write a short essay on civilization

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Short Essay on Civilization [100, 200, 400 Words] With PDF

In this session, you are going to learn how you can write short essays on Civilization. There will be three different sets of essays in this session covering different word limits. 

Short Essay on Civilization in 100 Words

A civilization is a complex society that is marked by urban development, social hierarchy, governmental bodies and advanced systems of communication like writing. In the prehistoric era, human beings lived in caves and hunted for food. Gradually, people began to come together in groups and settle down. With time, these settlements grew larger and became towns, cities and states. People began to do organized works like agriculture, mining and keeping domesticated livestock.

Different forms of government came into existence to maintain law and order in these societies. Thus, from the prehistoric men who lived in the wild, an advanced society was formed that had a complex structure. Some examples of such civilizations are the Ancient Egyptian civilization, Indus Valley civilization, Mesopotamian and Roman civilizations. 

Short Essay on Civilization in 200 Words

The word civilization comes from the Latin word ‘civitas’ or ‘city’. Thus, in simple words, a civilization is a complex society made up of a group of cities. However, there are many other things like cultural and technological developments that are necessary for a society to be considered a civilization. So, a more accurate definition of civilization would be that it is a complex society that is marked by urban development, social hierarchy, governmental bodies and advanced systems of communication like writing. Society should also be settled and not live a nomadic life. 

In the prehistoric era, people lived in caves alone or with their family members and hunted for food. Gradually, people began to come together in groups and form nomadic societies. They moved together from place to place in search of food. With time, the practice of farming was developed and people began to settle down. Slowly, these settlements grew larger and became towns, cities and states.

Division of labour occurred and people began to do organized works like agriculture, mining and keeping domesticated livestock. Different forms of government came into existence to maintain law and order in these societies. Thus, from the prehistoric men who lived in the wild, an advanced society was formed that had a complex structure. Some of the famous civilizations are the Ancient Egyptian civilization, Indus Valley civilization, Mesopotamian and Roman civilizations. 

Short Essay on Civilization in 400 Words

The word civilization comes from the Latin word ‘civitas’ or ‘city’. Thus, in simple words, a civilization can be defined as a complex society made up of a group of cities. However, there are many other things like cultural, urban and technological developments that are necessary for a society to be considered a civilization. So, a more accurate definition of civilization would be that it is a complex society that is marked by urban development, social hierarchy, governmental bodies and advanced systems of communication like writing. Society should also be settled and not live a nomadic life. 

In the prehistoric era, people lived in caves alone or with their family members and hunted for food. Gradually, people began to come together in groups and form nomadic societies. They moved together from place to place in search of food and shelter. With time, the practice of farming was developed and people began to settle down beside rivers and other water bodies.

These settlements kept growing larger and became towns, cities and states. Instead of every person having to gather their food, division of labour occurred and the jobs were divided among people. Some farmed, some made pottery, some kept livestock while others made clothes and furniture. Art, music and entertainment also became a huge part of people’s lives.

Different forms of government came into existence to maintain law and order in these societies. Written languages were developed. These societies looked a lot like the societies we live in today. Thus, from the prehistoric man who lived in the wild and had to fend for himself, an advanced society was formed that had a complex structure. 

The definition of civilization, however, is not perfect. When the word was first coined, it was used by people to differentiate between their culture, which they felt was morally superior as well as highly developed, and other cultures which they considered morally inferior and backward. They called themselves civilised and referred to the others as barbarians. This led them to try to conquer and “civilise” the people whom they saw as barbaric. This, in turn, led to various native cultures around the world being terrorised, killed and forced to give up their unique ideas, identities and ways of life. 

This definition of civilization also excludes cultures like the Incan empire which had complex societies, religion, division of labour and technological prowess, from being considered a civilization just because they didn’t have a written language. Some examples of proper civilizations are the Ancient Egyptian civilization, Indus Valley civilization, Mesopotamian and Roman civilizations. 

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AP®︎/College Art History

Course: ap®︎/college art history   >   unit 4, ancient egypt, an introduction.

• Ancient Egyptian art
• Palette of King Narmer
• Seated Scribe
• The Great Pyramids of Giza
• Pyramid of Khufu
• Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Sphinx
• Pyramid of Menkaure
• King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen
• Temple of Amun-Re and the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak
• Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut and Large Kneeling Statue, New Kingdom, Egypt
• Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis (UNESCO/TBS)
• Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters
• Tutankhamun’s tomb (innermost coffin and death mask)
• Last Judgement of Hunefer, from his tomb
• Hunefer, Book of the Dead

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• Civilization

Essays on Civilization

A progress trap is a technology or idea that produces an impressive outcome at first but it can lead to an impossible, deadly end. People experiment with progressions that are lethal but potentially self destructing; this is as a result of specialization of the human brain.  The atomic bomb is...

Words: 2043

Having a civilized world, one where there shall be no need for war is a dream that might never come true unless people change their perceptions of others from different cultures. The use of force against a section of people will always be a possibility as long as people who...

Words: 1285

The Maya are the aboriginal dwellers of Central America and Mexico. Their present day population covers areas like Campeche, Tabasco, Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Chiapas, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala (Mark, 2012). The emergence of Maya Civilization took different stages in different eras like the Archaic Period, the Olmec Period,...

Words: 2335

Early Years of American History As evidenced by the experiences of Native Americans, ethnic immigrants, and African Americans, the early years of American history were marked by great cruelty toward racial and ethnic minorities at the cost of Americans and white Europeans. Nevertheless, the subject of civilization and colonialism blends seamlessly...

Words: 1422

The Roman Republic The Roman Republic was a period of the ancient Roman civilization that lasted from the fall of the Roman Kingdom in 509 BCE until the founding of the Roman Empire in 27 BCE. Rome's dominance over the entire Mediterranean region was established during that time, expanding from its...

The book Civilization and its Discontents was written by Feud. The piece was created in 1929's summertime. It primarily contrasts the way of life of those who appear to be part of the current society and those who appear to be leading a savage lifestyle but still find enjoyment in...

Words: 3301

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Huntington's Theory of Clash of Civilizations Huntington reiterates that the conflicts will be fought at the level of the nations and by the groups therein. Conflicts would result from divisions between the respective cultures. The David Allen interpretation elaborates on the idea of clashing civilizations caused by divergent worldviews, including those...

Through commerce, travel, and treaties The world has become increasingly interconnected over the past few centuries. (Woolf and Danielp p.322) Global interconnection is defined by the idea of world civilizations, which has had a major impact on today's globalization. According to Woolf and Danielp (p. 331), two important regions, primarily in...

History is a vital component of human existence and a potent tool for creating both a knowledge of the past and a compass for the future. According to a critical perspective, the world's best civilization resulted from a thorough examination of the past in order to invent a better present...

Words: 2609

Many scholars around the globe believe that Africa is the place where humanity first evolved. The findings revealed by various African scholars continue to lend credence to the idea that Africa is the cradle of humanity. The goals of this assignment are to provide a summary of the material covered...

Similar to the spread of agriculture, civilization was a universal occurrence. It appeared in numerous parts of the globe. Since Eurasia and Mesoamerican civilizations diverged before 1500, they had some things in common. Evidence indicated that a few sculptures, carvings, sketches, and works of art that were an alternative to...

History of Western Civilization History has witnessed many different civilizations, some of which have thrived and others of which have failed. Of course, in their pursuit of civilization, both effective and unsuccessful civilizations had to overcome a number of obstacles. For the purposes of this study paper, it is important to...

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Essay on Civilization

We believe that we live in a wonderful era, an era of all round progress. We think that we have excelled and surpassed our forefathers in almost every respect. The twentieth century seems to us a glorious age and we pride ourselves on its achievements.

No doubt, there is justification for this satisfaction and complacency. The science has made tremendous progress. The use of machine in industry has eliminated human labour. Electricity is serving us in thousand ways. Railways, ships and aeroplanes have reduced distances and made travel fast and comfortable.

