental science and health and human behavior. Additionally, you can specialize your studies by choosing one of five concentrations: Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Community Health Promotion, Health Services and Policy, Global Health and Generalist.

Find out how USC can prepare you for a rewarding career in public health.

Food Safety – Problems and Solutions

Submitted: 29 April 2015 Reviewed: 17 March 2016 Published: 13 April 2016

DOI: 10.5772/63176

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Significance, Prevention and Control of Food Related Diseases

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When certain disease-causing bacteria, viruses or parasite contaminate food, they can cause food-related diseases. Another word for such a bacterium, virus, or parasite is “pathogen”. Since food-related diseases can be serious, or even fatal, it is important to know and practice safe food-handling behaviors to help reduce the risk of getting sick from contaminated food. According to the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), “food safety is the assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use”. Foodborne diseases are widespread throughout the world. The process by which a foodborne disease spreads begins with the features of the disease, contaminating the food, which in turn threatens both individual and public health by means of the foods. Healthy, or what can be termed as safe food, is food that has not lost its nutritional value, that is clean, in physical, chemical and microbiological terms and that is not stale. The factors causing the contamination of the food may threaten the safe consumption of it and thereby make the foods harmful to human health. For this reason, it is necessary to utilize various resources to prevent the food from being contaminated in all stages of the food chain, from harvest to consumption. The aim of this chapter is to determine the factors affecting food safety and proffer effective intervention strategies against food-related diseases.

Food safety
food hygiene
food handlers hygiene
kitchen and equipment hygiene

Author Information

Aslı uçar *.

Ankara University Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Ankara, Turkey

Mustafa Volkan Yilmaz

Funda pınar çakıroğlu.

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

The diseases caused by food, or the foodborne diseases, are described as the illnesses with which people are infected by the foods they eat [ 1 ]. These diseases are a widespread public health issue and are expensive to treat [ 2 ]. Foodborne diseases result from the consumption of contaminated foods and products. Contamination of the food at any stage, from production to consumption, produces bacteria, viruses, parasites, chemical agents and toxins, which eventually cause the foodborne diseases [ 1 ].

These diseases are seen as a pervasive, permanent problem that can lead to morbidity and, occasionally, to mortality. Foodborne diseases are increasing worldwide, particularly in the developing countries, due to neglect of personal hygiene and food hygiene [ 3 ].

Foodborne illnesses pose a threat to international public health safety and economic development. With the increasing amount of trade, travel and immigration, the rate at which dangerous contaminants and pathogens pass through the borders has also risen. Every year, approximately 2.2 million people, a majority of whom are children living in developing countries, die as a result of food and water contamination [ 1 ]. Typhoid fever occurs in 16.6 million people and causes 600,000 deaths every year around the world. In the United States, contaminated foods are seen as being responsible for nearly 76 million infections, 325,000 hospital cases and 5000 deaths every year [ 4 ]. According to 2011 data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), it was estimated that in the United States, one out of every six persons was infected with foodborne illness (48 million people) and that foodborne illnesses resulted in 128,000 hospital cases and 3000 deaths [ 5 ].

In 2013, FoodNet, a CDC-established program that tracks foodborne illnesses in the United States, found that foodborne illnesses were responsible for 19,056 infections, 4,200 hospital cases and 80 deaths. The incidence of bacteria responsible for causing diseases in every 100.000 people was determined to be 15.19 for Salmonella , 13.82 for Campylobacter , 4.82 for Shigella , 2.48 for Cryptosporidium, 1.15 for STEC non-O157 , 0.51 for Vibrio , 0.36 for Yersinia , 0.26 for Listeria and 0.03 for Cyclospora . Incidences of Cyclospora , Listeria and Vibrio were found to be the highest among the elderly, aged 65 years and older, whereas for all of the other pathogens, the highest incident rates were found among children younger than 5 years of age [ 6 ].

The diseases caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter , the main agents responsible for foodborne infections, are dramatically increasing in some countries, including Denmark, Finland, Iceland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. In 1999 and 2000, the number of reported foodborne disease cases was 84,340 and 77,515, respectively in Turkey. While Salmonella is the most frequently encountered disease agent, the actual figures on foodborne infections and toxins are not reflected, as it is not mandatory to report these diseases [ 7 ].

The world’s growing population and the consumers' desire to be provided with a wider range of foods have resulted in a longer and more complex food chain. Today, foods reach consumers after being collected from fields, farms and factories and then pass onto many countries, traveling distances of thousands of kilometers. With this global food distribution, an infection that occurs at any point within the food chain has the potential of affecting any given population in the world. It is therefore essential, given the number of interactions taking place between the actors involved in the food chain and the long distances between them, that multi-sectorial and international collaboration take place. As no country can provide food safety on its own, safety measures need to be enhanced in many countries [ 8 ].

While experts on food safety and health have determined that millions of foodborne disease cases are reported every year, the actual numbers are clouded by uncertainty, as most cases go unreported. Furthermore, foodborne diseases are difficult to diagnose, since they have various symptoms, including fatigue, chills, mild fever, vertigo, upset stomach, dehydration caused by diarrhea, severe cramps and, in some cases, even death. In many of the reported cases, foods prepared outside of the home are the primary cause of foodborne diseases, though it is not uncommon for home-made foods to also cause diseases [ 9 ]. Studies conducted on the distribution of foodborne diseases across the world have demonstrated that a majority of these diseases occur during the processing of the food in the preparation stage at home or at food production sites [ 10 ]. In fact, most foodborne diseases can be prevented if the regulations governing food safety were complied with, from production stages to consumption [ 11 ].

Improper heating of the food, such as undercooking, re-heating and waiting in the heat, or improper cooling of the food account for 44% of the foodborne illnesses. Inadequate preparation and improper cooking practices, such as those involving cross-contamination, insufficient processing, poor hygiene and the re-use of leftovers, are responsible for causing 14% of these diseases [ 7 ].

As indicated by these figures, foodborne diseases are widespread throughout the world. The process by which a foodborne disease spreads begins with the features of the disease contaminating the food, which in turn threaten both individual and public health by means of the foods. Healthy, or what can be termed as safe, food is food that has not lost its nutritional value, that is clean, in physical, chemical and microbiological terms and that is not stale. The factors causing the contamination of the food may threaten the safe consumption of it and thereby make the foods harmful to human health. For this reason, it is necessary to utilize various resources to prevent the food from being contaminated at all stages of the food chain, from harvest to consumption [ 12 ].

This study conducts an analysis of the factors responsible for jeopardizing food safety and food safety policies throughout the world.

2. The factors that affect food safety

Foods are the basic building blocks of living things, yet they may pose a threat and become harmful to human health in some situations [ 13 ]. Many people throughout the world become ill because of the food they eat. These diseases associated with food consumption are referred to as foodborne diseases, and they may result from dangerous microorganisms [ 14 ]. Foods can become harmful to human health or even fatal when combined with bacteria, mold, viruses, parasites and chemical toxins [ 13 ]. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary that consumers be provided with a safe food supply. The factors involved in the potential threat caused by foods are inappropriate agricultural practices, poor hygiene at any stage of the food chain, lack of preventive controls during processing and preparation of the food, incorrect use of the chemical materials, contaminated raw materials, food and water and inappropriate storage [ 15 ].

These issues were classified into three categories: food hygiene , personal hygiene of food handlers and kitchen sanita tion.

2.1. Food hygiene

Many factors serve to undermine food hygiene. The hygienic quality of the foods is negatively influenced by purchasing low-quality or stale foods, storing food in inappropriate conditions, cooking large amounts of food, more than is necessary, and letting it sit in inappropriate environments, storing raw and cooked foods together and preparing, cooking and storing food using incorrect methods [ 13 ]. If foods are contaminated at any stage, from production to consumption, the hygiene of the food is compromised, depending on the temperature, humidity and pH values of the environment it is stored in, and the food then becomes potentially harmful to human health. An infection or intoxication caused by the consumption of a contaminated food or drink is called food poisoning [ 16 ]. The causes of food poisoning are classified as microorganisms, parasites, chemicals, naturally created food toxins, naturally created fish toxins, metabolic disorders, allergic reactions and radioactive substances [ 17 ].

Salmonella, Campylobacter and Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) are foodborne pathogens that affect millions of people every year. Symptoms of food poisoning caused by these pathogens include fever, headache, upset stomach, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhea. Although food poisoning is mostly caused by bacteria, some parasites and viruses can also be factors. Parasites such as Trichinella spiralis and Toxoplasma gondii can remain alive by using the nutritional elements in the carrier. Viruses such as Hepatitis A can behave like parasites and infect people as well as the entire food chain [ 9 , 18 ].

Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella, Streptococcus, Shigella, Clostridium botulinum, E. coli 0157:H7, Campylobacter and Bacillus cereus are the microorganisms that most frequently cause food poisoning [ 9 , 13 , 18 , 19 ].

S. aureus is a gram-positive coccal bacterium about 0.5–1.0 μm in diameter. The optimum growth temperature is 37° C. The normal ecological habitat of S. aureus is human body [ 16 ]. S. aureus can be cultured from multiple sites of the skin and mucosal surfaces of carriers; the primary reservoir of staphylococci is thought to be the nostrils of the nose. Spread of S aureus generally is through human-to-human contact. Carriage of S. aureus in the nose appears to play a key role in the epidemiology and pathogenesis of infection. In the general population, a mean carriage rate of 37.2% was found [ 20 ]. S. aureus is conveyed to the food by the person handling it. Persons with skin, nose or throat infections or inflammatory wounds pass this microorganism onto the food. The foods posing a particular risk for containing Staphylococcus include cooked meat, potato salad, desserts with milk, such as custard, and chicken, fish and other meat salads [ 9 , 13 , 21 ]. It causes food poisoning by releasing enterotoxins into food. After 3–6 hours of consuming contaminated food, symptoms begin. The most marked and severe symptoms are nausea and vomiting. The others are stomachache and diarrhea [ 16 ]. This bacterium cannot be eliminated by cooking. Therefore, it is necessary to keep foods refrigerated; the use of aprons and gloves by staff reduces skin-to-skin contact and, therefore, the staff should further follow the rules of hygiene and minimize physical contact with food [ 9 , 13 , 21 ]. For staphylococcal food poisoning, phage typing can be performed to determine whether the staphylococci recovered from the food were the source of infection. Depending on the type of infection present an appropriate specimen is obtained accordingly and sent to the laboratory for definitive identification using biochemical or enzyme-based tests. Furthermore, for differentiation on the species level, catalase, coagulase, DNAse, lipase and phosphatase tests are all done [ 19 ].

C. perfringens is a gram-positive, rod-shaped anaerobic, spore-forming pathogenic bacterium [ 19 ]. C. perfringens is very common in nature. Especially, it is found in the digestive system of humans as well as of animals and in soil [ 13 ]. This bacterium is the third most common cause of foodborne illnesses in the United Kingdom and United States. According to some estimates, this type of bacteria causes nearly a million illnesses each year. Poisoning occurs after contamination of foods. Cooking kills the growing C. perfringens cells that cause food poisoning, but not necessarily the spores that can grow into new cells. If cooked food is not promptly served or refrigerated, the spores can grow and produce new cells [ 22 ]. Because the spores of some strains are resistant to temperatures as high as 100°C for more than l h, their presence in foods may be unavoidable. Furthermore, the oxygen level may be sufficiently reduced during cooking to permit growth of the clostridia. Spores that survive cooking may germinate and grow rapidly in foods that are inadequately refrigerated after cooking [ 23 ]. It easily reproduces in meat that has been sitting at room temperature for a long time after being cooked, in undercooked and repeatedly re-heated meat and in meat served cold [ 13 , 19 ]. C . perfringens cells lose their viability when foods are frozen or held under prolonged refrigeration unless special precautions are taken. Such losses may make it difficult to establish C . perfringens as the specific cause of a food poisoning outbreak. It is recommended that samples that cannot be examined immediately be treated with buffered glycerin salt solution and stored or shipped frozen to the laboratory [ 23 ]. It can be detected in contaminated food [if not heated properly) and feces. Incubation time is between 6 and 24 hours after consuming of contaminated food [ 24 ]. Usual symptoms typically include abdominal cramping, diarrhea; vomiting and fever. Very rare, fatal cases of clostridial necrotizing enteritis (also known as pigbel) have been known to involve "Type C" strains of the organism, which produce a potently ulcerative β-toxin. Many cases of C. perfringens food poisoning likely remain subclinical, as antibodies to the toxin are common among the population. This has led to the conclusion that most of the population has experienced food poisoning due to C. perfringens . Despite its potential dangers, C. perfringens is used as the leavening agent in salt rising bread. The baking process is thought to reduce the bacterial contamination, precluding negative effects [ 25 ]. This microorganism can be prevented from harming the food by cooling the cooked food rapidly, saving leftover food in shallow containers and storing food in appropriate conditions [ 13 , 19 ].

Salmonella is a rod shaped bacteria and can live in a variety of habitats. Some strains of Salmonella live in water, soil, food plants and feces of contaminated humans. Generally the bacterium is able to access those places through cross-contamination of already-infected organisms or feces. When present in water, Salmonella can live for several weeks; in soil the bacteria can live up to several years, while in feces the bacteria may only survive a few days. The bacteria can survive in salt water and cooler environments, but a too hot of an environment may kill the bacteria [ 19 , 26 ]. Salmonellosis in humans is generally contracted through the consumption of contaminated food of animal origin (mainly eggs, meat, poultry and milk), although other foods, including green vegetables contaminated by manure, have been implicated in its transmission. Person-to-person transmission through the fecal–oral route can also occur. Human cases also occur where individuals have contact with infected animals, including pets [ 27 ]. Usually, symptoms start 12–72 hours after ingestion of bacteria. It is usually characterized by acute onset of diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, nausea and vomiting. In most cases, the illness lasts for 4–7 days, and most people recover without treatment. But, Salmonella can cause more serious illness in older adults, infants and persons with chronic diseases [ 26 ]. Salmonella food poisoning has long been, and continues to be, an important global public health problem. In much of Europe and North America, Salmonella is mostly found in raw or undercooked chicken, meat, eggs and fish and in unpasteurized milk. It is very easy to control and can be killed by cooking foods at sufficiently high temperatures. To prevent Salmonella contamination, the food should be stored at appropriate temperatures, sanitation and hygiene rules should be followed and rodents and flies should be removed from the work environment [ 9 , 13 , 27 ].

