solar energy in pakistan research paper

Advertisement

Determinants of renewable energy sources in Pakistan: An overview

• Research Article
• Published: 07 January 2022
• Volume 29 , pages 29183–29201, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Umar Suffian Ahmad 1 ,
• Muhammad Usman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6131-2118 2 , 3 ,
• Saddam Hussain 4 ,
• Atif Jahanger 5 &
• Maira Abrar 6  

2964 Accesses

60 Citations

Explore all metrics

For successive economic growth of any society, sustainable energy plays a pivotal role. Considering this view, developing countries are facing serious challenges of energy at the present time. However, policymakers have outlined numerous policies to satisfy energy demand but still remain incapable to fill the gap between demand and supply. At a halt, 11% of the world population lacks access to different formulae of energy supply and access. Additionally, in different time periods, distinct policies have erupted for the progress of renewable energy. It includes especially those households of the far-flung areas having no gas and electricity availability. However, the basis of this research study is to determine the significant renewable energy source for Pakistan’s economy with the economic benefits such as job creation in energy sector. This research study aims in finding ways to secure energy supplies and achieving economic benefits. The research study concludes by engaging renewable energy technologies with the least operational and externality cost that is the utmost choice in the future. In policy perspective, Pakistani government should take actions in favor of renewable energy and technological innovation that necessitates biomass resources to be tied to non-sustainable prolonged investments.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Development of renewable electricity in ASEAN countries: socio-economic and environmental impacts

Yuventus Effendi & Budy P. Resosudarmo

Energy resource structure and on-going sustainable development policy in Nigeria: a review

Fidelis I. Abam, Bethrand N. Nwankwojike, … Sunday A. Ojomu

Scope of Renewable Energy Intervention for Energy Sufficiency in Nagaland

Data availability.

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Carbon dioxide

Particulate matter

Internal combustion engines

• Renewable energy

Greenhouse gas emissions

Multi-criteria decision analysis

Gross domestic product

Wind energy

• Solar energy

Biomass energy

Small hydro energy

Geothermal energy

Municipal solid wastages energy

Total final energy consumption

• Electric vehicles

Aerospace Center Institute

Energy Sector Management Assistance Program

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Pakistan Meteorological Department

Renewable energy sources

Alternative energy development board

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Asian Development Bank

Oil and Gas Regulation Authority

Liquid petroleum gas

Government of Pakistan

AEDB, (Alternative Energy Development Board) (2018). “Agricultural waste biomass energy potential in Pakistan,” in Proceedings of the International.

Aized T, Shahid M, Bhatti AA, Saleem M, Anandarajah G (2018) Energy security and renewable energy policy analysis of Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 84:155–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.254

Article   Google Scholar  

Anwar A, Chaudhary AR, Malik S, Bassim M (2021b) Modelling the macroeconomic determinants of carbon dioxide emissions in the G-7 countries: the roles of technological innovation and institutional quality improvement. Global Business Review, 09721509211039392. https://doi.org/10.1177/09721509211039392

Anwar A, Siddique M, Dogan E, Sharif A (2021b) The moderating role of renewable and non-renewable energy in environment-income nexus for ASEAN countries: evidence from method of moments quantile regression. Renew Energy 164:956–967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.09.128

Balsalobre-Lorente D, Ibáñez-Luzón L, Usman M, Shahbaz M (2021) The environmental Kuznets curve, based on the economic complexity, and the pollution haven hypothesis in PIIGS countries. Renew Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.10.059

Bilal A, Li X, Zhu N, Sharma R, Jahanger A (2022) Green Technology Innovation, Globalization, and CO2 Emissions: Recent Insights from the OBOR Economies. Sustainability 14(1):236. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010236

Boretti A (2020) Production of hydrogen for export from wind and solar energy, natural gas, and coal in Australia. Int J Hydrogen Energy 45(7):3899–3904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.12.080

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Butt S, Hartmann I, Lenz V (2013) Bioenergy potential and consumption in Pakistan. Biomass Bioenerg 58:379–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2013.08.009

Chien F, Anwar A, Hsu CC, Sharif A, Razzaq A, Sinha A (2021) The role of information and communication technology in encountering environmental degradation: proposing an SDG framework for the BRICS countries. Technol Soc 65:101587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101587

Child M, Koskinen O, Linnanen L, Breyer C (2018) Sustainability guardrails for energy scenarios of the global energy transition. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 91:321–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.079

Dagar V, Khan MK, Alvarado R, Usman M, Zakari A, Rehman A, ..., Tillaguango B (2021) Variations in technical efficiency of farmers with distinct land size across agro-climatic zones: evidence from India. J Clean Prod 315:128109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128109

Duffie JA, BeckmanWA, Blair N (2020) Solar engineering of thermal processes, photovoltaics and wind. John Wiley & Sons. https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=4vXPDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

Geological Survey of Pakistan (2015) “Geological survey of Pakistan,” 2015

Global Solar Atlas (2019) Global Solar Atlas 2.0, Solar resource maps of Pakistan. https://solargis.com/maps-and-gis-data/download/pakistan. (Accessed: 12-August-2021)

Gondal IA, Masood SA, Khan R (2018) Green hydrogen production potential for developing a hydrogen economy in Pakistan. Int J Hydrogen Energy 43(12):6011–6039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.01.113

Intisar RA, Yaseen MR, Kousar R, Usman M, Makhdum MSA (2020) Impact of trade openness and human capital on economic growth: a comparative investigation of Asian countries. Sustainability 12(7):2930. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072930

IRENA (2018) “Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2018

Ivy J (2004) Summary of electrolytic hydrogen production: milestone completion report (No. NREL/MP-560–36734). National Renewable Energy Lab., Golden, CO (US)

Jahanger A, Usman M, Ahmad P (2021b) A step towards sustainable path: the effect of globalization on China’s carbon productivity from panel threshold approach. Environ Sci Pollut Res 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16317-9 .

Jahanger, A., Usman, M., & Balsalobre-Lorente, D. (2021a). Autocracy, democracy, globalization, and environmental pollution in developing world: fresh evidence from STIRPAT model. Journal of Public Affairs, e2753. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2753

Johansson PO, Kriström B (2019) Welfare evaluation of subsidies to renewable energy in general equilibrium: theory and application. Energy Economics 83:144–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2019.06.024

Jun W, Mughal N, Zhao J, Shabbir MS, Niedbała G, Jain V, Anwar A (2021) Does globalization matter for environmental degradation? Nexus among energy consumption, economic growth, and carbon dioxide emission. Energy Policy 153(3):112230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112230

Kamal M, Usman M, Jahanger A, Balsalobre-Lorente D (2021) Revisiting the role of fiscal policy, financial development, and foreign direct investment in reducing environmental pollution during globalization mode: evidence from linear and nonlinear panel data approaches. Energies 14(21):6968. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14216968

Kamran M (2018) Current status and future success of renewable energy in Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 82:609–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.049

Khalid K, Usman M, Mehdi MA (2021) The determinants of environmental quality in the SAARC region: a spatial heterogeneous panel data approach. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(6):6422–6436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10896-9

Khan AA, Ahmed Z, Siddiqui MA (2012) Issues with solid waste management in South Asian countries: a situational analysis of Pakistan. Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health 1(2):129–131

Google Scholar  

Korai MS, Mahar RB, Uqaili MA (2017) The feasibility of municipal solid waste for energy generation and its existing management practices in Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 72:338–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.051

Krmac E, Djordjević B (2019) A new DEA model for evaluation of supply chains: a case of selection and evaluation of environmental efficiency of suppliers. Symmetry 11(4):565. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym11040565

Mohsin M, Rasheed AK, Saidur R (2018) Economic viability and production capacity of wind generated renewable hydrogen. Int J Hydrogen Energy 43(5):2621–2630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.12.113

Nejat P, Jomehzadeh F, Taheri MM, Gohari M, Majid MZA (2015) A global review of energy consumption, CO2 emissions and policy in the residential sector (with an overview of the top ten CO2 emitting countries). Renew Sustain Energy Rev 43:843–862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.066

Qader MR, Khan S, Kamal M, Usman M, Haseeb M (2021) Forecasting carbon emissions due to electricity power generation in Bahrain. Environ Sci Pollut Res 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16960-2

