thesis equivalent words

Writing Studio

Common transition words and phrases.

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Transitions clarify the logic of your argument by orienting your reader as you develop ideas between sentences and paragraphs. These tools should alert readers to shifts in your argument while and also maintain the smoothness and clarity of your prose. Below, you’ll find some of the most commonly used transition categories and examples of each. Depending on the example, these suggestions may be within sentences or at the beginning of sentences.

Transitions by Category

1. addition.

Use when presenting multiple ideas that flow in the same direction, under the same heading/ idea also, another, finally, first, first of all, for one thing, furthermore, in addition, last of all, likewise, moreover, next, and, second, the third reason

2. Sequence/ Order

Use to suggest a temporal relationship between ideas; places evidence in sequence first, second (etc.), next, last, finally, first of all, concurrently, immediately, prior to, then, at that time, at this point, previously, subsequently, and then, at this time, thereafter, previously, soon, before, after, followed by, after that, next, before, after, meanwhile, formerly, finally, during

3. Contrast

Use to demonstrate differences between ideas or change in argument direction but, however, in contrast, on the other hand, on the contrary, yet, differ, difference, balanced against, differing from, variation, still, on the contrary, unlike, conversely, otherwise, on the other hand, however

4. Exception

Use to introduce an opposing idea however, whereas, on the other hand, while, instead, in spite of, yet, despite, still, nevertheless, even though, in contrast, but, but one could also say…

5. Comparison

Use to demonstrate similarities between ideas that may not be under the same subject heading or within the same paragraph like, likewise, just, in a different way / sense, whereas, like, equally, in like manner, by comparison, similar to, in the same way, alike, similarity, similarly, just as, as in a similar fashion, conversely

6. Illustration

Use to develop or clarify an idea, to introduce examples, or to show that the second idea is subordinate to the first for example, to illustrate, on this occasion, this can be seen, in this case, specifically, once, to illustrate, when/where, for instance, such as, to demonstrate, take the case of, in this case

7. Location

Use to show spatial relations next to, above, below, beneath, left, right, behind, in front, on top, within

8. Cause and Effect

Use to show that one idea causes, or results from, the idea that follows or precedes it because, therefore, so that, cause, reason, effect, thus, consequently, since, as a result, if…then, result in

9. Emphasis

Use to suggest that an idea is particularly important to your argument important to note, most of all, a significant factor, a primary concern, a key feature, remember that, pay particular attention to, a central issue, the most substantial issue, the main value, a major event, the chief factor, a distinctive quality, especially valuable, the chief outcome, a vital force, especially relevant, most noteworthy, the principal item, above all, should be noted

10. Summary or Conclusion

Use to signal that what follows is summarizing or concluding the previous ideas; in humanities papers, use these phrases sparingly. to summarize, in short, in brief, in sum, in summary, to sum up, in conclusion, to conclude, finally

Some material adapted from Cal Poly Pomona College Reading Skills Program and “ Power Tools for Technical Communication .” 

Writing Effective Sentence Transitions (Advanced)

Transitions are the rhetorical tools that clarify the logic of your argument by orienting your reader as you develop ideas between sentences and paragraphs. The ability to integrate sentence transitions into your prose, rather than simply throwing in overt transition signals like “in addition,” indicates your mastery of the material. (Note: The visibility of transitions may vary by discipline; consult with your professor to get a better sense of discipline or assignment specific expectations.)

Transition Signals

Transition signals are words or phrases that indicate the logic connecting sets of information or ideas. Signals like therefore, on the other hand, for example, because, then, and afterwards can be good transition tools at the sentence and paragraph level. When using these signals, be conscious of the real meaning of these terms; they should reflect the actual relationship between ideas.

Review Words

Review words are transition tools that link groups of sentences or whole paragraphs. They condense preceding discussion into a brief word or phrase. For example: You’ve just completed a detailed discussion about the greenhouse effect. To transition to the next topic, you could use review words like “this heat-trapping process” to refer back to the green house effect discussion. The relative ability to determine a cogent set of review words might signal your own understanding of your work; think of review words as super-short summaries of key ideas.

Preview words

Preview words condense an upcoming discussion into a brief word or phrase. For example: You’ve just explained how heat is trapped in the earth’s atmosphere. Transitioning to the theory that humans are adding to that effect, you could use preview words like “sources of additional CO2 in the atmosphere include” to point forward to that discussion.

Transition Sentences

The strongest and most sophisticated tools, transition sentences indicate the connection between the preceding and upcoming pieces of your argument. They often contain one or more of the above transition tools. For example: You’ve just discussed how much CO2 humans have added to the atmosphere. You need to transition to a discussion of the effects. A strong set of transition sentences between the two sections might sound like this:

“These large amounts of CO2 added to the atmosphere may lead to a number of disastrous consequences for residents of planet earth. The rise in global temperature that accompanies the extra CO2 can yield effects as varied as glacial melting and species extinction.”

In the first sentence, the review words are “These large amounts of CO2 added to the atmosphere”; the preview words are “number of disastrous consequences”; the transition signals are “may lead to.” The topic sentence of the next paragraph indicates the specific “disastrous consequences” you will discuss.

If you don’t see a way to write a logical, effective transition between sentences, ideas or paragraphs, this might indicate organizational problems in your essay; you might consider revising your work.

Some material adapted from Cal Poly Pomona College Reading Skills Program  and “ Power Tools for Technical Communication .”

Last revised: 07/2008 | Adapted for web delivery: 05/2021

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All the Transition Words You'll Ever Need for Academic Writing

In academic writing, transitions are the glue that holds your ideas together. Without them, your writing would be illogical and lack flow, making it difficult for your audience to understand or replicate your research.