Streptococcus is a gram-positive and nonmotile bacterium and the name refers to the bacterium’s characteristics of grouping in chains that resemble a string of beads. The natural habitat of the bacteria are pharynx, rectum and skin [ 19 ]. Certain Streptococcus species are responsible for many cases of pink eye, meningitis, bacterial pneumonia, endocarditis, erysipelas and necrotizing fasciitis [ 18 ]. Streptococcus is found inside the human mouth, on hands and in nose secretions and can be conveyed to foods through contact with these secretions. For this reason, infected persons should not prepare food, and the food should be kept in appropriate conditions after being cooled rapidly [ 19 , 21 ].

Shigella is a nonmotile, gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, non–spore-forming, rod shaped bacterium. It is one of the leading bacterial causes of diarrhea worldwide [ 28 ]. The primary host and natural reservoir known at this point for Shigella is the human gastrointestinal tract. Shigella can survive in fecal-contaminated material but has a low survival rate without the optimal acidic environment in the intestinal tract [ 29 , 30 ]. They can easily multiply between 10 and 48 °C [ 16 ]. The optimum growth temperature for this bacterium is 37 °C [ 30 ]. There are two different mechanisms for pathogenicity. Firstly, bacterial number increases very fast in intestine and then settles into mucosal entry and colon. Because they may cause leakage of blood into the lumen, bloody diarrhea occurs. Secondly, the production of endogenous toxin, which is known as Shiga toxin , results in diarrhea [ 16 ]. Shigella infection typically occurs by ingestion (fecal–oral contamination); depending on age and condition of the host, fewer than 100 bacterial cells can be enough to cause an infection. Food prepared by the contaminated person may easily become contaminated with Shigella bacteria [ 30 ]. Symptoms of shigellosis include mild to severe diarrhea, bloody diarrhea, fever, dehydration, nausea, vomiting and stomach cramps. They usually appear between 1 and 7 days after contracting the bacteria [ 31 ]. The diagnosis of shigellosis is made by isolating the organism from diarrheal fecal sample cultures. It can infect the food in any environment where hygiene rules are not followed. The most important protective factor against Shigella is to follow proper personal hygiene rules [ 13 , 18 , 21 ]. Hand washing before handling food and thoroughly cooking all food before eating decrease the risk of getting shigellosis [ 32 ].

C botulinum is a gram-positive, rod-shaped, anaerobic, spore-forming, motile bacterium with the ability to produce the neurotoxin botulinum [ 33 , 34 ]. The natural habitats of the C. botulinum are soils and marine sediments throughout of the world. Since it is found in the soil, it may contaminate vegetables cultivated in or on the soil. It also colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of fishes, birds and mammals [ 35 ]. C. botulinum is not a very common bacterium, yet it is very dangerous when it does infect a person [ 9 , 18 ]. Foodborne botulism generally occurs 18 to 36 hours after exposure [range 6 hours to 8 days]. Initial symptoms can include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps or diarrhea. After the onset of neurological symptoms, constipation is typical. Dry mouth, blurred vision and diplopia are usually the earliest neurological symptoms. They are followed by dysphonia, dysarthria, dysphagia and peripheral muscle weakness. Symmetric descending paralysis is characteristic of botulism [ 35 ]. There are no fever and no loss of consciousness. The symptoms are not caused by the bacterium itself, but by the toxin produced by the bacterium. Incidence of botulism is low, but the mortality rate is high if prompt diagnosis and appropriate, immediate treatment (early administration of antitoxin and intensive respiratory care) are not given. The disease can be fatal in 5 to 10% of cases [ 36 ]. Because it is an anaerobic bacterium, it can only grow in the absence of oxygen. Foodborne botulism occurs when C. botulinum grows and produces toxins in food prior to consumption. The growth of the bacteria and the formation of toxin occur in products with low oxygen content and certain combinations of storage temperature and preservative parameters. Canned foods improperly prepared and heated and particularly low-acid foods, such as green beans, spinach, mushrooms, meat and vegetables, are very risky in regard to C. botulinum contamination [ 9 , 18 ]. Occasionally, commercially prepared foods are involved. Though spores of C. botulinum are heat resistant, the toxin produced by bacteria growing out of the spores under anaerobic conditions is destroyed by boiling (for example, at internal temperature >85°C for 5 minutes or longer). Therefore, ready-to-eat foods in low-oxygen packaging are more frequently involved in botulism [ 36 ]. Food inside cans that are deformed or warped should under no circumstances be consumed [ 9 , 18 ]. Prevention of foodborne botulism is based on good practice in food preparation, particularly preservation and hygiene. Botulism may be prevented by the inactivation of the bacterial spores in heat-sterilized or canned products or by inhibiting bacterial growth in other products. Commercial heat pasteurization may not be sufficient to kill all spores, and therefore the safety of these products must be based on preventing bacterial growth and toxin production. Refrigeration temperatures combined with salt content and/or acidic conditions will prevent the growth of the bacteria and formation of toxin [ 18 , 35 , 36 ].

E. coli is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium [ 18 ]. E. Coli 0157:H7 is a very common bacterium found in the human intestines [ 9 ]. Provided resource availability and key abiotic conditions (availability of energy and nutrient sources, pH, moisture and temperature) are propitious, E. coli populations can survive and even grow in open environments such as soil, manure and water. There are also possibilities for migration between these habitats [ 37 ]. Whether food is prepared at home, in a restaurant or in a grocery store, unsafe handling and preparation can cause contamination. Common causes of food poisoning include failing to wash hands completely before preparing or eating food, using utensils, cutting boards or serving dishes that are not clean, causing cross-contamination, consuming dairy products or food containing mayonnaise that have been left out too long, consuming foods that have not been stored/cooked at the right temperature, especially meats and poultry, consuming raw seafood products, drinking unpasteurized milk and consuming raw produce that has not been properly washed [ 38 ]. Fecal contamination of water or foods is responsible for causing the infection [ 39 ]. It can be conveyed through raw or undercooked minced meat or unpasteurized milk. Infection by this bacterium can cause hemolytic–uremic syndrome, which can cause bloody colitis with severe abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, and the syndrome can lead to renal failure, brain damage, heart attack, paralysis and even death [ 9 ]. People with weakened immune systems, pregnant women, young children, and older adults are at increased risk for developing these complications [ 38 ]. Person-to-person contact is an important mode of transmission through the oral-fecal route. The duration of excretion of EHEC is about 1 week or less in adults, but can be longer in children. Visiting farms and other venues where the general public might come into direct contact with farm animals has also been identified as an important risk factor for EHEC infection [ 39 ]. To protect against contamination, the meat should be cooked very well and foods that include meat should be prepared in perfectly hygienic conditions [ 9 ]. The prevention of infection requires control measures at all stages of the food chain, from agricultural production on the farm to processing, manufacturing and preparation of foods in both commercial establishments and household kitchens [ 39 ].

Campylobacter is a gram-negative, microaerophilic, non-fermentative bacterium. It grows best in habitats with an oxygen level lower than 5%, and it is typically found in the intestinal tract of animals. They are able to move via flagella. The optimum growth temperature is 42–45 °C and they cannot proliferate in room temperature [ 16 ]. Campylobacter is one of the bacteria most frequently responsible for causing gastroenteritis. While its actual incidence is not known exactly, in high-income countries, its incidence ranges between 4.4 and 9.3 in every 1000 people each year [ 27 ] . The infection can pass through animal-sourced food, particularly those of flying bird species, domestic animals, such as cats and dogs, contaminated surface streams, unpasteurized milk and direct physical contact with infected animals. Infection from this bacterium leads to foodborne diseases usually through uncooked meat and other products and raw or unpasteurized milk. Contaminated water and ice are also sources of infection [ 39 ]. Campylobacter jejuni can be found in both fresh water and sea water and can live for 5 weeks in this environment. Wild birds, farm animals, farm areas and surfaces of still waters create an ideal ecological system for different types of Campylobacter . The presence of this microorganism in nature indicates that fecal contamination has occurred in that area. These microorganisms are unable to survive and reproduce anywhere except for in their hosts, and they die in sunlight. Contamination occurs in the environment and on other animals particularly through the droppings of wild birds, such as ducks, geese and seagulls [ 21 ]. The most frequent symptoms associated with this infection are Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS), reactive arthritis (ReA) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) [ 27 ]. To prevent its infection, it is necessary to take protective measures in all stages of the food chain, from production to consumption, and to apply these protective measures in both industrial and domestic environments [ 39 ].

B. cereus is a gram-positive, rod-shaped, soil-dwelling, facultative anaerobic bacterium. It can grow between 10 and50 °C, but the optimum growth temperature is 28–37 °C. It can be destroyed at the boiling temperature in 5–30 minutes [ 16 ]. B. cereus is present in dust and soil and can cause contamination in cereals, particularly those made of rice, in food that sits out for a long time and in meat products [ 19 , 21 ]. The microbe is able to grow either in the presence or in the absence of oxygen. Its spores are sufficiently heat resistant to survive pasteurization treatment of milk and standard cooking temperatures reached in domestic kitchens. It cannot survive the high-temperature treatment used to process canned foods. The symptoms start after 30 minutes of ingestion. Firstly, nausea and vomiting can be seen and then diarrhetic syndrome generally starts [ 40 ]. In case of foodborne illness, the diagnosis of B. cereus can be confirmed by the isolation of more than 105 B. cereus organisms per gram from epidemiologically implicated food, but such testing is often not done because the illness is relatively harmless and usually self-limiting [ 41 ]. To prevent infection, foods should be washed thoroughly, not left at room temperature for a long time after being cooked and not left in an open container on the kitchen floor [ 19 , 21 ].

Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis and T. gondii are the parasites that pose the biggest threat to food safety. G. duodenalis , previously called Giardia lamblia , and now commonly known as "intestinalis", is a microscopic parasite, which lives in human and animal intestines. It usually infects people through contaminated water and uncooked meat. The parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc and reproduces via binary fission. The most frequent symptoms associated with this parasite are diarrhea, abdominal cramps, gas and nausea. Giardia lamblia is difficult to detect, which often leads to a delay in diagnosis or misdiagnosis; several tests should be conducted over a 1-week period. Giardiasis is a global disease that infects nearly 33% of people in developing countries and 2% of adults and 6–8% of children in developed countries worldwide. It is especially important that proper hand hygiene be practiced for protection against this parasite [ 42 ].

C. parvum is a unicellular microscopic parasite protected by a shell. It is responsible for causing the disease cryptosporidiosis, also known as "Crypto", and it is the main cause of worldwide diseases originating from water and food. Generally, it infects people through soil, foods, water and infected animal parts that had contact with feces. Its most widespread symptoms are diarrhea, abdominal cramps, upset stomach and mild fever. Some cases, however, may not cause any symptoms. In order to protect against this parasite, proper personal hygiene should be performed, only clean water should be used for drinking and vegetables or fruits that have been fertilized with unprocessed fertilizer should not be consumed [ 42 ]. This parasite is transmitted by infected food handlers or processors’ contact to the food or by foods produced with using animal feces as a fertilizer. When the parasite is involved, watery diarrhea is commonly seen as the main symptom. There is no known effective treatment method. [ 17 ].

C. cayetanensis is a unicellular microscopic parasite that causes cyclosporiasis. Although the incidence of cyclosporiasis is reported to be increasing in many countries, this organism is not very well known. In the incubation stage of the parasite, C. cayetanensis oocysts infect people through the consumption of water contaminated with this parasite or by eating anything that has come into contact with the feces of an animal with cyclosporiasis disease. The disease may cause symptoms such as diarrhea, loss of appetite, abdominal ventricosity, nausea and vomiting. To protect against infection from this parasite, it is necessary to perform proper personal hygiene and to wash or peel vegetables and fruits before eating them [ 43 ].

T. gondii is a unicellular microscopic parasite that causes toxoplasmosis disease, and it exists all over the world. It is among the top three causes of death from foodborne diseases worldwide. It can infect people through the consumption of uncooked meat or by drinking from fresh water sources, such as lakes or streams. This parasite can also infect the fetus through the mother. Moreover, as cats are major hosts for T. gondii , domestic cats should receive proper cleaning and hands must be washed after handling them. Symptoms associated with infection from this parasite include diarrhea, upset stomach, vomiting and abdominal pain [ 44 ]. In food-caused toxoplasmosis cases, T. gondii infects people through consumption of uncooked or undercooked meats. Especially, this parasite spreads faster by products that are contaminated with cat feces. With the higher consumption of raw meats, it shows increased prevalence in Europe and South Africa. Toxoplasma infections can be diagnosed by response of antibodies with serologic applications [ 17 ].

Infections caused by microorganisms are largely the result of the poor hygiene of the person responsible for preparing the food. These microorganisms can rapidly reproduce in temperatures outside the safe ranges specified by food safety regulations [ 1 ].

Cooked foods should not be left to sit in room temperature for longer than two hours. These foods should be cooled rapidly and kept refrigerated, preferably at a temperature under 5°C. Microorganisms can reproduce very rapidly at room temperature. Temperatures below 5°C and above 60°C cause the reproduction of microorganisms to slow down or stop. Table 1 presents the measures that should be followed to ensure food safety [ 1 ].

Measures to Be Followed to Ensure the Provision of Food Safety [ 45 ]

2.2. Personal Hygiene of Food Handlers

The food processing stage is one of the most important stages in the food chain, and those responsible for performing the duties involved in this stage assume major responsibilities in the prevention of food poisoning cases [ 46 , 47 ]. The food processing staff should include healthy individuals who do not have any diseases, and they should undergo regular medical check-ups. In addition to being healthy, it is also important that the workers take particular care for their personal hygiene and execute proper food handling behavior. This is especially important because food handlers can cause cross-contamination between raw and cooked foods, and they may jeopardize food hygiene by improper preparation, cooking and storage of foods [ 47 ]. A study confirmed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) determined that 81 foodborne diseases were caused by foods contaminated via food processing workers [ 48 ]. It should be noted that food workers have the power to make a remarkable impact on public health. In reducing the foodborne diseases or food poisoning, the personal hygiene practices of workers at food production sites are a key factor [ 49 ]. It is well known that proper personal hygiene is the best way to mitigate the risks associated with contamination by most of the bacteria generally seen as being responsible for foodborne diseases ( Table 2 ) [ 40 ].

Pathogens that threaten food hygiene, the foods they infect and preventive measures

In the Codex Alimentarius [ 50 ], the topics involving workers at food processing sites and food hygiene were classified under the following titles: Health status, Illness and injuries, Personal cleanliness and Personal behavior .