Qayyum M, Ali M, Nizamani MM, Li S, Yu Y, Jahanger A (2021) Nexus between financial development, renewable energy consumption, technological innovations and CO2 emissions: the case of India. Energies 14(15):4505. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154505

Ramzan M, Raza SA, Usman M, Sharma GD, Iqbal HA (2021) Environmental cost of non-renewable energy and economic progress: do ICT and financial development mitigate some burden?. J Clean Prod 130066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.130066

Ramzan M, Iqbal HA, Usman M, Ozturk I (2022) Environmental pollution and agricultural productivity in Pakistan: new insights from ARDL and wavelet coherence approaches. Environ Sci Pollut Res 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17850-3

Raza MY, Wasim M, Sarwar MS (2020) Development of renewable energy technologies in rural areas of Pakistan. Energy Sources, Part a: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects 42(6):740–760. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2019.1588428

Rehman A, Chandio AA, Hussain I, Jingdong L (2019) Fertilizer consumption, water availability and credit distribution: major factors affecting agricultural productivity in Pakistan. J Saudi Soc Agric Sci 18(3):269–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2017.08.002

Ren J, Ren X (2018) Sustainability ranking of energy storage technologies under uncertainties. J Clean Prod 170:1387–1398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.229

Renewable Energy (2007) “Renewable energy road map. Renewable energies in the 21st century

Salem S, Arshed N, Anwar A, Iqbal M, Sattar N (2021) Renewable energy consumption and carbon emissions—testing nonlinearity for highly carbon emitting countries. Sustainability 13(21):11930. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111930

Shah SAA, Solangi YA (2019) A sustainable solution for electricity crisis in Pakistan: opportunities, barriers, and policy implications for 100% renewable energy. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(29):29687–29703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06102-0

Solangi YA, Tan Q, Mirjat NH, Valasai GD, Khan MWA, Ikram M (2019) An integrated Delphi-AHP and fuzzy TOPSIS approach toward ranking and selection of renewable energy resources in Pakistan. Processes 7(2):118. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr7020118

Stökler S, Schillings C, Kraas B (2016) Solar resource assessment study for Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 58:1184–1188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.298

Sun Y, Anwar A, Razzaq A, Liang X, Siddique M (2021) Asymmetric role of renewable energy, green innovation, and globalization in deriving environmental sustainability: evidence from top-10 polluted countries. Renewable Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.12.038

Usman M, Hammar N (2021) Dynamic relationship between technological innovations, financial development, renewable energy, and ecological footprint: fresh insights based on the STIRPAT model for Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(12):15519–15536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11640-z

Usman M, Jahanger A (2021) Heterogeneous effects of remittances and institutional quality in reducing environmental deficit in the presence of EKC hypothesis: a global study with the application of panel quantile regression. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13216-x

Usman M, Makhdum MSA (2021) What abates ecological footprint in BRICS-T region? Exploring the influence of renewable energy, non-renewable energy, agriculture, forest area and financial development. Renewable Energy 179:12–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.07.014

Usman M, Kousar R, Makhdum MSA (2020a) The role of financial development, tourism, and energy utilization in environmental deficit: evidence from 20 highest emitting economies. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(34):42980–42995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10197-1

Usman M, Kousar R, Yaseen MR, Makhdum MSA (2020b) An empirical nexus between economic growth, energy utilization, trade policy, and ecological footprint: a continent-wise comparison in upper-middle-income countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(31):38995–39018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09772-3

Usman M, Makhdum MSA, Kousar R (2020c) Does financial inclusion, renewable and non-renewable energy utilization accelerate ecological footprints and economic growth? Fresh evidence from 15 highest emitting countries. Sustain Cities Soc 65:102590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102590

Usman M, Yaseen MR, Kousar R, Makhdum MSA (2021a) Modeling financial development, tourism, energy consumption, and environmental quality: is there any discrepancy between developing and developed countries?. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14837-y

Usman M, Jahanger A, Makhdum MSA, Balsalobre-Lorente D, Bashir A (2021b) How do financial development, energy consumption, natural resources, and globalization affect Arctic countries’ economic growth and environmental quality? An advanced panel data simulation. Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122515

Usman M, Khalid K, Mehdi MA (2021c) What determines environmental deficit in Asia? Embossing the role of renewable and non-renewable energy utilization. Renew Energy 168:1165–1176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.01.012

Usman M, Anwar S, Yaseen MR, Makhdum MSA, Kousar R, Jahanger A (2021d) Unveiling the dynamic relationship between agriculture value addition, energy utilization, tourism and environmental degradation in South Asia. Journal of Public Affairs, e2712. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2712

Usman M, Kousar R, Makhdum MSA, Yaseen MR, Nadeem AM (2022a) Do financial development, economic growth, energy consumption, and trade openness contribute to increase carbon emission in Pakistan? An insight based on ARDL bound testing approach. Environ Dev Sustain 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-02062-z

Usman M, Balsalobre-Lorente D, Jahanger A, Ahmad P (2022b) Pollution concern during globalization mode in financially resource-rich countries: do financial development, natural resources, and renewable energy consumption matter? Renew Energy.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.10.067

Wang Y, Shah SAA, Zhou P (2018) City-level environmental performance in China. Energy Ecol Environ 3(3):149–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-018-0088-9

World Bank (2015) World development indicators 2015. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0163-1

Xu L, Wang Y, Solangi YA, Zameer H, Shah SAA (2019) Off-grid solar PV power generation system in Sindh, Pakistan: a techno-economic feasibility analysis. Processes 7(5):308. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr7050308

Yang B, Usman M (2021) Do industrialization, economic growth and globalization processes influence the ecological footprint and healthcare expenditures? Fresh insights based on the STIRPAT model for countries with the highest healthcare expenditures. Sustain Prod Consump 28:893–910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2021.07.020

Yang B, Jahanger A, Khan MA (2020) Does the inflow of remittances and energy consumption increase CO 2 emissions in the era of globalization? A global perspective. Air Qual Atmos Health 13(11):1313–1328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00885-9

Yang B, Jahanger A, Usman M, Khan MA (2021) The dynamic linkage between globalization, financial development, energy utilization, and environmental sustainability in GCC countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(13):16568–16588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11576-4

Yu D (2014) Hydrogen production technologies evaluation based on interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy multiattribute decision making method. J Appl Math 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/751249

Zaigham NA, Nayyar ZA (2010) Renewable hot dry rock geothermal energy source and its potential in Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 14(3):1124–1129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.10.002

Zhang L, Yang B, Jahanger A (2021) The role of remittance inflow and renewable and non-renewable energy consumption in the environment: accounting ecological footprint indicator for top remittance-receiving countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16545-z

Zimmermann HJ (2011) Fuzzy set theory—and its applications. Springer Science & Business Media. https://books.google.com.pk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HVHtCAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=Zimmermann+(2011).+H.J,+Fuzzy+Set+Theory%E2%80%94and+Its+Applications.+2011.&ots=sgXfVeWqc1&sig=KxdrLEzRu0BXAn2WuZVmOt3XrL0#v=onepage&q&f=false

Zuberi MJS, Ali SF (2015) Greenhouse effect reduction by recovering energy from waste landfills in Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 44:117–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.028

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author is indebted to co-authors as well as the Home gardening, Urban jungle and Birds rehabilitation (HUB) Initiative team members for valuable suggestions and providing the author with important notes relevant to the subjects. Global energy transformation, a road map to 2050, especially the portion relevant to climate change expressed in this paper, is entirely endeavored of the HUB Initiative team.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Economics, Ghazi University, D G Khan, Pakistan

Umar Suffian Ahmad

Institute for Region and Urban-Rural Development, and Center for Industrial Development and Regional Competitiveness, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, Hubei Province, China

Muhammad Usman

Department of Economics, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan

Science and Technology, Federal Urdu University of Arts, Islamabad, Pakistan

Saddam Hussain

School of Economics, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, Hainan, China

Atif Jahanger

Business School Konkuk University, Seoul, 100011, South Korea

Maira Abrar

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Umar Suffian Ahmad, conceptualization, introduction, methodology, and writing—original draft preparation. Muhammad Usman, conceptualization, supervision, validation, visualization, interpretation, formal analysis, project administration, revised draft, writing—original draft preparation, and review and editing. Saddam Hussain, formal analysis, conclusion, and review and editing. Atif Jahanger, interpretation, validation, visualization, and interpreted results. Maira Abrar, finalizes the manuscript and review and editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Muhammad Usman .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Roula Inglesi-Lotz

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Ahmad, U.S., Usman, M., Hussain, S. et al. Determinants of renewable energy sources in Pakistan: An overview. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29 , 29183–29201 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18502-w

Download citation

Received : 11 November 2021

Accepted : 31 December 2021

Published : 07 January 2022

Issue Date : April 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18502-w

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Employment in energy sector
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Solar Energy: Challenges and opportunities in Pakistan

Ieee account.