Telephones and telegraphs have made communications swift and easy Cinema, radio and television have added a new charm to life Medicines and surgery have made immense strides. Atomic energy has brought in numerous benefits upon mankind. The wonders and miracles of science would justify us in paying a tribute to modem civilization.

Apart from scientific progress that makes our civilization so great, politically also much has been achieved Countries under foreign domination have been liberated Our age has seen many countries under foreign domination being liberated In the social sphere, our progress is no less marked; outdated customs are vanishing: the standard of living of people is rising.

The working class is getting better wages and more facilities. The world percentage of literacy has greatly risen. Besides, we have achieved a higher level of culture than was reached by our ancestors. We live in a truly enlightened age. There is greater refinement than ever before.

People have become polished in their manners and behaviour. There is a widespread appreciation of art and literature, a keen interest is evinced in books, periodicals, paintings, music, dancing exhibitions and the like.

There is, however, a dark side of the picture as well and in any examination of modern civilization, we must not shut your eyes to it A closer scrutiny of modern civilization will reveal its defects. In the political field, for instance, there is much cause for dismay and disappointment.

Our age has been witness to two great wars that have affected humanity. Democracy has had to face serious challenges and suffer serious setbacks. The rise of Fascism and Nazism, and Communism has been a serious menace to liberty and democracy.

The loss of life and property in the two world wars was chiefly due to the deadly weapons invented by science. This shows that scientific progress has not been an unmixed blessing. Long-range guns, flying bombs, magnetic mines, submarines, poisonous gases and, above all, the atom bomb and other nuclear weapons, represent the destructive side of science.

Again, our industrial civilization has produced an adverse effect on health and beauty. We have to live in congested towns and breathe air that is adulterated with factory smoke. The use of machinery has proved a mixed blessing.

The search for excitement, for pleasure, for new sensations is the order of the day. The craze for fashions in dress is widespread. All these tendencies are reflected in books periodicals, paintings and films.

There is a bloom of pornography in literature. Pictures in the nude are becoming popular. Obscenity is defended in the name of art. Religions seem to have no place in modern civilization. Science has shaken people’s faith in God. God and the soul are now antiquated concepts.

Our civilization is purely materialistic. Spiritual values no longer govern the actions of people With the loss of spiritual faith, people have also lost their main support and source of consolation in the hour of distress.

Men do not know what to live for. Boredom with life and a feeling of ennui reflect their frame of mind. Thus a general restlessness prevails in society.

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The history of the human civilization essay

In the history of the human civilization, numerous events have drastically changed the flow and nature of the society bridging forth differences and conflicts in the relationship and structure of the people. Among these numerous events, the First World War has been noted to have caused a significant change in the historical pages of the human development. The conflicts and political divisions among the society in the vast continent of Europe have resulted to a destructive war that altered the relationship and social structure of the people in this continent.

The First World War has been noted as a significant war that changed the European world as noted by Sir Edward Grey himself. Grey compared the event of the First Great War as the act of putting out forever the light of the European society. Indeed, the aftermath of the war has permanently changed the political institutions, ruling classes, economic affairs and social life among the European societies. The First World War has drastically changed the European society affecting all of the social institution, organization and political system in the said land.

On the social ground and humanitarian ground, the war has brought end to countless lives on both the civilian and military sector with its numerous battles, sieges, and even genocides. This is further worsened due to the outbreak of certain health problems and diseases taking also toll on the population. Regarding the political relationship between each society, many peace treaties have been formalized to control the political and military power of both factions involved in the war.

However, the views and relationship between each party have been permanently ruptured making political trust and trade relationship even tighter and stricter. Political boundaries and territories have also been strengthened to protect the interest and condition of each society and faction. In addition, new political identities have been born after the war due to the separation and independence of certain countries. Postwar colonization has also resulted to many conflicts, which further divides the European society. As a whole, the European population has experienced social trauma from where their development has greatly suffered.

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In general, the First Great War has brought complications and division in the European society that have permanently and significantly changed the said continent from its previous image.

Bibliography

Coetzee, Frans & Coetzee, Marilyn Shevin (2002). World War I: A History in Documents. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN-10: 0195137469. Mackaman, Douglas Peter & Mays, Michael (2000). World War I and the Cultures of Modernity. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN-10: 1578062438. Spiering, Menno & Wintle, Michael (2002). Ideas of Europe since 1914: The Legacy of the First World War. Palgrave Publication. ISBN-10: 0333984021.

• Harappan Civilization

Harappan civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations of the world. It was believed to be a hub of art and culture and architecture. The discoveries made at these architectural sights give us great insight into the lives and lifestyles of our ancestors. Let us learn about this very important part of our history.

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Introduction to harappan civilization.

Harappa is known to be a 4700 years old city in the subcontinent which was discovered around the time 1920. Soon after the discovery of cities like Lothal, Dholavira, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan have also been discovered and were come to be known as the Harappan cities or also the advent of Harappan Civilization. These cities were discovered around the river Indus , henceforth proving the existence of the Indus Valley Civilization .

Architecture

The Harappan city was divided into two or more parts of which the part to the west was smaller, however higher, known to be as a citadel. Also, the part to the east was comparatively larger but lower and the archaeologists called it ‘the lower town’. The citadel comprised granaries, religious buildings, public buildings, and assembly halls while the lower town was divided into rectangular sections cut by wide roads at right angles to each other.

Harappan objects were made of stone, Shell, and metal. Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments, and vessels. Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels. Harappans also made stone seals. They made pots with beautiful black designs. Bricks were so well made that they had seemed to have lasted for thousands of years and were laid in an interlocking pattern which made the walls strong. About a hundred and fifty years ago, many of these bricks were taken away by engineers.

People built one or two-story houses on either side of the roads with rooms built around a courtyard. The Harappan city had a well-planned drainage system where every house had a drain connected to the street drains which further were connected to the bigger drains. The drains were also covered with the stone slabs that were laid in straight lines along with inspection holes for the cleanup purpose.

Some of the farming methods and rearing as followed by the Harappan farmers and herders are –

• Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed, and mustard. They also developed some new tools known as plough and was used to dig earth for planting the seeds and turning the soil. A method of irrigation was used due to less rainfall .
• The Harappan reared cattle sheep, goat, and buffalo. Water and pastures were present around many sites. People collected fruits, fish and hunted wild animals.

Mohenjodaro , Harappa, and Lothal also had huge storehouses used for storing grains and hence were called granaries. Big fire altars are found at Kalibangan and Lothal used for performing sacrifices. Lothal also has revealed a huge dockyard for the loading and unloading of goods.

Solved Questions for You

Q: Describe the people of Harappan cities.

Ans. There were three basic occupations of people living in Harappan cities.

• They planned the construction of special buildings in the city. They probably sent people to distant lands to get raw material. And they kept the most valuable objects for themselves.
• Scribes were people who knew how to write. They prepared the seals.
• Crafts-persons. People who made all kinds of things were called Craftspersons .

Some farmers and herders also lived outside the city helping with food to the people.

Q: What could have been the possible reasons behind the end of the Harappan civilization?

Ans. The Harappan civilization suddenly seems to have started to end around 3900 years ago. People stopped living in many cities. Writing seals and weights became extinct. Raw materials were now rarely imported.

Some scholar says that it is due to the drying of rivers while some have explained it to the cause of deforestation. In some areas, there were floods that have been the main reason due to which the rulers have lost control. The people have consequently abandoned Sind and Punjab and had moved to the newer smaller settlements to the east and the south.

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Essay on the Indus Valley Civilisation | Indian History

In this essay we will discuss about Indus Valley Civilisation:- 1. Introduction to Indus Valley Civilisation 2. Race of Indus Civilisation 3. Date 4. Town Planning and Architecture 5. Social Life of the People 6. Economic Life of the People 7. Religion of the People 8. Art and Craft 9. Causes for the Destruction of Indus Valley Culture 10. Contribution of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

• Introduction to Indus Valley Civilisation
• Race of Indus Civilisation
• Date of Indus Civilisation
• Town Planning and Architecture of Indus Civilisation
• Social Life of the People of Indus Civilisation
• Economic Life of the People of Indus Civilisation
• Religion of the People of Indus Civilisation
• Art and Craft of the People of Indus Civilisation
• Causes for the Destruction of Indus Valley Culture
• Contribution of the Indus Valley Civilisation

1. Introduction to Indus Valley Civilisation:

For a long time it was believed that Indians are stay at home people and our civilization was only of recent origin. But the excavation at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, which led to the dis­covery of Indus Valley civilization, has set all these doubts at naught.