Persons who have any disease that may cause food infection or persons who are suspected to be hosts should not be allowed into the food processing site. Workers at food processing sites who have any symptoms associated with infections should be reported to the administration, and they must be examined by a physician [ 50 ]. Accordingly, the law that entered into force in Turkey in 1996 includes the provision: “The staff to be hired to work in the processing of foods and food additives cannot be employed without first providing a medical report. Those who are determined to be carriers should immediately be treated. Those who do not obtain a clean bill of health after completing their treatment should definitely not be employed. The owner or administrator of the workplace is responsible for ensuring that the workplace is in compliance with all of these practices” [ 51 ]. Similarly, it is reported that in certain regions in the United States, workers at food processing sites are required to show a health card to their employers [ 52 ]]. In the WHO consultation report, routine medical and microbiological examinations of food handlers are not generally recommended, but if food handlers are suffering from an illness that includes symptoms such as jaundice, diarrhea, vomiting, fever, sore throat, skin rash or skin lesions, like boils or cuts, they should report this to their supervisor before starting work [ 53 ]. If workers have a sore throat or fever, open cuts or infected wounds, Norovirus, diarrhea, vomiting or jaundice or if they have had contact with someone who has Salmonella typhi, E. coli 0157:H7, Hepatitis A or Shigella, they should immediately be removed from the food production sites. The employer must take the necessary precautions within 24 hours and report these workers to the relevant institutions. Many studies have recommended that food production sites include health service units and that it was important that workers report their diseases [ 54 – 57 ].

The hygiene practices that should be performed by food processing workers include precise adherence to personal hygiene regulations and the wearing of special, protective attire such as bonnets and gloves to help secure their hygiene. It is important that these clothes be regularly cleaned and cared for [ 50 ]. Reports have shown that the lack of personal hygiene among workers at food processing sites was among one of the practices that contributed to food borne diseases and that proper hand washing was the most commonly neglected practice. The practice of improper hand washing may be an important factor in the spreading of foodborne diseases by cross-contamination. It was reported that of the staff working in food production sites, 60% did not wash their hands correctly, and of the foodborne diseases, 25 to 40% were linked to staff working in food processing and food services industries [ 58 , 59 ]. It was also reported that food processing and food service workers were the asymptomatic carriers of the pathogens which caused food poisoning, due to their failure to wash their hands properly after using the restroom [ 60 ]. Another study determined that the foods became infected due to improper cleaning of contaminated hands after using the restroom [ 61 ]. Aycicek [ 62 ] took samples from bare hands and hands with gloves during the food preparation stage (180 in total) and found that the bacteria load on bare hands was significantly higher than that of the gloved hands (p < 0.05). The most common bacteria found were S. aureus (126/180), Bacillus spp. (19/180) and E. coli (14/180).

In addition, many studies have reported that workers in the food processing industry did not show enough care in washing their hands properly when necessary and in using protective attire (e.g., gloves, bonnet) [ 63 – 66 ].

The situations when workers should wash their hands are summarized below.

Before starting to prepare food

Before touching unpacked foods and clean equipment

Before serving the foods and touching the clean utensils and equipment

Before changing tasks from raw meat to ready-to-consume foods in order to prevent cross-contamination during food preparation practices

After touching any part of the body

After using the restroom

After coughing, sneezing or using a handkerchief

After smoking

After eating or drinking something

After touching unclean equipment and tools

After leaving the kitchen and before entering again

After washing the dishes

After touching the handle of the refrigerator, door or any other place commonly used by people during food preparation practices

After touching working clothes

Before and after entering areas where foods are kept and stored

After handling cash

Before wearing gloves and after taking them off, hands should be properly washed according to hygiene rules [ 67 ]

The steps for proper hygienic hand washing are: wash hands and wrists with soap under clean running water, being sure to rub between the fingers; use a nail brush to clean nails; rub arms and wrists with soap and water; soap and rub hands together for 10 to 15 seconds; dry hands with hot air or paper towel and use a paper towel to turn off the tap [ 63 , 68 ]. It is now known that hand-drying methods are as important as hand-washing methods in the prevention of contamination by microorganisms [ 69 ]. Studies have demonstrated that among all forms of drying methods, hand dryers posed the greatest threat of contamination. It was found that hand drying machines are less than an ideal alternative for drying hands after they have been washed, as these machines allow the bacteria to be able to spread as far as one meter away; therefore, the use of paper towels should be encouraged [ 70 , 71 ].

In general, humans are the primary source of food contamination, posing a risk to food safety as carriers. Along with the many extraneous factors, such as hands, clothes, accessories, hair and mustache, internally derived factors, such as the breath, spit and wounds, can be sources of contamination. It was reported that food processing workers were capable of spreading 10,000 to 100,000 microorganisms every minute [ 72 , 73 ]. Thus, workers should avoid certain behaviors at the production site, such as smoking, coughing, sneezing, chewing and eating. They also should not wear accessories, watches or hairpins [ 50 ].

2.3. Kitchen sanitation

Another important issue in the provision of food safety is kitchen sanitation. A study conducted in child care centers in the states of North Carolina and South Carolina in the United States found that most kitchens were not in compliance with the FDA’s 2009 Food Code [ 74 ]. In order to minimize the risk of foodborne illnesses in the production and processing of foods, it is necessary to minimize the risk of contamination in the placement, arrangement and decking of kitchen utensils, to set up the area so that it is equipped to perform maintenance, repair, cleaning and disinfection and to ensure that surfaces and materials in the kitchen are anti-toxic, that the kitchen has control mechanisms for temperature and humidity, if possible, and that effective measures are taken against pests [ 50 ].

2.3.1. Kitchen hygiene

Issues related to kitchen hygiene should be addressed prior to even completing the construction of the kitchen. The plan and interior design of the kitchen should be arranged in such a way as to facilitate proper hygiene practices (e.g., protection against cross-contamination) [ 50 ].

The kitchen should be constructed with durable materials that are easy to care for and clean. These materials should be free of any substances that can potentially render the food unsuitable for consumption, such as parasites, pathogenic microorganisms and toxins, or raw materials, food components and others substances used in the production of processed products that have been infected by foreign substances [ 75 ].

The surfaces should be designed in such a way as to not accumulate dirt, to prevent foreign substances from infecting foods and to not allow the creation of dense liquids or mold. Pests should also be prevented from entering the workplace. Drainages should be easy to clean and prevent pests such as rodents from entering and waste liquids from re-entering back into the kitchen environment [ 76 ].

There should be warnings written and hung on the walls of the workplace about the rules the staff should obey and the best hygiene practices to be performed. The staff should be provided with changing rooms that include a sufficient number of lockers to hold both work and civilian clothes. The staff should not keep any food in these lockers [ 75 ].

Ventilation systems should be capable of eliminating smoke, odors, soot and evaporation, keeping heat inside and preventing dust, dirt and pests from entering. Filters and other parts of the systems should be easily accessible for cleaning or changing. The kitchen should have natural or artificial lights that are equal to the natural light of the day, and the intensity and color of the lights should not impact the production or the quality of the foods in a negative way. There should be continuous control on humidity and temperature in the food storage sites [ 76 ].

To maintain a hygienic kitchen, the continuity of cleaning and disinfection procedures is as important as the layout plan of the kitchen. Therefore, a cleaning and disinfection plan should be developed for the kitchen, and all cleaning and disinfection practices should be done according to this plan and recorded. The staff should be trained on the sanitation and disinfection of the kitchen [ 75 ].

2.4. Equipment hygiene

Equipment that comes into regular contact with foods should be made of material able to be cleaned and disinfected, resistant to corrosion and non-toxic. The equipment should be arranged in a way as to enable it and the area around it to be cleaned sufficiently. When it is necessary that chemicals be used to clean the equipment, the instructions governing the use of those chemicals should be followed. Calibration checks of the equipment and tools should be made regularly, and these checks should be recorded [ 76 ].

3. Food safety systems

Effective food control systems are needed to improve the applicability and control of food safety [ 77 ]. Currently, the HACCP, ISO 22000 and PAS 220 are the most commonly used internationally approved food safety systems.

3.1. Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP)

HACCP was first used in the 1960s by the American Pillsbury company for the purpose of producing "zero defect" products for the US Army and NASA. Later, starting in the 1970s, it began to be used as a reference by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in official supervisions. It was adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 1992 and published as the HACCP international standard for the first time. Since then, the food industry and official authorities have been using it to protect against and control the risks of potential dangers that could threaten food safety [ 78 ].

Initially, HAACCP had three principles:

Identification and assessment of hazards associated with food products

Determination of critical control points to control identified hazards

Establishment of a system to monitor the critical control points

The HACCP, as it is applied today, has five starting steps and is governed by seven principles. The starting steps were created by Codex, and they should be completed prior to implementing the seven HACCP principles. The starting steps help to ensure that the HACCP system is implemented and managed in the most effective way possible [ 79 ].

The HAACP system is applicable for any company operating within the food chain, regardless of their size. In the implementation stage, the HACCP system should be supported by certain preliminary condition programs. A company interested in implementing this system should already be following the requirements of this preliminary condition program. Preliminary condition programs include national regulations, codes of practice or other food safety prerequisites. In general, preliminary condition programs involve factories and equipment, staff training, cleaning and sanitation, maintenance chemical control, waste management, storage and transportation [ 78 ].

HACCP Implementation in 12 Steps

HACCP is an internationally accepted system and in most countries, it is required that companies within the food industry implement this system.

3.2. ISO 22000

In 2005, The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published a standard for the Food Safety Management System known as ISO 22000. The ISO 22000 system is a combination of preliminary condition programs, HACCP principles and implementation steps defined by the Codex Alimentarius Commission and ISO 9001:2000 standard components. After it was defined, it began to be used in more than 50 countries within 2 years [ 80 ].

The basic approach of the ISO 22000 standard is to implement a preventive system that serves to protect consumers from foodborne diseases. This standard controls all the processes in the food chain, including infrastructure, staff and equipment. In business establishments, the Food Safety Management System implementations include production control, product control, equipment control, maintenance, general hygiene practices, staff and visitor hygiene, transportation, storage, product information, training, the selection and evaluation of suppliers, communication and other similar issues [ 81 ].

The main goal of this standard is to have a system in place that determines the unacceptable risks that may result from process errors and to secure product safety and consumer health. Food safety supervision over product, design, production and quality control determines and eliminates the potential dangers. The fundamental role of ISO 22000 is not only to provide food safety but also to improve the sensory and nutritional quality of food, and it also plays a primary role in the quality assurance of service practices in industrial production. Lastly, this standard helps to reduce operational losses by instituting a more effective use of resources to increase productivity, and thereby, directs the establishment to a system of total quality [ 80 ].

3.3. PAS 220 (publicly available specification)

This standard was created by the major global food producers in cooperation with the Confederation of Food and Drink Industries (CIAA) with the purpose of eliminating the weaknesses of the ISO 22000 food safety system standard. Nestle, Unilever, Danone and Kraft, the sector leaders generally known as "G4", collectively published the PAS 220 standard, which refines the preliminary conditions programs. The PAS 220 standard is applicable for all types of companies and was made available in 2008. It was intended that the PAS 220 standard be used together with the internationally accepted ISO 22000 standard [ 82 ].

The content and topics of PAS 220 elaborate on the 10 sub-titles in the ISO 22000 standard and adds 5 of its own, resulting in the following 15 items [ 82 ]:

Structure and placement of buildings

Placement of work site, buildings and their wings

Supporting plants (air, water, energy)

Supporting services, including wastes and sewage

Adequacy of the equipment, cleaning and preventive care

Management of purchased materials

Measures against cross-contamination

Cleaning and sanitation

Pest control

Staff hygiene and workers' lodgings

Re-processing

Product recall procedures

Informing consumers about products

Food defense, biodefense and bioterrorism

4. Good agricultural practices

Today, increasing attention is focused upon the impact farming practices are having on the environment, and there is an increasing emphasis on more sustainable methods of crop production. Systems need to be adopted that are more sensitive to environmental issues, genetic diversity, wildlife and their habitats and in some cases the social structures of rural communities. Furthermore, consumers around the world are more sophisticated and critical than in the past, demanding to know how and what has been used to produce their agriculturally derived products.

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) are defined "practices that address environmental, economic and social sustainability for on-farm processes, and result in safe and quality food and non-food agricultural products'' by the FAO. The aims of the GAP are as follows:

Ensuring agricultural production harmless to environment, human and animal health

Safety of natural resources,

Ensuring traceability and sustainability in agriculture,

Improving workers health and working conditions,

Ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain.

General principles for GAP were first presented to the FAO Committee on Agriculture (COAG) in 2003 in the paper “Development of a Framework for Good Agricultural Practices” the annex of which broadly outlined farm-level GAP recommendations in 10 fields; which are “soil”, “water”, “crop and fodder production”, “crop protection”, “animal protection”, “animal health and welfare”, “harvest and on-farm processing and storage”, “energy and waste management”, “human welfare, health, and safety” and “wildlife and landscape”.

Although there are some GAP used by different organizations to succeed different purposes and goals, GLOBALGAP (EUREPGAP) is the widespread certificate in agricultural produce worldwide. GLOBALGAP documents consists of; ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management System, ISO 14000 Environmental management system, OHSAS 18001 Work Health and Safety Management System and ISO 22000 Food Safety Management System principles [ 83 ].

5. Conclusion

Food safety ultimately deals with the consumption stage, where the existence and level of the dangers caused by foods are of chief concerns. The observance of rigorous control procedures throughout the course of the food chain is a fundamental necessity, given that risks to food safety can surface in any stage of the chain. Therefore, all parties involved in the food chain share the responsibility for ensuring food safety.

The design of a food safety system involves numerous factors. To begin with, minimum hygiene standards should be determined by laws and regulations, food producers must apply food safety measures and procedures and official bodies must supervise and inspect food industry companies to confirm that they are conducting their operations in a manner consistent with the regulations in force. Food poisoning cases that threaten public health globally occur as a result of the contamination of foods in any stage, from production to consumption. Although the factors jeopardizing food safety seem to be easy to control in theory, studies and current practices indicate that there is still a long way to go in practice.

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Challenges in Food Safety

Sometimes the foods we love and count on for good health are contaminated with germs that cause sickness and can even be deadly. More progress is needed to protect people and reduce foodborne illness in America.

New challenges to food safety will continue to emerge, largely because of:

Changes in our food production and supply, including more imported foods.
Changes in the environment leading to food contamination.
New and emerging bacteria, toxins, and antimicrobial resistance.
Changes in consumer preferences and habits.
Changes in the tests that diagnose foodborne illness.