In this article, we will discuss the types of transitions based on their purpose. Familiarizing yourself with these most-used and best transition terms for academic writing will help bring clarity to your essays and make the writing process much easier on you.

Types of transitions

There are four types of transitions: Causal, Sequential, Adversative and Additive. Below, we've listed the most commonly used transitions in each of these categories, as well as examples of how they might be used to begin a paragraph or sentence.

When you use causal transitions, you are letting your reader know that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between ideas or paragraphs or consequences.

• Accordingly ("Accordingly, the author states…")
• All else being equal ("All else being equal, these ideas correlate…")
• As a consequence ("As a consequence, all data were aggregated…")
• As a result (of this) ("As a result of this finding, scholars now agree…")
• Because (of the fact that) ("Because of the fact that these numbers show signs of declining,…")
• Because (of this) ("Because of this, scholars determined…")
• Consequently ("Consequently, the research was stalled…")
• Due to (the fact that) ("Due to the fact that all prior studies showed similar results,…")
• For the purpose(s) of ("For the purposes of our argument, we will…")
• For this reason ("For this reason, the researchers…")
• Granted (that) ("Granted that the numbers were significantly higher, the study…")
• Granting (that) ("Granting that the data was collected incorrectly, the researchers felt…")
• If…then ("If this data is significant, then it is obvious that…")
• If so ("If so, the data is not useable…")
• In the event ("In the event that it is not significant, we should consider that…")
• Inasmuch as ("Insomuch as the authors attempt to refute these findings, research suggests that…")
• In the hope that ("In the hope that new data will encourage more in-depth research, the author found that….")
• In that case ("In that case, we've found that…")
• Only if ("Only if data is insubstantial should findings be ignored, thus…")
• Otherwise ("Otherwise, the research would continue…")
• Owing to (the fact) ("Owing to the fact that the gathered data is incorrect, …")
• Provided (that) ("Provided that the same results occur, we can assume that…")
• Since ("Since it would seem futile to continue to study this topic, we posit that…")
• So as to ("So as to clarify past remarks, we initiated further research…")
• So long as ("So long as there is established credibility, this journal seeks….")
• So much (so) that ("The data is manipulated so much so that it can't be used to clarify…")
• Therefore ("Therefore, this result compromises the exploration into…")
• That being the case ("That being the case, we should look into alternatives…")
• Thus ("Thus, it would see that further research…")
• Unless ("Unless this calls to question the original hypothesis, the exploration of this topic would be…")
• With (this fact) in mind ("With this fact in mind, let's consider another alternative…")
• Under those circumstances ("Under those circumstances, fewer participants…")

Sequential transitions show a numerical sequence or the continuation of a thought or action. They are used to establish an order to your main points in an academic essay, and help create a logical outline for your writing.

• (Once) again ("Once again, this is not a reason for lack of rigor…")
• After (this) ("After this, it would seem most prudent to…")
• Afterwards ("Afterwards, it seemed a moot point to determine…")
• Altogether ("Altogether, these data suggest that…")
• Anyway ("Anyway, such loss would prove to be damaging..")
• As (was) mentioned earlier/above ("As was mentioned above, the lack of attention given to…")
• As (was) stated before ("As was stated before, there is little evidence show…")
• As a final point ("As a final point, consider the connection between…")
• At any rate ("At any rate, loss of significance was vital to…")
• By the way ("By the way, one can't assume that…")
• Coincidentally ("Coincidentally, this affected the nature of…")
• Consequently ("Consequently, Smith found that…")
• Eventually ("Eventually, more was needed to sustain…")
• Finally ("Finally, we now know that…"
• First ("First, it seems that even with the additional data…")
• First of all ("First of all, none of the respondents felt that…")
• Given these points ("Given these points, it's easy to see that…")
• Hence ("Hence, we see that the above details…")
• In conclusion ("In conclusion, since the data shows significant growth...")
• In summary ("In summary, there are not enough studies to show the correlation…")
• In the (first/second/third) place ("In the first place, we found that…")
• Incidentally ("Incidentally, no findings showed a positive outlook…")
• Initially ("Initially, we noticed that the authors….")
• Last ("Last, the most significant growth appeared to happen when…")
• Next ("Next, it's important to note that…")
• Overall ("Overall, we found that….")
• Previously ("Previously, it was shown that…")
• Returning to the subject ("Returning to the subject, careful observation of trends…")
• Second ("Second, it was impossible to know the…")
• Secondly ("Secondly, in looking at variable related to…")
• Subsequently ("Subsequently, we found that…")
• Summarizing (this) ("Summarizing this, the authors noted that…")
• Therefore ("Therefore, the connection is unknown between…")
• Third ("Third, when data were collected…")
• Thirdly ("Thirdly, we noticed that…")
• Thus ("Thus, there was no evidence that…)
• To conclude ("To conclude, the findings suggest that…")
• To repeat ("To repeat, no studies found evidence that…")
• To resume ("To resume the conversation, we began discussing…")
• To start with ("To start with, there is no evidence that…")
• To sum up ("To sum up, significant correlation was found…")
• Ultimately ("Ultimately, no studies found evidence of…")

Adversative Transitions

Adversative transitions show contrast, counter arguments or an alternative suggestion.