It has now been established beyond all doubts that India possessed one of the advanced civilisation at a time when the English people were still living in the jungle age. This unique and important civilisation of the pre-historic times in India was for the first time discovered by Daya Ram Sahni and R.D. Banerjee in 1921 and 1922.

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Further excavation were carried out along the Indus between Rupar at the foot of Shimla hills and Sutkagendor, 300 miles close to Karachi, where similar remains were discovered. In recent years excavation at village Alamirpur near Meerut and in Saurashtra have also revealed the similar remains.

All these discoveries point to the existence of an advanced civilisation in pre-historic India which is now popularly known as Indus Valley Civilization or Harappa Culture.

Though this civilisation is termed as Indus civilisation it covered even area beyond the Indus Valley. It extended from the upper Sutlej to the Gulf of Camba in the South and from Makran coast of the Arabian Sea in the west to the Jamuna-Ganges coun­try in the east. Thus the Indus civilisation was the largest of the early civilisations.

2. Race of Indus Civilisation:

There has been much contro­versy amongst the historians regarding the race to which the people of Indus Valley civilisation belonged. Different scholars have tried to speculate, mainly on the basis of human skeletons and skulls found in the ruins, about their race.

While some scholars are of the opinion that they were Aryans. This point is not acceptable to Sir John Marshall. Marshall holds that this civilisation was quite different from the earlier Vedic civilisation and that it was quite different from that of the Aryans.

According to Gorden Childe, the people of Indus Valley were of Sumerian race. However, he fails to give convincing and substantial proof in support of this view. RD. Banerjee has expressed the view that the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation were Dravidians.

However, if we take the funeral customs of the people of Indus Valley, it would be difficult to accept this contention. On the basis of the finds discovered Dr. Guha has expressed the view that the people belonged to a mixed race. Thus we find that there is great difficulty in ascertaining the race to which the people of Indus Valley civilisation belonged.

Most probably many races contributed to the evolution of Indus Valley culture and perhaps Aryans also formed an important part of them. There is every reason to believe that the Indus’ Valley culture was a synthesis of the Aryan and non-Aryan cultures and its authorship cannot be ascribed to any particular race. But one thing can be said with certainty that the Indus Valley civilisation was of a very high order.

3. Date of the Indus Valley Civilisation:

The Indus Valley, civilisation combines the features of the Neolithic and copper age. The excavation at Mohenjo-Daro have brought to light seven different it layers of buildings, which have assigned to three different period viz., early, intermediate and late. The early layers lie submerged under sub-soil water.

After due consideration the scholars have assigned 500 years to every age, and come to the inclusion that this civilisation must be having an early beginning because it must have taken the people quite a long time to develop such a urban life. Another criteria adopted by the scholars in determining the age of the Indus civilisation is discovery of seals m Mesopotamia, which are dated back to 2500 B.C.

On the basis of these seals and other available material the scholars have suggested that the upper most layer belong to the period 230C-2200 B.C. and the lower layers must have belonged to earlier period. Therefore, the period which is roughly assigned to the Indus civilisation ranges between 2500 B.C. to 500 B.C.

4. Town Planning and Architecture of Indus Valley Civilisation:

All the cities of the Indus Valley civilisation such as Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Chanhuduro, Lohumjudaro etc., display the remarkable skill of the Indus valley civilisation in town planning and sanitation.

Of a these Mohenjo-Daro is better preserved and its excavation has revealed the points that the successive cities were built according In tin plan. This city was built after careful planning, as is clear from streets which though vary in width yet intersect at right angles.

These streets thus divide the entire city into square or rectangular blocks, which are further intersected by narrow lanes. Some of the streets are very long and wide. At least one street has been traced which is more than half a mile long and at places over 30 wide. All the roads are aligned east to the west and north to south. The corners of the streets were rounded so that loads should not get dislodged.

The bricks used for the pavements were comparatively of small size and were plain surfaced. L shaped bricks were occasion­ally used for corners. Mud mortar was universally used. The plaster of the wall was mainly of mud or gypsum.

The city had an elaborate drainage system, consisting of horizontal and vertical drains, street drains, soak-pits, etc. The architecture of Mohenjo- Daro though not quite artistic and beautiful was quite utilitarian. The peoples used burnt bricks in building walls, pavements, bath rooms, drains, etc.

Some sun-baked bricks were used for the foundation. The foundations were usually very deep. The buildings were generally erected on high platform to protect them against floods, which seem to have been quite common.

Dr. A.D. Pusalker has greatly admired the town planning of the Indus Valley people and says, “A visitor to the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro is struck by the remarkable skill in town planning and sanitation displayed by the ancients, and as an English writer has observed, feels himself surrounded by ruins of some present- day working-town in Lancashire.”

He has divided the buildings unearthed into three categories:

(1) Dwelling houses or residential buildings

(2) Larger buildings and

(3) Public baths.

The size of the Dwelling houses differed from one and another. The small houses consisted of minimum two rooms while the big ones had large number of rooms and often could be mistaken for the palaces. Each house had a wall and drain which were connected with the main street drain.

Vertical drain pipes suggest that bath rooms were constructed in upper storeys also. The presence of the stairways also suggests that the houses used to be double-storey; The entrance to the houses were placed in narrow by-ways and windows were non-existent.

The roofs were floored by placing reed matting of veans and covering them with mud. The planning of the houses does not suggest any purdah. The size of the doors used in the houses varied from 3 feet 4 inches to 7 feet and 10 inches.

In addition to the dwelling houses certain spacious and large buildings also-existed. Some of these possessed large pillared halls about 80 ft. square. These buildings were probably supposed to be temples, municipal or assembly halls.

Another important feature of the houses which deserves mention was that the people were very fond of baths. In every house a special place was set aside for a bath-room. The floor of the bath-room was water-tight with a clear slope towards one corner. The water of the bath-room would pass to the latrine which was generally situated between bath-room and the outer wall of the house.

People were probably in the habit of taking bath daily. The love of the people for the bath is further confirmed from the discovery of a public bath at Mohenjo-Daro. This bath was 30 X 23 X 3 feet and was surrounded by varandah, galleries and rooms on all sides. It was constructed of the burnt bricks and was connected with the fine drainage system for filling and emptying it.

The swimming baths were filled with the water from the wells, which were built of burnt bricks. With a view to keep the wells neat and clean steps were provided. In addition to the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, a bath has also been discovered at Harappa which measures 39 X 13 X 8 feet.

The walls of this bath were plastered with gypsum and lime morter. People used these baths on religious occasions as well as otherwise. Thus we find that the people of Indus Valley civilization attached great signifi­cance to the bath like the Hindus.

Careful study of the above features of town planning viz. ade­quate water supply, efficient drainage system, and existence of pucca houses shows that the art of town planning and architecture was quite advanced. The presence of lamp posts at intervals indicates that the system of street lighting also existed.

In short we can agree with Dr. R.C. Majumdar and say that the ruins of the city of Mohenjo-Daro reveal that “on this site a large, populous and flou­rishing town, whose inhabitants freely enjoyed, to a degree unknown elsewhere in the ancient world, not only the sanitary conveniences but also the luxuries and comforts of a highly developed municipal life.”

5. Social Life of the People of Indus Valley Civilisation:

It has already been observed that the people of Mohenjo-Daro were of cosmopolitan character. Evidently these people were attracted by the fertility and productivity of the area and came from different parts of Asia.