Antimicrobial resistance in foodborne germs is a growing challenge that is made worse by overuse of antibiotics in humans and food animals. CDC estimates that every year, over 660,900 infections in the United States are caused by resistant Salmonella or Campylobacter .

Culture-independent diagnostic tests (CIDTs) are changing the way that clinical laboratories diagnose patients with foodborne illness. These tests can identify the general type of bacteria causing illness within hours, without having to culture, or grow the bacteria in a laboratory.

These tests allow doctors to rapidly determine the cause of a patient’s illness. However, these tests do not provide the information needed to find and prevent foodborne illness outbreaks and monitor disease trends.

Food contamination can occur at any point—during production, processing, distribution, or preparation.

Some foods are more likely than others to contain harmful germs, such as bacteria and viruses. If you eat food containing harmful germs, you can get very sick.

To receive regular CDC updates on food safety, enter your email address:

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Environment and food safety: a novel integrative review

Review Article
Published: 25 August 2021
Volume 28 , pages 54511–54530, ( 2021 )

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Shanxue Jiang 1 , 2 , 3 ,
Fang Wang 1 , 2 , 3 ,
Qirun Li 1 ,
Haishu Sun 4 ,
Huijiao Wang 5 &
Zhiliang Yao ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5125-8245 1 , 2 , 3

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Environment protection and food safety are two critical issues in the world. In this review, a novel approach which integrates statistical study and subjective discussion was adopted to review recent advances on environment and food safety. Firstly, a scientometric-based statistical study was conducted based on 4904 publications collected from the Web of Science Core Collection database. It was found that the research on environment and food safety was growing steadily from 2001 to 2020. Interestingly, the statistical analysis of most-cited papers, titles, abstracts, keywords, and research areas revealed that the research on environment and food safety was diverse and multidisciplinary. In addition to the scientometric study, strategies to protect environment and ensure food safety were critically discussed, followed by a discussion on the emerging research topics, including emerging contaminates (e.g., microplastics), rapid detection of contaminants (e.g., biosensors), and environment friendly food packaging materials (e.g., biodegradable polymers). Finally, current challenges and future research directions were proposed.

Plastic Waste: Challenges and Opportunities to Mitigate Pollution and Effective Management

Sustainability trends and gaps in the textile, apparel and fashion industries

Application of nanotechnology in different aspects of the food industry

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Introduction

Environment and food safety have been two important topics in the world (Zhang et al. 2015 ; Bilal and Iqbal 2020 ; Liu et al. 2020b ; Song et al. 2020 ; Ye et al. 2020 ; Qin et al. 2021 ). Human activities have posed great threats on environment and food safety. For example, due to the intensive use of disposable masks which are mainly made of non-biodegradable polymers, massive amount of waste is produced. In fact, environment and food safety are closely intercorrelated (He et al. 2016 ; Sagbara et al. 2020 ). As shown in Figure 1 , on the one hand, food safety is strongly affected by environment (Lu et al. 2015 ). Contaminants from polluted soil, water, and air could migrate into crops, vegetables, fish, animals, and so on (Lu et al. 2015 ; Sun et al. 2017 ; Li et al. 2020a ). On the other hand, in order to ensure food safety and quality, various processing procedures are carried out, which increase the burden on the environment and even cause environmental pollution (Yao et al. 2020 ). For example, food processing industry produces a huge amount of wastewater (Li et al. 2019 ; Ahmad et al. 2020 ; Akansha et al. 2020 ; Boguniewicz-Zablocka et al. 2020 ). If the wastewater is discharged into rivers directly, the rivers will be polluted. As food industry wastewater typically contains high concentrations of organic matters, eutrophication can easily take place (Feng et al. 2021 ; Jiang et al. 2021 ). In addition, food packaging materials are widely used as food containers and to preserve food from decay (Vitale et al. 2018 ; Wohner et al. 2020 ; Zeng et al. 2021 ). When the food is consumed, a mass of packaging waste is produced, which will cause environmental problems if not disposed properly (Poyatos-Racionero et al. 2018 ; Bala et al. 2020 ; Brennan et al. 2020 ; Liu et al. 2020a ). However, plastics, as one of the most commonly used packaging materials, cannot be disposed easily and can exist in the environment for hundreds of years (Barnes 2019 ; Chen et al. 2021b ; Mulakkal et al. 2021 ; Patrício Silva et al. 2021 ).

Illustration of the relationship between environment and food safety and their impacts on human health

Environment and food safety have strong impacts on human health (Fung et al. 2018 ; Gallo et al. 2020 ). Many studies are conducted to investigate the migration of contaminants from the environment to food, and finally to human beings. For example, it is reported that heavy metals in the aquatic environment can migrate into fishes via bioaccumulation and bioconcentration (Baki et al. 2018 ; Korkmaz et al. 2019 ; Arisekar et al. 2020 ). When these polluted fishes are consumed, the heavy metals will migrate into human bodies (Saha et al. 2016 ; Gholamhosseini et al. 2021 ). Although the concentrations of heavy metals in the fishes are usually below the maximum allowed level (Velusamy et al. 2014 ; Safiur Rahman et al. 2019 ), the fact that humans are at the top of the food chain cannot be ignored. In other words, as there are various food sources for human beings, the heavy metals in our bodies could accumulate and finally reach a level that causes serious health risks, such as cancer (Badamasi et al. 2019 ; Yu et al. 2020a ). In addition to the common types of contaminants (e.g., heavy metals, pesticides, pathogen, particulate matter), there are also some emerging types of contaminants (e.g., microplastics, personal care products, pharmaceuticals), and more efforts are needed to study their effects on human health (Aghilinasrollahabadi et al. 2020 ; Li et al. 2020b ; Zhang et al. 2020 ).

Given the importance of environment and food safety, it is not surprising that a lot of related studies have been published, including many review studies. For example, Qin et al ( 2021 ) reviewed the effects of heavy metals in soil on food safety in China and discussed the sources (e.g., pesticides, fertilizers, vehicle emissions, coal combustion, sewage irrigation, mining) and remediation strategies (e.g., soil amendments, phytoremediation, foliar sprays). Suhani et al. (Suhani et al. 2021 ) reviewed the effects of cadmium pollution on food safety and human health with a focus on the mechanisms (e.g., cellular or molecular alterations). Deshwal et al. (Deshwal and Panjagari 2020 ) reviewed the effects of metal-based packaging materials on food safety and health issues (e.g., bisphenol A migration, metal migration, dissolution, blackening, and corrosion). Sun et al. (Sun et al. 2017 ) reviewed the relationship between air pollution and food security with a focus on the food system (e.g., the effect of agricultural policy on food security). However, most of these review studies only focus on certain subfields (Ayelign and De Saeger 2020 ; Endersen and Coffey 2020 ; Imathiu 2020 ; Nelis et al. 2020 ; Singh et al. 2020a ). In addition, most of these reviews are based solely on the subjective experiences of the researchers in the related fields. In the age of big data, it is necessary to give a timely update on the research of environment and food safety through objective data analysis. The scientometric-based statistical method provides a powerful tool to disclose research trends and progress on certain research areas through data analysis of published documents. However, although there are already quite a few scientometric studies on other research areas (Jiang et al. 2018 ; Li et al. 2018 ; Kamali et al. 2020 ; Khalaj et al. 2020 ; Zakka et al. 2021 ; Zeb et al. 2021 ; Ni et al. 2021 ), the scientometric studies on environment and food safety are very limited. Therefore, the aim of this study is to provide an integrative review on environment and food safety via objective statistical analysis coupled with subjective review on strategies to protect the environment and ensure food safety, followed by a discussion on emerging research topics.

A scientometric review

As shown in Figure 2 , during the past 20 years, there were nearly 5000 publications on the topic of environment and food safety (detailed method was provided in the Supplementary Information ). From 2001 to 2020, there was a steady increase in publications every year. Meanwhile, it was indicated that the increase in research output slowed down in 2020, possibly due to the terrible coronavirus pandemic which suspended researchers’ lab work. In terms of document types, the 4904 publications were categorized into 10 types, where research article, review, and proceedings paper were the top three, accounting for 73.23%, 16.54%, and 13.09% of the total publications, respectively (Supplementary Table 1 ). In terms of languages, most of the documents were published in English, accounting for 96.76% of the total publications (Supplementary Table 2 ). The following languages were German (0.67%), Chinese (0.57%), Portuguese (0.43%), Spanish (0.41%), French (0.39%), etc. The language analysis revealed that a SCIE journal is not necessarily an English journal. For example, among the journals included in the data, the SCIE journal Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift publishes research results in German, and the SCIE journal Progress in Chemistry publishes research results in Chinese. To be available to researchers from all over the world, an English version of the titles, keywords, and abstracts of these publications are also provided. However, as the main text is not written in English, the impact of these publications is usually limited to the local research community, i.e., the papers written in German is normally only read by German researchers while the papers written in Chinese is normally only read by Chinese researchers.

Number of publications per year and cumulative number of publications from 2001 to 2020

In terms of journals, about 165 journals published at least 5 papers, and the total papers published in these journals accounted to about half of the total publications (more details are provided in supplementary data ). Furthermore, as shown in Figure 3 , the total papers published in the top 20 most publishing journals accounted to about one-fourth of the total publications. These results revealed that the research on environment and food safety is of broad interest.

Number of publications and cumulative percentage of the top 20 most publishing journals

In terms of publishing countries/regions, more than 100 countries/regions contributed to these publications (more details are provided in supplementary data ). Especially, more than 50 countries/regions contributed at least 20 publications to the research on environment and food safety during the past 20 years. These results again revealed that the research on environment and food safety is of global interest. As shown in Figure 4 , in terms of research output, the USA and China were leading the research on environment and food safety. Specifically, among the countries/regions, the USA was undoubtedly the most publishing country, which accounted for nearly one-fourth of the total publications. The runner-up was China, which contributed to around 15% of the total publications. However, it does not mean that the USA and China have contributed to around 40% of the total publications because many papers are published as a result of collaborations among several countries.

Number of publications and corresponding percentage of the top 20 most publishing countries/regions

Generally, over 400 research institutes had contributed at least 5 publications to the research on environment and food safety, and nearly 50 research institutes published at least 20 papers during the past 20 years (more details are provided in supplementary data ). The top 20 most publishing research institutes were summarized in Table 1 . Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), which ranked the first place based on number of publications, is the largest cluster of research institutes in China. The research conducted by CAS is quite diverse and multidisciplinary. Especially, the research on environment and food safety is loosely conducted by different CAS research institutes, including but are not limited to Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences (RCEES), Institute of Urban Environment, and Institute of Soil Science. For example, researchers from RCEES found that water pollution and soil pollution had serious effect on food safety and human health (Lu et al. 2015 ). The next one, USDA ARS, short for United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service, is a leading research institute in the USA focusing on food safety and human health from the aspect of agriculture. Similarly, US FDA is short for United States Food and Drug Administration and is exclusively focusing on food and drug-related research so as to protect public health. INRA, short for French National Institute of Agronomic Research, is a very famous research institute in Europe focusing on agricultural research. Similarly, Istituto Superiore di Sanità is a leading research institute in Italy focusing on public health. In addition to the above 5 research institutes, the remaining 15 research institutes are all universities, and their research on environment and food safety is mainly conducted by the related departments or research centers of the universities. For examples, the Department of Food Technology, Food Safety and Health at Ghent University (located in Belgium) is renowned for its state-of-the-art research on food technology, food microbiology, food chemistry, food safety, etc. Similarly, Wageningen University (located in Netherlands) has a research institute named Wageningen Food Safety Research. Another two European universities were both from Denmark, namely University of Copenhagen and Technical University of Denmark. The Department of Food Science at University of Copenhagen and the National Food Institute at Technical University of Denmark are mainly responsible for food-related research. Besides, there were also two universities from China (i.e., China Agricultural University and Zhejiang University) and one university from Canada (i.e., University of Guelph). The remaining 8 universities all came from the USA, accounting for over half of the universities in the top 20 most publishing research institutes, which corresponded well with the above countries/regions analysis.

Table 2 summarized the top 20 most-cited articles on environment and food safety. As revealed by Table 2 , the research on environment and food safety is diverse, and there are quite a few research directions which received a lot of attention. Generally, the research topics disclosed by the most cited papers included food inspection/detection technique, heavy metal pollution, food additives, food packaging, food allergy, food pesticide, foodborne pathogen and diseases, microplastics, food processing, and production. Various food inspection/detection techniques have been reported, including electrochemical strategies to detect gallic acid in food (Badea et al. 2019 ), thermal imaging technique coupled with chemometrics (Mohd Ali et al. 2020 ), paper-based analysis device for rapid food safety detection (Qi et al. 2020 ), line-scan spatially offset Raman spectroscopy technique for subsurface inspection of food (Qin et al. 2017 ), surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy for detection of mycotoxins in food (Wu et al. 2021b ), chromatography, and mass spectrometry (Pauk et al. 2021 ; Suman et al. 2021 ). In addition, heavy metal pollution has posed great threats on food safety, and a lot of studies are conducted, including the soil heavy metal pollution and food safety (Qin et al. 2021 ) and the impacts of various heavy metals (e.g., cadmium, lead, arsenic) on food safety and human health (Corguinha et al. 2015 ; Suhani et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, there are a variety of food additives used in different situations. For example, feed additives such as antibiotics have been used in animal nutrition; however, the use of antibiotics can cause antimicrobial resistance which can further increase the morbidity and mortality of diseases (Silveira et al. 2021 ). Therefore, as will be discussed below, laws and regulations are needed to strictly control the use of food additives. Furthermore, foodborne pathogen also has strong impacts on food safety. As an effective way to kill or inhibit foodborne pathogen, antimicrobial food packaging is gaining growing research interest in recent years (Woraprayote et al. 2018 ; Motelica et al. 2020 ; Alizadeh-Sani et al. 2021 ).

