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Writing Across the Curriculum

Supporting writing in and across the disciplines at City Tech

Thoughts on Teaching English as a Second Language

By Labanya Unni

In more than half a decade of my teaching English, one of the most profound challenges I have faced is the question of English as a second language. I encountered this problem in a more limited sense in India, when I first began teaching, where degrees of fluency varied on the basis of class-position and cultural capital. While this issue was definitely something that I navigated, the student body had enough cultural and contextual homogeneity to convey modes of critical thinking in the minds of students. In the US, this problem takes on more complex proportions, since much of the student body is composed of international exchange students, migrants, first- or second-generation English speakers, and even students whose English are infused with specific dialects.

As a teacher, I find it difficult to see students struggling not just with ideas but also with the medium in which these ideas are expressed. From classroom interactions, it is clear that non-native English students sometimes feel inhibited and isolated, often without the space to express unique cultural and linguistic perspectives that they could bring to the table. It is difficult not to dwell on the profoundly hegemonic structure of English as a global language and the onerousness of teaching it to a non-native speaker, this thought process could potentially lead to defeatist modes of thinking or a tendency to shift or deny responsibility (the “abolitionist move” as David R. Russell puts it in his essay “Writing Across the Curriculum”).

These are strategies I have learned in my last few years as a teacher:

Modifying the rubric : The single-point rubric is not just a grading tool, but also a useful checklist for students to have while writing their essays. With English as second language students, teachers need to have awareness of the lexical and grammatical specifics that they bring to the table. This requires a careful perusal of student essays, as their textual analyses, evidence and thesis presentation might not be in a customary academic style. It might also be helpful to go over the rubric in class and carefully break down its contents, with detailed examples and illustrations.

Mindset : As someone teaching in the medium of the English language, it is perhaps useful to understand how English came to be historically constituted as a global language (David Crystal’s English as a Global Language is a good resource for that). A lot of what we understand as critical discourse/thinking reflects a majoritarian Western conception of knowledge, and it might be pertinent to communicate some of these ideas in class. Understanding some of this might help lessen the anxiety of a second language speaker who comes to class with the notion that English fluency represents the height of cultural and linguistic achievement.

WAC principles : The great thing about WAC is that it emphasizes thinking as well as writing. Ideas such as minimal marking, multiple drafting, scaffolding, low stakes writing, editing oriented towards revision rather than grammar correction, are very useful to keep in mind while dealing with second language speakers. John Bean in Engaging Ideas thoughtfully advises teachers to be forgiving of ‘accent errors’ – errors that come from not having naturally inhabited English speaking milieus.

Affective measures : It is clear that the question of English as a second language cannot just be tackled with a handful of linguistic and academic guidelines. There is, without a doubt, an affective component to this process, in which it is important for the teacher to make the student feel comfortable. This can be done by pairing them with peer study-partners (ideally with kind and thoughtful native speakers); encouraging creative and inclusive learning activities that are idea-based; taking the time to interact with them during office hours to try and gauge their cultural and rhetorical contexts and encouraging personal writing that lead up to academic writing/thinking

Utilizing writing centers : Writing centers have activities that professors might not be able to conduct in class due to limited time. Exercises likes conversation classes, dictionary-use, listening or audio-based learning can be useful supplements to WAC. According to Stephen Krashen in his Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, the most effective way to teach a language is to mimic as much as possible the natural methods of acquiring said language, which is through conversation, low-anxiety settings, and “comprehensible inputs” – the writing center, which is just an aid without the worry of grades might be a good place to implement these principles. Teachers across disciplines would do well to work closely with writing centers to provide extra support to second language speakers.

Works cited

John, Bean C. Engaging Ideas: The Professor’s Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom , Jossey-Bass; 2nd Edition, 2011

Krashen, Stephen D.  Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.  Prentice-Hall International, 1988.

Russel, David R. “Writing Across the Curriculum in Historical Perspective: Toward a Social Interpretation”, College English , vol. 52. 1990, pp. 52-73, JSTOR

One Reply to “Thoughts on Teaching English as a Second Language”

I was immediately drawn to Labanya Unni’s reflections and suggestions for teaching Standard English learners the conventions of academic writing. She states that, “a lot of what we understand as critical discourse/thinking reflects a majoritarian Western conception of knowledge”, this being, of course, tied to imperial histories and the position of English as a global language within contemporary capitalism. While I do not mean to “shift or deny responsibility” for teaching Standard Written English, I believe the WAC emphasis on “writing to learn” allows us the reconceptualize writing less as a space for performing hegemonic language ideologies and more of an experimental practice of thinking with and through other modes of complex expression.

Admittedly, many students pursue higher education precisely to acquire and successfully use Standard Written English, and as educators who have adequately and successfully used this dialect in our careers, we share in the responsibility of helping students reach their goals. However, from my perspective as someone teaching introductory courses in anthropology, college level instructors also should strive to engage with and legitimize “the dynamic linguistic practices of language-minoritized students while simultaneously raising awareness about issues of language and power” (Flores & Rosa 2015, 167).

I’m somewhat ashamed to write that before actually becoming a college instructor, my approach to how I imagined teaching writing when encountering non-standard varieties of English or multilingual forms of linguistic expression was heavily influenced by David Foster Wallace’s 2001 essay, “Tense Present: Democracy, English, and Wars over Usage”. There is section in the essay where Wallace discusses lecturing a group of Black students on what he calls Standard White English (“…it was developed by white people and is used by white people, especially educated, powerful white people.”) He acknowledges that the students’ minoritized linguistic practices are legitimate, but the reality of US American society is that Standard White English is the prestige variety of English whether or not he, you, or we like it (“This is How It Is”). Therefore, in his class, Standard White English rules the day. He means to be the sympathetic to the students and frames his lecture as pragmatic advice for succeeding in US American society, and potentially, after having mastered Standard White English, challenging its linguistic hegemonies (54). Nevertheless, as an instructor I could never bring myself to actually take that approach. The hurt it causes students learning to express complex ideas in writing is far too palpable; as Labanya points out, the affective dimensions to teaching writing are crucial. Furthermore, such an approach is completely out of sync with what my courses generally try to convey about the relationships between society, culture, and power.

Wallace’s approach to minorized linguistic practices is a particularly acerbic form of what Flores & Rosa (2015) call an “appropriateness” model to standardized forms of English i.e., pedagogical approaches that recognize the value of non-standard linguistic forms, while at the same time insisting that standard varieties are appropriate for academic contexts. Flores & Rosa assert that the flaw with “appropriateness” models is that often, despite the minorized language speakers’ best efforts to master Standard English, their language practices continue to be perceived in racialized ways by the white listening subject (149).

Franz Boas’s canonical “On Alternating Sounds” (1889) is not referenced by Rosa & Flores, but both texts’ arguments share a deep affinity. In a nutshell, Boas’ article refutes racist arguments that the indigenous languages of the North American Pacific Northwest are messy and illogical (i.e., their sounds alternated haphazardly) by showing that the problem was not in the languages themselves, but in the (white) listening subjects’ inability to hear certain unfamiliar phonemes. Importantly, Boas relates his own experience learning some of these languages and gradually apperceiving different phonemes he was previously unable to distinguish. As an educator constantly confronting non-standard varieties of English, what interests me about Boas short article is the implication that I may be the problem. What I take from this intellectual challenge is an openness to having students teach me and their peers alternative ways of thinking critically through writing that might push against the standard. Labanya offers excellent strategies for successfully addressing students’, often urgent, need and desire to improve their mastery of Standard Written English, but in highlighting the problem of “mindset”, her reflections prompted me to revisit the texts cited above and consider how I might differently position myself as an educator.

References Boas, Franz. 1889 “On alternating sounds.” American Anthropologist 2, no. 1: 47-54.

Flores, Nelson, & Jonathan Rosa. 2015. “Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education.” Harvard Educational Review 85, no. 2: 149-171.

Wallace, David Foster. 2001 “Tense present: Democracy, English, and the wars over usage.” Harper’s Magazine 302, no. 1811: 39-58.

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Teaching English as a Second Language, Essay Example

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Phonology is an important part of teaching English for foreign students. While cultural differences and language structure variations need to be taken into consideration, the first task learners need to complete, according to Freeman & Freeman (2004, p. 83) is to “develop the ability to comprehend and produce sounds of English”.

The authors (Freeman & Freeman, 2004) describe the logical classroom approach of teaching English as follows: teaching phonemic awareness skills, phonic rules, structural analysis, letter names and sounds, and phonics rules. However, the authors also conclude that phonemic awareness “is a key to word recognition” (p. 78).

There are currently two views of phonemic awareness: word recognition view, and the sociopsycholinguistic view. The word recognition view looks at phonemic awareness as the ability to “read” : translate written language to speech. The sociopsycholinguistic view promotes the use of graphophonic cues to acquire the skill.

Phonological awareness is an important aspect of learning a language, as it allows students to break down and segment words, sentences, while assigning a meaning to each segment. It also allows learners to differentiate between meanings of words, based on phonological differences.

There are certain exercises developed to improve phonemic awareness of students. However, the authors (Freeman & Freeman, 2004) state that communicating with native language users is improving the learning outcomes. Likewise, memorizing and reciting dialogues does help learners understand the correct intonation and helps them learn to manipulate phonemes.

Freeman & Freeman (2004, p. 82) also confirm that phonemic awareness has a great impact on learning to read. The authors state that the level of phonemic awareness proficiency does help achieving stronger written language skills (p. 85).

The authors (Freeman & Freeman, 2004) determine three linguistic factors: allophones (phonemes that are perceived as the same sound: c, k), dialect differences (added difficulty), and phonological differences among various languages. The above factors making language acquisition more challenging should be tackled and minimized.

There are several teaching methods that are currently being used by schools where English is taught as a second language: grammar translation, audiolingual, the natural approach, and sustained content language teaching approaches.

The chapter has revealed the importance of phonology in teaching reading for ESL students. While the author has listed several teaching methods, the chapter provides no indication regarding the effectiveness of these approaches. It is likely that some classroom methods are more effective for some learners, while those who come from a culture where the structure and phonemic design is very different from English’s would find others more beneficial. In order to set up a phonology-related teaching plan in ESL schools, it is important – as the authors noted – that the linguistic, cognitive, and cultural background of the learners is considered. It would be very interesting to research and learn from studies that relate to the application of different phonemic awareness teaching methods in Asian and Hispanic classrooms.

Reading the chapter has created a question, though. Do the authors suggest that phonemic awareness competency should be introduced in classroom teaching before texts are presented for students for interpretation? Would reading simple words interfere with the development of this skill? Further, it would be extremely useful to study some of the sample teaching plans of ESL schools in order to understand their approach towards phonemic awareness competency building.

Freeman, D. E., & Freeman, Y. S. (2004). Essential linguistics: What you need to know to teach reading, ESL, spelling, phonics, grammar. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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Why teach English as a second language? Here are 4 ways teachers make a difference.

Worldwide, more than 1 billion people speak English as a second language. 

For some, the motivation to learn English stems from a desire to satisfy their curiosity; they want to discover more about a language and culture that is different from their own. 

But for many, there are more measurable goals.  

Being able to communicate effectively in English opens doors. It can set you on the path for success in your future career, give you the confidence to develop your entrepreneurial instincts, and makes it easier to migrate overseas in search of new opportunities. 

Where there’s a need, there’s a market, and ESL is a big business, with schools, e-learning platforms, recruiters, and of course teachers, all benefitting from what is now a multi-billion dollar industry. 

Teaching English as a second language is booming, and qualified ESL instructors are in demand because their skills are helpful to people who know how valuable a strong command of English can be. 