• Change Username/Password
• Update Address

Purchase Details

• Payment Options
• Order History
• View Purchased Documents

Profile Information

• Communications Preferences
• Profession and Education
• Technical Interests
• US & Canada: +1 800 678 4333
• Worldwide: +1 732 981 0060
• Contact & Support
• About IEEE Xplore
• Accessibility
• Terms of Use
• Nondiscrimination Policy
• Privacy & Opting Out of Cookies

A not-for-profit organization, IEEE is the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity. © Copyright 2024 IEEE - All rights reserved. Use of this web site signifies your agreement to the terms and conditions.

• Open access
• Published: 22 June 2016

Renewable energy deployment to combat energy crisis in Pakistan

• Abdul Raheem 1 , 2 ,
• Sikandar Ali Abbasi 2 ,
• Asif Memon 3 ,
• Saleem R. Samo 3 ,
• Y. H. Taufiq-Yap 4 ,
• Michael K. Danquah 5 &
• Razif Harun 1  

Energy, Sustainability and Society volume  6 , Article number:  16 ( 2016 ) Cite this article

55k Accesses

75 Citations

6 Altmetric

Metrics details

The huge deficiency of electricity due to heavy reliance on imported fuels has become a significant impediment to socio-economic development in Pakistan. This scenario creates an increase in local fuel prices and limits potentials in the establishment of new industrial zones. The current gap between the demand and production of electricity in Pakistan is approximately 5000–8000 MW with a constant increase of 6–8 % per annum. Hence, more sustainable and renewable energy sources are required to overcome the existing problem. Pakistan is endowed with potential renewable energy resources such as wind, solar, hydro, and biomass. These resources have the capacity to be major contributors to future energy production matrix, climate change reduction efforts, and the sustainable energy development of the country. This article reviews the availability of alternative energy resources in Pakistan and associated potentials for full-scale development of sustainable energy systems. It also discusses exploitation strategies to increase the distribution of indigenous energy resources.

Pakistan is one of the most populated countries in the southern Asia region, contributing approximately 2.56 % of the total global population. The country is expected to serve as an international trade and energy corridor in the near future due to its strategic location [ 1 , 2 ]. Hence, among other social, economic, and political factors, Pakistan needs to ensure its energy supplies meet the direct and indirect demands of the country not only for maintaining economic growth but also for supporting regional and global economic initiatives. The vast deficit between demand and supply of electricity recorded in 2009–2010 was 26.82 %. This figure has increased up to 50 % during the summer of 2012 [ 1 ]. A routine problem is that electricity supply cannot be maintained during peak hours, resulting in frequent power shutdown (load shedding) of 13–14 h in urban areas, and 16–19 h in rural areas. As a result, many entrepreneurs and industrialists have invested and moved their businesses to neighboring countries [ 3 ]. Hence, short- and long-term measures are required to solve the existing energy problems. The present state of Pakistan’s energy resources is summarized (Fig.  1 ). It can be seen that indigenous energy sources mainly consist of oil (38 %), hydro (32 %), natural gas (27 %), and coal (3 %) [ 1 ].

Distribution of indigenous energy sources available in Pakistan [ 1 ]

Sustainable supply of energy to meet the current and future domestic and industrial demands in Pakistan will rely on full-scale generation from the different energy sources in order to make significant contributions to the supply chain. Current energy generation has a huge financial burden on the country’s economy due to the importation of oil to support existing mix, and the situation is heightened by the rapid declination of domestic gas assets. According to the Board of Investment Pakistan, the installed power capacity is 22,797 MW. However, current generation stands between 12,000 and 13,000 MW per day, against peak a demand of 17,000 to 21,000 MW [ 4 ]. Figure  2 shows the average annual demand of electricity, which is increasing at a constant rate of 8–10 % annually.

Electricity demand and supply trends for Pakistan from 2010 to 2030 [ 5 , 7 ]

The acute shortfall and burden imposed by oil importation creates a huge economic constraint for the country [ 5 , 6 ]. Various efforts have been made by different governmental organizations and international bodies such as Asian Development Bank (ADB) and World Bank to stabilize the energy situation. They share similar objectives to enhance fossil fuel production for electricity generation. Unfortunately, governmental efforts to address concerns relating to energy security, climate change, and sustainable development have been minimal. Whilst little effort is put into increasing domestic fossil fuel (gas, coal, and oil) based electricity, the search for alternative fuel sources which are more sustainable and renewable should be a major national priority. Renewable energy in Pakistan was reported to be <1 % in 2010. However, Pakistani government has targeted to achieve 5 % of renewable energy by 2030 [ 7 , 8 ]. The article reports on the potential and exploration of renewable energy as a major contributor to future sustainable energy pursuits in Pakistan.

Renewable energy potential in Pakistan

Pakistan has four main renewable energy sources. These are wind, solar, hydro, and biomass. These resources have a significant potential to provide solutions to the long-lasting energy crisis in Pakistan [ 8 ]. Hence, a steady development of these resources is a crucial step to overcome the existing energy challenges in an environmental friendly manner. Among the different renewable energy sources, solar energy has received the most research attention [ 9 – 16 ]. Sheikh [ 13 ], for instance, evaluated the potential of solar photovoltaic (PV) power generation capacity with 14 % efficient PV panels over area of 100 km 2 , which is 0.01 % of total land area of the country. From the results, it was concluded that covering 100 km 2 area of land with PV panels can produce energy equivalent to 30 million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE) in Pakistan. Gondal and Sahir [ 15 ], considered 0.45 % of urban regions for PV installations to estimate the total energy generation capacity based on solar PV system. A survey conducted by Hasnain and Gibbs [ 16 ] showed that the interior part of the county consists of mainly agricultural land, which is appropriate for the development of biomass feedstock, whereas northern and southern corridors have a significant potential for hydro, wind, and solar. This finding is useful as it might possibly improve the diverse energy supply market and decrease the dependency on imported fuels and environmental pollution. Figure  3 shows the entire spectrum and end-uses of alternative sources which are the best options to meet basic requirements of energy needs, with various employment openings, local manufacturing.

End-uses of renewable energy resources

It has been projected that Pakistan will contribute up to 10,000 MW to its energy mix through renewable energy resources by 2030 [ 17 ]. Therefore, timely and appropriate progress to exploit the potential of different natural energy resources will have a tremendously influence in meeting future projections.

Wind energy

The development and use of alternative energy resources have been a major endeavor since 2003. The Pakistani government has set up a recognized body [ 17 ], to coordinate efforts in this area. This organization plays an important role in narrowing the gap between demand and supply of electricity by promoting the utilization of renewable energy. Pakistan’s Meteorological Department (PMD) has collaborated with the National Renewable Energy Laboratories (NREL), USA, to conduct a wind speed survey of 46 different locations in Sindh and Baluchistan provinces with height ranging from 10–30 m. The data from the feasibility studies were analyzed by Alternative Energy Development Board Pakistan (AEDB) [ 12 , 13 ], and it was found that a vast area of 9750 km 2 with a high wind speed was discovered and zoned as “Gharo-Corridor” as shown in Fig.  4 . The area has a significant potential to produce around 50,000 MW of electricity. However, due to the occurrence of other economic activities, only 25 % of the area can be utilized with a production potential of 11,000 MW [ 12 , 18 ].