• Above all ("Above all, we found that…"
• Admittedly ("Admittedly, the findings suggest that…")
• All the same ("All the same, without knowing which direction the study would take…")
• Although ("Although much is to be learned from…")
• At any rate ("At any rate, we concluded that...")
• At least ("At least, with these results, we can…")
• Be that as it may ("Be that as it may, there was no significant correlation between…")
• Besides ("Besides, it is obvious that…")
• But ("But, the causal relationship between…")
• By way of contrast ("By the way of contrast, we note that…")
• Conversely ("Conversely, there was no correlation between…")
• Despite (this) ("Despite this, the findings are clear in that…")
• Either way ("Either way, studies fail to approach the topic from…")
• Even more ("Even more, we can conclude that…")
• Even so ("Even so, there is a lack of evidence showing…")
• Even though ("Even though the participants were unaware of which ….")
• However (However, it becomes clear that…")
• In any case ("In any case, there were enough reponses…")
• In any event ("In any event, we noted that…")
• In contrast ("In contrast, the new data suggests that…")
• In fact ("In fact, there is a loss of…")
• In spite of (this) ("In spite of this, we note that…")
• Indeed ("Indeed, it becomes clear that…")
• Instead (of) ("Instead of publishing our findings early, we chose to")
• More/Most importantly ("More importantly, there have not been any…")
• Nevertheless ("Nevertheless, it becomes clear that…")
• Nonetheless ("Nonetheless, we failed to note how…")
• Notwithstanding (this) ("Notwithstanding this, there was little evidence…")
• On the contrary ("On the contrary, no active users were…")
• On the other hand ("On the other hand, we cannot avoid…")
• Primarily ("Primarily, it becomes significant as…")
• Rather ("Rather, none of this is relevant…")
• Regardless (of) ("Regardless of previous results, the authors…")
• Significantly ("Significantly, there was little correlation between…")
• Still ("Still, nothing was noted in the diary…")
• Whereas ("Whereas little evidence has been given to…")
• While ("While causality is lacking…")
• Yet ("Yet, it becomes clear that…")

Additive Transitions

You'll use an additive transition to relate when new information is being added or highlighted to something that was just mentioned.

• Additionally ("Additionally, it can be noted that…")
• Also ("Also, there was no evidence that….")
• As a matter of fact ("As a matter of fact, the evidence fails to show…")
• As for (this) ("As for this, we can posit that…")
• By the same token ("By the same token, no studies have concluded…")
• Concerning (this) ("Concerning this, there is little evidence to…")
• Considering (this) ("Considering this, we must then return to…")
• Equally ("Equally, there was no correlation…")
• Especially ("Especially, the study reveals that…")
• For example ("For example, a loss of one's….")
• For instance ("For instance, there was little evidence showing…")
• Furthermore ("Furthermore, a lack of knowledge on…")
• In a similar way ("In a similar way, new findings show that…")
• In addition to ("In addition to this new evidence, we note that…")
• In fact ("In fact, none of the prior studies showed…")
• In other words ("In other words, there was a lack of…")
• In particular ("In particular, no relationship was revealed…")
• In the same way ("In the same way, new studies suggest that…")
• Likewise ("Likewise, we noted that…)
• Looking at (this information) ("Looking at this information, it's clear to see how…)
• Moreover ("Moreover, the loss of reputation of…")
• Namely ("Namely, the authors noted that…")
• Not only…but also ("Not only did the study reveal new findings, but also it demonstrated how….")
• Notably ("Notably, no other studies have been done…")
• On the subject of (this) ("On the subject of awareness, participants agreed that….")
• One example (of this is) ("One example of this is how the new data…")
• Particularly ("Particularly, there is little evidence showing…")
• Regarding (this) ("Regarding this, there were concerns that…")
• Similarly ("Similarly, we note that…")
• Specifically ("Specifically, there were responses that…")
• That is ("That is, little attention is given to…")
• The fact that ("The fact that the participants felt misinformed…")
• This means (that) ("This means that conclusive findings are…")
• To illustrate ("To illustrate, one participant wrote that….")
• To put it another way ("To put it another way, there is little reason to…")
• What this means is ("What this means is the authors failed to…")
• With regards to (this) ("With regards to this, we cannot assume that…")

Making the choice

When deciding which transition would best fit in each instance, keep in mind a few of these tips:

• Avoid using the same transition too much, as it could make your writing repetitive.
• Check at the beginning of each paragraph to ensure that a) you've included a transition, if one was needed, and b) it's the correct transition to accurately relate the type of logical connection you're forming between ideas.
• Be sure that if you are using sequential transitions, they match. For example, if you use "first" to highlight your first point, "second" should come next, then "third," etc. You wouldn't want to use "first", followed by "secondly."

4 Types of Transition Words for Research Papers 

Researchers often use transition words in academic writing to help guide the reader through text and communicate their ideas well. While these facilitate easy understanding and enhance the flow of the research paper, setting the wrong context with transition words in academic writing can disrupt tone and impact.

So how do you appropriately use transition words in research papers? This article explores the importance of using transitions in academic writing and explains the four types of transition words that can be used by students and researchers to improve their work.

Table of Contents

Why are transition words used in academic writing, additive transitions, adversative transitions, causal transitions, sequential transitions.

Transition words are the key language tools researchers use to communicate their ideas and concepts to readers. They not only reiterate the key arguments being made by the authors but are crucial to improving the structure and flow of the written language. Generally used at the beginning of sentences and paragraphs to form a bridge of communication, transition words can vary depending on your objective, placement, and structuring.

The four types of transition words in academic writing or research papers are additive transitions, adversative transitions, causal transitions, and sequential transitions. Let us look at each of these briefly below.

Types of Transition Words in Academic Writing

These types of transition words are used to inform or alert the reader that new or additional information is being introduced or added to something mentioned in the previous sentence or paragraph. Some examples of words in this category are – moreover, furthermore, additionally, and so on. Phrases like in fact, in addition to, considering this are examples of additive transition phrases that are commonly used.

Used to show contrast, offer alternative suggestions, or present counter arguments and differences, adversative transitions allow researchers to distinguish between different facts, or arguments by establishing or suggesting positions or alternatives opposing them. Examples of adversative transitions include, however, conversely, nevertheless, regardless, rather, and so on. Phrases like on the contrary, in any case, even though provide an adversative transition to arguments in a research paper.