Teach Away wanted to learn more about how teachers make a difference in the lives of their students and gain a greater insight into why ESL matters to millions of language learners around the world.  

We spoke with key stakeholders from three leading ESL providers: RVF International, BEILS Turkey and the Bilingual Program – Hungary.

We asked them to share their thoughts on why English language instruction is important and how teaching has positively impacted their own lives. 

You will gain a better understanding of:  1. Why English teaching matters. 2. The benefits of learning English as a second language.  3. Why bilingual children are often more culturally aware.  4. What makes teaching English a rewarding career choice? 

1. Why English teaching matters.

English is the language of business, and increasingly, global companies are learning that having a common corporate language improves communication between departments who might not be based in the same country, let alone the same building. 

Improved communication usually leads to a more productive workforce, resulting in a more streamlined business not restricted by language barriers.

But, if we steer the conversation back to teaching, how does this impact both ESL instructors and their students? 

According to Cristina Toledo, a Teacher Trainer in Budapest with the Bilingual Program – Hungary , quality English teaching is crucial because networking is vital, especially when so many of our interactions are now virtual. 

“By working together with our students and our fellow teachers, we’re able to build our students’ confidence levels, help them achieve their language goals and build lifelong connections,” said Toledo.  

With research showing that as many as 80% of jobs are filled via personal and professional connections, the ability to communicate effectively in a shared language can help us quickly build relationships with valuable contacts.  

“Walls come down, defensive guards are dropped, and connections and common understandings are made when we speak the same language,” enthused Harrison Fowler, CEO of RVF International , one of Spain’s leading teach abroad programs. 

“Teaching English matters because being fluent in the English language is a bridge to limitless opportunities in our ever-growing globalized world and economy.”

But, teaching English has a more ethical purpose because it can also facilitate stronger cultural ties. 

“We fear what we do not know and do not understand,” pointed out Fowler. “Learning English is a truly great way we can introduce respect and understanding into a world that needs not forget those timeless values.” 

2. The benefits of learning English as a second language.

When we talk about the benefits of learning English as a second language, we often frame it as a ticket to landing a corporate role with a major company or a route into overseas international education. 

This makes sense because many English language learners have followed those exact pathways, and we often connect learning with wealth and career aspirations that might otherwise be closed to us. 

But learning English as a second language can also empower those whose ambitions are more practical. 

Verissimo Toste, Education Manager at BEILS Turkey , has taught English to students whose language proficiency allowed them to study abroad and doctors who were able to partake in exchange programs with international hospitals. 

However, Toste is eager to point out that it’s often people working in service-based industries who benefit from studying the English language. 

“In my own experience, even in more simple jobs related to the hotel and restaurant industry, I have taught students [who] by learning English were able to work in larger, international restaurants.”

Taking a more practical approach to learning English also involves immersing yourself in the language as much as possible. 

But, how does ESL help students in their day-to-day communications? 

According to Yaneke Paulay, a class teacher with the Bilingual Program – Hungary, the learning in her classroom helps students understand and appreciate cultural references that they’re exposed to daily. 

“My students regularly tell me about how they understood a reference in a videogame or advertisement or other forms of media because of something we learned in English class,” said Paulay. 

Understanding and consistently using nuanced language and idiomatic expressions in English serves an important purpose because it can reveal a higher level of language competency – an attractive trait for employers in countries where English is not the first language. 

Indeed, Paulay is keen to point out that “even within Hungary, many jobs don’t just prefer but require a knowledge of English.”

Despite this, she believes that student motivation for learning English is still linked to how much time and effort teachers are prepared to put into their classes.  

“I think that having an English teacher who sparks students’ enthusiasm for learning makes all the difference in how fluent they become,” she said.

3. Why bilingual children are often more culturally aware.

Much has been written on the importance of cultural awareness in a teaching context. 

For ESL instructors, learning how to implement culturally aware teaching techniques is a crucial first step toward developing more inclusive classrooms that welcome people from diverse backgrounds.

Although older students often have a variety of reasons for learning English, and different targets, the parents of young learners usually have a clear goal: they want their children to become fluent English speakers. 

For Dana Palojtay-Thiessen, a senior kindergarten teacher in the Bilingual Program – Hungary, what she loves most about her job is that working in a bilingual program gives her the opportunity to witness first-hand how exposure to different cultures supports the social development of her students. 

“The Bilingual Program has given me great insight into how bilingualism affects children’s lives. Seeing how naturally they are able to switch from one language to another is fascinating.”

The ability to speak more than one language, often out of necessity in a bilingual classroom, not only improves children’s problem-solving skills; it also encourages them to take an active interest in their classmate’s cultural backgrounds.  

They can learn about songs, movies, folk tales, and idioms without worrying about translation, making for more powerful cultural exchanges. 

The key to becoming more culturally responsive is that what we have in common is just as important as our differences.  

ESL teachers also play a vital role in facilitating this because they bring something unique to the classroom: a personality and a cultural identity that contrasts with their students. 

Palojtay-Thiessen believes this exposure to different cultures and personalities helps “bilingual children to see how people from two completely different cultures [can] work together, despite having differences.”  

4. What makes teaching English a rewarding career choice?  

What is teaching English as a second language? 

On the surface, this might seem clear-cut, but for many, teaching ESL is far more than just instructing students on the mechanics of the English language; it can be a life-changing experience. 

Teaching English has allowed Verissimo Toste to “gain a greater appreciation of our world.” 

We tend to see things through our personal lens and accept “the othering” of different cultures that often occurs within the media as truth. 

For Toste, who has more than 35 years of teaching experience, travel has encouraged him to see things differently. 

“I have better understood the human element behind new stories,” said Toste. “As I travelled to the Middle East, South America, Asia, Africa, as well as Europe.”

“I’ve discovered that having a common language [English] became the key that allowed for sharing of ideas and experiences, [which} showed me that we are all much more the same than we are different.” 

Cristina Toledo also recognizes the effect travel can have, citing “getting to live abroad and travel” as “perks of the job,” but for Toledo, it is her work that gives her the most pleasure. 

“It’s the students that have made the biggest impact. Seeing them improve and grow, and move on, it’s so satisfying.” 

For Toledo, it’s no exaggeration to say that teaching ESL overseas has changed the direction of her life.  

“The connections I’ve made through teaching have made me who I am today, and I hope that this is reflected in my classroom and my relationships with my students.”

Work with RVF International, the Bilingual Program – Hungary, and BEILS Turkey.

Working with rvf international at a glance:.

• Hiring fluent English-speaking language assistants and ESL instructors with a bachelor’s degree. No prior teaching experience required.
• Work with K-12 students.
• Four-day workweek in most regions (typically Mondays or Fridays off).
• Earn between €700EUR to €1000EUR per month depending on the region.
• Assistance with the entire process of securing your Spanish visa.

The #1 teach abroad program in Spain, RVF International is an international education and exchange company based out of Madrid.

If you have an adventurous spirit and a love for teaching and education, RVF International is the perfect choice for English language teachers.

In addition to helping you every step of the way to get you teaching in Spain, you will also earn a competitive salary.

Working with the Bilingual Program – Hungary at a glance:

• Hiring Licensed Teachers, University Graduates, and EFL Instructors with a Bachelor’s degree and TESL/TEFL certificate.
• Earn a competitive salary of  $1200 – 1250USD a month. 
• Housing allowance is provided on a monthly basis.
• Offers year-round training opportunities and opportunities for advancement.

The Bilingual Program is a private, non-profit, tuition-based educational enterprise that operates in Hungarian state educational institutions. 

Operating in one high school, five primary schools and two kindergartens in Budapest, the Bilingual Program offers a unique learning environment for teachers that wish to feed their wanderlust, teach EFL as well as subjects (e.g. history, science, math, art, PE, etc.) and all the while gain experience working alongside experienced Hungarian teaching professionals. 

The classrooms are interactive and communicative, with a focus on Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). 

Working with BEILS Turkey at a glance:

• Hiring TESL/TEFL certified ESL Instructors with previous teaching experience. 
• Monthly salary up to $1200USD.
• Opportunities for remote teaching and paid professional training and development.
• Online platform content and lesson plans are provided.
• You can create a flexible schedule for yourself (many lessons held later afternoon and on weekends).

BEILS, also known as the Burlington English International Online Language School, is a unique education platform that offers online English learning for students all over Turkey. 

Its professional staff are experienced teaching experts that engage students in learning the English language. 

With BEILS, you can make a difference for students all over Turkey by working from the comfort of your home.

Now is the right time to start your teaching career. 

Are you considering a career switch to teaching? 

Now is a great time to start researching TEFL certification courses because there are so many opportunities for qualified ESL instructors. 

The shift to remote work means online learning is booming , and with countries learning how to navigate the complexities of the global pandemic, international travel is beginning to pick up, meaning even more options are now open to ESL teachers. 

Visit Teach Away today and learn how you can become certified to teach ESL online or overseas in just a few short weeks. 

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Teaching English as a Second Language: Listening Comprehension Research Paper

Introduction.

In the modern world, the role of the English language is considered vital and the teaching of the language has similar significance. This language is extensively used in every field of life today, trade and commerce, travel and tourism, banking, administration, aviation, law, and education, to name a few. “And now, with the advent of globalization and a revolution in information technology, the importance of this language has further increased.” (Sethi & Jindal Sethi, p 3). The teaching of the English language to the users of another language, thereby, gets pertinent prominence in this context. TESOL can be seen as a key way of teaching English to speakers of another language. There are several theories that deal with the various ways and methods of teaching English to speakers of other languages. Similarly, it is important to note that the teaching of the language involves the teaching of all the four skills of language, i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Listening comprehension, one of the primary skills to be acquired in TESOL, has a pertinent role in the acquisition of the English language by the speakers of other languages. “The field of TESOL is informed by theory, research and practice. TESOL is primarily practical activity but practice on its own can only be understood and improved when it is systematically examined and explored.

Hence, research is seen as a testing ground for the beliefs and assumptions on which practice is based and also as a source for new practices. There should be a dichotomy between theory and practice. While there is both applicable as well as inapplicable theory and research basis of TESOL is the focus on theoretical foundations of TESOL practices as well as the significance of theory for successful practice.” (Carter & Nunan, 2001, p 215). English language learning has been of central value in the modern context and “Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages” (TESOL) has great relevance in the modern world. “TESOL is an acronym which stands for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages and is a ‘blanket’ term covering situations in which English is taught as an L2, as well as those in which it is taught as a foreign language.” (Carter & Nunan, 2001, p. 1). The teaching of English to the speakers of other languages has great relevance in the modern world and it suggests the significance of attaining good skills of teaching the language. “In fact, the field of teaching English as a second or foreign language has grown enormously in the past two decades.” ( Opportunities in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages , 1995, p 3).

There are four basic language skills, the acquirement of which is essential in the learning of English or any language for that matter. “For a long time, listening has been treated as the Cinderella of the four macro-skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing. However, as an essential part of communicative competence, listening is a skill that deserves equal treatment with the others…” (Flowerdew & Miller, 2005, p 134). Listening skill is the primary and most essential language skill to be acquired and the mastery in this skill may indicate proficiency in the language of English. “The term listening is used in language teaching to refer to a complex process that allows us to understand spoken language. Listening, the most widely used language skill, is often used in conjunction with the other skills of speaking, reading and writing. Listening is not only a skill area in language performance, but is also a critical means of acquiring a second language (L2).” (Carter & Nunan, 2001, p 7). Along with the skill of speaking, the listening skill is regarded as the important pillar of the language which is learned primary by a speaker, and the other two language skills are acquired only at a later stage of language acquisition. “Listening and speaking play central roles in language acquisition and development… Listening is the ability to understand speech… Listening comprehension is central to language acquisition. In the last two decades it has become increasingly common to emphasize listening in the early stages of second language acquisition. Listening is an active and conscious process.” (Carrasquillo, 1994, p 131).

Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) involves several language theories and listening comprehension has been a central concern of many of these theories. It is essential to be aware of the fact that these language theories suggest the method and techniques of listening comprehension. The external and internal aspects of the learner, as these theories point out, are considered vital in the development of listening comprehension in the process of language acquisition. “Listening comprehension has become the foundation of a number of theories of second language acquisition that focus on the beginning levels of second language proficiency. The primary assumption underlying those theories is that language acquisition is an implicit process in which linguistic rules are internalized by extensive exposure to authentic texts and particularly to comprehensible input that provides an appropriate level of challenge to the listener… In parallel with but independent of the emphasis on comprehension-based approaches to second language instruction, there has been an equal degree of theoretical interest in the mental process involved in listening.” (O’Malley & Uhl, 1990, p 129-30).

The several theories of learning very well suggest that learning of the language can be assisted and directed clearly so that the effect of TESOL is greater. The social cognitive theory, for example, proposes that behavior, environmental factors, personal elements, etc can be instrumental in better learning. It is the interrelation between all these factors that help the learners acquire learning items faster and more effectively. This also corresponds to the learning of language, especially the listening skills. “Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes learning in terms of the interrelationship between behavior, environmental factors, and personal factors. It also provides the theoretical framework for interactive learning used to develop both Constructivism and Cooperative Learning.” ( Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) , 2008). It is clear that according to this theoretical perspective, every learner achieves knowledge when the situation congregates with personal characteristics and personal experience. In this theory, the latest experiences are assessed against those of the past and it is clear that prior experiences are crucial in subsequently directing and informing the learner regarding how the present should be investigated. Thus, on the basis of this theory, the learning environment in language learning, as well as past learning, can be critical in the acquisition of the language. The instructor, therefore, should provide every opportunity to develop these conditions for the learning of listening skills. Therefore, it is clear the constructivist theory backs up the learning process of TESOL. In the same way, other theories such as comprehensible input, bottom-up and top-down listening schemata, behaviorism, and constructivist orientation theory may be seen as contributing to the learning activity of TESOL.

The skill of listening several other sub-skills and only a comprehension of the various listening aspects can lead one to be a good listener. The process of listening comprehension is of vital importance as well. It is important to comprehend that “effective listening involves a large number of component skills. Effective listeners actively engage in the process of comprehension: they apply relevant internal information available to them in order to construct their own interpretation of what has been said. They do not passively receive and record.” (Anderson & Lynch, 1988, p. 6). Listening comprehension can be very well comprehended as a central process in the language acquisition process and it is an active process in which several central aspects of language activity are involved. “Listening comprehension is viewed theoretically as an active process in which individuals focus on selected aspects of aural input, construct meaning from passages, and relate what they hear to existing knowledge.” (O’Malley, Uhl & Küpper). Some of the direct research evidence has sufficiently proved and supported this theoretical view and this is essential to view that the listening activity is an integral part of the language process. “Listening has rightly assumed a central role in language learning. The skills underlying listening have become more clearly defined. Strategies contributing to effective listening are now better understood. Teaching methodology in the mainstream has not yet caught up with theory… Specific skill instruction as well as strategy development still needs greater attention in order to demystify the listening process.” (Carter & Nunan, 2001, p 13).

It is essential to consider that the teaching of the language to the speakers of other languages involves several challenges. The teaching of the English language to speakers of other languages involves various pertinent questions and these are very significant to be dealt with in the process of teaching the language. It is significant also to consider the several methods and theoretical perspectives of language teaching. “Methods serve as a foil for reflection that can aid teachers in bringing to conscious awareness the thinking that underlies their actions.” (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p ix). In an evaluation of the various theories that are significant in language teaching to the speakers of another language, the role of listening taxonomy is of primary consideration. Listening taxonomy can be regarded as an essential element in the learning of English as a foreign language. The listening taxonomies indicate various elements of learning the language. “Foreign language educators also have developed taxonomies of listening comprehension as a foundation for enabling students to process the acquisition of the new language.” (Wolvin & Coakley, 1993, p 17).

It is of significant consideration that language learning depends greatly on listening as it provides the aural input that serves as the basis for language acquisition and enables learners to interact in spoken communication. It is also pertinent to remember that among the four language modes the children acquire the listening mode first. Remarkably, listening plays a life-long role in the process of communication as it offers the basis for all facets of language and cognitive development. Language input, according to second language acquisition theory, is the most critical condition of language achievement. Listening has a crucial role to play in the language development of the students, as it is an input skill. Therefore, language is acquired mainly through receiving understandable input. Significantly, the listening ability is the essential element in the achievement of understandable language input. It is fundamental for language teachers to help students in becoming effective listeners as there is great importance for listening in language learning and teaching. “In the communicative approach to language teaching, this means modeling listening strategies and providing listening practice in authentic situations: precisely those that learners are likely to encounter when they use the language outside the classroom.” (Guo & Wills).

In the attempt to comprehend the various theories that contribute to the listening aspect of the language learning schema theory has a great significance. It is a theory that details how the stored information in the memory of the people is found useful in the attainment of the essentially human aspects. There have been several pieces of evidence for the role of the schema theory in the understanding of listening comprehension. The richness of a schema affects listening in a significant manner and it is crucial in the process of adding new listening aspects to the existing schema. Schema is also useful in listening during conversations. “Schema theory is important for listening theory and research for several reasons. First, selection, interpretation, and retrieval of information are components of listening… Second, a database involving orally administered tasks already exists in schema theory research.” (Wolvin & Coakley, 1993, p 61).

In this analysis of the TESOL theories and listening comprehension, it is also important to consider the significance of listening strategies. “Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the comprehension and recall of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified by how the listener processes the input. Top-down strategies are listener based; the listener taps into background knowledge of the topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This background knowledge activates a set of expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate what will come next… Listening comprehension tends to be an interactive, interpretive process in which listeners use prior knowledge and linguistic knowledge in understanding messages. Listeners use meta-cognitive, cognitive and socio-affective strategies to facilitate comprehension and to make their learning more effective.” (Guo & Wills).

As we understand more about language quality as well as the development of teaching theory, there has been a great identification of the process of listening comprehension which requires better emphasis. It is imperative to understand that listening is an invisible mental process and therefore it is complex to be described. However, it is most often realized, as Wipf in his “Strategies for Teaching Second Language Listening Comprehension” points out, that the listeners must discriminate between sounds, understand vocabulary and grammatical structures, interpret stress and intonation, understand the intention and retain and interpret this within the immediate as well as the larger socio-cultural context of the utterance. (Wipf, 1984, 17:345-48). It is pertinent to consider the definition of listening given by Rost who in a broad sense defines it as a process of receiving what the speaker actually says (receptive orientation); constructing and representing meaning (constructive orientation); negotiating meaning with the speaker and responding (collaborative orientation); and, creating meaning through involvement, imagination, and empathy (transformative orientation). (Rost, 2002). From such a discussion of the listening comprehension by important writers, it becomes clear that it is essential to comprehend listening as a complex activity that needs further investigation. “Listening, then, is a complex, active processes of interpretation in which listeners match what they hear with what they already know.” (Guo & Wills P. 4).

The theoretical analysis of listening comprehension can be essential in an understanding of the various aspects of listening processes. Significantly, there are two distinct processes involved in listening comprehension. In the first process of listening, which is known as ‘top-down’ processes, listeners use previous knowledge to comprehend the meaning of a message. The knowledge of the topic, the listening context, the text type, the culture, or other information stored in long-term memory as schemata, etc can be part of the prior knowledge. Content words and contextual clues are made use by the listeners in order to form premises in an investigative way. The second process, known as ‘bottom-up’ processes, is, on the other hand, used by listeners as they use linguistic knowledge to understand the meaning of a message. In such a process meaning is arrived at from lower-level sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meanings. “Listening comprehension is not either top-down or bottom-up processing, but an interactive, interpretive process where listeners use both prior knowledge and linguistic knowledge in understanding messages. The degree to which listeners use the one process or the other will depend on their knowledge of the language, familiarity with the topic or the purpose for listening. For example, listening for gist involves primarily top-down processing, whereas listening for specific information, as in a weather broadcast, involves primarily bottom-up processing to comprehend all the desired details.” (Vandergrift).

In ultimate conclusion, it is important to consider that listening is the most pertinent language skill, the comprehension of which is central to the language acquisition by learners. TESOL is obviously one of the essential factors of modern man as the role of English has reached a new zenith. For the acquisition of English by speakers of other languages, the theories and practice of TESOL can be found essential. The role of English as well as the teaching and learning process, i.e. TESOL, has increased tremendously n the modern world. The listening comprehension strategies and their various aspects can be essential in the process of TESOL. This paper has been found central in investigating some of the fundamental elements that relate the TESOL theories with listening comprehension. Further investigation into the topic can draw essential conclusions regarding the TESOL theories and listening comprehension.

Sethi, Sadanand., & Jindal Sethi, Sadanand. A practical course in English pronunciation , Prentice Hall Publishers, p. 3.

Carter, Ronald., & Nunan, David. Jack C. Richardson, “Postscript: The Ideology of TESOL” The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001, p. 215.

Carter, Ronald., & Nunan, David. The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001, p. 1.

Opportunities in teaching English to speakers of other languages , Blythe McGraw-Hill Professional, 1995, p. 3.

Flowerdew, John., Miller, Lindsay. Second language listening: Theory and practice , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005. p.134.

Carter, Ronald., & Nunan, David. Michael Rost, “Listening”, The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001, p. 7.

Carrasquillo, Angela L. Teaching English as a second Language: A Resource Guide , Taylor & Francis, 1994, p. 131.

O’Malley, Michael., & Uhl, Anna J. Learning strategies in second language acquisition , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990, p. 129-30.

Anderson, Anne., & Lynch, Tony. Listening, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988, p 6.

O’malley, Michael J., Uhl, Anna., & Chamot and Küpper, Lisa. Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition . 2008. Web.

Larsen-Freeman, Diane. Techniques and principles in language teaching , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Wolvin Andrew D., & Coakley, Carolyn Gwynn. “A Listening Taxonomy,” Perspectives on Listening , Green wood Publishing Group, 1993, p. 17.

Guo, Naizhao., & Wills, Robin. An Investigation of Factors Influencing English Listening Comprehension and Possible Measures for Improvement . 2008. Web.

Wolvin Andrew D., & Coakley, Carolyn Gwynn. Renee Edwards and Janet L McDonald, “Schema Theory and Listening”, Perspectives on Listening , Green wood Publishing Group, 1993, p. 61.

Guo, Naizhao., & Wills, Robin. An Investigation of Factors Influencing English Listening Comprehension and Possible Measures for Improvement: Abstract. P.4. 2008. Web.

Wipf, J. Strategies for teaching second language listening comprehension , Foreign Language Annals, 1984, 17:345-48.

Rost, M. Teaching and researching listening London, UK: Longman, 2002.

Vandergrift, Larry. Listening: Theory and Practice in Modern Foreign Language Competence . Language Linguistics Area Studies. 2008. Web.

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) , (2008). idea. Web.

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How to Become an ESL Teacher in 4 Key Steps and Tips for How to Teach ESL

Thinking of making a change? Considering becoming an ESL (English as a Second Language) teacher?

This career, also known as EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teaching, can be a deeply fulfilling and enriching life experience.