Wind mapping stations in Sindh with a potential to produce 11,000 MW at a height of 50 m [ 12 ]

Moreover, significant wind speeds were identified in the costal part of Baluchistan, particularly in Swat and some of the Northern areas. Out of 42 examined sites, seven have a capacity factor ranging from 10 to 18 % and are appropriate for Bonus wind turbines (Model 600/44 MK IV) [ 19 ]. However, the potential of these sites is still being explored although the capacity is not enough to contribute to the national grid. NREL, together with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), has identified a total gross wind resource of 346,000 MW in Pakistan, where approximately 120,000 MW can be technically exploited to power the national gird [ 20 ]. Recently, a wind project with 500 MW capacities has been completed in 2013 [ 17 ]. In addition, more than 18 wind turbine companies are approaching AEDB to install 3000 MW wind project [ 21 ]. At the moment, the first phase of the Zorlu wind project generating 6 MW is in operation whilst a 56 MW plant is yet to be installed. Different wind power projects with a cumulative capacity of approximately 964 MW are at different phases of construction and would be completed in the near future. The Pakistan Council of Renewable Energy Technologies (PCRET) has installed nearly 150 small wind turbines ranging between 0.49 and 9 kW with a cumulative power output of 160 kW at the different areas of Sindh and Baluchistan, powering 1569 homes including 9 security check posts [ 22 ]. Also, thousands of small wind turbines with a capacity of 300–1000 W have been installed by different Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), electrifying rural areas of Sindh province. Most recently, three villages of Baluchistan have been powered using a wind/PV hybrid system [ 1 ]. With further investment and development, wind energy could become a major component of sustainable energy future in Pakistan.

Solar energy

Solar is believed to be one of the most endowed renewable energy sources. It is reliable and capable of producing substantial amount of energy without posing adverse impacts on the environment. Generally, PV cell and solar thermal conversion systems are used to capture sun energy for various applications in rural and urban areas. PV technology is capable of converting direct sun radiation into electricity (Fig.  5 ). Solar thermal technology uses thermal solar collectors to capture energy from the sun to heat up water to steam for electricity generation [ 23 , 24 ].

A schematic drawing of the mechanism of operation of solar photovoltaic systems

Pakistan with a land area of 796,096 km 2 is located between longitudes 62° and 75° east and latitudes 24° and 37° north [ 25 ]. This unique geographical position and climate conditions is advantageous for the exploitation of solar energy. Almost every part of the country receives 8–10 h day −1 high solar radiations with more than 300 sunshine days in a year [ 14 , 26 ]. Figure  6 illustrates the range of solar radiation levels per month in the major cities of Pakistan.

Minimum and maximum range of solar radiations in Pakistan [ 27 ]

The prospects of solar energy in Pakistan have also been widely investigated by many researchers [ 27 – 33 ]. Adnan et al. [ 30 ] analyzed the magnitude of solar radiation data for 58 different PMD stations, and the data showed that over 95 % of the total area of Pakistan receives solar radiations of 5–7 kWh m −2  day −1 . Ahmed et al. [ 31 ] and Ahmed et al. [ 32 ] used different methods to estimate and characterize direct or diffused solar radiations in many parts of the country. Khalil and Zaidi [ 33 ] conducted the survey of wind speed and intensity of solar radiations at different locations of country. Furthermore, the data was then compared among wind turbine (1 kVA), solar PV (1 kVA), and gasoline generator (1 kVA) (Table  1 ). The comparison showed that the wind and solar energy are most appropriate alternative resources. The study also found that the 1 kW of solar PV can produce 0.23 kW of electricity, which can significantly contribute to reduce load shedding in Pakistan. Hasanain and Gibbs [ 16 ] detailed out the significance of solar energy in rural areas of the country.

AEDB has estimated that Pakistan has about 2,900,000 MW (2900 GW) of solar power potential [ 18 ]. The main obstacles to full-scale exploitation include (1) high cost, (2) lack of technology, (3) socio-political behaviors, and (4) governmental policy conflicts.

In 2003, the chief minister of Punjab launched the “UJAALA” program, where 30 W PV panels were distributed among university students throughout the country. This program aimed at encouraging people to utilize alternative energy and cut-down their dependency on the national gird. Another project introduced by the government was the “Quaid-e-Azam solar park.” This solar park is built to produce 2000 MW of electricity by 2015 [ 23 ]. It is projected that the largest solar photovoltaic electricity production will be established after 2020 [ 1 ]. PCRET has set up approximately 300 solar PV units of 100 kW capacities to power 500 homes, colleges and mosques, including street lighting [ 34 ]. AEDB has powered 3000 families by installing 200 kW PV system together with 80 W solar charged lighting systems [ 28 ]. Many NGOs are effectively working to install PV units in several parts of the country. The solar street lamps and solar charging lights for households are particularly of major interest. Pakistan has a target of electrifying approximately 40,000 villages via solar PV by 2015 [ 28 ].

Solar water heating

The solar water heating technology has been extensively applied in Pakistan with an annual growth rate of 245 % during the last four years [ 35 , 36 ]. AEDB has started a Consumer Confidence Building Program (CCBP) to promote solar water heating system in Pakistan. The main objective of this program is to create awareness and build-up consumer confidence thorough various incentives. At present, there are 55 companies importing solar geysers, including 25 local manufactures [ 37 ]. The main factors contributing to growth pattern are heftiness, affordability, technological reliability and increasing scarcity of natural gas. It is estimated that approximately 9500 of solar water heating units will be operated in the country by 2015, and projected to be 24,000 units by 2020 without any governmental subsidies [ 38 ]. According to Han et al. [ 39 ], utilizing solar water heating technology instead of natural gas or conventional sources has significant advantages on economic, environmental, and social sustainability.

Solar water desalination

Solar desalination is a new and cost-effective technology to remove salt and other minerals from water for daily life applications. The technology desalinates brackish water or seawater either using solar distillation or an indirect method whilst converting the solar energy into heat or electricity [ 39 – 41 ]. It is an environmentally advantageous and cost-effective technology; hence, it is much patronized by communities in rural regions [ 41 ]. Arjunan et al. [ 42 ] described the design layout and functioning principles of an installed solar water desalination unit in Awania, India. They reported that the distillation of brackish water using solar energy is an effective way to provide potable water for rural communities in arid and semi-arid zones. This makes it a potential technology to be employed in different areas of Pakistan where fresh water availability is limited such as Thar deserts and Cholistan regions. Most of the regions in the country have brackish subsoil water which is not appropriate for human and other living inhabitants [ 33 ]; hence, desalination by means of solar energy will be beneficial and sustainable in providing portable water for the rural areas of Sindh, Baluchistan, and Punjab [ 41 ] The government of Balochistan has installed two solar plants in Gawadar, comprising 240 stills and each plant has the capacity to treat up to 6000 g day −1 of sea water. Projects to develop the same solar plant system have been initiated in different areas of Balochistan and other province of Pakistan [ 41 ]. The Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS) has fabricated a single basin solar still with an optimized efficiency of 30.62 %, being comparable to stills used globally.

Industrial solar water heating

Apart from domestic use, solar water heating system is also used in various commercial and industrial applications including laundries, hotels, food preparation and storage, and general processing and manufacturing. In the textile industry for example, water heating for dyeing, finishing, drying, and curing consumes approximately 65 % of the total energy [ 14 ]. Processing and manufacturing industries also require water heating for various operations such as sterilization, distillation, evaporation, and polymerization. Solar thermal technology is one of the most effective solutions to achieve the desired temperature and productivity for the aforementioned applications [ 42 ]. Pakistan is the fourth largest producer of cotton in the world; hence, this technology will contribute significantly to meet the water heating requirements of the cotton industry sustainably. As a major contributor to the economy of Pakistan, the textile industry is facing serious challenges in maintaining the global environmental standards. The industry is energy intensive; thus, high energy costs and persistent shortages in demand and supply impact negatively on the production and competitiveness of the industry. Full-scale operation of industrial solar water heating systems would contribute significantly to resolved energy problems faced by the industry. Energy is a crucial commodity on the international market, and its production and competitiveness are the functioning indicators [ 43 , 44 ]. Water heating is an energy-intensive process and conventionally relies on the use of fossil fuels energy. Solar water heating technology can benefit textile industries in Pakistan by providing an economical choice and a potential alternative to conventional fossil-based routes. Mass implementation of solar water heating systems will also reduce the environmental impacts associated with fossil fuels significantly. Muneer et al. [ 45 ] reported a payback period of 6 years for solar water heating systems incorporated into Pakistan textiles industries. Muneer et al. [ 46 ] also examined the prospect of solar water heating system on Turkish textile industry and estimated a payback period of ~5 years.