TC , total citations; the TC data was collected based on Web of Science core collection; PY , publishing year

As shown in Supplementary Figure 1 and Supplementary Figure 2 , food, safety, and environment were the top three most common words in titles. The following ones were assessment, health, risk, and environmental. It is well known that environmental pollution can pose risks on food safety and finally threatens human health. A further analysis revealed that a lot of studies were related to risk assessment, such as risk assessment of antimicrobial resistance (Likotrafiti et al. 2018 ; Pires et al. 2018 ), risk assessment of heavy metals (Yasotha et al. 2020 ), risk assessment of pesticide (Frische et al. 2014 ), risk assessment of veterinary drugs (Tsai et al. 2019 ), environmental risk assessment (More et al. 2020 ), and health risk assessment (Akhbarizadeh et al. 2020 ). The next one was efficacy, which was usually combined together with safety, such as safety and efficacy of feed additives (Bampidis et al. 2020 ). Besides, Listeria monocytogenes was intensively studied by researchers (Anast et al. 2020 ; Kawacka et al. 2020 ; Wu et al. 2020b ). Another common word was analysis, such as analysis of herbicide (Pan et al. 2020 ), analysis of bacteria (Kang et al. 2020 ), and analysis of microplastics (Primpke et al. 2020 ). Other common research topics revealed by title analysis included but are not limited to food quality, food production, food processing, food additive, food contamination, detection of food contaminants, food microbiology, environmental impact, as well as water, soil, animal, fish, meat, and dairy.

The top 20 most used keywords were listed in Table 3 (more details are provided in supplementary data ). It could be seen that microbiology was closely related to food safety, and a lot of studies were conducted on Listeria monocytogenes, biofilm, salmonella, and antibiotic resistance. In addition, additives, such as zootechnical additives and nutritional additives, were also intensively investigated by researchers. Other topics included aquaculture, poultry, and agriculture. Another keyword worth mentioning was food security. Food security is different with food safety. Briefly, food security is a more inclusive term and focuses more on the availability of food while food safety is about the quality of food. On the other hand, food security and food safety are closely related to each other (Vipham et al. 2020 ). For instance, if food security becomes a big issue, then usually food safety is not guaranteed, and vice versa. Generally, the results revealed by keywords analysis were in consistent with the above title and keywords analysis.

The keywords network graph revealed some interesting results. As shown in Figure 5 , the network had three centers, namely the “ food safety ”-centered network, the “ safety ”-centered network and the “ efficacy ”-centered network. Interestingly, the “ safety ”-centered network and the “ efficacy ”-centered network were closely related, while they were relatively unrelated with the “ food safety ”-centered network. Furthermore, the results again uncovered that food safety involved many aspects, many of which were already discussed above.

Keywords network graph. Keywords whose cooccurrence exceeded 10 times were connected with lines

The publications in this study were divided into over 200 Web of Science categories (more details are provided in supplementary data ). The top 20 Web of Science categories were shown in Figure 6 . Undoubtedly, the Food Science & Technology category ranked the first place, followed by the Environment Sciences category. As revealed by Figure 6 , food safety was closely related to microbiology, chemistry, and agriculture. Microorganisms such as foodborne pathogens pose great threats on food safety and a lot of studies are focusing on it. For instance, Lin et al (Lin et al. 2021 ) studied the role of Salmonella Hessarek, an emerging foodborne pathogen, in egg safety. Anyogu et al. (Anyogu et al. 2021 ) reviewed the microorganisms and indigenous fermented foods with a focus on microbial food safety hazards. Van Boxstael et al. ( 2013 ) studied the impacts of bacterial pathogens and viruses on food safety in the fresh produce chain. Also, a lot of studies are focusing on food safety and chemistry, such as untargeted food chemical safety assessment (Delaporte et al. 2019 ), chemical safety of recycled food packaging (Geueke et al. 2018 ), and chemical food safety hazards of sausages (Halagarda et al. 2018 ). Furthermore, studies on food safety and agriculture include but are not limited to chemical and biological risks in urban agriculture (Buscaroli et al. 2021 ), biosensors for sustainable agriculture and food safety (Griesche and Baeumner 2020 ), agricultural soil contamination, and the impact on food safety (Wang et al. 2019b ). In addition, the Materials Science category was also on the top list, which indicated that materials are also important research directions in environment and food safety. A further analysis revealed the common materials studied by researchers, including biomaterials, food packaging materials, biodegradable materials, coating materials, sensors and biosensors for food detection, and nanoparticles. The research area analysis showed similar results with Web of Science categories (Supplementary Table 3 ).

Number of publications and corresponding percentage of the top 20 Web of Science categories

Strategies to protect environment and ensure food safety

The above scientometric analysis revealed that the studies on environment and food safety were diversified and multidisciplinary. Further analysis of the above results disclosed the challenges and strategies to protect environment and ensure food safety. As discussed earlier, environment and food safety are closely related to each other. It should be noted that the environment here is not limited to the broad environment (e.g., air, water, soil) which the public are familiar with. In other words, in addition to the broad environment, there are also food-related environments which exist in various processes, including but are not limited to food processing, food packaging, food transportation, food storage, and food consumption. In order to ensure food safety, contaminants/pollutants from the environmental side should be prevented from reaching the food side. An example of food chain pollution control is presented in Figure 7 . It can be seen that from growing wheat to making bread, there are a variety of processes which could cause pollution and control strategies are needed, which are summarized as follows. Firstly, from wheat growing to wheat harvesting: the pollutants/contaminants could be taken in or migrate into the wheat via contaminated soil, water, and air, and therefore strategies are needed to prevent soil, water, and air from being contaminated, such as reducing the use of pesticides and fertilizers. Secondly, initial processing of wheat: after the wheat is harvested, traditionally it needs to be dried by the farmers before it is sold. During this process, contamination can easily occur if the wheat is dried directly on the road which is common in rural China. In addition, the containers of the harvested wheat are also sources of pollution which should be carefully controlled. Alternatively, the pollution can be avoided if the wheat is directly sold and transported to the flour mill from the farm without being dried by the farmers. Thirdly, during the transportation processes (e.g., from farm to flour mill, from flour mill to bread bakery, from bread bakery to supermarkets), contamination can also take place and control strategies are needed. Fourthly, during the wheat processing at the mill and bread baking at the bakery, contamination can take place due to environment exposure, insufficient frequency and quality of facility washing and cleaning, use of additives, etc. Fifthly, during the bread packaging process, the workers can be an important source of bread contamination if the bread is packed manually. Finally, when the consumers buy the bread and do not consume the bread timely, the bread can decay. Based on the above discussion, the food chain pollution control can be generally categorized into the following sections: source pollution (i.e., soil, water, air) control, pollution control during food processing, pollution control during food packaging, pollution control during transportation, pollution control during storage, and pollution control during consumption.

Demonstration of the whole food chain pollution control from wheat growing to bread consuming

Especially, based on the type of chemicals, the contaminants/pollutants can be categorized into pesticides and herbicides, heavy metals, food additives, pathogens, microplastics, antibiotics, and so on (Van Boxstael et al. 2013 ; Tóth et al. 2016 ; He et al. 2019b ; Rajmohan et al. 2019 ; Bonerba et al. 2021 ). Therefore, the corresponding strategies are to control the use of chemicals and materials which can produce these contaminates. For example, as will be discussed in the following section, microplastics come from the wide use of plastics and are receiving growing concern. In order to reduce the amount of microplastics, the use of plastics should be controlled or restricted. Based on the media of migration, these contaminants can reach at the food side via air, water, and soil. Therefore, the corresponding strategies are to remove contaminants from air, water and soil. Alternatively, strategies can be deployed to prevent these contaminants from contacting the food. For example, as will be discussed later, food packaging is a common strategy to protect food from being contaminated by the environment (Risyon et al. 2020 ). To sum up, by controlling the sources and migration routes of food contaminants, food safety can be improved. Furthermore, in order to ensure food safety, whole process monitoring techniques and platforms are necessary. A lot of studied have been conducted on food safety monitoring. For example, De Oliveira et al. ( 2021 ) proposed that environmental monitoring programs (EMPs) are necessary to ensure food safety and quality. The EMPs are used to prevent environmental contamination of the finished product, via checking the cleaning-sanitation procedures, and other environmental pathogen control programs with a range of sampling analysis. Medina et al. (Medina et al. 2019 ) proposed food fingerprints as an effective tool to monitor food safety. Weng et al. (Weng and Neethirajan 2017 ) reviewed microfluidics as an effective method to realize rapid, cost-effective, and sensitive detection of food contaminants such as foodborne pathogens, heavy metals, additives, and pesticide residues. Other monitoring methods/techniques/devices include but are not limited to pH-sensitive smart packaging films (Alizadeh-Sani et al. 2020 ), point-of-care detection devices (Wu et al. 2017 ), and real-time pathogen monitoring via a nanotechnology-based method (Weidemaier et al. 2015 ). Food safety monitoring can be done by either government officials or the relative bodies (e.g., self-monitoring), or both. Furthermore, from the time the food raw materials are being cultivated in the farmland, pasture, fishing ground or other places, to the time the food is being consumed by customers, inspecting and detecting should be deployed. This can be done by the government officials and/or the stakeholders. Although the term “inspection” and “detection” are often used as the same, here, food safety inspection is regarded as an administrative strategy, which is carried out by governmental officials to check whether the relative workers/factories/bodies have followed the food safety requirements/regulations, while food safety detection is regarded as a technique-based strategy, which is used to detect food contaminants and check whether the quality of the food meets the relative standards. Meanwhile, food safety laws need to be enacted to discourage or prevent the relative workers/factories/bodies from affecting the food safety, whether purposely or not.

On the other hand, during the process of food production, the environment can be polluted as well. For example, in order to increase crop yield, a lot of fertilizers are used, which will migrate into the soil and water bodies, and cause soil and water pollution. Therefore, the use of fertilizers should be restricted, which can be realized through agricultural innovations (Liu et al. 2021 ), government policies (van Wesenbeeck et al. 2021 ), etc. Furthermore, during food processing, a large amount of solid waste or/and wastewater are produced which can cause environmental pollution. Therefore, techniques are needed to dispose the food waste properly. Especially, food waste usually contains high amount of organic compounds and therefore falls into the category of biomass, which can be used to produce useful biochemicals like biofuels (Wainaina et al. 2018 ; Chun et al. 2019 ). For example, agro-food waste is an important source of lignocellulosic biomass; the valorization of lignocellulosic biomass is regarded as a sustainable source of energy and has the potential to replace conventional fossil fuels (Ong and Wu 2020 ; Lee and Wu 2021 ; Lee et al. 2021 ; Mankar et al. 2021 ; Zhenquan et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, the concepts of recycling and sustainable development can be deployed. For example, food packaging materials can be recycled and used again. Another example is to use cloth bags to replace plastic bags when shopping. These strategies can reduce the burden on the environment as the amount of food-related waste can be reduced. In addition, novel environment-friendly materials (e.g., biodegradable polymers) can be developed and used in food industries (Stoica et al. 2020 ; Cheng et al. 2021 ). To summarize, the above strategies to protect environment and ensure food safety are presented in Figure 8 .

Emerging studies on environment and food safety

Scientometric analysis is powerful in disclosing the research trend and is relatively subjective compared to conventional type of review. However, as it is essentially a statistical study which relies on a huge amount of data, it is less effective to reveal the emerging research directions which could be ignored in the scientometric study. Therefore, it is necessary and important to carry out a subjective discussion on emerging studies on environment and food safety as an indispensable supplement (Figure 9 ).

Emerging contaminants

There are various contaminants affecting environment and food safety. Among the various types of contaminants, emerging contaminants, such as microplastics, are receiving growing concern due to their potential effects on human health (Sarker et al. 2020 ). Because of the wide application of plastics, microplastics are found almost everywhere in the environment, including soil, water, and air (Álvarez-Lopeztello et al. 2020 ; Chen et al. 2020 ; Wang et al. 2021c ). For example, microplastics are reported to exist in bottled water (Zhou et al. 2021 ) and take-out food plastic containers (Du et al. 2020 ). Furthermore, researchers have found that microplastics could serve as the carrier for many other contaminants such as heavy metals and antibiotics (Zhou et al. 2019 ; Purwiyanto et al. 2020 ; Yu et al. 2020b ). Studies reveal that the ability to absorb heavy metals increase as the microplastics age (Lang et al. 2020 ). As a result, the risks of microplastics on environment, food safety, and human health could be significantly increased. However, the research on microplastics is still at an early stage, and more efforts are needed to uncover the world of microplastics. For example, there is no standard procedures to extract, identify, and quantify microplastics so results by different methods could be different and uncomparable (Kumar et al. 2020 ; Zhou et al. 2020 ). Meanwhile, due to the various sizes, shapes, forms, sources, and types of microplastics, it is difficult and time-consuming to characterize microplastics (Wu et al. 2020a ). Therefore, it is important to develop new methods for rapid and effective detection of microplastics (Li et al. 2020c ).

In addition to microplastics, there are other emerging contaminants which can have negative effects on the environment, food safety, and human health. These emerging contaminants include but are not limited to persistent organic pollutants (Titchou et al. 2021 ), antibiotics (Koch et al. 2021 ), personal care products (Scaria et al. 2021 ), pharmaceuticals (Chaturvedi et al. 2021 ), endocrine-disrupting compounds (Kasonga et al. 2021 ), and non-nutritive artificial sweeteners (Praveena et al. 2019 ). More research efforts are needed to gain a better understanding of the migration, degradation, accumulation characteristics, as well as the potential risks of these contaminants.