You’ll be in a position to help students achieve their dreams by learning English. You’ll likely get to travel to some far-off places, too.

Like any career, though, ESL teaching requires forethought and planning, as well as specific certifications.

So before you do anything, read this guide for how to become an ESL teacher in four steps , plus useful tips for how to teach ESL once you get your first teaching gig.

How to Become an ESL Teacher

1. consider the career carefully., 2. decide what type of esl teaching you want to do., 3. obtain any necessary certifications., 4. check out the job market and schools you’re interested in., tips for esl teachers, utilize your unique experiences, know what language skills to focus on, learn how to plan lessons well, make class easy and homework challenging, use available resources, be honest, encouraging and fun, diversify your income.

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)

The first step in deciding to leave your present life for a new career is making sure you’re clear on what exactly that new career entails.

As with any job, teaching English isn’t for everyone. Before investing your time and money in this endeavor, have a long think about the realities of this job.

While the exact requirements can change depending on your location and school, you’ll want to consider the following points before you pursue this career:

• Native or non-native English speaker:  Native speakers are in higher demand and are often paid more money. However, you do not necessarily need to be a native speaker to teach ESL.
• English grammar: If you’re worried about your grammar level, there are plenty of ways to learn or brush up on such concepts. Additionally, most certification courses will make sure you know enough grammar to be successful.
• Speaking the local language: While some positions may ask for bilingual EFL teachers, in many cases you will only be required to teach in English. In fact, plenty of English teachers use the opportunity to learn the language of their host country.
• ESL classrooms: As with any classroom learning environment, the class will only be as good as the teacher and their materials. Typically, if you are prepared with an informative, fun, interactive lesson, then that is what your classroom will feel like too.
• Teaching children or adults: Most TEFL certification courses will offer guided, in-class teaching hours toward the end of the course so you can gain experience with an age group. While there are definitely opportunities to teach English to adults (especially if you have a business background), be aware that most ESL openings are for teaching children. 

The second big thing to consider before making the switch is: Do I have the qualities of a great ESL teacher?

You’ll need to be confident and able to adapt quickly to new situations. You’ll also need to be organized, detail-oriented and ready to create engaging and practical lessons for your students. You also need to be willing to study the English language so you can teach it properly.

Finally, make sure that becoming an EFL teacher is something you really want to do.

Are you ready to…

• open yourself to new cultures and experiences?
• meet new and interesting people from around the world?
• potentially spend a year or longer away from home?
• be the best version of yourself for your students?
• work a meaningful and life-changing job?

Did you say “yes” to all of those? Great! You’re on the right track to becoming an ESL teacher.

The next step is to consider whether you’d like to teach in your home country or abroad. Are you hungry for adventure, or are you looking to make an impact in your local community?

Teaching ESL at home can be an incredibly rewarding experience. Often this means working with refugees and immigrants trying to make a new home in a place you know well. You’ll be an invaluable resource for your students.

You’ll likely find opportunities in:

• cities and towns with large foreign communities
• grassroots, non-profit, state or federal organizations
• preschools and kindergartens
• universities

Some perks of staying in your home country include not needing a passport or visa and not leaving behind family and friends. You won’t have to adjust to a new country and culture, and often the pay is quite nice. However, there may be much higher requirements for becoming a teacher.

Teaching English abroad, on the other hand, gives you opportunities to:

• immerse yourself in a new country
• meet a wide variety of people
• learn another language
• travel to neighboring countries

The international ESL market can be easier to break into, too. But, with the exception of a few countries , teaching abroad doesn’t always pay well. There’s also a higher potential for cross-cultural communication issues.

Teaching abroad typically also means adapting to a different way of life. This can be especially challenging if you don’t speak the language of your host country. However, you will also gain incredible cultural experiences and broaden your global perspective.

Typically, teaching at home or abroad will mean teaching English in a classroom setting. You’ll get to truly connect with your students, emulate the teachers you admired, create fun group lesson plans, meet students’ friends and families and so much more.

However, while in-person class sizes can vary, they often lean towards “overcrowded.” Sometimes dealing with parents can be tricky or challenging, if you end up in a role where you have to communicate with them directly.

The other option, then, is teaching online ESL classes. Connecting with students virtually helps you reach more learners, and can be cost effective for both you and them. It also means you may have the option to work from anywhere you’d like.

Of course, it can be more difficult to really connect with your students online and engage them in the lesson. While you can share articles and digital games, you lose the physical interaction of classroom activities. You’ll also need to ensure that you have quick and reliable Internet access no matter where you are.

It may seem like there are an infinite number of acronyms to refer to English teaching and certifications, so let’s break it down!

Here are the different types of teaching qualifications:

• TEFL  (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) is for working abroad. Certification usually takes 120 hours and can be done fully online, in a classroom course or a combination. Note that “TEFL” is often used as a catch-all term for ESL teaching certifications.
• TESL  (Teaching English as a Second Language) is generally for those who want to teach English in a native English-speaking country. You might earn this certification if you hope to teach immigrants or refugees, for instance.
• TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) is very similar to TEFL and may be used interchangeably. However, TESOL is generally recommended for those hoping to teach English in their home country, though it may also be used to teach internationally.
• TEAL  (Teaching English as an Additional Language) is a new acronym that emerged as a response to the TESL. Many English learners aren’t learning English as their second language, but rather, their third, fourth or even fifth! A TEAL certification course will be similar to a TESL one.
• CELTA (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults) is sort of like a fancy TEFL specifically for teaching adult students. It’s a highly regarded certificate that takes about a month to complete. It’s more expensive than other options but opens up a world of opportunities (literally) for the keen teacher.
• DELTA  (Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) is a higher-level form of accreditation which is only open to teachers who’ve taught for a period of at least one year. It’s recommended for those looking to turn their passion for ESL into a career.

Psst… I’ll let you in on a little secret: Some jobs don’t even ask for a teaching certificate at all! However, this is fairly uncommon. These days most English schools will require their teachers to be accredited by one of the above programs and hold a college degree (in any field).

Now you’ll want to consider which of the EFL qualifications fits your needs the best. Here are some resources to help you figure out how and where to get certified:

• Tefl.net has a search function which shows you the various institutions offering these degrees in your country.
• GoAbroad is a great resource for finding accredited institutions to undertake your ESL studies.
• Cambridge English has incredibly useful information regarding higher-level qualifications, as well as fantastic resources related to the ESL world as a whole.
• OnTESOL is a top-notch resource for comprehensive training and information on the TESOL and TEFL certifications.
• Teach for America can help US citizens who have a college degree in something other than teaching who are looking to teach EFL in their home country.
• International TEFL Academy is chock-full of information about teaching abroad and offers online, in-person and specialty courses alongside one-on-one guidance and job search assistance.

You can also research local colleges and training centers to see if there are any available ESL certification courses near you.

Whatever path you choose, always be sure to read the reviews of the institution and ensure that the certifying institute is accredited.  If possible, try to contact some former students to ask about their opinions of the course.

Once you have your EFL qualifications and are ready to get into your new classroom, it’s time to search the market.

Finding the right gig can be stressful, though, especially if you’re planning to go abroad to a country you’ve never been to before.

It’s all about using the right tools. Here are some of the most popular job boards to check out:

• Dave’s ESL Cafe is the gold standard blog in the English teaching world. There are daily updated job postings and endless materials, resources and information at your disposal.
• ESLbase is very comprehensive and includes a handy scam guide . (It’s also where I found my first job teaching in Spain!)
• TEFL.com allows you to search for jobs within very specific parameters, such as location or length of contract.
• /r/TEFL , the TEFL forum on Reddit, is another option for crowd-sourced info and potential leads for teaching positions.

If you’re looking for positions at home, you can browse local job postings and the job boards of nearby schools.

Once you’ve found some open positions you’re interested in, make sure to do your due diligence and research the schools, especially if you’re going to be moving abroad.

As in any industry, there are certainly cases of dodgy dealings, scams and teachers having horrible experiences on their ESL journey. Luckily there are a few steps to overcome this.

First, look at the school’s online presence. What does the website look like? Is it on any social media platforms? Informing yourself about the school won’t only help you avoid scams, it’ll also make you a more attractive job candidate.

Next, talk to as many people as you can, including your potential boss and co-workers. If possible, contact some ex-teachers too—people who are no longer beholden to a contract for their visa are often willing to be more candid.

You can check out this Facebook group full of EFL teachers and employers, or better, find a forum specifically for your target city.

There’s also a few places designed to help job candidates research potential employers—the TEFL blacklist on Reddit is a helpful resource to read about negative experiences and potential places to avoid. Workplace review sites such as Glassdoor may also give you valuable insight to a company.

Once you’re confident in the locations and schools, send in your application materials, prepare for your interviews and get excited to begin your new career as an English teacher! Spend some time researching common ESL teacher job interview questions and ways to answer them correctly , too. 

Once you land your first ESL teaching job, how do you set yourself up for success?

Follow these tips for a smoother transition into your new job, whether abroad or at home.

Finding your specialty within ESL can benefit you and your students.

Your foundation may be simply teaching wherever the jobs take you, but you will likely soon find that you enjoy teaching a specific type of class to a specific group of students.

Here are a few sought-after specialties that could be useful for your ESL teaching career:

This may depend upon your school and any required curriculum you are asked to teach.

Whether this is the case or you have some more freedom over your ESL class content, it’s important to be aware of the four major language skills:

• Listening is the second passive language skill. As novices, students need to become familiar with the sounds of English. Next, they progress to listening comprehension, in which they listen for content and understanding.
• Writing is an active skill where the learner must produce the language. Any variety of writing practice may be utilized according to students’ needs: essay writing , report writing, email writing , etc. With writing, it’s important to note differences between professional and casual correspondence.

You will get a crash course on lesson planning during your certification training, and you will also discover what works best for you as you teach more classes.

One of the most common language lesson plan structures, however, is called PPP—that stands for Presentation, Practice and Production . Here’s a breakdown of each section:

• Presentation is the first stage, where you deliver the new lesson material to your students. It’s vital to get their attention and ensure they are understanding the content before moving onto the next stage.
• Practice is the second stage, in which your students will slowly begin practicing the new material they just learned. You can employ pair and group activities, but you guide them through the work and the new content’s proper usage.
• Production is the final stage, and usually the most fun for students. You’ll give them exercises they can do on their own, in a group or with a partner while you float around the class answering questions. Here, your students develop an understanding of the new material in their own unique way.

To create a successful PPP lesson plan, you’ll need to know the overall focus of your lesson —what exactly will your students learn by the end of the class?

Then, you’ll create and/or designate activities to fulfill each section of PPP. Make sure to exercise the most relevant English skills throughout your lesson: reading, listening, writing, speaking, vocabulary, grammar and so on.

Lastly, always have a backup lesson! Maybe the flu is going around and only eight of your 20 students show up. Maybe the power went out five minutes before class started and it’s still not back.

Your backup doesn’t have to be complex: It could be as simple as a game of “Jeopardy ,” a word puzzle activity or a lesson based on a short story .

Many ESL teachers find that the time allotted for teaching a lesson is often not enough to cover all of the required or desired content. You can remedy this by making class time easier—for your students and yourself.

For instance, one of the biggest time sucks in class is simply waiting for students to speak. There’s nothing wrong with giving a struggling learner a few extra moments to compose their sentence, but if everyone is doing this every time they’re asked to speak, it can take up precious in-class learning time.

So set your students up for success!  If you’re following a PPP lesson plan, this is very simple to do.

Your Presentation should clearly explain the grammar point (or whatever it is) and provide examples. The Practice stage lets the students get a feel for how the grammar point works. And in the Production stage, they have the opportunity to produce their own version of what they just practiced.