1. Food and Drinks:

The people of the Indus Valley were both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. They cultivated wheat, bailey rice and bred cattle sheep, fish and poultry for food. They also used fish as food. They were also in the habit of taking fruits and vegetables and date was the most favorite fruit of the people.

As regards, the non-vegetarian food they took beef, mutton, poultry, flesh etc.. This has been proved by the discovery of half-burnt bones, found in the houses, lanes and streets.

2. Domestication of Animals:

The Indus Valley people domes­ticated various types of animals. The most common amongst them were the buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, cow etc. They worshipped the humped bull which has been proved by the various seals. It is not fully’ known whether the people of Indus Valley knew about the horse.

However, certain scholars have taken certain bones recovered on the upper-most layer as bones of the horse, while the others have denied. The people also knew about wild animals like lion, rhino­ceros, tiger, monkey, bear etc. In addition they also knew about similar animals like mongoose, squirrel, parrot, peacock, cat etc. This is borne out by the presence of large number of clay models or toys of these animals.

3. Dress and Ornaments:

As regards the dresses no actual specimens of clothing have fallen into the hands of the excavators and we have to make conjectures about their dress from the various figures. Most probably both cotton and woolen clothes were used by the people. The clothes were sewn as has been indicated by the discovery of needles.

We can form an idea about the dress used by the people from the various sculptures of the age. It appears that the women used loin cloth bound by a girdle. In fact there was very little difference between the dress of the males and the females. Most of the people used lower garments which resembles the modern dhoti along with the upper garments which was a type of a shawal.

The people of Indus Valley were great lovers of fashion. Men kept various types of beards and whiskers. The women were also very fashion conscious and bore fan-shaped hair dress. Various objects of head dressing like ivory combs, bronze mirrors have been discovered.

People were in the habit of using antimony also. The discovery of various toilet jars made of ivory, metal pottery and stone have led the scholars to the conclusion that the people were in the habit of using powder.

The authors of Vedic age have also observed:

“Small cockle shells containing a red ochre rouge, lumps of green earth white face paint, and black beauty substance show that the belles in ancient Sind attended to beauty and toilet culture. It is interesting to note that Chanu-daro finds indicate use of lip-sticks”.

Both men and women were in the habit of using ornaments. These ornaments were made of clay and various metals like gold, silver, copper, bronze etc., Certain ornaments like necklaces, fillets, armlets, finger-rings and bangles were used by both men and women. On the other hand ornaments like girdles, nose studs, ear-rings and anklets were used by women alone.

4. Sports and Games:

The people had great love for sports and games and a number of evidences are available to this effect. Some of the prominent games of the tune were dice playing. This is indicated by the presence of large number of dieses during the course of excavation. People were also fond of hunting.

This is proved by the various seals on which men are shown as hunting wild goats and a large anti-lopes with bows and arrows. People also delighted in birds fighting. Fishing was used both as game as well as regular profession.

The children had special love for clay modelling as is proved by the presence of large number of crude models of men and women and animals, whistles, cattle etc. But probably the greatest source of amusement for the- people was music and dance. This is proved by the figure of a bronze dancing girl and terra cotta figures.

5. Disposal of the Dead:

From the evidence, we find three methods were used for the disposal of the dead person:

Firstly, the dead body was buried.

Secondly, after burning the dead body the remains of the dead body were buried under earth.

Thirdly, the dead bodies were left for the wild animals.

Almost all the three methods have been discovered but according to Sir John Marshall, the second method was the most popular.

6. Household Articles:

A number of household articles have been unearthed at Mohenjo-Daro. These articles include cake moulds, dippers, beakers, bowls, dishes, gobies, basins, pans, saucers, etc. These articles are made of stone, shell, ivory, metal etc.

It is note­worthy that during this period the copper and bronze replaced stone models for the manufacture of household objects. In addition certain needles, axis, sans, sickles, knives, fish hooks, chisels have also been discovered.

6. Economic Life of the People of Indus Valley Civilisation:

The various objects recovered at the site of Mohenjo-Daro suggest that it was a prosperous city. The people were fully acquain­ted with agriculture and different types of agriculture. Implements like sickle have been discovered. The common agricultural products of the time were wheat, barley, vegetables, cotton etc.

As the laud of the Indus Valley was quite productive and had sufficient irrigation facilities, the agriculture seems to have been the main stay-of the people. In addition to this people domesticated animals for econo­mic purposes. The main animals which were domesticated by the people of Indus Valley included cow, bulls, buffaloes, sheep, goat, camel etc.

1. Industry:

Mohenjo-Daro was a great industrial centre and a number of industries were practiced there. But probably the most important of these industries was weaving. This is proved by the discovery of a number of spindles and spinning wheels in the various houses of Indus Valley. This suggest that spinning of cotton and wool was quite common.

In addition the people of Indus Valley also knew the practice of dyeing. People also knew the art of using metals like gold, silver, bronze, copper, tin, led etc. and they produced various articles with these metals. But probably the most important industry of the Indus Valley people was pottery.

The earthen pots of those days which have been discovered now can be broadly classified into two categories—hand made and wheel made. The discovery of number of pottery kilns shows that the pots were burnt in kilns. People produced a variety of pots, certain pots were meant for daily use and were plain while other pots were meant for the preservation of valuables and were painted.

2. Trade and Commerce:

The city of Mohenjo-Daro was a great trading centre and both internal and external trade was carried on from there. The international trade was mainly carried on by the land routes in which bullock-carts were used. The people of Mohenjo-Daro had trade relations with the people living in South India, Cen­tral India and North-Western India, is proved by the common use of precious and semi-precious stones.

The trade with foreign coun­tries was mainly carried through water routes. This has been proved by the representation of a boat on a seal. Trade was particularly carried with countries of Western Asia. The chief articles sent to the foreign countries were the clothes.

The presence of certain objects of Indus Valley civilisation in Sumeria suggest that India had trade re­lations with that country also. Scholars have expressed the opinion that Mohenjo-Daro was economically prosperous city only because it was a flourishing centre of trade and commerce.

3. Weights and Measures:

A large number of weights have been discovered from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. These weights differ a great deal in size. While some of the weights are so heavy that they could not be picked up with hands and were used with the help of ropes, while the others were so small that it appears that they were used exclusively by the jewelers.

But the most common weight which was used by the people of Indus Valley is cubical in shape. The people of Indus Valley also knew about the footage system. It appears that the State exercised strict control over weights and measures.

7. Religion of the People of Indus Valley Civilisation:

As regards the religion of the Indus Valley people nothing can be said with certainty because the excavation have not revealed any temples, shrines, altars or cult objects. However, we can make some conjectures, about their religious beliefs from the various seals and objects of sculptures.

This testimony clearly indicate that the people had quite an advanced type of religious faith. At least, one thing, is quite clear that the iconic and an iconic cults existed side by side.

The principal deity of the people was Mother-Goddess, a prototype of the ‘Power’ (which later developed into Shakti). A number of standing and semi-nude female figure, wearing a girdle or band round her loins, with an elaborate head dress and collar, etc. have been discovered.

Mackary has suggested that some sort of oil or incense was burnt before this goddess to please her. Human sacrifices were offered to the Mother-Goddess as is proved by the seal. The animal sacrifices were quite common. In addition to the Mother-Goddess, people worshipped a three-headed-deity which can be recognised as a prototype of historic Shiva.

It has been suggested by certain scholars that the Aryans borrowed Siva cult from the Indus Valley people. The cult of animal worship was also quite common. The animals were not only worshipped but were also regarded as Vahana of the gods viz. bull was regarded as the vehicle of Lord Siva.

At Mohenjo-Daro we get a number of evidence of animal, tree and image worship also. Yoga also played an impor­tant part in the religious practice as is proved by the presence of ‘ring-stones’ and ‘chess-men’.

The image worship was certainly known to the people of Indus Valley as is indicated by the crossed legged figure on a table discovered recently. On this tablet devotees are shown kneeling to the right and left to the figure and the snake be­hind the worshipper.