By using causal transitions in their writing, authors can let readers know that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more ideas or paragraphs. It is used to establish the key/important reasons, circumstances, or conditions of the argument being made or while studying hypothetical associations. Since, unless, consequently are some of the words in this type of transitions while in the event that, as a result are some of the causal phrases.

These transition words help to convey the continuation of a thought or action by a numerical sequence by alluding and referring to information or arguments that have been made earlier. Sequential transitions essentially bring order to the researcher’s main points or ideas in the research paper and help to create a logical outline to the arguments. These transition words and phrases essentially guide the reader through the research paper’s key methods, results, and analysis. Some examples of this type of transitions are initially, coincidentally, subsequently and so on. First of all, to conclude, by the way are a few examples of sequential transition phrases.

Researchers must carefully review their research paper, ensuring appropriate and effective use of transition words and phrases in academic writing. During the manuscript editing process, watch for transitions that may be out of context or misplaced. Remember, these words serve as tools to connect ideas and arguments, fostering logical and coherent flow in paragraphs. Double-check the necessity and accuracy of transitions at the beginning of sentences or paragraphs, ensuring they effectively bind and relate ideas and arguments. And finally, avoid repetition of the same transition words in your academic writing.

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Related Reads:

• How to Paraphrase Research Papers Effectively
• 3 Easy Ways for Researchers to Improve Their Academic Vocabulary
• Paraphrasing in Academic Writing: Answering Top Author Queries

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• 40 Useful Words and Phrases for Top-Notch Essays

To be truly brilliant, an essay needs to utilise the right language. You could make a great point, but if it’s not intelligently articulated, you almost needn’t have bothered.

Developing the language skills to build an argument and to write persuasively is crucial if you’re to write outstanding essays every time. In this article, we’re going to equip you with the words and phrases you need to write a top-notch essay, along with examples of how to utilise them.

It’s by no means an exhaustive list, and there will often be other ways of using the words and phrases we describe that we won’t have room to include, but there should be more than enough below to help you make an instant improvement to your essay-writing skills.

If you’re interested in developing your language and persuasive skills, Oxford Royale offers summer courses at its Oxford Summer School , Cambridge Summer School , London Summer School , San Francisco Summer School and Yale Summer School . You can study courses to learn english , prepare for careers in law , medicine , business , engineering and leadership.

General explaining

Let’s start by looking at language for general explanations of complex points.

1. In order to

Usage: “In order to” can be used to introduce an explanation for the purpose of an argument. Example: “In order to understand X, we need first to understand Y.”

2. In other words

Usage: Use “in other words” when you want to express something in a different way (more simply), to make it easier to understand, or to emphasise or expand on a point. Example: “Frogs are amphibians. In other words, they live on the land and in the water.”

3. To put it another way

Usage: This phrase is another way of saying “in other words”, and can be used in particularly complex points, when you feel that an alternative way of wording a problem may help the reader achieve a better understanding of its significance. Example: “Plants rely on photosynthesis. To put it another way, they will die without the sun.”

4. That is to say

Usage: “That is” and “that is to say” can be used to add further detail to your explanation, or to be more precise. Example: “Whales are mammals. That is to say, they must breathe air.”

5. To that end

Usage: Use “to that end” or “to this end” in a similar way to “in order to” or “so”. Example: “Zoologists have long sought to understand how animals communicate with each other. To that end, a new study has been launched that looks at elephant sounds and their possible meanings.”

Adding additional information to support a point

Students often make the mistake of using synonyms of “and” each time they want to add further information in support of a point they’re making, or to build an argument. Here are some cleverer ways of doing this.

6. Moreover

Usage: Employ “moreover” at the start of a sentence to add extra information in support of a point you’re making. Example: “Moreover, the results of a recent piece of research provide compelling evidence in support of…”

7. Furthermore

Usage:This is also generally used at the start of a sentence, to add extra information. Example: “Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that…”

8. What’s more

Usage: This is used in the same way as “moreover” and “furthermore”. Example: “What’s more, this isn’t the only evidence that supports this hypothesis.”

9. Likewise

Usage: Use “likewise” when you want to talk about something that agrees with what you’ve just mentioned. Example: “Scholar A believes X. Likewise, Scholar B argues compellingly in favour of this point of view.”

10. Similarly

Usage: Use “similarly” in the same way as “likewise”. Example: “Audiences at the time reacted with shock to Beethoven’s new work, because it was very different to what they were used to. Similarly, we have a tendency to react with surprise to the unfamiliar.”

11. Another key thing to remember

Usage: Use the phrase “another key point to remember” or “another key fact to remember” to introduce additional facts without using the word “also”. Example: “As a Romantic, Blake was a proponent of a closer relationship between humans and nature. Another key point to remember is that Blake was writing during the Industrial Revolution, which had a major impact on the world around him.”

12. As well as

Usage: Use “as well as” instead of “also” or “and”. Example: “Scholar A argued that this was due to X, as well as Y.”

13. Not only… but also

Usage: This wording is used to add an extra piece of information, often something that’s in some way more surprising or unexpected than the first piece of information. Example: “Not only did Edmund Hillary have the honour of being the first to reach the summit of Everest, but he was also appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.”

14. Coupled with

Usage: Used when considering two or more arguments at a time. Example: “Coupled with the literary evidence, the statistics paint a compelling view of…”

15. Firstly, secondly, thirdly…

Usage: This can be used to structure an argument, presenting facts clearly one after the other. Example: “There are many points in support of this view. Firstly, X. Secondly, Y. And thirdly, Z.