This has the added bonus of building up students’ confidence. Which means you can let them know that their homework is meant to be a challenge. They’re not meant to complete it perfectly—just to the best of their abilities.

Completing the more challenging tasks at home allows for extra time to be used there instead of in class. Just don’t forget to review the homework with your students the next day!

There are many incredible books, podcasts, videos, lesson plans and other ESL materials online. Use them!

For instance, “Complete English Grammar Rules” by Farlex International is a high-quality, reliable reference book for ESL teachers and students alike. It has tons of explanations, examples and exercises in its 520 pages, ensuring you can find the answer to just about any English grammar question.

For visual content, you can try FluentU . This language learning program takes authentic English videos—like music videos, movie trailers, news and inspiring talks—and turns them into personalized language lessons, complete with interactive subtitles, quizzes and other learning tools.

Authentic videos help introduce your students to English-speaking cultures and familiarize them with native accents and ways of speaking. With a  FluentU school account , you can create custom flashcard decks, assign homework and track student progress.

For more resources you can use in your EFL lessons, check out the various textbooks , apps and software that are available.

If you aren’t 100% sure about the answer to a student’s question, be upfront with them. For example, if a student asks, “Do they say soda  or  pop  in New Jersey?” and you don’t know off the top of your head, just be honest.

I recommend responding with something along the lines of, “What a great question! You know, I’m not sure. Let me get back to you during our next class.” Just remember to actually follow up with them next time.

Similarly, remember to keep a positive attitude and be encouraging, even when your students are struggling or making you frustrated.

Constructive feedback sprinkled with encouragement helps students grow and learn, and it creates a safe and positive learning environment.

Having fun also fosters a positive classroom rapport! Play games and laugh with your students, but also ensure you know where to draw the line. You want to keep your classes lively and interesting, but you never want to lose their respect.

Being an ESL teacher often comes with the benefits of frequent travel and some level of control over your own schedule.

Often, the salary for an ESL teacher abroad is just enough to cover what you need to live and eat (unless you land a more coveted teaching position). One way that many teachers vary their income while they teach abroad is to teach both in a classroom setting and online.  

Similarly, most teachers (no matter their location) can do other online work —things like running an Etsy store, freelance article writing or even offering translation services.

In general, it’s important to note that ESL teachers abroad typically find that adding one or two additional income streams will allow them to make more money while fully enjoying their experience (without eating cheap or living in a hostel for months at a time).

Sold on becoming an ESL teacher? Then get ready for the exciting adventure of a lifetime!

As long as you’ve done all your research and prepared accordingly, teaching English as a second language can be a highly rewarding career choice. So be thorough, ask questions and enjoy every minute!

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10 Tips and Tricks for Teaching English as a Second Language

Teaching English as a second language is a task that is often easier said than done. Even for an experienced teacher, successfully leading your first ESL class can be challenging. However, teaching ESL, at its core, is the same as teaching fluent students because you still need to apply basic classroom principles. Your lessons need to be structured to cater to an array of learning needs too. But you’ll also face some unique challenges when working with English language learners. Teaching language skills while compensating for different cultures, learning styles, and educational backgrounds, all while trying to break through language barriers, can take some getting used to. But with the right tips and tricks up your sleeve, teaching your students the English language can be an extremely rewarding experience. Let’s take a look at some essential language skills and teaching tips every ESL teacher should use to achieve success in their endeavors! How to be a Pro at Teaching English as Second Language:

1. Ensure you’re backed up by proper qualifications

Although you might be fluent in the English language, that doesn’t mean you’re qualified to teach others. Anyone serious about teaching English as a second language should obtain a bachelor’s degree (in any subject) and complete a 120-hour TEFL certification course. Whether you choose to do your TEFL certification or master’s in TESOL online or at a physical college is up to you. After you’ve been certified, you’ll receive the resources you need to apply for teaching positions and set off on your new career, whether that’s in your home country or abroad.

2. Keep things simple

Native English speakers might not think that adding a few extra words to a sentence can cause confusion. But from the perspective of a foreign language learner with limited  English proficiency , there’s a major difference between “put your book on the shelf” and “would you mind placing your book back on the bookshelf?” Whenever teaching a new language to beginners, try to use the simplest of sentences with plain vocabulary, and speak slowly. You can gradually introduce new English words once your students have the building blocks in place that will ensure they understand the basics of the English language.

3. Visuals are your friends. Use them often

Visuals can be words on desks, handouts, and even drawings. Regardless of whether you’re teaching kids or adults, visuals can help your students better relate to physical objects, which speeds up the process of picking up on words outside of their native language. A pictorial wall is also a great way to help expand the vocabulary of your students, and every great teacher knows this. You can also give your students time to watch movies in the English language, perhaps they could be subtitled to encourage active participation in the activity. In the ESL class, the old saying that a picture speaks a thousand words couldn’t be closer to the truth.

4. Bring the fun back

Language learning can feel bland and boring if you’re going at it in black and white for hours on end. And this is the last thing you want your learners to experience, which is why you need to find fun ways of sprucing up each lesson with interesting verbal and written instructions. Perhaps incorporating the interests of your students into the lessons helps them engage and broadens their understanding of the topic. Separating the class into teams that compete against each other is also a fun way to encourage students and ensure you’re adding an element of excitement to the learning process. And when learners are excited and interested in the subject, they find it easier to relate to the new language, which makes bridging the language barrier easier.

5. Become a master of lesson planning

All the best teachers know that lesson planning is the foundation of teaching success. Your students are unpredictable, and winging it is never an acceptable thing to do in the classroom. What you need is enough worksheets for the entire class and lesson time that’s gracious enough to cover the lessons you have planned for the day. But you also need a backup plan for when an activity isn’t working as well as you planned it would. How will you introduce new topics of language to the class? When are your students to move on with the syllabus? Which aspects of the syllabus need to be revisited? All this needs to form part of your lesson planning.

6. Respect cultural differences

If you’re teaching English as a non-native language in a foreign country, you’ll most probably face cultural differences. As a teacher, it’s your responsibility to gently shift a student’s mindset to work with your teaching methods. Certain cultural norms, like dress code and aspects of non-verbal communication, must be respected. Still, the first step to understanding and ultimately overcoming these cultural barriers is bonding with your students in a supportive environment and making them feel comfortable around you. This creates a positive learning environment where you can establish boundaries and set expectations for your English learners.

7. Use tech for teaching English language learners

Just like the rest of the world, teaching methods are continually evolving. Translation technology and tools like Google Translate are becoming more prevalent in multilingual classrooms. Chalk and a blackboard have almost completely disappeared in classrooms of the digital era, and the use of technology and digital tools isn’t just optional anymore; it’s almost vital. From using video clips to language apps and music in your classroom, there are many ways in which you can harness the power of technology in language learning. But remember, all English language learners might not have access to a smartphone or tablet, so make sure the technology you plan on implementing in your lessons is accessible to everyone in the classroom.

8. Help your English language learners set goals

A great way to keep language learners motivated is with short- and long-term goals. Whether the goal is to read an English novel by the end of the year or acing an exam on English language skills, you need to encourage all your students to set targets for themselves to help them keep track of their progress. Once you’re aware of their goals, it can also help you create appropriate activities and lessons centered around their goals, making the learning process more exciting and engaging for your students.

9. Map out a timeline for your foreign language course

Right from the start through to the final lesson, you need to set a clear completion timeline for your English classes. This helps you (and your students) stay on top of the objectives at hand. You can also use checkpoints throughout your timeline to evaluate the progress your students made and assess whether they’ll reach their next goal in time. This will help ensure you’re meeting the needs of your students with your lessons and that they are making progress in their English learning journey.

10. Include interactive activities to promote language skills

A great way for an English teacher to boost language acquisition and the confidence levels of their students is through interactive activities. Group work and interactive activities help students practice their new vocabulary and polish their verbal communication skills. And since it’s a social activity, it can also help inhibited learners come alive in the classroom environment.

Wrapping up

Teaching English as a second language might seem like a daunting task and can be a little more  challenging  than the average teaching job, but it’s one of the most rewarding teaching roles out there. This is so much more than a career. It’s a meaningful endeavor that gives back and helps bring the world closer together, one word at a time. Each teacher might have their own style, but the ten tips we’ve highlighted in this post should help you foster stronger relationships with your students and equip you to set them up for language learning success.

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This tips its very useful and very importat, so how can i get nots for english cause?

I found your tips very useful for my colleagues and me being working as supervisors of English. They are initiatives to be built upon for the benefit of our students. Thank you so much

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Teaching Writing to ESL/EFL Students: Tips and Activities for Any Level

• Linda D'Argenio
• August 19, 2022

Teaching writing to non-native speakers of a language presents a plethora of unique challenges and can feel overwhelming for new and seasoned teachers alike. However, teaching writing to ESL students can be dynamic and meaningful when approached with a bit of ingenuity.

If you’re new to teaching, you’ll want to get initial training and qualification with a TEFL certificate . You can explore our online TEFL courses to get started!

Why is it important to teach writing to ESL students?

In order to effectively participate as contributing members of society, individuals need to be able to communicate their thoughts in written form, whether they are using the English language as their vehicle or not.

Writing is an essential component of productive language, and ELs will need to demonstrate their ability to write in English if they hope to be competitive in a globalized world . Building competency in English-language writing supports reading comprehension, vocabulary expansion, and oral fluency , so there’s so much to be gained. And even if your students don’t plan to use the lingua franca on a regular basis, the skills gleaned from learning to write in another language transfer to all facets of life, making students more aware and more effective communicators in their native language(s) .

Teaching ESL writing aids in self-expression , which might be particularly meaningful for individuals who are hesitant to express themselves verbally. You might have the next Henry David Thoreau or Gabriel García Márquez in your class!

Why do ESL students struggle with writing?

Writing in another language is no easy feat, so it’s only natural that your ESL/ EFL students encounter difficulties when asked to do so.

First, it’s essential to recognize that writing conventions differ from one language group to another . Students from various linguistic backgrounds might declare that writing in English (particularly in an academic setting) is “boring,” something they perceive as formulaic. Often, these students come from backgrounds that value writing in a way that might seem “tangential” to native English readers.

In “Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education,” Robert B. Kaplan (1966) put forth a model for examining written discourse patterns, which illustrates how different thought patterns influence how speakers of other languages express themselves in written form.

You can observe that English is illustrated as being very straightforward, which aligns with the directness of spoken English. Kaplan poses here that other language groups tend to branch off in different directions in written form, pulling in supporting elements that might not be directly correlated to the main idea and that present as “off-topic” for native English speakers.

Secondly, it’s crucial to keep in mind that writing requires a vocabulary lexicon that can adequately support sharing . Often, even the most proficient English learners struggle to select the language they need to convey their point. When tackling writing instruction, make sure to consider how you’re supporting vocabulary development to support the conventions you’re teaching.

Lastly (and perhaps most importantly), writing is a form of self-expression, and self-expression through writing isn’t valued the same way in all cultures . There is a great deal of value placed on sharing one’s opinions in the U.S., for example, but this is not the reality all over the world. Some of your students might have been taught that they receive and process information, but that they are not in the position to make statements of their own or have the authority to teach others. Therefore, putting their thoughts down on paper might feel formal, high-stakes even, for your students.

What are some tips for teaching ESL writing?

Regardless of the age and proficiency level of your students, or whether you’re teaching writing in an ESL or EFL classroom, there is a myriad of strategies that you have at your disposal.