Water played an important role in the religious beliefs of the people, as is evident from the presence of the Great Bath. Certain scholars have suggested that the Great Bath was the temple of the River God. Certain scholars have also suggested that before perfor­ming the Puja people used to take bath in the Great Bath for their purification.

8. Art and Craft of the People of Indus Valley Civilisation:

The people of the Indus Valley did not make much progress in the field of fine arts and crafts. The various tools, weapons, vessels, houses and public buildings which have been dis­covered lack artistic touch.

We have also not come across any monumental sculpture in any of the remains. Although the people of Indus Valley could not produce works of art on a large scale, they displayed notable artistic achievement at-least in seal engravings, especially those of animals.

The various figurines and amulets also show their art at great height. A few stone images found at Harappa are specimens of an excellent finish and show a high degree of deve­lopment in the art of the sculpture. But probably most outstanding artistic work produced by the Indus Valley people is the bronze ‘dancing girl’.

As one writer has said:

“She is naked but wears bracelets, right up to the shoulder. She is standing in a provocative posture, with one arm on her hip and one lanky leg half-bent. This young woman has an air of lively pertness quite unlike anything in the work of other ancient civilizations. It has been suggested that this ‘dancing girl’ is a representative of a class of temple dancers and prostitutes, such as existed in contemporary Middle Eastern civiliza­tion and were an important feature of later Hindu culture, but this has as yet not been historically established. It is not certain that the girl is a dancer, much less a temple dancer.”

Some of the important crafts which flourished during the Indus Valley civilization period were that of pottery, carpentry, masonry, blacksmith, ivory work, stone cutting etc. The people also knew about spinning as is proved by the presence of large number of spindle wheels.

The Art of Writing and Script:

The inscriptions on the seals discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro prove that the people of Indus Valley knew some sort of writing. Their script has been characterized as pictographic, each sign standing for a particular word or object. It appears the people wrote from left to right but in some cases they first wrote from right to left and then from left to right and so on.

According to Basham, “The Indus script may have been inspired by the earliest Sumerian script which proba­bly antedates it slightly, but it bears little resemblance to an” of the scripts of ancient Middle East.”

Nothing can be said for certainty about the language or the script used by the Indus Valley people, because the script has not so far teen un-deciphered. However, certain scholars regard this script as Sanskrit while other considers it as Dravidian. But R. B. Dikshit is of the view that the people of Indus Valley developed an indepen­dent script of their own.

Certain scholars have tried to advocate that the script of the Indus Valley people was identical to the one used by the people in Egypt, Sumeria and other countries of West Asia. However, nothing can be said for certain about the script of the Indus Valley people except that it was pictographic.

9. Causes for the Destruction of Indus Valley Culture:

In the absence of any written material or historical evidence scholars have made various speculations regarding the causes for the Decline or destruction of Indus Valley civilisation.

Some of the causes advanced by the scholars are as follows:

Firstly, some scholars contend that due to decrease in rainfall, Sindh might have become desert and people might have migrated to some other place.

Secondly, certain scholars believe that the earthquake or cyclone might have been responsible for the decadence of Indus Valley culture.

Thirdly, it is argued that the great wealth of the people of the Valley attracted wild tribes from the hills, who might have brought about the destruction of the Indus Valley civilisation. Certain skele­tons have been unearthed which provide testimony to this view.

It cannot be said for certain as to who were the invaders who destroyed the Indus Valley civilisation. There is also a possibility that the Aryans who were better equipped might have conquered Indus Valley people. In support of this view it is pointed out that Rig-Veda contains a reference to the conflict between the Aryans and non-Aryans and the destruction of the walled cities of non-Aryans.

Fourthly, archaeologists have attributed the decline of the Valley civilisation to the progressive decay of the land due to cultivation, neglect or destruction of the irrigation facilities and the continuous exploitation of land and firewood for brick manufacture.

Finally, scholars believe that the decline of Indus Valley culture might have taken place due to the change of course by Indus liver. As a result of this change the fertile Indus Valley was converted into a tract of sand and people were forced to leave the place. However, all these views are mere conjectures and nothing can be said for certain about the causes of the decline of Indus Valley civilisation.

10. Contribution of the Indus Valley Civilisation:

The Indus Valley civilisation had made very rich contribution to the modern Hindu culture. In fact many of the features found in the Indus Valley civilisation have been adopted by the Hinduism. Siva as a deity is as popular with the people today as it was during the time of the Indus Valley civilisation.

Similarly the cult of Linga and Yoni is also prevalent throughout the country and was taken from the Indus Valley people. The worship of trees and plants is also in vogue in many parts of the country. Certain plants like Tulsi and Pinal are worshipped.

The animal worship which was popular with the Indus Valley people is also found at present. Certain sacred animals, cows and bulls are worshipped even today. Certain animals and birds still regarded as the vehicles or vahana of certain deities.

Therefore, we can conclude that there is an organic relation­ship between the ancient culture of the Indus Valley and Hinduism of today. The religion of the Indus Valley people was the lineal progenitor of Hinduism.

Related Articles:

• Indus Valley Civilization in India | Indian History
• Essay on Indus Civilisation
• History of the Indus Valley Civilization
• Indus Valley Civilisation: Origin, Evolution and Characteristics

Mesopotamian Civilization Essay

Introduction.

The word Mesopotamia is derived from an ancient Greek work, which translates to “(land) between rivers.” The earliest known usage of the term has been recorded to be in the second century when it was used to refer to the land that sits on the east of the Euphrates River in Syria.

This was coined by Anabasis Alexandri. It was not until much later when the name Mesopotamia was used to refer to the whole region that lies between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. Mesopotamia lay in what is today known as Syria, Iraq, and Turkey.

The region can be further divided into two regions. The Northern Mesopotamia is also referred to as Jezirah and is the land that lies between the two rivers from their sources down to Baghdad (Heine and Nissen 45).

The history of the region can be traced to the rise of urban societies throughout the Ubaid period, which occurred around 5300BC. Mesopotamia can also be found in the history of the Ancient Near East beginning in the lower Paleolithic period.

The Ancient Near East is suspected to have collapsed after the arrival of the Achaemenid Empire. This was during the late 6 th century and some researchers say it happened during the Conquest of Mesopotamia by the Arabs. Some of the world’s most advanced states in the ancients times can be found in the Mesopotamian region.

Mesopotamia is famous for being one of the regions where writing was invented and advanced. The other places include the Nile valley and the Yellow River Valley. The greatest cities that were ever built in Mesopotamia include Nippur, Uruk and Babylon.

The other states that lay on the outskirts and territory of Mesopotamia include Ma-aesesblu. Several dynasties were formed in Mesopotamia and included Ur Kingdom, Akkadian Dynasty and the Assyrian Empire. Mesopotamia also saw great leaders emerge from the cities and states.

They included Hammurabi, Sargon and Ashur-Uballit II who was instrumental in setting up the Assyrian Empire (Fiero 110). The history of this great land can be traced through looking at the history of different people who occupied it who included the Sumerians, the Akkadians, the Amorites, the Hitites, the Kassites, the Assyrians, and the Chaldeans (Kramer 75).

The Sumerian: They reigned from 3500-1800 B.C.

The Sumerians are among the first and earliest civilization in Mesopotamia and are suspected to have built the civilization around 3000 BC when they began building large city-states. Besides running the cities, the natives were involved in conquering and controlling the large areas around them.

Some of these city-states included Ur, Lagash, and Eridu. The Sumerians were a warring people and fought among themselves and with other people for control of watering holes. The wars led to people building large city-states which were used later to conquer the smaller ones.

When the Sumerians went to war with the Akkadians they eventually lost control of their city-states, which were now being controlled by the Akkadian empire from, Akkad, a city that would later become Babylon. In 2125, the Sumerians residing in the city of Ur fought the Akkadians and took control of the city-states in the southern Mesopotamia region (Kramer 98).

One the greatest thing from this period is the invention of writing. The early writing was done through use of pictograms and rough sketches of the words they were supposed to represent. They used to do their writing on wet clay using reeds as the writing instrument and this was effective in storage of information.