16. Not to mention/to say nothing of

Usage: “Not to mention” and “to say nothing of” can be used to add extra information with a bit of emphasis. Example: “The war caused unprecedented suffering to millions of people, not to mention its impact on the country’s economy.”

Words and phrases for demonstrating contrast

When you’re developing an argument, you will often need to present contrasting or opposing opinions or evidence – “it could show this, but it could also show this”, or “X says this, but Y disagrees”. This section covers words you can use instead of the “but” in these examples, to make your writing sound more intelligent and interesting.

17. However

Usage: Use “however” to introduce a point that disagrees with what you’ve just said. Example: “Scholar A thinks this. However, Scholar B reached a different conclusion.”

18. On the other hand

Usage: Usage of this phrase includes introducing a contrasting interpretation of the same piece of evidence, a different piece of evidence that suggests something else, or an opposing opinion. Example: “The historical evidence appears to suggest a clear-cut situation. On the other hand, the archaeological evidence presents a somewhat less straightforward picture of what happened that day.”

19. Having said that

Usage: Used in a similar manner to “on the other hand” or “but”. Example: “The historians are unanimous in telling us X, an agreement that suggests that this version of events must be an accurate account. Having said that, the archaeology tells a different story.”

20. By contrast/in comparison

Usage: Use “by contrast” or “in comparison” when you’re comparing and contrasting pieces of evidence. Example: “Scholar A’s opinion, then, is based on insufficient evidence. By contrast, Scholar B’s opinion seems more plausible.”

21. Then again

Usage: Use this to cast doubt on an assertion. Example: “Writer A asserts that this was the reason for what happened. Then again, it’s possible that he was being paid to say this.”

22. That said

Usage: This is used in the same way as “then again”. Example: “The evidence ostensibly appears to point to this conclusion. That said, much of the evidence is unreliable at best.”

Usage: Use this when you want to introduce a contrasting idea. Example: “Much of scholarship has focused on this evidence. Yet not everyone agrees that this is the most important aspect of the situation.”

Adding a proviso or acknowledging reservations

Sometimes, you may need to acknowledge a shortfalling in a piece of evidence, or add a proviso. Here are some ways of doing so.

24. Despite this

Usage: Use “despite this” or “in spite of this” when you want to outline a point that stands regardless of a shortfalling in the evidence. Example: “The sample size was small, but the results were important despite this.”

25. With this in mind

Usage: Use this when you want your reader to consider a point in the knowledge of something else. Example: “We’ve seen that the methods used in the 19th century study did not always live up to the rigorous standards expected in scientific research today, which makes it difficult to draw definite conclusions. With this in mind, let’s look at a more recent study to see how the results compare.”

26. Provided that

Usage: This means “on condition that”. You can also say “providing that” or just “providing” to mean the same thing. Example: “We may use this as evidence to support our argument, provided that we bear in mind the limitations of the methods used to obtain it.”

27. In view of/in light of

Usage: These phrases are used when something has shed light on something else. Example: “In light of the evidence from the 2013 study, we have a better understanding of…”

28. Nonetheless

Usage: This is similar to “despite this”. Example: “The study had its limitations, but it was nonetheless groundbreaking for its day.”

29. Nevertheless

Usage: This is the same as “nonetheless”. Example: “The study was flawed, but it was important nevertheless.”

30. Notwithstanding

Usage: This is another way of saying “nonetheless”. Example: “Notwithstanding the limitations of the methodology used, it was an important study in the development of how we view the workings of the human mind.”

Giving examples

Good essays always back up points with examples, but it’s going to get boring if you use the expression “for example” every time. Here are a couple of other ways of saying the same thing.

31. For instance

Example: “Some birds migrate to avoid harsher winter climates. Swallows, for instance, leave the UK in early winter and fly south…”

32. To give an illustration

Example: “To give an illustration of what I mean, let’s look at the case of…”

Signifying importance

When you want to demonstrate that a point is particularly important, there are several ways of highlighting it as such.

33. Significantly

Usage: Used to introduce a point that is loaded with meaning that might not be immediately apparent. Example: “Significantly, Tacitus omits to tell us the kind of gossip prevalent in Suetonius’ accounts of the same period.”

34. Notably

Usage: This can be used to mean “significantly” (as above), and it can also be used interchangeably with “in particular” (the example below demonstrates the first of these ways of using it). Example: “Actual figures are notably absent from Scholar A’s analysis.”

35. Importantly

Usage: Use “importantly” interchangeably with “significantly”. Example: “Importantly, Scholar A was being employed by X when he wrote this work, and was presumably therefore under pressure to portray the situation more favourably than he perhaps might otherwise have done.”

Summarising

You’ve almost made it to the end of the essay, but your work isn’t over yet. You need to end by wrapping up everything you’ve talked about, showing that you’ve considered the arguments on both sides and reached the most likely conclusion. Here are some words and phrases to help you.

36. In conclusion

Usage: Typically used to introduce the concluding paragraph or sentence of an essay, summarising what you’ve discussed in a broad overview. Example: “In conclusion, the evidence points almost exclusively to Argument A.”

37. Above all

Usage: Used to signify what you believe to be the most significant point, and the main takeaway from the essay. Example: “Above all, it seems pertinent to remember that…”

38. Persuasive

Usage: This is a useful word to use when summarising which argument you find most convincing. Example: “Scholar A’s point – that Constanze Mozart was motivated by financial gain – seems to me to be the most persuasive argument for her actions following Mozart’s death.”

39. Compelling

Usage: Use in the same way as “persuasive” above. Example: “The most compelling argument is presented by Scholar A.”

40. All things considered

Usage: This means “taking everything into account”. Example: “All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that…”

How many of these words and phrases will you get into your next essay? And are any of your favourite essay terms missing from our list? Let us know in the comments below, or get in touch here to find out more about courses that can help you with your essays.