Don’t underestimate the value of conducting needs assessments

When it comes down to how to teach writing skills, even if you are teaching a group that is considered a certain proficiency level, recognize that there is always going to be a range of experience and ability present. Spend time getting to know what your students have been exposed to and in what ways before deciding on your approach. Teach to the middle to ensure no one is left behind.

Check out the following sample needs assessment to get started:

Think about how you can lower learners’ affective filters

A large portion of all successful teaching comes from relationship-building. In addition to getting a true sense of your learners’ experience and abilities, try to understand their attitudes towards writing as a process and any challenges that might be borne from those attitudes. How can you increase your students’ comfort level? How can you engage the individuals sitting in front of you?

Check out these 5 ways to build rapport with your students when teaching English.

Think about how the writing task can act as a building block for other assignments

Learning how to write in another language can be intimidating, and even more so if your students don’t enjoy writing in the first place. When wondering how to teach writing to ESL/EFL students, think about how you can integrate writing more often and more seamlessly into your lesson plans. Instead of approaching writing in isolation, teach writing skills alongside other “more engaging” activities that students tend to enjoy more. Have your students participate in role-playing and storytelling activities that require writing but don’t make writing the focus of the activity. This is your chance to be sneaky and get your students to build their writing skills without even knowing!

Present opportunities to examine authentic, written language

Providing students with examples of the target language is non-negotiable, but challenge yourself to move beyond the sample texts in your curriculum where possible. Students might feel bored by the selected works in their textbooks – they need to recognize that written language is all around them. Pull from authentic texts that cover an array of topics that you know matter to your students to keep them enticed.

Try incorporating pop culture into your ESL classroom to spice up writing activities!

Lead with function over form in instruction, and then alter your focus

Students can be discouraged to find their paper covered with red ink, highlighting their fallacies. While it is important to provide corrective feedback, consider the purpose of the assignment before marking up the composition. Was the output comprehensible? Did it touch upon everything that you asked for? Focusing on both function (the purpose of the assignment) and the accuracy in form simultaneously can feel overwhelming. Choose your objectives carefully, make them known to the learners, and provide corrective feedback accordingly .

Choose writing activities that pertain to your students’ learning goals. For example, the following clip, from a BridgeUniverse Expert Series webinar , covers how to teach Business English students to write an email in English:

Consider formative assessment and reflective strategies

Whenever possible, assess student work periodically, examining the process with various checkpoints and iterations throughout, instead of just evaluating the final product. Writing is an iterative process, and students benefit greatly when offered opportunities to reflect on their process. Create opportunities for students to participate in self- and peer-revision processes, which in turn will result in more conscientious and focused writers.

What are some ESL writing activities and lesson plans for beginners?

It can feel challenging to come up with writing activities for learners with beginner proficiency, but with proper scaffolding , writing can be inclusive and participatory.

Try group writing processes in class to get students comfortable

Writers with beginner proficiency might default to a deficit mindset, believing that writing is inaccessible for them due to a dearth of vocabulary or experience, so when you start to look at how to teach writing in the ESL/EFL classroom, your first job is to inspire confidence and get students into a growth mindset. To get them comfortable with the writing process, engage them in group writing activities.

• Choose a familiar topic (or have your students choose a topic together), and explain that you are going to “group-author” a paragraph.
• Have the students share what they know about the topic, and you, as the teacher, act as the scribe, jotting down their thoughts in a central location.
• Continue gathering their ideas until everyone has shared, remembering to emphasize that this is a process and that there is no wrong contribution.
• Examine the individual contributions and note overlap: How can a few thoughts be grouped together? In the process, ask students to elaborate on what they meant and provide examples.
• Organize these preliminary thoughts to the best of your ability, involving the students and getting them to notice organizational structures and decipher between the main idea and details.
• After celebrating what you can refer to as the “first draft,” provide specific and limited ways to improve the piece. Did they include everything they thought was relevant to the topic? Could the paragraph benefit from additional cohesive devices? Do the subjects and verbs agree? Provide ample support in the form of examples, formulas, and sentence frames alongside the piece. Invite students to examine the paragraph and seek out these common mistakes (in partners or individually).
• Create your “final draft” together, and ensure that it’s displayed prominently in the space.

By engaging them in the writing process in this way, you are instilling habits that will aid them in writing autonomously when the time comes.

Make the most of brainstorming – both individually and with others

Have you ever had students tell you that they don’t know what to write? Students, particularly those at the beginner level, need ample time to think about the content before diving into the actual writing process . Emphasize the importance of brainstorming as a way to collect their thoughts and aid them in their writing. Engage students in different kinds of brainstorming activities, going beyond “write down what comes to mind.”

Consider Think-Pair-Share as a framework for brainstorming, where students take time to think independently about the topic, share their ideas with their peers, and then share aloud to a larger group. Typically, the sharing is done orally, but you could also consider the independent writing portion of the activity as “sharing” with a larger audience, just in written form.

What are some ESL writing activities and lesson plans for intermediate and advanced students?

Facilitate a two-way journal experience with your students.

Create a way for individual students to exchange their ideas with you in an informal way with a two-way journal . Have the students maintain a writing journal that you periodically collect to write comments and ask questions. The objective of this exchange is not to formally evaluate your students’ writing, but to gather intel about your students’ progress and connect with them as individuals. Within these exchanges, not only are you building and sustaining rapport, but you are also augmenting critical thinking and meta-cognitive skills with strategies like noticing and annotation.

Cultivate peer revision routines

Learning to write in a non-native language is as much a social process as it is a cognitive process. Involving students in peer revision activities can be incredibly beneficial in that students can learn from their peers (potentially those who are stronger writers than themselves) and develop the ability to think more critically about their own writing. While getting students to effectively participate in peer revision activities requires a lot of frontloading and the establishing of routine, it is the gift that keeps on giving. If you’re interested in facilitating peer revision with your students, consider the following as general guidelines:

• Start by determining your focus for the activity. What are you asking the students to do? Make it clear to the students what you’re looking for, and provide supports that they can use in the process (e.g., a checklist or rubric).
• Demonstrate how students would use the rubric, and go through the revision process as a group.
• Provide sample pieces to examine, and engage the students in discussion around the samples.
• Make sure that students are aware of what is considered appropriate and useful feedback through modeling. Have them practice, and give them feedback on their feedback.
• Monitor the peer review sessions and jump in as needed, ensuring the quality of feedback for all involved parties.
• Reflect on the peer feedback activity in whole-group format, asking students to share what they got from reading their peers’ work, defining areas that they excelled in and areas for improvement.

Timed writing

Once your students feel comfortable with the writing process and the structure at hand, consider different contexts that they’ll be writing in. Perhaps they are planning to take the TOEFL or the Pearson Test of English (PTE) and hope to study abroad, or maybe they’re about to enter the workforce and work collaboratively with others.

In either case, your students will need to demonstrate their ability to communicate their ideas in written form while adhering to time constraints . Plan timed writing activities for your students on a variety of topics and with different parameters. In a standardized test prep context, have students write under the same conditions as the test that they’re preparing to sit for.

Take a Micro-credential course in Teaching TOEFL Test Prep or Teaching PTE Test Prep to help students ace these high-stakes exams.

In a workforce development setting, illustrate a scenario in which an email from management warrants an urgent (and polished) response. In either context, examine the output and discuss strategies that the students used. Student output from timed activities provides fertile ground for examining accuracy in form. Walk students through noticing activities, and challenge them to remember their tendencies in subsequent timed writing tasks.

Teaching writing to ESL/EFL students requires commitment and perhaps a bit of innovation on the part of the teacher, but if done well, it can prove immensely useful in a globalized world, aiding individuals in self-expression and beyond.

In addition to writing, there’s another subject that can sometimes fill teachers with dread: grammar! Here are 7 simple strategies for teaching grammar to English language learners , so you can tackle this topic with confidence .

Linda D'Argenio

Linda D'Argenio is a native of Naples, Italy. She is a world language teacher (English, Italian, and Mandarin Chinese,) translator, and writer. She has studied and worked in Italy, Germany, China, and the U.S. In 2003, Linda earned her doctoral degree in Classical Chinese Literature from Columbia University. She has taught students at both the school and college levels. Linda lives in Brooklyn, NY.

Teaching English as a Second Language

Introduction.

Being able to converse proficiently in English is basically what globalization requires of the different nations. The English language has become the most important field of study among the non-English speakers as well as those who are born with it.

Second language learners try their best to become accepted in the universities in both the United States and the United Kingdom in order to become globally competitive in their fields of study. However, they will not be accepted within these universities unless they have passed the English proficiency level that the university requires of them. Therefore, ESL students try their best to become proficient in the English language.

Second language learners are doing their best not only to learn the English language but to become proficient with it at the same time. They enroll themselves into various English proficiency programs that would help enhance their skills in order to become competitive in the global market.

However, there are several issues that are thrown against the ways in which the English language are taught. Perhaps one of the most significant issue that concerns the study of the English language among these students are the ways in which both oral and written communication are taught. Moreover, these two major forms of communication have distinct uses in which they are employed appropriately. By this reason alone, it can be viewed that teachers hold the biggest responsibility in successfully attaining the goal of imparting proficient knowledge in regards to English as the second language. Teachers take the most crucial role not only in developing the minds of the students, but also in keeping the students interested and motivated to learn. Hence, the plan, processes, the very execution of the teacher’s plan and of course the books as the reference materials should always be focused on the subject and how the students can use them.

This paper is aimed at analyzing a reference book entitled “Understanding and Using English Grammar” by Betty Schrampfer Azar (2001). This particular book is used by teachers in teaching English as a second language. Every parts of the book such as the ways in which it explains some concepts and presents new ideas, the very approaches it uses in motivating the students to read and/or study the material are all scrutinized and analyzed one by one. Needless to say, this paper looks into the:

• Topics highlighted.
• Examples used.
• Exercises or quizzes for the learners

The ultimate goal of this paper is to assess whether or not the book is suitable for students who are trying to learn English as second language.

Theoretical Background

One of the most popular language acquisition theorists recognized and accepted widely of the teachers and learners of second language is Krashen’s hypotheses in the theories of language acquisition. The most fundamental among Krashen’s hypotheses is the acquisition-learning distinction. There are two independent systems of second language performance – the acquired system and the learned system. The ‘acquired system’ or ‘acquisition’ is the product of a subconscious process similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language – natural communication – in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. Lawler and Selinker (qtd in Krashen, 2002) propose that for rule internalization one can:

“ postulate two distinct types of cognitive structures: (1) those mechanisms that guide ‘automatic’ language performance… that is, performance… where speed and spontaneity are crucial and the learner has no time to consciously apply linguistic mechanisms… and (2) those mechanisms that guide puzzle- or problem-solving performance…” (Krashen, 2002).

The ‘learned system’ or ‘learning’ is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge ‘about’ the language. According to Krashen ‘learning’ is less important than ‘acquisition’. (Krashen, 2002).

The relationship between acquisition and learning and the influence of the latter on the former was defined in the Monitor hypothesis. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the ‘monitor’ or the ‘editor’. The ‘monitor’ acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time, focuses on form or correctness, and the rule. (Krashen, 2002).

The role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. The role of the monitor is – or should be – minor, being used only to correct deviations from normal speech and to give speech a more polished appearance. (Krashen, 2002).

There are however the over-users, the under-users, and the optimal users with regards to the monitor use. These are the individual variation among language learners that is suggested by Krashen. Over-users are the learners who use the monitor all the time. The under-users are those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge, while optimal users are those learners that use the monitor appropriately. In order to determine into which group a learner belongs, an evaluation of the person’s psychological profile is necessary to find out the result. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the monitor. (Krashen, 2002).