In view of the existing enormous potential, solar energy offers a promising and useful option for Pakistan in various commercial applications. The government needs to consider this technology as an important source of energy and promote massive and rapid investments to meet the supply of power in rural regions such as Balochistan, Thar Desert, and Cholistan, where grid connectivity is not accessible.

Biomass is typically derived from plants, animals, and agricultural wastes. It has been in used for various applications such as cooking, heat, fuel, and electricity in rural areas. Broadly, biomass is classified into four major groups: (i) agricultural waste, (ii) municipal solid waste, (iii) animal residue, and (iv) forest residue [ 47 ]. However, plants and animals are the main sources of biomass production. Almost 220 billion tons of biomass is produced globally each year from these sources, which is capable of producing substantial amount of energy without releasing high concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and other greenhouse gasses compared to fossil fuels [ 48 , 49 ]. Technically, they can be converted into different products either using thermochemical or biochemical methods. However, each of the conversion methods has its own pros and cons and process conditions such as characteristics of biomass feedstock and the desired end product [ 50 ]. Biomass could be appropriate and effective for commercial exploitation to generate electricity throughout world, due to its characteristics for high value fuel products [ 50 ].

Pakistan is an agricultural country where most of its population (around 70 %) lives in remote areas [ 2 , 51 ]. Hence, the availability of biomass is very extensive particularly from agriculture and livestock sources, including crop residues and waste from animals. These wastes amount to 50,000 tons day −1 of solid waste, 225,000 tons day −1 of agricultural residue, and approximately 1 million tons day −1 of manure [ 26 , 52 , 53 ]. Due to limited access to grid electricity and advanced technologies in these remote areas, most people are powered using traditional practices to fulfill their energy needs [ 1 , 2 ]. The sugar cane production industries produces bagasse as residue and this can be used to produce electricity to power sugar mills. Pakistan is the fifth largest country worldwide with sugarcane producing capacity of over 87,240,100 million tons. AEDB and NREL, USA, have estimated 1800 MW of power generation from sugarcane bagasse [ 17 , 54 , 55 ]. In the view of present energy scenario, the government has authorized sugar mill owners to sell their surplus power to the national grid station under the limits of 700 MW [ 50 ]. Moreover, urban areas produce large quantities of municipal waste which could possibly be digested to produce biogas, a renewable fuel further used to produce green electricity, heat, or as vehicle fuel and the digested substrate, commonly named digestate, and used as fertilizer in agriculture [ 13 , 52 , 56 ]. Figure  7 is added to explain working principles of biogas plant and applications of the produced products from the process.

Working principles of biogas plant and products application [ 56 ]

Biogas technology is highly advanced in China and India. More than 6 million domestic plants and nearly 950 small and medium units were installed in China by 2007, with an estimated production of 2 million m 3 of clean burning fuel to meet 5 % of its total gas energy needs [ 57 ]. A domestic biogas plant was launched in Tibet, China to explore the potential of cattle manure as feedstock, and this has been successfully implemented to improve the social and economic conditions of the region [ 58 ]. Efforts have been made to implement biogas technology in Pakistan. The first biogas plant was constructed in 1959 to process farmyard manure (FYM) in Sindh [ 59 ]. However, only in 1974 did the government of Pakistan start putting efforts into the implementation of residential biogas technology as an alternative source of energy. Plants with fixed dome, portable gas digesters, and small tanks/bags are the three most frequently used designs for biogas operating plants in Pakistan [ 60 ]. Currently, Pakistan has more than 5000 installed biogas plants to meet its domestic fuel needs. These plants are efficiently producing up to 2.5 million m 3 of biogas annually together with 4 million kg year −1 of bio-fertilizer [ 1 , 61 ]. The total estimated nationwide biogas potential is about 13–15 million m 3 day −1 [ 48 , 62 ]. There are opportunities to utilize biomass to produce biogas in the country’s remote regions through community biogas plant networks. Almost 57 million animals exist in Pakistan with an annual growth rate of 10 % [ 60 , 61 ]. The number is capable of producing enough biomass to generate over 12 million m 3 day −1 of biogas, which is sufficient to meet the energy needs of more than 28 million peoples in the rural areas, along with approximately 21 million tons day −1 of bio-fertilizer [ 47 , 63 ]. The collaboration between the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources and the Directorate General of New and Renewable Resources (DGNRER) enabled the installation of more than 4000 biogas plants by 1974 to 1987. The plants were intended to produce about 3000 to 5000 ft 3 day −1 of biogas for lighting and cooking applications [ 63 ]. The scheme was divided into three stages. In stage 1, around 100 Chinese fixed-doom type plants were installed by DGNRER for demonstration purposes on grant-basis. In stage 2, the budget expenses for sponsorship was shared between the recipients and government, and in stage 3, all the economic sponsorships were withdrawn by the government though free technical supports continued but not reliable. However, the scheme failed due to the following reasons: (i) withdrawal of financial sponsorship by the government, (ii) technology was expensive to invest in and maintain, (iii) less technical awareness/training offered to the locals, (iv) lack of incentives, (v) low patronage or participation by the peoples, and (vi) ineffective demonstration [ 63 ]. Pakistan Council of Appropriate Technology (PCAT) also collaborated with GDNRER to develop a renewable energy technology strategy under the Ministry of Science and Technology. In 2001, PCAT merged with the National Institute of Silicon Technology to form Pakistan Council of Renewable Energy Technologies (PCRET). The council develops and disseminates biogas plants and other suitable options of renewable energy generation into communities in the remote areas [ 63 ]. Currently, approximately 1250 biogas plants have been installed with 50 % of the cost shared between the recipient and PCRET [ 64 ]. On top of that, three community based plants were installed in the remote parts of Islamabad, supplying energy to about 20 homes. Sahir and Qureshi [ 2 ] suggested that by installing pilot size plants, the available biomass can be used to operate high level biogas plants based on crops and dungs in the remote regions and street wastes in the urban areas. A biogas plant of 1000 m 3 capacity has recently been set up in the area of Cattle Colony, Karachi [ 64 ], and the trials and preliminary operations of the project were sponsored by New Zealand Aid (NZAID). There are 400,000 cattle in the area, producing wastes as the feedstock for the biogas plant. The initial generation capacity is ∿ 250 kW of power, and this will be increased to 30 MW with 1450 tons day −1 of fertilizer. Another biogas plant at Shakarganj Mill, with the capacity to produce up to 8.25 MW, is still under construction through the help of AEDB [ 65 ]. In addition, PCRET aims to provide alternate renewable energy system in rural households/villages by installing 50,000 medium-scale biogas plants at various locations in the country by 2015, with total annual biogas generation capacity of 110 m 3 [ 1 , 48 ]. Biogas productivity and quality is greatly influenced by the waste type, waste composition, and operational parameters such as temperature, feeding rate, retention time, particle size, water/solid ratio, and C/N ratio [ 66 ]. A temperature range between 30 and 40 °C is found to be optimal for high biogas production rate [ 67 ]. Feedstock available and batch loading are also important parameters for efficient biogas plant operation and help to maximize biogas yield. However, over or under loading of feedstock and water affects the overall efficiency of the process. It has been observed that carbon is consumed 25 times faster than nitrogen during anaerobic fermentation by microorganisms. Therefore, to meet this requirement, microbes require 25–30:1 carbon to nitrogen ratio with most of the carbon degraded within the minimum retention time [ 68 , 69 ]. Retention time refers to the digestion period for which the waste remains inside the digester. It is estimated to be average 10 days to few weeks depending on the waste composition, process parameters location of plant and atmospheric conditions [ 70 ]. The digestibility of waste is essential to promote its decomposition into simple organics and biogas products. The digestibility is usually enhanced by treatments using calcium hydroxide, ammonia, and sodium hydroxide. Water and urea can also improve waste digestibility [ 71 ].