At Oxford Royale Academy, we offer a number of  summer school courses for young people who are keen to improve their essay writing skills. Click here to apply for one of our courses today, including law , business , medicine  and engineering .

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33 Transition Words and Phrases

Transitional terms give writers the opportunity to prepare readers for a new idea, connecting the previous sentence to the next one.

Many transitional words are nearly synonymous: words that broadly indicate that “this follows logically from the preceding” include accordingly, therefore, and consequently . Words that mean “in addition to” include moreover, besides, and further . Words that mean “contrary to what was just stated” include however, nevertheless , and nonetheless .

as a result : THEREFORE : CONSEQUENTLY

The executive’s flight was delayed and they accordingly arrived late.

in or by way of addition : FURTHERMORE

The mountain has many marked hiking trails; additionally, there are several unmarked trails that lead to the summit.

at a later or succeeding time : SUBSEQUENTLY, THEREAFTER

Afterward, she got a promotion.

even though : ALTHOUGH

She appeared as a guest star on the show, albeit briefly.

in spite of the fact that : even though —used when making a statement that differs from or contrasts with a statement you have just made

They are good friends, although they don't see each other very often.

in addition to what has been said : MOREOVER, FURTHERMORE

I can't go, and besides, I wouldn't go if I could.

as a result : in view of the foregoing : ACCORDINGLY

The words are often confused and are consequently misused.

in a contrasting or opposite way —used to introduce a statement that contrasts with a previous statement or presents a differing interpretation or possibility

Large objects appear to be closer. Conversely, small objects seem farther away.

used to introduce a statement that is somehow different from what has just been said

These problems are not as bad as they were. Even so, there is much more work to be done.

used as a stronger way to say "though" or "although"

I'm planning to go even though it may rain.

in addition : MOREOVER

I had some money to invest, and, further, I realized that the risk was small.

in addition to what precedes : BESIDES —used to introduce a statement that supports or adds to a previous statement

These findings seem plausible. Furthermore, several studies have confirmed them.

because of a preceding fact or premise : for this reason : THEREFORE

He was a newcomer and hence had no close friends here.

from this point on : starting now

She announced that henceforth she would be running the company.

in spite of that : on the other hand —used when you are saying something that is different from or contrasts with a previous statement

I'd like to go; however, I'd better not.

as something more : BESIDES —used for adding information to a statement

The city has the largest population in the country and in addition is a major shipping port.

all things considered : as a matter of fact —used when making a statement that adds to or strengthens a previous statement

He likes to have things his own way; indeed, he can be very stubborn.

for fear that —often used after an expression denoting fear or apprehension

He was concerned lest anyone think that he was guilty.

in addition : ALSO —often used to introduce a statement that adds to and is related to a previous statement

She is an acclaimed painter who is likewise a sculptor.

at or during the same time : in the meantime

You can set the table. Meanwhile, I'll start making dinner.

BESIDES, FURTHER : in addition to what has been said —used to introduce a statement that supports or adds to a previous statement

It probably wouldn't work. Moreover, it would be very expensive to try it.

in spite of that : HOWEVER

It was a predictable, but nevertheless funny, story.

in spite of what has just been said : NEVERTHELESS

The hike was difficult, but fun nonetheless.

without being prevented by (something) : despite—used to say that something happens or is true even though there is something that might prevent it from happening or being true

Notwithstanding their youth and inexperience, the team won the championship.

if not : or else

Finish your dinner. Otherwise, you won't get any dessert.

more correctly speaking —used to introduce a statement that corrects what you have just said

We can take the car, or rather, the van.

in spite of that —used to say that something happens or is true even though there is something that might prevent it from happening or being true

I tried again and still I failed.

by that : by that means

He signed the contract, thereby forfeiting his right to the property.

for that reason : because of that

This tablet is thin and light and therefore very convenient to carry around.

immediately after that

The committee reviewed the documents and thereupon decided to accept the proposal.

because of this or that : HENCE, CONSEQUENTLY

This detergent is highly concentrated and thus you will need to dilute it.

while on the contrary —used to make a statement that describes how two people, groups, etc., are different

Some of these species have flourished, whereas others have struggled.

NEVERTHELESS, HOWEVER —used to introduce a statement that adds something to a previous statement and usually contrasts with it in some way

It was pouring rain out, yet his clothes didn’t seem very wet.

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50 Useful Academic Words & Phrases for Research

Like all good writing, writing an academic paper takes a certain level of skill to express your ideas and arguments in a way that is natural and that meets a level of academic sophistication. The terms, expressions, and phrases you use in your research paper must be of an appropriate level to be submitted to academic journals.

Therefore, authors need to know which verbs , nouns , and phrases to apply to create a paper that is not only easy to understand, but which conveys an understanding of academic conventions. Using the correct terminology and usage shows journal editors and fellow researchers that you are a competent writer and thinker, while using non-academic language might make them question your writing ability, as well as your critical reasoning skills.

What are academic words and phrases?

One way to understand what constitutes good academic writing is to read a lot of published research to find patterns of usage in different contexts. However, it may take an author countless hours of reading and might not be the most helpful advice when faced with an upcoming deadline on a manuscript draft.

Briefly, “academic” language includes terms, phrases, expressions, transitions, and sometimes symbols and abbreviations that help the pieces of an academic text fit together. When writing an academic text–whether it is a book report, annotated bibliography, research paper, research poster, lab report, research proposal, thesis, or manuscript for publication–authors must follow academic writing conventions. You can often find handy academic writing tips and guidelines by consulting the style manual of the text you are writing (i.e., APA Style , MLA Style , or Chicago Style ).