The Sumerians also invented some of the earliest application of mathematics including abstract mathematics. They are also accredited for being the inventors of astrology, where they tried to learn about the heaven as they sought answers regarding their gods.

The most important creation from the Sumerian is considered to the law. Although not much is known about the Sumerian law scholars are for the opinion that the Code of Hammurabi, which was written by the Babylonian monarch, gives us a peek into how the Sumerian law was like.

The Hammurabi code as used in the law exacts that revenge should be used when solving of cases. This is also known as the lex talionis law that governs that that you should reciprocate therefore, an eye for an eye.

The law also recognized class distinction and people were judged according to the class they came from. The laws set marked a basis for many of the following Semitic conquerors including the Babylonians and the Assyrians.

The Akkadians: they reigned from 2340-2125 B.C.

The history of the Akkadians before they conquered the Sumerians is not well known though they are known to have migrated to the North. In the year 2340, the Akkadian built their empire under the leadership of Sargon. The capital city they built, Akkad, was later renamed to Babylon by those who conquered it later.

The city was used as a commercial hub in the Mediterranean region and was used for close to 200 years for this purpose. The Akkadian empire under the leadership of Sargon was short lived because in 2125, the Sumerians in the city of Ur revolted against his rule and set pace for the renewal of other Sumerian cities (Heine and Nissen 89).

The Amorites reigned from 1800 to1530 B.C.

When the Sumeriam kingdom fell, Mesopotamia witnessed many battles that lasted for almost a century until the Amorites grouped and formed a Kingdom that had a centralized form of government. They based the capital of the government in the city of Babylon and this gives the Amorites the name Old Babylonians (Heine and Nissen 110).

The Amorite dynasty lasted from 1900 to 1600 BC and it is referred to as the Old Babylonian period. In this period, the Old Babylonians believed that the monarch was a god and his word was the law. The all-powerful monarch devised new ways of administering the states and the resources.

He introduced taxation and involuntary military service. The greatest achievement made by the Amorites was centralization, unlike the Sumerian empire that had many autonomous and independent city-states the Old Babylonian was ruled from Babylon and consisted of several cities.

To achieve control and dominance of these cities the monarch took away the power and autonomy of most of them. The Amorites also adopted the code of Hammurabi and most of the crimes in the empire were punishable by death. The Amorites believed in many gods and took Marduk as the most powerful of all the gods (Somervill 156).

The Hitites: they reigned from 1600 to 717 B.C.

The Hitites are not known from where they came from but their empire was spread out across Mesopotamia to Palestine and Syria. The invasion of the Hitites marked the end of the Amorite dynasty and like those before them; they adopted the ways and culture of the natives thus continuing the heritage and tradition of the Sumerians.

The empire is cited to have been greatest between 1600 and 1200 BC and even during the invasion of by the Assyrians in 1300 BC, most of the Hitites cities grew independently until 717 BC when they were finally occupied by the Assyrians and other enemies.

The Hitites were traders and are responsible for spreading Mesopotamian law thought, political structure etc to the rest of the Mediterranean (Somervill 162).

The Kassites: 1530-1170 B.C.

The Hitites were among the most successful Indo-European invaders to conquer Mesopotamia, but their rule did not last long. When the Kassites conquered and controlled Mesopotamia, they renamed the Babylon city to Karanduniash.

They set the capital city of their empire in a new city they built known as Dorkurigalzu. During the reign of the empire, the Mesopotamia region witnessed many wars and this attributed to the short life of the Kassites Empire. The Kassites are referred to as barbarians and savages by the Assyrians who would later conquer them (Somervill 82).

The Assyrians: Their Reign was from 1170 to 612 B.C.

The Assyrians are depicted in most of the history of Mesopotamia as being ruled rather than ruling. They tried to create their own empire under the rule of Shamshi-Adad though this was short lived after the dream was crashed by Hammurabi. Control of the Assyrian cities over the centuries changed hands from the Assyrians and the southern people.

The various times the region was under the rule of the Assyrians includes 1235-1198 BC under Tukulti-Ninurta, 116-1090 BC under Tiglat-Pileser, 883-824 under Ashurnarziparl II and Shalmeneser III who spread the reach of the kingdom to Syria and Babylon.

It is also during the reign of this dynasty that saw the Jewish diaspora when Sargon II (721-705 BC), deported the Jews after conquering Israel. The Assyrian empire was built through wars, invasions, and conquests. The empire is accredited with innovation in the mathematics field. They were also the first to apply longitudes and latitude in geographical maps (Somervill 62).

The Chaldeans: Also Known As Neo Babylon from reigned from 612 to 539 BC

They are the last people who are Semites to rule Mesopotamia after the Assyrian Kingdom fell. After much suffering in the hands of the Assyrians Babylon revolted against them and they burnt down the capital city of the Assyrian empire Nineveh.

The leader of the Babylonians was Nabopolassar and was succeeded by Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC) who protected his empire from being conquered by the Egyptians and Syria. Under Nebuchadnezzar the capital city Babylon was rebuilt and upon its completion, it was the most splendid city in the Middle East.

The whole period the empire was under the Babylonian there were many wars and this resulted to the empire ending in 555 BC after the rule of the empire fell to a king who was loyal to the Assyrians.

He defiled Marduk the Babylonian god and this resulted to the priests welcoming the occupation of the region by Cyrus the Conqueror of Persia. This marked the end of the region dominance by the Semites (Heine and Nissen 120).

Works Cited

Fiero, Gloria. Landmarks in Humanities. Boston : McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2009. Print.

Heine, Peter and Nissen, Hans. From Mesopotamia to Iraq: a concise history . The University of Chicago Press, 2009. Print.

Kramer, Samuel. The Sumerians: their history, culture, and character. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. Print.

Somervill, Barbara. Empires of Ancient Mesopotamia: Great Empires of the Past . New York: Chelsea House, 2010. Print.

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Short Essay on the Town-Planning of Harappan Civilization

The most striking feature of Harappan civilization is its town-planning and sanitation. The basic lay­out of large Harappan cities and towns shows a regular orientation. One finds the streets” and lanes lay out according to a set plan: the main streets running from north to south and the cross-streets and lanes running at right angles to them.

The Harappan cities were the creation of careful forethought and planning, as is indicated by the striking regularity of the divisions, the successfully aligned streets, the orientation of all principal streets to the points of the compass, the correspondence of the houses and public buildings with the orientation of thoroughfares, etc.

Streets varied from 9 feet to 34 feet in width and ran straight sometimes as far as half a mile. They intersected at right angles dividing the city into square or rectangular blocks. Inside this square or oblong, the area is intersected by a number of narrow lanes crowded with houses. At Mohenjodaro each lane had a public well, and most of the houses had a private well and bath. Nowhere was a building allowed to encroach on a public highway as in Sumer.

Important Harappan cities, such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Dholavira and Surkotada, were divided into two parts – a fortified settlement on the high mounds designated as ‘citadels’ and the main residential areas to the west of it called ‘lower town’.

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At Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and Surkotada, there was a ‘citadel’, smaller in area than the ‘lower town’ and invariably located to the west of it. The citadel at Mohenjodaro contained many imposing buildings; all made of kiln-burnt-bricks, for example, the great bath, the college, the granary and the assembly hall.

Harappa was regarded as another capital of the Indus Empire. Here to the north of the citadel, lay the workmen’s quarter, their working platform, and a granary; the entire complex suggesting a high degree of regimentation of their population.

Situated on the left bank of the desiccated river (Ghaggar) Saraswati in Rajasthan, Kalibangan reveals the same pattern of planning as do Mohenjodaro and Harappa, with a ‘citadel’ on the west side and a ‘lower town’ on the east. Thus the citadel complex consisted of two equal and well- defined parts, one to the south containing several large mud-brick platforms meant for specific purposes and the other to the north containing residential houses.