Bioethanol and biodiesel

Pakistan has a considerable potential to produce biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel. The establishment of these biofuels will help reduce the oil demands of the country of which 82 % is sourced by importation. Various initiatives have been commenced by the government to increase biofuel production. Pakistan Sugar Mills Association (PSMA) is the agency responsible to develop bioethanol production in the country. Sugar millers offer incentives and materials such as fertilizers and pesticides to sugarcane growers to enhance crop production and maximize bioethanol production [ 14 ]. In 2007, only 6 out of 80 sugar mills in the country had the facilities to convert raw molasses [ 14 ]. With the existing production rate of sugarcane, Pakistan has the potential to produce more than 400,000 tons year −1 of ethanol. However, only about a third (120,000 tons) is produced currently [ 55 ]. Though several small projects have been carried out to evaluate the commercial applications of bioethanol, significant efforts to develop and promote bioethanol are still lacking due to ineffective government policies and lack of infrastructure for large-scale manufacturing. Also, a major portion of the limited bioethanol produced is traded in different forms such as alcohol and molasses.

A significant potential to produce biodiesel also exists in Pakistan through the use of castor bean, a self-grown crop found in different parts of the country. It is estimated to produce more than 1180 kg oil ha −1 , which is significantly higher than other biomass such as corn (140 kg oil ha −1 ), soybean (375 kg oil ha −1 ) and sunflower (800 kg oil ha −1 ) [ 14 ]. Due to its high oil content, castor bean can be a promising alternative feedstock for biodiesel production. Castor oil has the advantage of being soluble in alcohol under ambient temperature conditions, and this is beneficial to biodiesel production. It is an untapped resource in the country; thus, utilization for biodiesel production will not only contribute to meeting the energy demands of the country but also emerge as a value-adding process that can promote economic, social, and environmental sustainability of the country.

Hydropower in Pakistan

Water is one of the most vital constituents that support all form of life on earth and offers various other services such as power generation [ 72 ]. Hydropower relates to the generation of power from dropping water [ 73 ]. The kinetic energy present in water dropping from elevated levels can be transferred into mechanical power via hydropower turbine and then to electricity using an electric generator (Fig.  8 ). The output of electricity is directly proportional to the elevation of moving water (pressure) and flow rate [ 74 ].

Design and operating mechanism of a hydropower plant [ 74 ]

Based on the flow of water, hydropower power plants are classified into small and large. Large hydro power plants require large dams together with water flow control mechanism [ 75 , 76 ], whereas small hydro power plants (SHPPs) are used to extract energy from low volumes of water flow such as canals, rivers, and streams [ 74 ]. SHPPs are run-of-river systems, and thus do not require any extensive structures such as dam to store water, leading to significantly low environmental impacts [ 77 , 78 ]. Hence, SHPPs are considered ideal renewable energy generation. Hydropower is one of the most established and reliable renewable energy, contributing approximately 20 % to worldwide energy market [ 14 ]. Hydropower plays a leading role in the total energy mix of several countries in the world. Norway accounts for more than 95 % of its power generation from hydropower and Brazil is almost 88 %. Similarly, Canada produces 70 % and Austria produces 65 % of hydropower to meet their energy needs [ 14 ]. India incorporated domestic fluvial systems by integrating its main rivers to improve hydrological control and to increase their hydropower production to 54,000 MW in 2012 [ 78 , 79 ]. Hydropower is also a major energy source in China, and it is projected to contribute 27,000 MW of the total energy by 2020 [ 79 ]. The technology is ongoing in 27 countries in Asia, and countries such as India, Iran, Bhutan, Japan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Vietnam, and Pakistan [ 79 , 80 ].

Hydropower is a major source of renewable energy in Pakistan with a great potential for SHPPs especially in locations between the Arabian Sea and mountainous areas such as Hindu Kush, Himalayas, and Karakorum. These features offer enough potential energy to the falling water to develop a maximum pressure [ 81 ]. Moreover, major rivers such as Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum, falling into Indus River can be explored for power generation [ 5 , 82 ]. The power generation capacity of SHPPs for the above sites is 2250 MW [ 78 ]. Pakistan has 18,502,227,829.8 m 3 capacity to store 13 % of its annual river flow whilst the rest of the water directly flows down to the Arabian Sea [ 5 ]. Therefore, additional water storage capacity (such as dams) will be obligatory for future sustainable irrigation and electric power generation. In Pakistan, the total estimated hydropower generation is over 42,000 MW, but unfortunately, only 16 %, amounting to around 6758 MW, has been technically exploited so far. Ninety percent of this comes from hydropower resources in the northern parts of Pakistan [ 1 , 14 ]. Figure  9 shows current operational hydropower projects in Pakistan also shows the respective projects that will be completed by 2015 to bring the installed capacity to over 8000 MW.

The major hydropower (HP) projects in service with installed capacity and under construction with proposed capacity in Pakistan [ 5 , 88 ]

In addition, WAPDA have completed a feasibility study of run-of-river hydro projects with combined installed capacity of approximately 21,000 MW at various locations in the country. This includes Bunji (7100 MW), Tarbela fourth extension (1399 MW), Kohala (1095 MW), Lower Palas Valley (660 MW), Mahl (599 MW), and Lower spat Gah (495 MW) [ 14 , 81 ]. Apart from these run-of-river projects, there is also a high potential for large-scale reservoir projects (dams) including Diamer Basha (4400 MW), Dasu (4250 MW), Munda (735 MW), Kurram-Tangi (80 MW), and Kalabagh dam (KB) (3600 MW). Apart from electricity generation purposes, dams are also used to control flood in Pakistan. One of the dams used for that purpose is Kala-bagh (KB). At the provincial level, there are some objections for its construction; however, the perception has changed when the dam was used to control flood and saved lives during 2010’s flood [ 83 ]. On that incident, over 2000 people were killed; $ 9.7 billion loss of economy and more than 20 million people were highly affected in terms of their lives, homes, and crops [ 84 , 85 ]. Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces were the worst affected, those suffered immense losses [ 86 ]. This massive destruction resulted long-lasting impacts not only on social human life and economy but it has also resulted in destruction of natural environment posing land erosion, killing of wildlife and other natural resources [ 87 ].

The feasibility study of the KB dam showed the construction of a 260-ft high rock-fill dam that would be able to store approximately 7,400,891,131.92 m 3 of water [ 83 ]. The dam consists of two spillways for effective distribution of flood water for instant and appropriate water disposal. During probable floods, these spillways are able to discharge more than 2 million cusecs of water [ 83 ]. The mean annual river flow at KB is high, approximately 111,013,366,978.8 m 3 due to the additional nullahs and other tributaries that join the Indus River between KB dam and Diamer Bhasha dam. So, the approximate volume of flood to be managed at KB dam is around 2,200,000 cusecs [ 88 ]. Therefore, the development of KB dam is important to the government for flood management which capable in preventing future flood risks and combat energy crisis. To realize the full benefits of hydropower generation systems in Pakistan, crucial policy reforms are obligatory to develop hydropower by enhancing sustainable generation capacity.