Rapid detection of contaminants

Not limited to the detection of microplastics, it is also necessary to develop rapid detection methods for common contaminants. For example, due to the widespread application of pesticides in agriculture, pesticide residue is becoming a serious environment and food safety issue (Farahy et al. 2021 ). Traditionally, food contaminants are detected by instrumental analysis, such as chromatography and mass spectrometry (Ye et al. 2019 ). However, the instrumental analysis process is expensive, complicated, and time-consuming (Zhang et al. 2019 ). Furthermore, the contaminants are usually in low concentration, but can accumulate gradually in human bodies via bioconcentration. Therefore, it is important to develop rapid method to detect trace-level concentration of food contaminants. Biosensor is an emerging and promising technology in detecting food contaminants such as pesticides, and a variety of biosensors have been developed in recent years (Majdinasab et al. 2018 , 2019 ). For example, Ouyang et al. (Ouyang et al. 2021 ) developed a sensitive biosensor to detect carbendazim pesticide residues based on luminescent resonance energy transfer from aptamer-labelled upconversion nanoparticles to manganese dioxide nanosheets. Capobianco et al. (Capobianco et al. 2021 ) developed an enzyme-linked immunoelectrochemical biosensor to detect pathogenic bacteria in large volume food samples without subsampling. Wang et al. (Wang et al. 2019a ) developed a magnetic quantum dot-based lateral flow biosensor to detect protein toxins in food samples. Kaushal et al. (Kaushal et al. 2019 ) developed a novel biosensor using gold nanorods capped by glycoconjugates which demonstrated potential in optical detection and ablation of foodborne bacteria. Generally, a biosensor is mainly composed of a biological sensing element (also known as bioreceptor), a transducer, and an electrical output system (Santana Oliveira et al. 2019 ; Majdinasab et al. 2021 ). The bioreceptor will interact with the analyte, and the transducer will convert the interaction into a detectable signal, which is then processed and displayed on the output system. Common materials used in the biological element include antibodies, enzymes, nucleic acids, antigens, aptamers, whole cells, and bacteriophage (Arora et al. 2011 ; Rotariu et al. 2016 ; Griesche and Baeumner 2020 ; Singh et al. 2020b . Biosensor technology has obvious advantages compared to traditional detection technologies. It is rapid, highly sensitive and selective, accurate, relatively compact, and easy to operate (Dominguez et al. 2017 ). However, there are still some challenges to widely commercialize biosensors, such as limited lifetime of the biological sensing elements and limited range of analytes that can be detected (Di Nardo and Anfossi 2020 ). Furthermore, as a specific type of biosensor is only effective in detecting a specific type of contaminant, more efforts are needed to develop integrated biosensors which can detect different types of containments simultaneously (Majdinasab et al. 2020 ). In addition to biosensors, there are also a variety of other reported methods for rapid detection of food contaminants, such as surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) (Yao et al. 2021 ), optical sensors based on nanomaterials (Chen et al. 2021a ), hyperspectral imaging technology (He and Sun 2015 ), and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) (Cai et al. 2021 ).

Environment friendly food packaging materials

As revealed above, food packaging is closely related to food safety. Although there are different kinds of food packaging materials, the non-biodegradable plastic materials (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate) are the most common ones and are widely used in our daily life (Cazón and Vázquez 2021 ). However, the non-biodegradable plastic materials have caused serious environmental problems, commonly known as white pollution. Especially, because of the coronavirus pandemic, take-out food becomes more popular. As plastic materials are the most common packaging materials for take-out food, the demand for plastic materials increases dramatically. Meanwhile, plastic materials also have food safety issues. It is found that the monomer residues used to make plastic polymers could migrate into food, which could cause health problems (Pilevar et al. 2019 ). Especially, the migration rate is not only affected by the quality of these materials, but also affected by the food properties. In addition to monomer residues, additives in these plastic materials could also migrate into food, causing health risks (Hahladakis et al. 2018 ). For example, bisphenol A, a common additive used in plastics, can adversely affect human endocrine system, block normal cell function, affect thyroid hormone, affect testosterone levels, and could also possibly induce cancer (Huang et al. 2019 ; Vilarinho et al. 2019 ). Another very common additive in plastics is phthalates, which is used as plasticizer to soften the plastics. It is reported that phthalates in plastic bottles could migrate into water, and the amount of migration increases as the storage time increases (Luo et al. 2018 ). Similar to bisphenol A, phthalates can also disrupt human endocrine system and cause bad effects on human health (Wang et al. 2018 ). Not limited to bisphenol A and phthalates, there are many types of plastic additives which could migrate into food and cause food safety issues.

As the conventional non-biodegradable plastics can cause both environmental problems and food safety issues, a lot of studies are carried out to find alternatives to non-biodegradable plastics for food packaging. Biodegradable polymers are regarded as the one of the most promising alternatives for food packaging (Othman 2014 ). As its name indicates, biodegradable polymers can be decomposed by microorganisms. Common biodegradable polymers studied as food packaging materials include but are not limited to polylactic acid (PLA) (Swaroop and Shukla 2018 , 2019 ; Mohamad et al. 2020 ), polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) (Pattanayaiying et al. 2019 ), polysaccharides (such as starch (Osorio et al. 2019 ; Menzel 2020 ; Saraiva Rodrigues et al. 2020 ), cellulose (Balasubramaniam et al. 2020 ; Riaz et al. 2020 ), pectin (Nešić et al. 2018 ), chitosan (Haghighi et al. 2020 ; Priyadarshi and Rhim 2020 )), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) such as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) (Adeleye et al. 2020 ; Fernandes et al. 2020 ; Shahid et al. 2020 ), polycaprolactone (PCL) (Khalid et al. 2018 ; Mugwagwa and Chimphango 2020 ), and cellulose acetate (Xie and Hung 2018 ; Rajeswari et al. 2020 ).

However, in addition to high production cost, there are some critical technical challenges which must be solved so as to widely commercialize biodegradable polymers and replace conventional plastics (Pérez-Arauz et al. 2019 ). Generally, biodegradable polymers have low thermal stability, low mechanical stability, and poor barrier properties (Risyon et al. 2020 ). One way to improve its performance is to add additives during production. For example, Risyona et al. (Risyon et al. 2020 ) prepared PLA-based film using different concentrations of halloysite nanotubes as additives. They found that the PLA film with 3.0 wt.% of halloysite nanotubes demonstrated optimal properties. Dash et al. (Dash et al. 2019 ) prepared starch and pectin-based film using different concentrations of titanium dioxide nanoparticles. They found that addition of the nanoparticles could effectively improve the mechanical properties and moisture barrier properties of the films. However, similarly to conventional plastics, these additives might also migrate into food (He et al. 2019a ). Another strategy being intensively studied is polymer blending, which integrates the merits of different polymers (de Oliveira et al. 2020 ). For example, Rajeswari et al. (Rajeswari et al. 2020 ) blended polysaccharides and cellulose acetate together, and the resulting film showed improved thermal stability and tensile strength. The prepared films also demonstrated antimicrobial properties towards certain types of microorganisms. Sangroniz et al. (Sangroniz et al. 2018 ) blended poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) with poly(hydroxi amino ether), and the resulting film showed great improvement of barrier properties. However, polymer blending could also have its drawback. For example, if the blending polymers are immiscible with each other, the mechanical strength and barrier properties of the resulting materials will be affected (Corres et al. 2020 ).

Conclusions, challenges, and future research directions

In this review, a scientometric-based statistical study was firstly conducted on the research of environment and food safety, which revealed that the research on environment and food safety was growing steadily from 2001 to 2020. Interestingly, statistical analysis of the most-cited papers, titles, abstracts, keywords, and research areas revealed that the research on environment and food safety is diverse and multidisciplinary. Furthermore, strategies to protect the environment and ensure food safety are discussed, such as controlling the use of chemicals and materials which can produce environment and food contaminates, preventing these contaminants from contacting the food, developing whole process monitoring techniques and platforms, and utilizing the food waste properly. In addition, emerging research topics are discussed, such as emerging contaminants, rapid detection of contaminants, and environment friendly food packaging materials.

Although environment and food safety are receiving growing concern, there are still some very challenging issues. These challenges can be categorized into four parts. Firstly, it is challenging to eliminate environmental pollutions (Hao et al. 2018 ; Christy et al. 2021 ). Air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution are still serious environmental problems in many parts of the world (Wu et al. 2016 , 2021a ; Rajeswari et al. 2019 ; Shen et al. 2021b ). Although a lot of studies have been carried out, the mechanisms of some pollutions (e.g., haze weather) are still unclear (Shen et al. 2020 ; Wang et al. 2021a ). Secondly, it is challenging to dispose food waste effectively and efficiently. It is reported that a substantial amount of food waste is produced along the food supply chain (Aschemann-Witzel 2016 ; Li et al. 2019 ). Especially, food wastewater typically contains very complex components, and the treatment process is very energy intensive and costly. Thirdly, it is challenging to realize whole-process monitoring of contaminants, due to the diverse contaminants during food cultivation, processing, packaging, transportation, and retailing. Fourthly, the accurate effects of environmental pollution on human health are still unclear, and it is challenging to establish procedures to accurately assess the risks of environmental pollution on human health. For example, it is well reported that ozone pollution and PM2.5 pollution can cause negative effects on human health (Guan et al. 2021 ; Shen et al. 2021a ; Wang et al. 2021b ). However, the underlying mechanisms, accurate assessment procedures, and quantitative studies are still lacking. In order to address these challenges, more research efforts are needed to (1) uncover the underlying mechanisms of contaminant formation, migration and fate; (2) develop more cost-effective and sustainable food waste treatment and utilization technologies, targeting net zero emissions; (3) develop rapid detection methods and in situ monitoring technologies for environment and food safety; and (4) establish health risk assessment models and procedures.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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This work was supported by the Beijing Municipal Commission of Education (grant no. PXM2019_014213_000007) and School Level Cultivation Fund of Beijing Technology and Business University for Distinguished and Excellent Young Scholars (grant no. BTBUYP2020).

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Jiang, ., Wang, F., Li, Q. et al. Environment and food safety: a novel integrative review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28 , 54511–54530 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16069-6

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Enhancing Food Safety: The Role of the Food and Drug Administration (2010)

Chapter: summary.

P roviding nutritious, abundant, and safe food requires the efforts of many partners that together make up today’s complex and evolving food system. 1 Since 1906, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and its predecessor agencies have regulated foods, among other products. Today the agency has oversight of approximately 80 percent of the U.S. food supply. 2

Although there have been prior efforts to identify needed improvements in food safety, recent multistate foodborne illness outbreaks have again highlighted a food safety system that is not always effective in protecting the public health. The FDA has been criticized as responding only reactively to food safety problems and neglecting its preventive functions. With these concerns in mind, in 2008 Congress requested that the FDA contract with the National Academies for a comprehensive study of gaps in the FDA’s food safety system. While the responsibility for addressing these challenges

does not lie solely with the FDA, the focus of this report is on enhancing that agency’s food programs, specifically those devoted to food safety.

STUDY APPROACH

To conduct this study, a 13-member committee with extensive experience in FDA food programs and policies, food law and regulations, risk analysis and communication, economics, epidemiology, monitoring and surveillance, food microbiology and toxicology, feed issues, and state food programs was convened. The committee gathered information through six meetings, statements in response to specific queries to the FDA, and public documents.

As requested ( Box S-1 ), the committee reviewed the FDA’s 2007 Food Protection Plan (FPP), a road map aligned with the agency’s strategic plan, but it also worked to identify additional tools and capacities to improve food safety. Since the publication of the FPP, organizational and leadership changes in the federal government 3 have altered the U.S. food safety scene. In this new environment, the committee envisioned the FPP as a point of departure but focused its attention on providing the FDA with concrete guidance in various areas of concern, including the need to implement a risk-based food safety management system.

The committee left many of the details of the implementation of its recommendations to the FDA, especially since food safety is just one of the agency’s many responsibilities. The committee considered cost and resource issues in a general sense by drawing on the experience of members who formerly held senior leadership positions at the FDA. Because essential information was not always accessible, however, the committee lacked the full evidence base needed to address these issues in detail.

CONCLUSIONS

This section presents the committee’s main conclusions. It begins with a brief review of the FPP, which is evaluated throughout the report as appropriate. It then presents conclusions concerning the development and implementation of a stronger, more effective food safety system built on a risk-based approach to food safety management.

Strategic planning is an essential element of a food safety program and should precede the design and implementation of a risk-based approach to food safety management. At a broad level, strategic planning entails identifying public health goals (e.g., reducing the number of infections caused

by specific foods), identifying tools for attaining those goals (e.g., research, education activities), and developing measures with which to evaluate success. The FDA’s strategic plan for food safety management should explain its risk-based regulatory philosophy and the factors it will weigh in making decisions about the prioritization of efforts, allocation of resources, and selection of interventions. At a specific level, all of the risk-based activities discussed in the report (e.g., data collection) should be undertaken only after strategic planning.

The FPP ( Appendix G ) presents the FDA’s general philosophy on food safety, focusing on three core elements: (1) prevention, (2) intervention, and (4) response. It also outlines the following four cross-cutting principles: (1) focus on risks over a product’s life cycle, (2) target resources to achieve maximum risk reduction, (3) address both unintentional and deliberate contamination, and (4) use science and modern technology systems.

The committee concluded that while the FPP can serve as a platform for initiating a transformation at the FDA, it lacks sufficient detail on which to base policy decisions on prevention and risk. For example, it does not provide specific strategies to achieve the actions proposed. Moreover, terms such as “risk” and “risk-based approaches” are not adequately defined in the FPP; thus they do not clearly elucidate the FDA’s philosophy and can be misunderstood. The committee concluded that the FPP needs to evolve and be supported by the type of strategic planning described in this report.

Adopting a Risk-Based Decision-Making Approach to Food Safety

In a food safety system, decisions about resource allocation need to be made consistently in order to maximize benefits and reduce risks while also considering costs. Food safety risk managers must consider a wide variety of concerns in their decision making, including the needs and values of diverse stakeholders, the controllability of various risks, the size and vulnerabilities of the populations affected, and economic factors. Although the balancing of diverse risks, benefits, and costs is challenging, the lack of a systematic, risk-based approach to facilitate decision making can cause problems ranging from a decrease in public trust to the occurrence of unintended consequences to society, the environment, and the marketplace. Moreover, to carry out all its food safety responsibilities and ensure continuity of everyday operations, the FDA needs to have sufficient staff working on food issues to ensure that routine functions continue even when a crisis occurs.

The committee examined concrete examples of the FDA’s risk-based activities and identified gaps. Although the FDA is to be commended for embracing classic tools of risk assessment and management, it currently lacks a comprehensive, systematic vision for a risk-based food safety sys-

tem. Many of the attributes necessary for such a system, including strategic planning, transparency, and formalized prioritization processes, are lacking in the agency’s approach to food safety management. The FDA also has made only limited progress toward establishing performance metrics for measuring improvements in food safety.

Food safety is a shared responsibility of industry, retailers, consumers, and government agencies, and determining their roles is an important component of strategic planning. Regulators also must establish a systematic means of evaluating, selecting, and designing interventions to address high-priority risks. The FDA lacks a clear regulatory philosophy for assigning responsibility and a comprehensive strategy for choosing the level and intensity of interventions, as well as the extensive resources necessary to design and support a comprehensive risk-based food safety management system.

The risk-based approach recommended by the committee is summarized in Box S-2 .

Creating a Data Surveillance and Research Infrastructure

Data form the foundation of a risk-based decision-making approach, and vast amounts of such data are being collected by the government, industry, and academia. However, the FDA has not adequately assessed its data needs and lacks a systematic means by which to collect, analyze, manage, and share data. Barriers to the availability and utilization of data to support a risk-based approach include a lack of data sharing, the absence of a comprehensive data infrastructure, and limited analytical expertise within the FDA.