Extroverts become unconscious of their use of language and its form as they continually converse with other people, neglecting the forms of sentences and/or grammar of the language spoken. They are the performers who feel they must “know the rule” for everything and do not entirely trust their feel for grammaticality in the second language. They have a greater tendency to suffer from “lathophobic aphasia”, an “unwillingness to speak for fear of making a mistake”. Introverts, on the other hand, were able to focus or monitor the language use such that they have more time to think than talk and use the language. They appear to be entirely dependent on what they can pick up of the second language. Under-users seem to be immune to error correction, and do not perform well on grammar test. The optimal user is the performer who uses learning as a real supplement to acquisition, monitoring when it is appropriate and when it does not get in the way of communication. Optimal users may, in fact achieve the illusion of native speaker competence in written performance. They “keep grammar in its place” to fill gaps in acquired competence when such monitoring does not get in the way of communication. (Krashen, 2002).

The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a natural order which is predictable. (qtd in Krashen, 2002) Some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners’ age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. The implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, grammatical sequencing should be rejected if the goal is language acquisition. (Krashen, 2002).

The Input hypothesis attempts to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is an explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. The Input hypothesis is only concerned, however with ‘acquisition’. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the natural order when he/she receives second language input that is one step beyond the current stage of linguistic competence. The natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time. (Krashen, 2002).

Finally, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies that a number of affective variables play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to raise the affective filter and form a mental block that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is up it obstructs language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place. The hypothesis focuses on the question of simplified input, both inside and outside the classroom. The conclusion is that such input is not only highly useful, but it is possibly essential. Simple codes may provide for the second language acquirer what “caretaker speech” provides for the first language acquirer, comprehensible input with a low “affective filter”. (Krashen, 2002).

The implications are as follows: the best language lessons may be those in which real communication takes place, in which an acquirer understands what the speaker is trying to say. Similarly, a reading passage is appropriate for a student if he or she understands the message. Finally, the teacher-talk (inside the classroom) that surrounds the exercises may be far more valuable then the exercise itself. We teach language best when we use it for what it was designed for: communication. (Krashen, 2002).

Analysis and Discussion of the Material

The contents.

This book highlights topics about the overview of usage of verb tenses. Specifically it presents ideas and concepts on how to effectively use present and past, simple and progressive tenses, the perfect and perfect progressive tenses, and the use of future tense.

Also, there are clear presentations about the adverbs. Adverb of time, place and manner and how it can be differentiated with the verbs are clearly shown.

Like other common grammar or English books, this “Understanding and Using English Grammar” never forgets to focus on subject-verb agreement. Hence it also highlights topics on nouns, pronouns and some modals.

Based on the information presented above, it cannot be denied that this book contains the much needed ideas which the average English as Second Language learners need to know. These may look like the most basic information but these are, no doubt, the most detrimental. Once the teachers mastered how to teach this through the book, or once the learners has mastered how to effectively and efficiently use the right grammars (as presented in the book), then the students can proudly show off what they have learned.

Because of this, it can be concluded that the author has chosen the right topics to be included in the book. The contents are useful and beneficial to both the students and the teachers.

Examples Used

Each topic has lots of examples so for both the teachers and the students. These examples are not only updated but are also very clear and easy to be understood. Because of this, both the teachers and the students will surely be having fun as they read and/or practice saying the examples.

Exercises or Quizzes

After each topic, there are series of suggested quizzes and/exercises (either individual or group) for the students to work on to. These exercises are not so far-fetched from the examples given. Because of this, the exercises not only served as the basis for the teachers to assess whether or not the students have really learned the topic, but also as another refresher from them to somehow deepen their understanding of the English grammar.

Indeed, the exercises and/or quizzes that are included in this book have completed the whole package for teaching and studying English as the second language.

There are lots of effective learning styles that teachers could ‘impose’ on his/her class, particularly if the students are trying to learn English as their second language. These learning styles are always geared up to teaching the students and making them learn all the possible thing that the teacher would want to incorporate on them. But the success of each of the learning styles will always be dependent on how the students would accept and react on to them.

The use of a reference material (a grammar book at that) during a class discussion is one of the learning styles that have always been perceived positively by the students. This paper just proved that the reference book entitled “Understanding and Using English Grammar” by Betty Schrampfer Azar (2001) can be a really effective reference tool for both the teachers and the students.

Baker, Colin. (1993).Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Bialystok, Ellen. (1991). Language Processing in Bilingual Children. Cambridge University Press.

Bilingual. 2004. Web.

Higgins, K. and Rodriguez, D. 2005. “Preschool Children with Developmental Delays and Limited English Proficiency.” Vol. 40. Intervention in School & Clinic.

“Issues in Teaching Speaking skills to Adult ESOL Learners.” 2006. Web.

“KPMG Review of English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL)”. 2006. Web.

Krashen, S. 2002. Whole Language and the Great Plummet of 1987-92: An Urban Legend from California”. Phi Delta Kappa, Inc.

M2 Presswire. “English and citizenship to help integration and make people proud to be British.” 2003.

“Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory”. 2006. Web.

Schrampfer Azar, Betty (2001). Understanding and Using English Grammar”.

The Cognitive Advantages of Balanced Bilingualism. 2004. Web.

“What is the SIA?” 2006. Web.

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StudyKraken. (2021, September 20). Teaching English as a Second Language. https://studykraken.com/teaching-english-as-a-second-language/

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1. StudyKraken . "Teaching English as a Second Language." September 20, 2021. https://studykraken.com/teaching-english-as-a-second-language/.

Bibliography

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Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study

• Anna Williams 1 ,
• Jennifer R. Stevens 2 ,
• Rondi Anderson 3 &
• Malin Bogren 4  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  523 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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English is generally recognized as the international language of science and most research on evidence-based medicine is produced in English. While Bangla is the dominant language in Bangladesh, public midwifery degree programs use English as the medium of instruction (EMI). This enables faculty and student access to the latest evidence-based midwifery content, which is essential for provision of quality care later. Yet, it also poses a barrier, as limited English mastery among students and faculty limits both teaching and learning.

This mixed-methods study investigates the challenges and opportunities associated with the implementation of EMI in the context of diploma midwifery education in Bangladesh. Surveys were sent to principals at 38 public midwifery education institutions, and 14 English instructors at those schools. Additionally, ten key informant interviews were held with select knowledgeable stakeholders with key themes identified.

Surveys found that English instructors are primarily guest lecturers, trained in general or business English, without a standardized curriculum or functional English language laboratories. Three themes were identified in the key informant interviews. First, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Second, language labs were poorly maintained, often non-functional, and lacked faculty. Third, an alternative education model, such as the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum,  has potential to strengthen English competencies within midwifery schools.

Conclusions

ESP, which teaches English for application in a specific discipline, is one option available in Bangladesh for midwifery education. Native language instruction and the middle ground of multilingualism are also useful options. Although a major undertaking, investing in an ESP model and translation of technical midwifery content into relevant mother tongues may provide faster and more complete learning. In addition, a tiered system of requirements for English competencies tied to higher levels of midwifery education could build bridges to students to help them access global evidence-based care resources. Higher levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level would follow a multilingualism approach, teach using an ESP curriculum, and have complementary emphasis on the mother tongue.

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Introduction

As the international language of science, English holds an important position in the education of healthcare professionals. Globally, most scientific papers are published in English. In many non-native English-speaking countries, English is used as the language of instruction in higher education [ 1 ]. The dominant status held by the English language in the sciences is largely considered to increase global access to scientific information by unifying the scientific community under a single lingua franca [ 2 ].

In Bangladesh, where the mother tongue is Bangla and midwifery diploma programs are taught in English, knowledge of English facilitates student and instructor access to global, continuously updated evidence-based practice guidance. This includes basic and scientific texts, media-based instructional materials (including on life-saving skills), professional journals, and proceedings of medical conferences. Many of these resources are available for free online, which can be particularly useful in healthcare settings that have not integrated evidence-based practice.

In addition to opportunity though, English instruction also creates several challenges. Weak student and faculty English competency may impede midwifery education quality in Bangladesh. Globally, literature has linked limited instructor competency in the language of instruction with reduced depth, nuance, and accuracy in conveying subject matter content [ 3 ]. This can lead to the perpetuation of patterns of care in misalignment with global evidence. In addition, students’ native language proficiency in their topic of study can decline when instruction is in English, limiting native language communication between colleagues on the job later on [ 4 , 5 ].

In this paper, we examine the current status of English language instruction within public diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh. Midwifery students are not required to demonstrate a certain skill level in English to enter the program. However, they are provided with English classes in the program. Midwifery course materials are in English, while—for ease and practicality—teaching aids and verbal classroom instruction are provided in Bangla. Following graduation, midwifery students must pass a national licensing exam given in English to practice. Upon passing, some new midwives are deployed as public employees and are posted to sub-district health facilities where English is not used by either providers or clients. Others will seek employment as part of non-governmental organization (NGO) projects where English competency can be of value for interacting with global communities, and for participating in NGO-specific on-the-job learning opportunities. The mix of both challenge and opportunity in this context is complex.

Our analysis examines the reasons for the identified English competency gaps within midwifery programs, and potential solutions. We synthesize the findings and discuss solutions in the context of the global literature. Finally, we present a set of viable options for strengthening English competencies among midwifery faculty and students to enable better quality teaching and greater learning comprehension among students.

Study design

We employed a mixed-methods study design [ 6 ] in order to assess the quality of English instruction within education programs, and options for its improvement. Data collection consisted of two surveys of education institutes, a web-search of available English programs in Bangladesh, and key informant interviews. Both surveys followed a structured questionnaire with a combination of open- and closed-ended questions and were designed by the authors. One survey targeted the 38 institute principals and the other targeted 14 of the institutes’ 38 English instructors (those for whom contact information was shared). The web-search focused on generating a list of available English programs in Bangladesh that had viable models that could be tapped into to strengthen English competencies among midwifery faculty and students. Key informant interviews were unstructured and intended to substantiate and deepen understanding of the survey and web-search findings.

No minimum requirements exist for students’ English competencies upon entry into midwifery diploma programs. Students enter directly from higher secondary school (12th standard) and complete the midwifery program over a period of three years. Most students come from modest economic backgrounds having completed their primary and secondary education in Bangla. While English instruction is part of students’ secondary education, skill attainment is low, and assessment standards are not in place to ensure student mastery. To join the program, midwifery students are required to pass a multi-subject entrance exam that includes a component on English competency. However, as no minimum English standard must be met, the exam does not screen out potential midwifery students. Scoring, for instance, is not broken down by subject. This makes it possible to answer zero questions correctly in up to three of the subjects, including English, and pass the exam.

Processes/data collection

Prior to the first survey, principals were contacted by UNFPA with information about the survey and all provided verbal consent to participate. The survey of principals collected general information about the resources available for English instruction at the institutes. It was a nine-item questionnaire with a mix of Yes/No, multiple choice and write-in questions. Specific measures of interest were whether and how many English instructors the institutes had, instructors’ hiring criteria, whether institutes had language labs and if they were in use, and principals’ views on the need for English courses and their ideal mode of delivery (e.g., in-person, online, or a combination). This survey also gathered contact information of institute English instructors. These measures were chosen as they were intended to provide a high-level picture of institutes’ English resources such as faculty availability and qualifications, and use of language labs. To ensure questions were appropriately framed, a pilot test was conducted with two institute principals and small adjustments were subsequently made. Responses were shared via an electronic form sent by email and were used to inform the second survey as well as the key informant interviews. Of the 38 principals, 36 completed the survey.