Conclusions

Energy is crucial to the socio-economic development of all countries. A steady transformation is being observed throughout world from primary energy supplies based on conventional sources to renewable resources. Pakistan continues to formulate efforts towards renewable energy endeavors. However, with the current gap between the demand and production of power in Pakistan, which is approximately 5000–8000 MW with a constant increase of 8–10 % per annum, and the heavy dependence on limited fossil fuel resources, renewable alternatives which are able to commercially support conventional energy options must soon be in full-scale operation. Wind, solar, hydro, and biomass are the resources that are abundantly present in Pakistan. In Table  2 , the energy generation capacities of these resources stand at 120,000 MW for wind, 2,900,000 MW for solar, 5500 MW for biomass, and 42,000 MW for hydropower [ 1 , 14 , 18 , 20 ]. This creates a significant potential to overcome existing fuel needs in the country. This potential capacity is fairly distributed among the different provinces. Sindh is endowed with wind potential in the South, Baluchistan is rich with solar potential in the West, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is rich with hydro in the northeast area. Therefore, existing potential of renewables can be explored in four distant regions for power generation, water/space heating, engine fuel, and stand-alone power systems (SAPS). Though different efforts have been made to address the roadblocks which renewable energy technologies (RETs) face, the development has not been completely viable due to social, technological, economical, and informational hindrances. These concerns are the prime deterrents in the development of renewables. The country’s future energy should come from a balanced mixture of all these resources to steadily decrease its reliance on imported oil. The importance should be given to more rapid and targeted advancement of hydropower as large potential exists in country and most of feasibility studies have been concluded [ 14 , 81 ]. The supply of electricity from wind to grid has already started in 2014. However, it is still a challenge due to some impediments such as absence of infrastructure (e.g., large cranes, road network) and inadequate grid integration ability. Therefore, it is necessary to address these challenges by prioritizing the provision of these facilities. The economical and user friendly solar cookers, solar water heaters, and solar dryers should be progressed, as instantaneous integration approach can have insightful influence on the overall energy demand in Pakistan. The frequent public demonstrations and official campaigns must be carried out to educate the general public regarding environmental and commercial benefits of green energy, which will boost up the acceptability of those facilities. Besides, the specific feasibility studies should be conducted for the installation of large-scale gird connected to solar thermal power stations. The renewable energy syllabus must be introduced from the primary to the university levels in the institutions to develop consensus in support of accepting renewables as energy sources in Pakistan. The graduate students should be sent to foreign institutions to acquire more knowledge on emerging renewable energy technologies. Policies for buying small scale renewable energy systems using a payable loan scheme for public should be framed. Security, law, and order situations in country must be addressed at priority basis to encourage the attention of the local and foreign investors to invest in renewable energy. The power demand of Pakistan is projected to increase up to 11,000 MW by the year 2030 [ 1 ]. Therefore, a more holistic approach by addressing all above mentioned issues are important to fully utilize the renewable energy potential to achieve a sustainable energy future of the country. A determined political will is the key to energy independence.

Farooqui SZ (2014) Prospects of renewables penetration in the energy mix of Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 29:693–700

Article   Google Scholar  

Sahir MH, Qureshi AH (2008) Assessment of new and renewable energy resources potential and identification of barriers to their significant utilization in Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 12:290–298

Sakran H, Butt TT, Hassan M, Hameed S, Amin I (2012) Implementation of load shedding apparatus for energy management in Pakistan. Commun Comput Info Sci 281:421–431

Board of Investment Pakistan (BOI) (2014) Power and energy. Available online at http://boi.gov.pk/Sector/SectorDetail.aspx?sid=2

Tajwar MI (2011) A report of hydro potential in Pakistan. Available online at http://www.wapda.gov.pk/pdf/BroHydpwrPotialApril2011.pdf . pp 1-2.

Aziz MF, Abdulaziz N (2010) Prospects and challenges of renewable energy in Pakistan. In Energy Conference and Exhibition (EnergyCon), 2010 IEEE International (pp. 161-165). IEEE

Khan HA, Pervaiz S (2013) Technological review on solar PV in Pakistan: scope, practices and recommendations for optimized system design. Renew Sust Energy Rev 23:147–154

Shahbaz M, Zeshan M, Afza T (2012) Is energy consumption effective to spur economic growth in Pakistan? New evidence from bounds test to level relationships and Granger causality tests. Economic Modeling 29:2310–2319

Ullah I, Chaudhry Q-u-Z, Chipperfield AJ (2010) An evaluation of wind energy potential at Kati Bandar Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 14:856–861

Raja I, Dougar MG, Abro RS (1996) Solar energy applications in Pakistan. Renew Energy 9:1128–31

Mirza UK, Maroto-Valer MM, Ahmed N (2003) Status and outlook of solar energy use in Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 7:501–14

Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) (2004) Feasibility report of the establishment of commercial Wind Power Plant of 18 MW at Gharo, Pakistan.

Sheikh MA (2009) Renewable energy resource potential in Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 13:2696–702

Asif M (2009) Sustainable energy options for Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 13:903–9

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Gondal IA, Sahir M (2008) The potential of renewable hydrogen production in Pakistan. Sci Technol Vision 6:68–81

Google Scholar  

Hasnain SM, Gibbs BM (1990) Prospects for harnessing renewable energy sources in Pakistan. Solar and Wind Technology 7(321):325

Jatoi LA (2006) Policy for development of renewable energy for power generation: government of Pakistan. pp. 5-15. Available online at http://www.aedb.org/Documents/Policy/REpolicy.pdf .

Alauddin A (2012) 500 MW will be added to national grid soon: Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) Pakistan. (The Nation Pakistan), Lahore Pakistan

Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) (2008) Wind mapping project phase-II: northern areas of Pakistan results. Availabe online at  http://www.pmd.gov.pk/wind/wind_project_files/page483.html .

Harijan K, Uqaili MA, Memon M, Mirza UK (2011) Forecasting the diffusion of wind power in Pakistan. Energy 36:6068–73

Cheema U (2011) Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) receives 17 offers for 3000 MW wind projects. The Nation newspaper 10 th December. Available online at http://nation.com.pk/business/10-Dec-2011/AEDB-receives-17-offers-for-3000MW-wind-projects

Siddique S, Wazir R (2016) A review of the wind power developments in Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 57:351–361

Khalil HB, Zaidi JH (2014) Energy crisis and potential of solar energy in Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 31:194–201

Bradford T (2006) Solar revolution: the economic transformation of the global energy industry. The MIT Press, Cambridge

Farooq MK, Kumar S (2013) An assessment of renewable energy potential for electricity generation in Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 20:240–54

Chaudhry AM, Raza R, Hayat SA (2009) Renewable energy technologies in Pakistan: prospects and challenges. Renew Sust Energy Rev 13:1657–62

Nasir SM, Raza SM (1993) Wind and solar energy in Pakistan. Energy 18:397–9

Sheikh MA (2010) Energy and renewable energy scenario of Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 14:354–63

Harijan K, Uqaili MA, Memon M (2008) Renewable energy for managing energy crisis in Pakistan. Commu Comput Inform Sci 20:449–55

Adnan S, Khan AH, Haider S, Mahmood R (2012) Solar energy potential in Pakistan. J Renew Sust Energy 032701:1–7

Ahmed MA, Ahmed F, Akhtar AW (2009) Estimation of global and diffuse solar radiation for Hyderabad, Sindh, Pakistan. J Basic Appl Sci 2:73–7

Ahmed MA, Ahmed F, Akhtar AW (2010) Distribution of total and diffuse solar radiation at Lahore, Pakistan. J Sci Res 40:37–43

Khalil MS, Khan NA, Mirza IA (2005) Renewable energy in Pakistan: status and trends. Pakistan Alternative Energy Development Board

Pakistan Renewable Energy Society (PRES) (2012) Available online at  http://www.pres.org.pk/tag/solar-water-heaters/page/188/

Sukhera MB (1984) Utilization of solar energy—a programme for the development of Cholistan desert. Solar Energy 33:233–35

Muneer T, Maubleu S, Asif M (2006) Prospects of solar water heating for textile industry in Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 10:1–23

ENGERCON (2013) Manufacturers of solar geysers in Pakistan: the national energy conservation center. Available online at http://www.enercon.gov.pk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=36&Itemid=16

Government of Pakistan (GoP) (2010) Pakistan economic survey: Economic Advisers Wing, Ministry of Finance (June, 2010). Availabe online at  http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_11/15-Energy.pdf

Han J, Mol APJ, Lu YL (2010) Solar water heaters in China: a new day dawning. Energy Policy 38:383–91

Delyannis E, Belessiotis V (2004) Solar water desalination. Encyclopedia Energy 5:685–94

Samee MA, Mirza UK, Majeed T, Ahmad N (2007) Design and performance of a simple single basin solar still. Renew Sust Energy Rev 11:543–9

Arjunan TV, Aybar HS, Nedunchezhian N (2009) Status of solar desalination in India. Renew Sust Energy Rev 13:2408–18

Karagiorgas M, Botzios A, Tsoutsos T (2001) Industrial solar thermal applications in Greece: economic evaluation, quality requirements and case studies. Renew Sust Energy Rev 5:157–73

Bhutto AW, Bazmi AA, Zahedi G (2012) Greener energy: issues and challenges for Pakistan-Solar energy prospective. Renew Sust Energy Rev 16:2762–80