The FDA’s surveillance role is supported by its research capacity, which gives the agency an opportunity to fill data gaps and address uncertainties to help refine its risk-based decision making. The FDA’s current food safety research program appears to be fragmented and poorly managed, lacking strategic planning and coordination of research that is conducted intramurally and at the five extramural research centers. Many basic questions, such as the size and scope of the FDA’s research program and the appropriate balance between basic and applied research, need to be addressed before the program can be supportive of a risk-based approach. In particular, inadequate attention is given to research aimed at determining the efficacy and value of specific food safety management policies.

Integrating Federal, State, and Local Government Food Safety Programs

Food safety activities of state and local (including territorial and tribal) governments, including inspection, surveillance, and outbreak investigation, have long been important contributors to the U.S. food safety system.

However, these activities are not fully integrated so that duplication is minimized. Integration will require harmonization so that all programs and functions related to food safety meet a minimum set of standards. The FDA has standards in place that, if broadened and implemented properly, could serve as the basis for this harmonization. As with the federal system, state and local efforts should be built on a risk-based approach.

Enhancing the Efficiency of Inspections

For years, the inspectional capacity and efficiency of the FDA have been criticized as inadequate. Although mindful of potential gains from allocating more resources to the FDA’s inspection system, the committee focused on increasing the system’s efficiency. One barrier to improved efficiency is that the FDA’s food programs lack direct authority over the work of inspectors, resulting in potential substantial delays in policy implementation in the field. Nor have inspection procedures been reviewed for efficiency or consis-

tency with a risk-based approach. The committee concluded that exploring alternative models for the inspection of food facilities (e.g., delegating some inspection activities to state and local governments, accepting third-party auditing of food facilities) could lead to gains in efficiency.

Improving Food Safety and Risk Communication

Risk communication is integral to risk-based food safety management. The FDA should envision risk communication not only as consultation with stakeholders at various steps of the risk-based process, but also as a form of policy intervention to achieve objectives in its strategic plan. The FDA’s risk-based food safety management system must incorporate effective risk communication and food safety education for consumers and those who could impact public health through their professions, such as public health officials. The FDA should continue to use the advice of the Risk Communication Advisory Committee; below the committee offers several other recommendations to enhance risk communication.

Modernizing Legislation to Enhance the U.S. Food Safety System

Since 1938, Congress has occasionally amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) to enhance the FDA’s power to fulfill its food safety mission. In some fundamental respects, however, the law under which the FDA must ensure the safety of 80 percent of the nation’s food has remained unchanged since 1938—despite the dramatic changes in food production and distribution patterns that have taken place. Those food safety provisions of the FDCA that are broad delegations of power rather than specific grants of authority have led to the FDA’s vulnerability to court challenges and, consequently, the agency’s reluctance to take action. This deficiency in the food safety system needs to be remedied.

Achieving the Vision of an Efficient Risk-Based Food Safety System

The committee is confident that the risk-based approach recommended in this report would enhance the FDA’s ability to ensure food safety now and in the future. Nonetheless, the committee recognizes that this approach will not work optimally under the current organizational structure of the food safety system. The committee is encouraged by the establishment of the Office of Foods in 2009, but it has not been persuaded that this single consolidation step will resolve the important problems related to the separation of responsibilities in the FDA’s food programs.

Food safety in the United States is managed by many government agencies. The ability of the FDA, and the government in general, to succeed in

ensuring food safety through the development of a risk-based food safety management system would be greatly enhanced if the recommendations in this report were implemented in the context of organizational changes, such as the integration of activities currently scattered among poorly coordinated agencies. There are many potential avenues of organizational reform and many serious barriers to overcome. Hence, the importance of in-depth analysis and planning of such changes cannot be overemphasized.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The committee’s deliberations resulted in suggested directions for improving food safety management ( Box S-3 ) and specific recommendations for overcoming deficiencies in the food safety system ( Box S-4 ).

LOOKING FORWARD

Although food safety is the responsibility of everyone, from producers to consumers, the FDA and other regulatory agencies have an essential role. In many instances, the FDA must carry out this responsibility against a backdrop of multiple stakeholder interests, inadequate resources, and competing priorities. The committee hopes that this report provides the FDA and Congress with a course of action that will enable the agency to become more efficient and effective in carrying out its food safety mission in a rapidly changing world.

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Recent outbreaks of illnesses traced to contaminated sprouts and lettuce illustrate the holes that exist in the system for monitoring problems and preventing foodborne diseases. Although it is not solely responsible for ensuring the safety of the nation's food supply, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) oversees monitoring and intervention for 80 percent of the food supply. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration's abilities to discover potential threats to food safety and prevent outbreaks of foodborne illness are hampered by impediments to efficient use of its limited resources and a piecemeal approach to gathering and using information on risks. Enhancing Food Safety: The Role of the Food and Drug Administration , a new book from the Institute of Medicine and the National Research Council, responds to a congressional request for recommendations on how to close gaps in FDA's food safety systems.

Enhancing Food Safety begins with a brief review of the Food Protection Plan (FPP), FDA's food safety philosophy developed in 2007. The lack of sufficient detail and specific strategies in the FPP renders it ineffectual. The book stresses the need for FPP to evolve and be supported by the type of strategic planning described in these pages. It also explores the development and implementation of a stronger, more effective food safety system built on a risk-based approach to food safety management. Conclusions and recommendations include adopting a risk-based decision-making approach to food safety; creating a data surveillance and research infrastructure; integrating federal, state, and local government food safety programs; enhancing efficiency of inspections; and more.

Although food safety is the responsibility of everyone, from producers to consumers, the FDA and other regulatory agencies have an essential role. In many instances, the FDA must carry out this responsibility against a backdrop of multiple stakeholder interests, inadequate resources, and competing priorities. Of interest to the food production industry, consumer advocacy groups, health care professionals, and others, Enhancing Food Safety provides the FDA and Congress with a course of action that will enable the agency to become more efficient and effective in carrying out its food safety mission in a rapidly changing world.

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Three essays on food safety and foodborne illness

Major Professor

Committee member, journal title, journal issn, volume title, research projects, organizational units.

The Department of Economic Science was founded in 1898 to teach economic theory as a truth of industrial life, and was very much concerned with applying economics to business and industry, particularly agriculture. Between 1910 and 1967 it showed the growing influence of other social studies, such as sociology, history, and political science. Today it encompasses the majors of Agricultural Business (preparing for agricultural finance and management), Business Economics, and Economics (for advanced studies in business or economics or for careers in financing, management, insurance, etc).

History The Department of Economic Science was founded in 1898 under the Division of Industrial Science (later College of Liberal Arts and Sciences); it became co-directed by the Division of Agriculture in 1919. In 1910 it became the Department of Economics and Political Science. In 1913 it became the Department of Applied Economics and Social Science; in 1924 it became the Department of Economics, History, and Sociology; in 1931 it became the Department of Economics and Sociology. In 1967 it became the Department of Economics, and in 2007 it became co-directed by the Colleges of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Liberal Arts and Sciences, and Business.

Dates of Existence 1898–present

Historical Names

Department of Economic Science (1898–1910)
Department of Economics and Political Science (1910-1913)
Department of Applied Economics and Social Science (1913–1924)
Department of Economics, History and Sociology (1924–1931)
Department of Economics and Sociology (1931–1967)

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College of Agricultural and Life Sciences ( parent college )
College of Liberal Arts and Sciences ( parent college )
College of Business ( parent college )

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This dissertation explores economic impacts of food related illness on agricultural industries and models the performance of food safety programs on supply chain participants. Three stand-alone studies are dedicated to economic analysis on food safety issues from different approaches analytically, empirically, and in simulation.

In response to recent outbreaks of food-borne illness, the fresh produce and fruit industries have adopted marketing agreements to ensure the consistency of food safety. Chapter 2 presents a theoretical framework and simulation analysis to illustrate farmers' behavior on implementing Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), and the design of monitoring strategies in setting marketing agreements. It reveals that, if the monitoring resources are not high enough to achieve full compliance on GAPs, the general rule is to allocate resources so that the total amount of decreased fraud in terms of safety effort is the same for all farms. When auditing resources are very low, the size effect is dominant and larger farms are inspected first; when auditing resources are large enough, the cost effect is dominant and smaller farms are inspected first. The optimal auditing probability for smaller farms increases faster than that for larger farms.

Contracts now are widely used between processors and growers to specify product quality and safety attributes. Chapter 3 employs a multitask principal-agent model to analyze the optimal incentive structure in contract food production. It offers guidance on understanding contractual relations for both food quality and food safety, and how the inclusion of a traceability system influences the provisions of the contract.

Recent outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in Asia, Europe, and Africa have caused severe impacts on the broiler sector through production loss, trade restrictions and negative demand shocks. Chapter 4 presents a multimarket econometric model to conduct simulation analyses on the spread and market implications of a potential HPAI outbreak in U.S. broiler industry. It takes into account market power that might exist within the livestock and meat sectors and makes endogenous the optimal production conditions in the model system. Findings from the analysis imply that the HPAI shocks impact prices at different marketing levels unequally and change the price margin along the supply chain with the existence of market power. However, the change in the price margin is quite small in absolute value.

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E. Coli Has Been Found in Ground Beef and Walnuts. Here’s What to Know.

The bacteria sickens an estimated 265,000 Americans each year.

Ground beef is displayed at a butcher shop.

By Melinda Wenner Moyer

Last week, federal officials announced recalls of ground beef and organic walnuts because they were potentially contaminated with E. coli bacteria that can make people sick.

The recalls involve more than 16,000 pounds of ground beef distributed by Cargill Meat Solutions and sold at Wal-Mart stores in 11 states , as well as organic shelled walnuts sold in bulk in natural food and co-op stores in 19 states. So far, the recalled walnuts have been associated with 12 illnesses, including seven hospitalizations, in Washington State and California .

No illnesses have been reported from the ground beef recall, although ground beef remains one of the most common sources of illnesses from these bacteria, which are responsible for an estimated 265,000 illnesses annually. Most of these, however, are not diagnosed or tracked by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention because people often recover on their own without visiting a doctor, said Matthew Wise, chief of the C.D.C.’s Outbreak Response and Prevention Branch.

Here’s what you need to know about E. coli to stay safe.

Where You’ll Find the Bacteria

There are many different kinds of E. coli, and most of them are harmless to humans, said microbiologist Edward G. Dudley, director of the E. Coli Reference Center at Pennsylvania State University.

Some types do, however, make people sick, he said. Those that most commonly cause illness in humans, known as Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, primarily reside in cow intestines, which is why they often contaminate ground beef. The E. coli implicated in the ongoing walnut and ground beef recalls are a type of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli.

Because these bacteria eventually work their way out of animal intestines and into feces, they can also contaminate farm soil, which is why E. coli outbreaks are also often tied to produce, Dr. Dudley explained. They can also contaminate ponds, lakes and rivers.

Angelica Barrall, an Epidemic Intelligence Service officer with the C.D.C., said that the agency was still working to find out how the bacteria had managed to contaminate walnuts, which are grown on trees.

An Ounce of Prevention

The best way to avoid getting sick from E. coli is to take precautions when preparing food, Dr. Wise said. Keep raw meat and poultry separate from other foods and wash your hands thoroughly after handling them. Cook meat and other proteins to the appropriate temperature to kill off bacteria that may be lurking inside, he said, and store leftovers in the refrigerator within two hours to slow bacterial growth.

Washing your hands often is a good idea whether or not you’re handling food, as E. coli can spread through contaminated surfaces or hands.

Since E. coli can sometimes contaminate raw foods — such as produce and nuts — it’s also important to keep an eye on food recalls and to throw away any recalled products, Dr. Wise said.

The C.D.C. also recommends that people wash fruits and vegetables under running water, consume only pasteurized milk and fruit juices and avoid eating raw dough or batter. You should also avoid swallowing water while swimming in untreated water like lakes or rivers.

If Someone Gets Sick

People typically develop symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, a fever of less than 101 degrees and abdominal cramps within three to four days of consuming contaminated food.

These can be similar to the symptoms of other, more common food-borne illnesses, such as those caused by salmonella bacteria , which sickens an estimated 1.35 million people nationwide each year, or norovirus , which sickens an estimated 19 million to 21 million Americans annually. The bacteria Listeria monocytogenes, by comparison, causes only an estimated 1,600 illnesses.

One way to distinguish an E. coli infection from other issues is that people infected with E. coli often have blood in their diarrhea, said Dr. Robert Bonomo, a professor of medicine at the Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine.

Abdominal pain with E. coli is also usually worse than it is for other diarrheal illnesses, said Dr. William R. Miller, an infectious disease physician at Houston Methodist Hospital.

Dr. Wise suggested contacting a doctor if you or a family member have these symptoms or have had diarrhea for more than three days. Although most people recover in five to seven days without treatment, children under 5, adults over 65 and people with compromised immune systems are at a higher risk for serious complications.

One potential complication is hemolytic uremic syndrome, or HUS, which can occur when red blood cell and platelet levels drop. This can sometimes lead to kidney failure, Dr. Miller said. HUS develops in 5 percent to 10 percent of those diagnosed with a Shiga toxin-producing E. coli infection, and among children, is most common in those under 5.

Doctors typically monitor patients for those complications and others, and try to keep patients hydrated until they recover. They typically do not treat infections with antibiotics or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (such as ibuprofen), because these medications can increase the risk of HUS, Dr. Miller explained.

Anti-diarrheal drugs are a bad idea when you have E. coli, too. “You want your body flushing it out,” Dr. Dudley said.

Food Safety Issues and How to Avoid Them

E. Coli: The bacteria, which has recently been found in ground beef and walnuts, sickens an estimated 265,000 Americans each year .

Norovirus: The virus is extremely contagious, and, as anyone who has had it can tell you, extremely unpleasant .

Salmonella: People often get sick with salmonellosis, the infection caused by the bacteria, after eating undercooked meat or other contaminated foods .

Listeria: Most people who ingest listeria, bacteria naturally found in the soil, don’t get very sick. But certain high-risk individuals can fall seriously ill .

Raw Milk: A growing number of states have allowed the sale of raw milk. Its proponents argue that it has several health benefits, but is it really safe ?

Expiration Dates: When is the right time to throw something out? J. Kenji López-Alt explains why many pantry items remain safe well past their expiration dates .

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Food Safety
Science & Data

Cargill Meat Solutions Recalls Ground Beef Products Due to Possible E. coli O157:H7 Contamination

Fsis announcement.

WASHINGTON, May 1, 2024 - Cargill Meat Solutions, a Hazleton, Pa., establishment, is recalling approximately 16,243 pounds of raw ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) announced today.