However, sometimes it can be helpful to have a list of academic words and expressions like the ones in this article to use as a “cheat sheet” for substituting the better term in a given context.

How to Choose the Best Academic Terms

You can think of writing “academically” as writing in a way that conveys one’s meaning effectively but concisely. For instance, while the term “take a look at” is a perfectly fine way to express an action in everyday English, a term like “analyze” would certainly be more suitable in most academic contexts. It takes up fewer words on the page and is used much more often in published academic papers.

You can use one handy guideline when choosing the most academic term: When faced with a choice between two different terms, use the Latinate version of the term. Here is a brief list of common verbs versus their academic counterparts:

Although this can be a useful tip to help academic authors, it can be difficult to memorize dozens of Latinate verbs. Using an AI paraphrasing tool or proofreading tool can help you instantly find more appropriate academic terms, so consider using such revision tools while you draft to improve your writing.

Top 50 Words and Phrases for Different Sections in a Research Paper

The “Latinate verb rule” is just one tool in your arsenal of academic writing, and there are many more out there. But to make the process of finding academic language a bit easier for you, we have compiled a list of 50 vital academic words and phrases, divided into specific categories and use cases, each with an explanation and contextual example.

Best Words and Phrases to use in an Introduction section

1. historically.

An adverb used to indicate a time perspective, especially when describing the background of a given topic.

2. In recent years

A temporal marker emphasizing recent developments, often used at the very beginning of your Introduction section.

3. It is widely acknowledged that

A “form phrase” indicating a broad consensus among researchers and/or the general public. Often used in the literature review section to build upon a foundation of established scientific knowledge.

4. There has been growing interest in

Highlights increasing attention to a topic and tells the reader why your study might be important to this field of research.

5. Preliminary observations indicate

Shares early insights or findings while hedging on making any definitive conclusions. Modal verbs like may , might , and could are often used with this expression.

6. This study aims to

Describes the goal of the research and is a form phrase very often used in the research objective or even the hypothesis of a research paper .

7. Despite its significance

Highlights the importance of a matter that might be overlooked. It is also frequently used in the rationale of the study section to show how your study’s aim and scope build on previous studies.

8. While numerous studies have focused on

Indicates the existing body of work on a topic while pointing to the shortcomings of certain aspects of that research. Helps focus the reader on the question, “What is missing from our knowledge of this topic?” This is often used alongside the statement of the problem in research papers.

9. The purpose of this research is

A form phrase that directly states the aim of the study.

10. The question arises (about/whether)

Poses a query or research problem statement for the reader to acknowledge.

Best Words and Phrases for Clarifying Information

11. in other words.

Introduces a synopsis or the rephrasing of a statement for clarity. This is often used in the Discussion section statement to explain the implications of the study .

12. That is to say

Provides clarification, similar to “in other words.”

13. To put it simply

Simplifies a complex idea, often for a more general readership.

14. To clarify

Specifically indicates to the reader a direct elaboration of a previous point.

15. More specifically

Narrows down a general statement from a broader one. Often used in the Discussion section to clarify the meaning of a specific result.

16. To elaborate

Expands on a point made previously.

17. In detail

Indicates a deeper dive into information.

Points out specifics. Similar meaning to “specifically” or “especially.”

19. This means that

Explains implications and/or interprets the meaning of the Results section .

20. Moreover

Expands a prior point to a broader one that shows the greater context or wider argument.

Best Words and Phrases for Giving Examples

21. for instance.

Provides a specific case that fits into the point being made.

22. As an illustration

Demonstrates a point in full or in part.

23. To illustrate

Shows a clear picture of the point being made.

24. For example

Presents a particular instance. Same meaning as “for instance.”

25. Such as

Lists specifics that comprise a broader category or assertion being made.

26. Including

Offers examples as part of a larger list.

27. Notably

Adverb highlighting an important example. Similar meaning to “especially.”

28. Especially

Adverb that emphasizes a significant instance.

29. In particular

Draws attention to a specific point.

30. To name a few

Indicates examples than previously mentioned are about to be named.

Best Words and Phrases for Comparing and Contrasting

31. however.

Introduces a contrasting idea.

32. On the other hand

Highlights an alternative view or fact.

33. Conversely

Indicates an opposing or reversed idea to the one just mentioned.

34. Similarly

Shows likeness or parallels between two ideas, objects, or situations.

35. Likewise

Indicates agreement with a previous point.

36. In contrast

Draws a distinction between two points.

37. Nevertheless

Introduces a contrasting point, despite what has been said.

38. Whereas

Compares two distinct entities or ideas.

Indicates a contrast between two points.

Signals an unexpected contrast.

Best Words and Phrases to use in a Conclusion section

41. in conclusion.

Signifies the beginning of the closing argument.

42. To sum up

Offers a brief summary.

43. In summary

Signals a concise recap.

44. Ultimately

Reflects the final or main point.

45. Overall

Gives a general concluding statement.

Indicates a resulting conclusion.

Demonstrates a logical conclusion.

48. Therefore

Connects a cause and its effect.

49. It can be concluded that

Clearly states a conclusion derived from the data.

50. Taking everything into consideration

Reflects on all the discussed points before concluding.

Edit Your Research Terms and Phrases Before Submission

Using these phrases in the proper places in your research papers can enhance the clarity, flow, and persuasiveness of your writing, especially in the Introduction section and Discussion section, which together make up the majority of your paper’s text in most academic domains.

However, it's vital to ensure each phrase is contextually appropriate to avoid redundancy or misinterpretation. As mentioned at the top of this article, the best way to do this is to 1) use an AI text editor , free AI paraphrasing tool or AI proofreading tool while you draft to enhance your writing, and 2) consult a professional proofreading service like Wordvice, which has human editors well versed in the terminology and conventions of the specific subject area of your academic documents.