The platforms were separated one from the other, as also from the fortification wall: There was thus regular passages around them; the entire complex on this platform – the well, the bathing-pavements, and the clay-lined ‘fire-altars’ – had a ritualistic purpose. A similar indication is given by another platform, on the top of which were located a well, a ‘fire-altar’, and a rectangular pit lined with kiln-burnt bricks, containing antlers and bones of cattle, which seem to suggest a sacrifice.

The lower town at Kalibangan, while showing the usual grid pattern of main thoroughfares, subsidiary streets, cross streets and lanes, revealed that it too was fortified. Piercing the fortification wall, which was made of mud bricks, there were at least two gateways, one on the northern side leading to the river and another on the west providing access to the citadel. In width the Kalibangan lanes and streets followed a set ratio: thus, while the lanes were 1.8 m wide, the streets, in multiples of the former, were 3.6, 5.4, and 7.2 m wide.

At Surkotada, the settlement pattern of Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan is repeated, but with a difference. The citadel and the lower town were joined, although their relative directional position remained the same, the former to the west and the latter to the east.

As at Kalibangan, both the citadel and the lower town were fortified. Each had its independent entrance, located on the southern side; there was also an intercommunicating gate between the two. In addition to mud bricks, stone rubble, which is easily available in the neighbourhood, was liberally used for construction.

At the recently excavated Harappan city of Dholavira, there existed three principal divisions, instead of the usual two at other sites. The first two divisions-the ‘citadel’ and the ‘middle town’- were fortified with stone masonry. The whole planning resembles the European castle having two well-fortified areas. The fortifications were provided with bastions at frequent intervals as well as gates, narrow or wide.

Banawali (Haryana) was one more fortified town of the Harappan civilization. Although the general principles of Harappan town-planning were followed here too, yet there were some significant departures from the established norms. The town lacked the general conception of a chess-board or gridiron pattern of planning.

Here the roads are neither always straight nor do they necessarily cut each other at right angles and systematic drainage is the exception than the rule. Lastly, the general subdivision of a metropolitan or urban township into two distinctly separate walled establishments does not hold good at Banawali.

Still, the available evidence proves that there is a basic uniformity in the planning of most Harappan townships, including Banawali, irrespective of their spatial dimensions. Another significant aspect of the Harappan town planning was the provision of segregated houses, a modern feature. The lower township was populated by the merchants, artisans and craftsmen, while the priestly and ruling class occupied the citadel.

Harappan Gateways:

Most of the large Harappan towns, described earlier, were encompassed by elaborately designed walls with gateways. The Indus towns possessed no general system of urban fortification, which was often massive, as at Kalibangan, but the gateways were simple entry-points to the towns. At Surkotada and Dholavira these gateways were quite elaborate, while at other towns they were very simple.

Some of the gateways had attached guard rooms, which were invariably very small. The Harappan fortifications were not meant to defend the townships from strong attacks by enemies but were safety measures from robbers and cattle raiders. The fortifications also provided protection against floods and served as the hallmark of social authority over the area they commanded.

Drainage System:

The elaborate drainage system is a unique feature of the Indus Valley civilization, the like of which has not yet been found in any other city of the same antiquity. Below principal streets and many lanes ran a main drain, 1 to 2 ft deep, covered with bricks or stones, and provided with sumps and inspection traps at regular intervals.

Individual house drains, each one with its own sump pit, opened into the street drains, which in their turn opened into the great culverts emptying into the river. All soak pits and drains were occasionally cleared by workmen, and drains were provided with manholes at intervals for cleaning. This elaborate drainage system, like the town-planning, constitutes a notable point of difference with Sumer, where the inhabitants had, in most cases, vertical pottery drainage shafts beneath their courtyards, but these had no outlet.

Altogether, the extent of the drainage system and the quality of the domestic bathing structures and drains are remarkable, and together they give the city a character of its own, particularly indicating some sort of highly effective municipal authority. These features of urbanization and town planning are further reflected in the general lay­out and architecture of the Harappan cities and towns.

The Indus cities were built on pre­arranged plans as it is evident in the case of Mohenjodaro which is very well preserved. There was some kind of municipal or civic authority which controlled the development of the city. The streets ran in straight lines and crossed one another at right angles. The streets aligned from east to west or from north to south.

The most famous street called the ‘First Street’ of Mohenjodaro was 10.5 m wide and would have accommodated seven lanes of wheeled traffic simultaneously. The other roads were 3.6 to 4 m wide, while the lanes and alleys were 1.2 m (4 feet) upwards. The streets and lanes were not paved and must have been full of dirt and dust. The ‘First Street’ was, however, surfaced with broken bricks and potsherds.

Harappa, Mohenjodaro and other major towns were built entirely of bricks. All the bricks, burnt or unburnt, were well proportioned. The sun-dried bricks were used at Mohenjodaro mainly for fillings, but at Harappa it sometimes alternated with burnt-brick course by course and at Kalibangan it seems to have been, if anything, more common, burnt-brick being almost exclusively reserved for wells, drains and bathrooms.

The predominant brick size was 7×14 x 7 that is a ratio of 1: 2: 4. Very large bricks measuring 51 cm or more were used to cover drains. The bricks were made from alluvial soil (i.e., deposit of earth left by flood) and shaped in an open frame mould. Recessing and frogging were still unknown. Kilns of brick have been discovered at a number of places and some of them were probably associated with copper working.

Sometimes the bricks were stocked in large heaps with wood fire in between. The outside of the pile was covered with mud plaster to retain the heat. The bricks were well baked to a light red colour. Wedge-shaped bricks were used in the lining of wells, while for making the bathroom pavements watertight, small bricks (5 * 11 x 24 cm) were employed.

In some bathrooms a sort of plaster of bride dust and lime was reported. L-shaped bricks were preferred for corners. The later occupants sometimes removed the bricks of the old houses and reused them. This was possible owing to the non-sticking nature of the mud.

The buildings so far unearthed in the Harappan cities fall into three main classes: (i) dwelling houses, (ii) larger buildings, (iii) public baths, granaries, etc.

There is much variation in the size of dwelling houses. The smallest have no more than two rooms, while the largest are so vast as to rank almost as palaces. The buildings were mostly plain, without any recession or plasters. Only in the floor of one house at Kalibangan ornamental bricks were used. Probably the verandahs were decorated with wooden screws which have now perished. The ground floor of a small house measured 8 x 9 m and of the large one was double its size.

The houses were separated from one another by about a foot, probably to avoid dispute with the neighbour, and the space in between was bricked up at either end to prevent the thief from scaling the walls. The walls were very thick which suggests that some of the houses were double storeyed- Square holes on the walls remind that the upper floors and roof rested on wooden beams.

The roofs were made of reed matting-and then covered with thick coating mud. The matting was tied to the wooden beams with cords-some impressions of the cord are still noticeable. A few staircases of burnt bricks have, no doubt, been discovered but, as a rule, wooden staircases were used which have mostly perished.

The stairways had high narrow steps, sometimes 38 cm high and 13 cm wide to economize space. The roofs were flat and were enclosed by a parapet. To drain the rainwater, gutters of pottery were made; a number of them have been found at Chanhudaro. No roof tiles have so far been traced.

Ordinarily there was an entrance to the houses from the street side. The houses were quite commodious, divided into well-sized rooms, containing wells and bathrooms, and provided with covered drains, connected with street drains.

The open court was the basic feature of house planning in the Indus valley as in Babylon. The courtyard, which was usually paved with bricks laid flat, was surrounded by chambers, and doors and windows opened into it. The kitchen was placed in a sheltered corner of the courtyard, and the ground floor contained store rooms, well chambers, bath, etc.

Doors, Windows and Stairs: Doors were possibly made of wood and were placed at the ends of the walls, not in the middle. Ordinary houses very rarely had windows in their outer walls. Possibly, perforated lattices were used as windows or ventilators at the top of the wall.

Stairways, made of solid masonry, are found in nearly every house. They were built straight and steep, with treads unusually narrow and high. In some cases, the stairways led to the upper storey’s which contained the bath and the living and sleeping apartments.