Muneer T, Maubleu S, Asif M (2006) Prospects of solar water heating for textile industry in Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 10:1–23

Muneer T, Asif M, Cizmecioglu Z, Ozturk HK (2008) Prospects for solar water heating within Turkish textile industry. Renew Sust Energy Rev 12:807–23

Easterly JL, Burnham M (1996) Overview of biomass and waste fuel for power production. Biomass and Bioenergy 10:79–92

Mirza UK, Ahmad N, Majeed T (2008) An overview of biomass energy utilization in Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 12:1988–1996

Ramachandra TV, Kamakshi G, Shruthi BV (2004) Bioresource status in Karnataka. Renew Sust Energy Rev 8:1–47

Chang J, Leung DYC, Wu CZ, Yuan ZH (2003) A review on the energy production, consumption, and prospect of renewable energy in China. Renew Sust Energy Rev 7:453–68

Elliott P (1993) Biomass energy overview in the context of Brazilian biomass-power demonstration. Bioresour Technol 46:13–22

Khan MA, Latif N (2010) Environmental friendly solar energy in Pakistan’s scenario. Renew Sust Energy Rev 14:2179–81

Hussain ST (2013) “Barriers in renewable energy deployment in Pakistan,” Paper # 268, pp. 107-122. Available online at http://pecongress.org.pk/images/upload/books/268.pdf .

Aziz N (2015) Biomass energy potential in Pakistan: bio-energy consultant, 2015. Available online at http://www.bioenergyconsult.com/biomass-pakistan/

Kiani K (2006) Plan to blend petrol with ethanol approved. Available online at http://www.dawn.com . 28 th July, 2006.

Holm-Nielsen JB, Al Seadi T, Oleskowicz-Popiel P (2009) The future of anaerobic digestion and biogas utilization. Bioresour Technol 100:5478–84

Jingjing L, Xing Z, DeLaquil P, Larson ED (2001) Biomass energy in China and its potential. Energy for Sust Dev 5:66–80

Feng T, Cheng S, Min Q, Li W (2009) Productive use of bioenergy for rural household in ecological fragile area, Panam County Tibet in China: the case of the residential biogas model. Renew Sust Energy Rev 13:2070–78

Imran S (2012) Evaluating the effectiveness of biogas technology and its impact on the environment, human health and socioeconomic conditions: a case study in Sialkot and Narowal District. Thesis, Lahore School of Economic. pp 33–34

Ali S, Zahra N, Nasreen Z, Usman S (2013) Impact of Biogas Technology in the Development of Rural Population. Pak J Anal Environ Chem 14:65-74

Hussain S, Habib u-R (2013) Biogas plants. Available online at http://pcret.netau.net/about%20us.html

Farouqe N, Hameed S (2012) Effective Use of Technology to Convert Waste into Renewable Energy Source. J Life Sci, 9:654–61

Amjid SS, Bilal MQ, Nazir MS, Hussain A (2011) Biogas, renewable energy resource for Pakistan. Renew Sust Energy Rev 15:2833-37

Ahmad S (2010) Energy and Bio-fertilizers for Rural Pakistan: Opportunities, Integrated Technology Applications, Vision and Future Strategy

Bhutto AW, Bazmi AA, Zahedi G (2011) Greener energy: issues and challenges for Pakistan—biomass energy prospective. Renew Sust Energy Rev 15:3207–3219

Santosh Y, Sreekrishnan TR, Kohli S, Rana V (2004) Enhancement of biogas production from solid substrates using different techniques––a review. Bioresource Technol 95:1–10

Ali S, Zahra N, Nasreen Z, Usman S (2013) Impact of biogas technology in the development of rural population. Pak J Anal Environ Chem 14:65–74

Bardiya N, Gaur AC (1997) Effects of carbon and nitrogen ratio on rice straw bio methanation. J Rural Energy 4:1–16

Malik RK, Singh R, Tauro P (1987) Effect of inorganic nitrogen supplementation on biogas production. Biol Wastes 21:139–142

Demirbas MF, Balat M (2006) Recent advances on the production and utilization trends of bio-fuels: a global perspective. Energy Convers Manage 47:2371–81

Niazi AHK, Ali S, Kausar T, Nazir MM (1993) Chemical treatment of biogas plant waste to improve its feeding quality. Sci Int Lahore 5:275–275

Yuksel I (2010) Hydropower for sustainable water and energy development. Renew Sust Energy Rev 14:462–469

Twidell J, Weir AD (2006) Renewable energy resources, 2nd edn. Taylor and Francis, New York, pp 204–10

Paish O (2002) Small hydro power: technology and current status. Renew Sust Energy Rev 6:537–56

Bhutto AW, Bazmi AA, Zahedi G (2012) Greener energy: issues and challenges for Pakistan-hydel power prospective. Renew Sust Energy Rev 16(5):2732–2746

Freris L, Infield D (2008) Renewable energy in power systems, 1st edn. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, UK, pp 23–25

Purohit P (2008) Small hydro power projects under clean development mechanism in India: a preliminary assessment. Energy Policy 36:2000–15

Kaldellis JK (2007) The contribution of small hydro power stations to the electricity generation in Greece: technical and economic considerations. Energy Policy 35:2187–96

Sternberg R (2010) Hydropower’s future, the environment, and global electricity systems. Renew Sust Energy Rev 14:713–23

Bartle A (2002) Hydropower potential and development activities. Energy Policy 30:1231–9

Mirza UK, Ahmad N, Majeed T, Harijan K (2008) Hydropower use in Pakistan: past, present and future. Renew Sust Energy Rev 12:1641–1651

Yaqoob A (2011) Indus waters across 50 years: A comparative study of the management methodologies of India and Pakistan. Institute of Regional Studies

Butt A, Khan A, Ahmad SS (2015) Evaluation of increasing susceptibility of areas surrounding Kala Bagh Dam, Pakistan to flood risk: a review. Middle East J Business 10:2

Straatsma M, Ettema J, Krol B (2011) Flooding and Pakistan: causes, impact and risk assessment. http://www.itc.nl/flooding-and-pakistan .

Akhtar S (2011) The south asiatic monsoon and flood hazards in the Indus river basin, Pakistan. J Basic and Appl Sci 7:20–34

World Bank News and broadcast (WBNB) (2012). Asian Development Bank (ADB)-World Bank (WB) assesses Pakistan flood damage at $9.7 billion. Press Release No: 2011/134/SAR. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/ .

Khan A, Khan MA, Said A, Ali Z, Khan H, Ahmad N, Garstang R (2010) Rapid Assessment of Flood Impact on the Environment in Selected Affected Areas of Pakistan. Pakistan Wetlands Programme and UNDP Pakistan. p 35 Available online at  http://www.pakistanwetlands.org/reports/REIA%20of%20floods%20in%20selected%20areas%20-%20final.pdf

Luna BA, Jabbar M (2011) Kalabagh—a superior dam designers’ view point. In: 71st Annual Session Proceedings. Engineering Congress, Pakistan, p 288-302.

Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) Pakistan. [ http://www.aedb.org/index.php ].

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work has been supported by the Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Malaysia

Abdul Raheem & Razif Harun

Department of Energy and Environment Engineering, Dawood University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, 74800, Pakistan

Abdul Raheem & Sikandar Ali Abbasi

Department of Energy and Environment Engineering, Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science and Technology, Sindh, 67450, Pakistan

Asif Memon & Saleem R. Samo

Catalysis Science and Technology Research Centre, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Malaysia

Y. H. Taufiq-Yap

Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University of Technology, Sarawak, 98009, Malaysia

Michael K. Danquah

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Razif Harun .

Additional information

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

AR, SRS, AM, and YHT-Y developed the methodology and analyzed and interpreted the data collected. MKD, SAA, and RH studied the conception and design and contributed to the critical revision and inputs into the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Raheem, A., Abbasi, S.A., Memon, A. et al. Renewable energy deployment to combat energy crisis in Pakistan. Energ Sustain Soc 6 , 16 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-016-0082-z

Download citation

Received : 10 September 2015

Accepted : 03 June 2016

Published : 22 June 2016

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-016-0082-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Energy crisis
• Sustainability

Energy, Sustainability and Society

ISSN: 2192-0567

• General enquiries: [email protected]