The raw ground beef items were produced on April 26-27, 2024. The following products are subject to recall [ view labels ]:

2.25-lbs. plastic-wrapped trays containing "93% LEAN 7% FAT ALL NATURAL LEAN GROUND BEEF" with lot code 117 and establishment number "EST. 86P" printed on the back of the label.
1.33-lbs. plastic-wrapped trays containing four "PRIME RIB BEEF STEAK BURGERS PATTIES" with lot code 118 and establishment number "EST. 86P" printed on the back of the label.
2.25-lbs. plastic-wrapped trays containing "85% LEAN 15% FAT ALL NATURAL ANGUS PREMIUM GROUND BEEF" with lot code 117 and establishment number "EST. 86P" printed on the back of the label.
2.25-lbs. plastic-wrapped trays containing "80% LEAN 20% FAT ALL NATURAL GROUND BEEF CHUCK" with lot code 118 and establishment number "EST. 86P" printed on the back of the label.
1.33-lbs. plastic-wrapped trays containing four "80% LEAN 20% FAT ALL NATURAL GROUND BEEF CHUCK PATTIES" with lot code 118 and establishment number "EST. 86P" printed on the back of the label.
1.33-lbs. plastic-wrapped trays containing four "90% LEAN 10% FAT ALL NATURAL GROUND BEEF SIRLOIN PATTIES" with lot code 118 and establishment number "EST. 86P" printed on the back of the label.

The products subject to recall all bear the USDA mark of inspection on the front of the product label, and establishment number "EST. 86P" printed on the back of the product label. These items were shipped to Walmart retail locations nationwide.

The establishment reported the issue to FSIS after they identified that previously segregated product had been inadvertently utilized in the production of ground beef.

There have been no confirmed reports of adverse reactions due to consumption of these products. Anyone concerned about an illness should contact a healthcare provider.

E . coli O157:H7 is a potentially deadly bacterium that can cause dehydration, bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps 2-8 days (3-4 days, on average) after exposure the organism. While most people recover within a week, some develop a type of kidney failure called hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). This condition can occur among persons of any age but is most common in children under 5-years old and older adults. It is marked by easy bruising, pallor, and decreased urine output. Persons who experience these symptoms should seek emergency medical care immediately.

FSIS is concerned that some product may be in consumers' refrigerators or freezers. Consumers who have purchased these products are urged not to consume them. These products should be thrown away or returned to the place of purchase.

FSIS routinely conducts recall effectiveness checks to verify recalling firms notify their customers of the recall and that steps are taken to make certain that the product is no longer available to consumers. When available, the retail distribution list(s) will be posted on the FSIS website at www.fsis.usda.gov/recalls .

FSIS advises all consumers to safely prepare their raw meat products, including fresh and frozen, and only consume ground beef that has been cooked to a temperature of 160 F. The only way to confirm that ground beef is cooked to a temperature high enough to kill harmful bacteria is to use a food thermometer that measures internal temperature, https://www.fsis.usda.gov/safetempchart .

Consumers with questions about the recall can contact Cargill Meat Solutions at 1-844-419-1574. Members of the media with questions about the recall can contact Chuck Miller, Senior Communications Manager, Cargill Meat Solutions at 612-430-2882 or [email protected].

Consumers with food safety questions can call the toll-free USDA Meat and Poultry Hotline at 888-MPHotline (888-674-6854) or send a question via email to [email protected] . For consumers that need to report a problem with a meat, poultry, or egg product, the online Electronic Consumer Complaint Monitoring System can be accessed 24 hours a day at https://foodcomplaint.fsis.usda.gov/eCCF/ .

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Recalls, Market Withdrawals, & Safety Alerts

Hormel Foods Sales, LLC Recalls a Limited Number of Planters® Honey Roasted Peanuts 4 Oz. and Planters® Deluxe Lightly Salted Mixed Nuts 8.75 Oz. Because of Possible Health Risk

COMPANY ANNOUNCEMENT

When a company announces a recall, market withdrawal, or safety alert, the FDA posts the company's announcement as a public service. FDA does not endorse either the product or the company.

Company Announcement

AUSTIN, Minn. (May 3, 2024) – Hormel Foods Sales, LLC is voluntarily recalling a limited number of two PLANTERS® products that were produced at one of its facilities in April. This recall only impacts two retailers in five states. These products are being recalled because they have the potential to be contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes .

Listeria monocytogenes is an organism that can cause serious and sometimes fatal infections in young children, frail or elderly people, and others with weakened immune systems. Healthy individuals may suffer only short-term symptoms such as high fever, severe headache, stiffness, nausea, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Listeria infection can cause miscarriages and stillbirths among pregnant women.

The products were shipped to Publix distribution warehouses in Florida, Georgia, Alabama and North Carolina and to Dollar Tree distribution warehouses in South Carolina and Georgia.

The recalled product is limited to 4 oz. packages of PLANTERS® Honey Roasted Peanuts and 8.75 oz. cans of PLANTERS® Deluxe Lightly Salted Mixed Nuts. The “Best if Used By Date” is located on the bottom of the Deluxe Lightly Salted Mixed Nuts can and the UPC code is located on the side of the can.

No other sizes, varieties, or other packaging configurations of PLANTERS® brand products are included in this recall.

There have been no reports of illness related to this recall to date, and all retailers that received the affected product have been properly notified. This recall is being initiated with the knowledge of the US Food and Drug Administration.

If a consumer has this product, they can discard the product or return it to the store where purchased for an exchange or full refund. If consumers have questions, they may contact Hormel Foods Customer Relations via email here , via chat at https://www.planters.com/ or at 1-800-523-4635, Monday-Friday, 8 a.m. – 11 a.m. and 2 p.m. – 4 p.m. Central Time, excluding holidays.

Our commitment to food safety remains our utmost priority. A full investigation is currently under way to determine the potential source of the contamination.

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ACS Publications

Call For Papers: Lessons Learned in Organic Process Chemistry

May 9, 2024

This Special Issue will highlight important details on negative results and unexpected troubles encountered in day-to-day research and development activities. Submit your manuscript by April 1, 2025.

Laboratory setup with flasks and scientific equipment illuminated in purple light, highlighting advanced research technology.

This Special Issue aims to share process researchers’ expertise in overcoming challenges associated with negative outcomes and unexpected results, addressing troubles caused by a lack of understanding of reactions and physical properties, emerging new impurities due to changes in manufacturing methods, examples of catalytic reaction deactivation during scale-up studies, difficulties in establishing global supply chains, and more.

Organic Process Research & Development is a journal that serves as an authoritative source of scalable procedures for synthetic chemists. As such, it is a communication tool between industrial chemists and chemists working in universities and research institutes. It reports original work from the broad field of industrial process chemistry but also presents academic results that are relevant, or potentially relevant, to industrial applications. Process chemistry is the science that enables the safe, environmentally benign, and ultimately economical manufacturing of organic compounds that are required in larger amounts to help address the needs of society.

Topics include, but are not limited to :

Pharmaceuticals
Agrochemicals
Flavors and Food Additives
Fragrances, Cosmetics, and Personal Care Products
Petrochemicals

Submit your manuscript by April 1, 2025.

Organizing Editors

Dr. Kai Rossen , Editor-in-Chief, Organic Process Research & Development Jiuzhou Pharmaceutical, China

Dr. Yasumasa Hayashi , Editorial Advisory Board, Organic Process Research & Development Sawai Pharmaceutical Co., Japan

Dr. Hirotsugu Usutani , Guest Editor Sumitomo Pharma Co., Japan

Dr. Makoto Michida , Guest Editor Daiichi Sankyo Co., Japan

Submission Information

We welcome submissions for this Special Issue through April 1, 2025 . For more information on submission requirements, please visit the journal’s Author Guidelines page.

Accepted manuscripts for consideration in this Special Issue can be formatted as Articles, Reviews, or Perspectives. For Reviews and Perspectives, we ask that you discuss the proposed topic with us by sending an inquiry to [email protected] . Papers accepted for publication for this Special Issue will be available ASAP (as soon as publishable) online as soon as they are accepted. After all submissions have been published, they will then be compiled online on a dedicated landing page to form the Special Issue. Manuscripts submitted for consideration will undergo the full rigorous peer review process expected from ACS journals.

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Results. The analysis of 81 full-text articles resulted in seven common public health risks related with food safety in the food market. Microbial contamination of foods, chemical contamination of foods, food adulteration, misuse of food additives, mislabeling, genetically modified foods (GM foods), and outdated foods or foods past their use-by dates were the identified food safety-related ...
Food safety in the 21st century
Food is essential to life, hence food safety is a basic human right. Billons of people in the world are at risk of unsafe food. Many millions become sick while hundreds of thousand die yearly. The food chain starts from farm to fork/plate while challenges include microbial, chemical, personal and environmental hygiene.
Food Safety
When certain disease-causing bacteria, viruses or parasite contaminate food, they can cause food-related diseases. Another word for such a bacterium, virus, or parasite is "pathogen". Since food-related diseases can be serious, or even fatal, it is important to know and practice safe food-handling behaviors to help reduce the risk of getting sick from contaminated food. According to the ...
Challenges in Food Safety
More progress is needed to protect people and reduce foodborne illness in America. New challenges to food safety will continue to emerge, largely because of: Changes in our food production and supply, including more imported foods. Changes in the environment leading to food contamination. New and emerging bacteria, toxins, and antimicrobial ...
Journal of Food Safety
Journal of Food Safety welcomes Vivian Wu as Editor-in-Chief! Dr. Wu is the Research Leader of the Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit at the USDA-ARS Western Regional Research Center. She is recognized nationally and internationally as an authority of food safety, pathogen detection, interventions, and functional foods.
Environment and food safety: a novel integrative review
Environment protection and food safety are two critical issues in the world. In this review, a novel approach which integrates statistical study and subjective discussion was adopted to review recent advances on environment and food safety. Firstly, a scientometric-based statistical study was conducted based on 4904 publications collected from the Web of Science Core Collection database. It ...
Risk Perception, Communication and Behavior on Food Safety Issues
Food safety risk, defined as the presence of physical, chemical or biological contaminants that are unexpected or undetected on the product label, is a key issue for global food chains. Food safety is a vital issue for public health and a daily concern for all people. Increasing public concern about the risks associated with food and ever more ...
Summary
Implementing this recommendation would resolve issues associated with the separation between the agency's enforcement functions and larger public health roles and responsibilities, and ensure a well-trained field workforce with specialized expertise in food safety and risk-based principles of food safety management.
Three essays on food safety and foodborne illness
This dissertation explores economic impacts of food related illness on agricultural industries and models the performance of food safety programs on supply chain participants. Three stand-alone studies are dedicated to economic analysis on food safety issues from different approaches analytically, empirically, and in simulation. In response to recent outbreaks of food-borne illness, the fresh ...
How E. Coli in Food Makes People Sick
Food Safety Issues and How to Avoid Them E. Coli: The bacteria, which has recently been found in ground beef and walnuts, sickens an estimated 265,000 Americans each year .
Codex meeting covers heavy metal levels and Ciguatera
A global food standards-setting body has advanced work on various issues, including lead levels, Ciguatera, and tropane alkaloids. The latest Codex Committee on Contaminants in Food session was ...
Cargill Meat Solutions Recalls Ground Beef Products Due to Possible E
WASHINGTON, May 1, 2024 - Cargill Meat Solutions, a Hazleton, Pa., establishment, is recalling approximately 16,243 pounds of raw ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) announced today. The raw ground beef items were produced on April 26-27, 2024.
CDRH Issues 2024 Safety and Innovation Reports
The 2024 Innovation Report and 2024 Safety report summarize the Center for Devices and Radiological Health Center's accomplishments on safety and innovation and additional actions looking ahead.
Palmer Candy Company Recalls White Confectionary Products Because of
Palmer Candy Company, Sioux City, Iowa, is recalling its "White Coated Confectionary Items" because they have the potential to be contaminated with Salmonella, an organism which can cause ...
Hormel Foods Sales, LLC Recalls a Limited Number of Planters® Honey
Hormel Foods Sales, LLC is voluntarily recalling a limited number of two PLANTERS® products that were produced at one of its facilities in April. This recall only impacts two retailers in five ...
Call For Papers: Lessons Learned in Organic Process Chemistry
This Special Issue aims to share process researchers' expertise in overcoming challenges associated with negative outcomes and unexpected results, addressing troubles caused by a lack of understanding of reactions and physical properties, emerging new impurities due to changes in manufacturing methods, examples of catalytic reaction deactivation during scale-up studies, difficulties in ...

81 Food Safety Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

✍️ Food Safety Essay Topics for College

Example Of Food Safety Essay

Consumption and Food Safety

Cultural and Sociological Relevance of Food Safety

Food Security and Food Safety

Genetic Modification of Food

The Use of Drugs in Food Production

Solutions to Food Safety Issues

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127 Food Safety Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Programs submenu

‘If It Isn’t Safe, It Isn’t Food’: Building Food Safety into Global Food Security Efforts

The Role of Markets

The Role of Governments

Caroline Smith DeWaal

70 Food Safety Essay Topics

Food waste: a global problem that undermines healthy diets

Global problem

Repercussions of food waste

Takeaways for action:

Fruit and veg

The Importance of Food Safety: Top Food-Related Public Health Issues

Why Is Food Safety Important?

4 Food-Related Public Health Issues

Food Insecurity

The New Era of Smarter Food Safety

Chemical Contaminants in Food

The Lingering Impact of COVID-19

Promote the Importance of Food Safety as a Public Health Professional

Food Safety – Problems and Solutions

Significance, Prevention and Control of Food Related Diseases

Author Information

Mustafa Volkan Yilmaz

1. Introduction

2. The factors that affect food safety

2.1. Food hygiene

2.2. Personal Hygiene of Food Handlers

2.3. Kitchen sanitation

2.3.1. Kitchen hygiene

2.4. Equipment hygiene

3. Food safety systems

3.1. Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP)

3.2. ISO 22000

3.3. PAS 220 (publicly available specification)

4. Good agricultural practices

5. Conclusion

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Challenges in Food Safety

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Environment and food safety: a novel integrative review

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Conclusions, challenges, and future research directions

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Contributions

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Enhancing Food Safety: The Role of the Food and Drug Administration (2010)

STUDY APPROACH

CONCLUSIONS

Adopting a Risk-Based Decision-Making Approach to Food Safety

Creating a Data Surveillance and Research Infrastructure