The kitchen was small. Fuel was placed on a raised platform. Cooking was mostly done in the courtyards in the open. A round bread oven has been unearthed in which ‘tandoori roties’ were made. Sometimes between the kitchen and the larger room a ‘serving hatch’ (an aperture in the wall) was made, pottery vessels with a hole in the bottom were sunk in the kitchen for waste water. The water gradually ran into the earth.

Bathroom and Toilet:

Every house had its bathroom which was on the side of the street. Latrines, though found rarely, lay between the bathroom and street for the convenient disposal of water. The bathrooms and latrines on the first floor had brick channels.

The walls of the bathroom (generally a square small room) were wainscoted with bricks laid on edges so as to stand three inches above the level of the floor. It had brick pavement sloping towards one corner. Pottery rasps were used to remove thickened cuticle. Pottery pipes, each provided with a spigot so that they fitted together, were used for drainage.

Several dwelling houses, large and small, have been unearthed at Mohenjodaro. There were large Khans (inns), store houses and watch towers. There is an extensive building, on the west of the stupa mound, which measures 69 x 23.5 m. It was a priestly corporation. It contains the Great Bath which was excavated by Sir John Marshall. The whole complex is a single architectural unit with walls sometimes 1.2 m thick. It might have been a college; hence it is named the ‘Collegiate Building’.

Assembly Hall:

On the south of the stupa at Mohenjodaro has been discovered a hall, 8 m sq, with a roof having 20 rectangular brick piers in four rows of five piers each. There are four well- paved aisles which are separated by rows of pillars. The hall was used for some religious assembly. Sir John Marshall compares it with a Buddhist rock- cut-temple of a later date, while Mackay calls it a large market hall with lines of permanent stalls along the aisles.

Storehouse:

At Harappa a building has been discovered measuring 50 * 40 meters with a central passage 7 metres wide. It was a gigantic storehouse for grain, cotton and other merchandise. Some buildings were used as eating-houses; they have depressions in the floors which one held large pottery jars for liquids, grains and other foodstuffs.

A short distance from the ‘First Street’ at Mohenjodaro there was a palatial building of excellent masonry. It has two spacious courtyards, servant quarters and store rooms. It was either a temple or the residence of the Governor.

Population:

The population of the city gradually increased and the big houses were divided into smaller ones. In later stages, civic rules were not strictly followed. The entire city was protected by a ‘city wall’. A small fort has been laid bare in most of the important cities.

Although it is difficult to estimate the population of the Harappan cities, Lambrick has made a case for a figure of 35, 000 at Mohenjodaro, based upon comparison with the population of a city of comparable area in Sind in 1841.

Another estimate by Fairservice suggests a slightly higher figure of 41, 000. He has also suggested a figure of 23,000 for the lower city at Harappa, excluding the citadel. According to Ailchins, Harappa’s population may well have been more or less the same as of Mohenjodaro as both were of the equivalent size. S. R. Rao estimated the population of Lothal to have been around 15,000 whereas according to S. P. Gupta, Lothal may not have accommodated more than 2,000 to 3,000 people during its peak period.

Foundation Deposits:

It was usually believed that Harappans did not use foundation deposits, a system prevalent in Babylonia and Egypt. Such deposits help the excavator to fix the date or history of the building. However, at Kot Diji and Allahdino stone foundations have been unearthed. But nothing is known about the ceremonics associated with the laying of foundation.

Household Articles:

Various household articles have been found at Harappan sites. These were made of pottery, stone, shell, faience, ivory, and metal. Copper and bronze appear to have replaced stone as the material for household implements. Pottery supplied numerous articles for the kitchen including flesh-rubbers, cake-moulds, dippers, beakers, bowls, goblets, dishes, basins, pans, saucers, ladles, heaters, jar stands, storage jars, etc.

Goblets with pointed bases were the customary drinking vessels, which were used only once. Querns, palettes, and jar stands figure among articles of stone. Jar covers and ladles were also made of shell. There were needles, awls, axes, saws, sickles, knives, fish hooks, chisels, etc. made of bronze or copper; the first two also in ivory. Blocks of lead were probably used as net-sinkers.

Technology, Arts and Crafts:

The Harappan craftsmen exhibit a degree of uniformity similar to that found in town-planning and structure plans. Indeed, it is so marked that it is possible to typify each craft with a single set of examples drawn from one site alone. It is not yet established whether this feature was achieved by the centralization of production, linked with efficiency of distribution, or whether by other factors, but in either case if calls for special attention.

Related Articles:

• Essay on Town Planning of Pre-Harappan and Harappan
• What were the Homogeneity and diversity in Indus civilization?
• Short essay on the Origin of Indus Civilization
• Essays about the antiquity and extent of the Harappan civilization and society

• IAS Preparation
• UPSC Preparation Strategy
• Seals Harappan Civilization

Seals of Harappan Civilization

Indus Valley Civilisation produced a lot of artefacts and art forms. Indus Valley art form emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE (i.e. from 2500 BC onwards). Thousands of seals have been discovered by archaeologists from the Harappan sites. Most of the seals were made of steatite, which is a kind of soft stone. A few of them were also made of terracotta, gold, agate, chert, ivory and faience. The standard Harappan seal was square in shape with a 2X2 dimension. It is believed that the seals were used for commercial purposes. A few seals were also carried as amulets, perhaps as a kind of identity card. All the seals have pictures of animals with something written in a pictographic script (which is yet to be deciphered). Chiefly, the animals represented are tigers, elephants, bulls, bison, goats and so on. Most of the seals have been written on both sides. The writings are in the Kharosthi style (right to left). Some seals have mathematical images and must have been used for educational purposes. The most famous seal is the Pashupati Seal of Harappan civilization from Mohenjo Daro. It is a seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with animals around; an elephant and a tiger to the right of the figure and rhino and a buffalo to its left.

Harappan Seals Question for UPSC

Consider the following about Indus Valley Civilization:

• Seals of Indus valley are made of steatite only
• Seals of Indus valley are in Rectangular in shape

Which of the following is correct?

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The Conflicting History of Human Civilization: An Essay

Write a short essay on the conflicting history of human civilization, the conflicting history of human civilization.

When we discuss the History of Human Civilisation, we never stop claiming that the civilization to which we belong is the first and most significant. We are shrouded in the cloak of supremacy and dominion over our own race. Our nature is to desire to be at the centre of the universe. The same ego may be found in humans from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Maya, India, China, Rome, Greece, and Persia. This is true of Abrahamic and Indian religions.  

According to many Greeks, history started in Athens, Sparta, Alexandria, or Constantinople. This notion is refuted by the Chinese, who accept that history began under the reigns of the Yellow Emperor, the Xia, and the Shan Dynasties. They also believe that Western, Muslim, and Indian innovations are pale imitations of Chinese inventions. Hindus assert that all current scientific breakthroughs may be traced back to their civilisation. Ancient sages of the Indian subcontinents devised rockets, missiles, and atomic theories. Muslims, on the other hand, believe that the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran were the first. Turkish, Iranian, and Egyptian nationalists contend that their countries were the fountainhead and keepers of Islam's purity before Muhammad and the Quran. 

The British, French, Germans, Americans, Russians, and Japanese all claim to have accomplished remarkable feats and to have liberated humanity from barbaric and immoral ignorance. The Aztecs are confident that their sacrifice is the cause of the prevention of the universe's dissolution. Even Jews take credit for some of the world's most notable innovations. Even Abraham is credited with inventing yoga poses. Yoga positions were developed from the Hebrew alphabet. Even they believe that the study of sacred writings by Jewish rabbis is the primary reason for the universe's annihilation. In reality, all of these claims are wrong. Such assertions are the result of egoism and racism. Rather, these religions or civilizations were the first to colonise the world and domesticate plants and animals. 

To attribute to them a more recent location and period is nothing more than a gross egotism. Morality, art, spirituality, and creativity are universal human traits that are encoded in our DNA. We dislike criticising our own people, culture, religion, or habits. Instead, we glorify them. We are lacking in modesty. This is the primary source of conflict between human civilizations.

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