The second survey, targeting English instructors, gathered information on instructors’ type of employment (e.g., institute faculty or adjunct lecturers); length of employment; student academic focus (e.g., midwifery or nursing); hours of English instruction provided as part of the midwifery diploma program; whether a standard English curriculum was used and if it was tailored toward the healthcare profession; use of digital content in teaching; education and experience in English teaching; and their views on student barriers to learning English. These measures were chosen to provide a basic criterion for assessing quality of English instruction, materials and resources available to students. For instance, instructors’ status as faculty would indicate a stronger degree of integration and belonging to the institute midwifery program than a guest lecturer status which allows for part time instruction with little job security. In addition, use of a standard, professionally developed English curriculum and integration of digital content into classroom learning would be indicative of higher quality than learning materials developed informally by instructors themselves without use of listening content by native speakers in classrooms. The survey was piloted with two English instructors. Based on their feedback, minor adjustments were made to one question, and it was determined that responses were best gathered by phone due to instructors’ limited internet access. Of the 14 instructors contacted, 11 were reached and provided survey responses by phone.

The web-search gathered information on available English language instruction programs for adults in Bangladesh, and the viability of tapping into any of them to improve English competency among midwifery students and faculty. Keywords Bangladesh  +  English courses , English training , English classes , study English and learn English were typed into Google’s search platform. Eleven English language instruction programs were identified. Following this, each program was contacted either by phone or email and further detail about the program’s offerings was collected.

Unstructured key informant interviews were carried out with select knowledgeable individuals to substantiate and enhance the credibility of the survey and web-search findings. Three in-country expert English language instructors and four managers of English language teaching programs were interviewed. In addition, interviews were held with three national-level stakeholders knowledgeable about work to make functional technologically advanced English language laboratories that had been installed at many of the training institutes. Question prompts included queries such as, ‘In your experience, what are the major barriers to Bangla-medium educated students studying in English at the university level?’, ‘What effective methods or curricula are you aware of for improving student English to an appropriate competency level for successful learning in English?’, and, ‘What options do you see for the language lab/s being used, either in their originally intended capacity or otherwise?’

Data analysis

All data were analyzed by the lead researcher. Survey data were entered into a master Excel file and grouped descriptively to highlight trends and outliers, and ultimately enable a clear description of the structure and basic quality attributes (e.g., instructors’ education, hours of English instruction, and curriculum development resources used). Web-search findings were compiled in a second Excel file with columns distinguishing whether they taught general English (often aimed at preparing students for international standard exams), Business English, or English for Specific Purposes (ESP). This enabled separation of standalone English courses taught by individual instructors as part of vocational or academic programs of study in other fields, and programs with an exclusive focus on English language acquisition. Key informant interviews were summarized in a standard notes format using Word. An inductive process of content analysis was carried out, in which content categories were identified and structured to create coherent meaning [ 7 ]. From this, the key overall findings and larger themes that grew from the initial survey and web-search results were drawn out.

The surveys (Tables  1 and 2 ) found that English instructors are primarily long-term male guest lecturers employed at each institute for more than two years. All principal respondents indicated that there is a need for English instruction—18 of the 19 reported that this is best done through a combination of in-person and computer-based instruction. Ten institutes reported that they have an English language lab, but none were used as such. The other institutes did not have language labs. The reported reasons for the labs not being in use were a lack of trained staff to operate them and some components of the technology not being installed or working properly. The findings from the instructors’ survey indicated that English instructors typically develop their own learning materials and teach general English without tailoring content to healthcare contexts. Only two mentioned using a standard textbook to guide their instruction and one described consulting a range of English textbooks to develop learning content. None reported using online or other digital tools for language instruction in their classrooms. Most instructors had an advanced degree (i.e., master’s degree) in English, and seven had received training in teaching English. Interviews with instructors also revealed that they themselves did not have mastery of English, as communication barriers in speaking over the phone appeared consistently across 10 of the 11 instructor respondents.

The web-search and related follow up interviews found that most English instruction programs (10 out of the 11) were designed for teaching general English and/or business English. The majority were offered through private entities aiming to reach individuals intending to study abroad, access employment that required English, or improve their ability to navigate business endeavors in English. One program, developed by the British Council, had flexibility to tailor its structure and some of its content to the needs of midwifery students. However, this was limited in that a significant portion of the content that would be used was developed for global audiences and thus not tailored to a Bangladeshi audience or to any specific discipline. One of the university English programs offered a promising ESP model tailored to midwifery students. It was designed by BRAC University’s Institute of Language for the university’s private midwifery training program.

Three themes emerged from the other key informant interviews (Table  3 ). The first was that, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Of the 34 faculty members intending to participate in the 2019–2020 cohort for the Dalarna master’s degree, half did not pass the prerequisite English exam. Ultimately, simultaneous English-Bangla translation was necessary for close to half of the faculty to enable their participation in the master’s program. English language limitations also precluded one faculty member from participating in an international PhD program in midwifery.

The second theme highlighted the language labs’ lack of usability. The language labs consisted of computers, an interactive whiteboard, audio-visual equipment, and associated software to allow for individualized direct interactions between teacher and student. However, due to the lack of appropriately trained staff to manage, care for and use the language lab equipment, the investment required to make the labs functional appeared to outweigh the learning advantages doing so would provide. Interviews revealed that work was being done, supported by a donor agency, on just one language lab, to explore whether it could be made functional. The work was described as costly and challenging, and required purchasing a software license from abroad, thus likely being impractical to apply to the other labs and sustain over multiple years.

The third theme was around the ESP curriculum model. The program developers had employed evidence-informed thinking to develop the ESP learning content and consulted student midwives on their learning preferences. Due to the student input, at least 80% of the content was designed to directly relate to the practice of midwifery in Bangladesh, while the remaining 10–20% references globally relevant content. This balance was struck based on students’ expressed interest in having some exposure to English usage outside of Bangladesh for their personal interest. For conversation practice, the modules integrated realistic scenarios of midwives interacting with doctors, nurses and patients. Also built into written activities were exercises where students were prompted to describe relevant health topics they are concurrently studying in their health, science or clinical classes. Given the midwifery students’ educational backgrounds and intended placements in rural parts of Bangladesh, an ESP curriculum model appeared to be the most beneficial existing program to pursue tapping into to strengthen English competencies within midwifery programs. This was because the content would likely be more accessible to students than a general English course by having vocabulary, activities and examples directly relevant to the midwifery profession.

The study findings demonstrate key weaknesses in the current model of English instruction taught in public midwifery programs. Notably, the quantitative findings revealed that some English instructors do not have training in teaching English, and none used standard curricula or online resources to structure and enhance their classroom content. In addition, weak mastery of English among midwifery faculty was identified in the qualitative data, which calls into question faculty’s ability to fully understand and accurately convey content from English learning materials. Global literature indicates that this is not a unique situation. Many healthcare faculty and students in low-resource settings, in fact, are faced with delivering and acquiring knowledge in a language they have not sufficiently mastered [ 8 ]. As a significant barrier to knowledge and skill acquisition for evidence-based care, this requires more attention from global midwifery educators [ 9 ].

Also holding back students’ English development is the finding from both the quantitative and qualitative data that none of the high-tech language labs were being used as intended. This indicates a misalignment with the investment against the reality of the resources at the institutes to use them. While setting up the costly language labs appears to have been a large investment with little to no return, it does demonstrate that strengthening English language instruction in post-secondary public education settings is a priority that the Bangladesh government is willing to invest in. However, scaling up access to an ESP curriculum model tailored to future midwifery practitioners in Bangladesh may be a more worthwhile investment than language labs [ 10 ]. 

The ESP approach teaches English for application in a specific discipline. It does this by using vocabulary, examples, demonstrations, scenarios and practice activities that are directly related to the context and professions those studying English live and work (or are preparing to work) in. One way ESP has been described, attributed to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), is, “ESP should properly be seen not as any particular language product but as an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning” [ 11 ]. It is proposed by linguistic education researchers as a viable model for strengthening language mastery and subject matter comprehension in EMI university contexts [ 12 ].

Though it did not arise as a finding, reviewing the literature highlighted that Bangla language instruction may be an additional, potentially viable option. Linguistic research has long shown that students learn more thoroughly and efficiently in their mother tongue [ 12 ]. Another perhaps more desirable option may be multilingualism, which entails recognizing native languages as complementary in EMI classrooms, and using them through verbal instruction and supplemental course materials. Kirkpatrick, a leading scholar of EMI in Asia, suggests that multilingualism be formally integrated into EMI university settings [ 13 ]. This approach is supported by evidence showing that the amount of native language support students need for optimal learning is inversely proportional to their degree of English proficiency [ 14 ].

Ultimately, despite the language related learning limitations identified in this study, and the opportunities presented by native language and multilingualism approaches, there remains a fundamental need for members of the midwifery profession in Bangladesh to use up-to-date guidance on evidence-based midwifery care [ 11 ]. Doing that currently requires English language competence. Perhaps a tiered system of requirements for English competencies that are tied to diploma, Bachelor’s, Master’s and PhD midwifery programs could build bridges for more advanced students to access global resources. Higher academic levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level could follow a multilingualism approach—teaching using an ESP curriculum and integrating Bangla strategically to support optimal knowledge acquisition for future practice in rural facilities. Ideally, scores on a standard English competency exam would be used to assess students’ language competencies prior to entrance in English-based programs and that this would require more stringent English skill development prior to entering a midwifery program.

Methodological considerations

One of the limitations of this study is that it relied on self-reports and observation, rather than tested language and subject matter competencies. Its strengths though are in the relatively large number of education institutes that participated in the study, and the breadth of knowledge about faculty and student subject matter expertise among study co-authors. It was recognized that the lead researcher might be biased toward pre-determined perceptions of English competencies being a barrier to teaching and learning held by the lead institution (UNFPA). It was also recognized that due to the inherent power imbalance between researcher and participants, the manner of gathering data and engaging with stakeholders may contribute to confirmation bias, with respondents primarily sharing what they anticipated the researcher wished to hear (e.g., that English needed strengthening and the lead agency should take action to support the strengthening). The researcher thus engaged with participants independently of UNFPA and employed reflexivity by designing and carrying out the surveys to remotely collect standard data from institutes, as well as casting a wide net across institutes to increase broad representation. In addition, while institutes were informed that the surveys were gathering information about the English instruction within the institutes, no information was shared about potential new support to institutes. Finally, the researcher validated and gathered further details on the relevant information identified in the surveys through key informant interviews, which were held with stakeholders independent of UNFPA.

Adapting and scaling up the existing ESP modules found in this study, and integrating Bangla where it can enhance subject-matter learning, may be a useful way to help midwifery students and faculty improve their knowledge, skills, and critical thinking related to the field of midwifery. Given the educational backgrounds and likely work locations of most midwives in Bangladesh and many other LMICs, practitioners may want to consider investing in more opportunities for local midwives to teach and learn in their mother tongue. This type of investment would ideally be paired with a tiered system in which more advanced English competencies are required at higher-levels of education to ensure integration of global, evidence-based approaches into local standards of care.

Declarations.

Data availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Bangladesh Rehabilitation Assistance Committee

English medium instruction

English for Specific Purposes

Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

United Nations Population Fund

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge Farida Begum, Rabeya Basri, and Pronita Raha for their contributions to data collection for this assessment.

This project under which this study was carried out was funded by funded by the Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office.

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This study was part of a larger project in Bangladesh approved by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) with project ID UZJ31. The MOHFW project approval allows data collection of this type, that is carried out as part of routine program monitoring and improvement, including informed verbal consent for surveys and key informant interviews.

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Williams, A., Stevens, J., Anderson, R. et al. Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 523 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05499-8

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