For more detailed information on using AI tools to write a research paper and the best AI tools for research , check out the Wordvice AI Blog .

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Linking Words and Phrases in a Thesis

Linking words (also known as transitions) are one of the most important elements in writing, since they allow readers to see the relationships between your ideas. There are several categories of transitions, ranging from words and phrases that signal contrast to words and phrases that signal agreement.

Because they are so important, it’s critical that you don’t misuse them. This article presents some commonly misused linking words that you should be aware of, and then presents some of the most common types of linking words, along with examples.

The most important thing I can emphasize here is to always be aware of the definition of any word or phrase you use. You may be familiar enough with a word to feel comfortable using it, but if you don’t actually know its definition and you don’t take the time to look it up, you may occasionally (or frequently) misuse it.

Linking words present a particularly important case in which you should be aware of definitions, since your audience will be easily lost if you misrepresent the connections between your sentences and ideas.

Linking words often (Ab)used

Easily one of the most commonly misused linking words,  therefore  indicates a logical relationship between two things, such that the first thing proves or necessitates the second. Think of it as equivalent to the phrase “as a result.” Confused uses of therefore often imply odd logical connections.

Problem : To see the problem more clearly, simplify the sentence: “We know it’s a competitive environment, so it’s important for lawyers to set themselves apart.” The implication here is that lawyers need to set themselves apart  because people know  that law firms are highly competitive.

However, the fact that people know of the highly competitive environment is more or less irrelevant to the reasons lawyers set themselves apart from each other.

Explanation :  Here, the logical connection is between law firms being highly competitive environments and lawyers needing to set themselves apart from each other.

Herewith, therewith, hereby

These are all examples of transition words not in common use. They are most common in the technical definitions of legal documents, and often sound archaic when used in other contexts. Though they have their uses, it’s best to avoid these words.

Explanation :  “Hereby” was above being used as an equivalent to “herewith,” meaning roughly “along with this,” “in this way,” or “by means of this.”  The language is simply much more natural in the rephrasing.

This slash-transition (and with most other words joined by a slash) can be very difficult to understand. Some writers mean “ either   A   or B  or  both A and B, ” yet others simply mean  A and B , and still others simply mean  A or B . It gets confusing.

Avoid  and/or  altogether in formal writing. Almost always the context of the discussion will clarify your meaning if you use simply  and  or  or . In cases that might be confusing, it’s generally best to spend the extra words to clarify your meaning.

Explanation :  It’s difficult to tell whether she might take 1) either the bus or the train, 2) both the bus and the train, or 3) either the bus or the train or both. Making the ambiguity worse, the intended meaning will change depending on the writer. This confusion of use among beginning writers makes it difficult for a reader to decide among the choices.

Solution :  Simply avoid “and/or” and spell out the option that you mean:

• the bus or the train
• the bus and the train
• the bus and the train, or both of them.

The phrase “as well as” is often used as a substitution for “and,” but the meaning is not quite the same. “As well as” implies a difference of emphasis or importance, with whatever comes after “as well as” being less important, so receiving less emphasis. “And,” on the other hand, is used between two equally important things.

Problem :  The emphasis seems not to be right here, at least if we think that whether staff will be paid is at least as important as the time of the meeting.  To see the problem more clearly, we can keep the emphasis as it is and rephrase the sentence: “The mayor will decide on not only whether or not staff will be paid for their time, but also on next week’s meeting time.”

Here it should be obvious that the “not only … but also” sentence structure downplays the importance of a seemingly important issue (whether or not staff gets paid).  The emphasis is the same in the original sentence.

Explanation :  “And” gives equal emphasis to both the time of the meeting and the issue of staff pay.  If we think these are issues that should receive equal emphasis, we need to use “and.”

Different examples of linking words*

Note that many of these may appear at the beginning, middle, and end of sentences. If in doubt about the use of any of the linking words below, a quick search for example sentences should help clarify.

Additive linking words

These show addition, introduction, similarity to other ideas, etc.

Adversative linking words

These linking words are used to signal conflict, contradiction concession, dismissal, etc.

Causal linking words

These linking words signal cause and effect, reason and result, etc.

Sequential linking words

These linking words are used to signal a chronological or logical sequence.

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What is a thesis | A Complete Guide with Examples

Table of Contents

A thesis is a comprehensive academic paper based on your original research that presents new findings, arguments, and ideas of your study. It’s typically submitted at the end of your master’s degree or as a capstone of your bachelor’s degree.

However, writing a thesis can be laborious, especially for beginners. From the initial challenge of pinpointing a compelling research topic to organizing and presenting findings, the process is filled with potential pitfalls.

Therefore, to help you, this guide talks about what is a thesis. Additionally, it offers revelations and methodologies to transform it from an overwhelming task to a manageable and rewarding academic milestone.

What is a thesis?

A thesis is an in-depth research study that identifies a particular topic of inquiry and presents a clear argument or perspective about that topic using evidence and logic.

Writing a thesis showcases your ability of critical thinking, gathering evidence, and making a compelling argument. Integral to these competencies is thorough research, which not only fortifies your propositions but also confers credibility to your entire study.

Furthermore, there's another phenomenon you might often confuse with the thesis: the ' working thesis .' However, they aren't similar and shouldn't be used interchangeably.

A working thesis, often referred to as a preliminary or tentative thesis, is an initial version of your thesis statement. It serves as a draft or a starting point that guides your research in its early stages.

As you research more and gather more evidence, your initial thesis (aka working thesis) might change. It's like a starting point that can be adjusted as you learn more. It's normal for your main topic to change a few times before you finalize it.

While a thesis identifies and provides an overarching argument, the key to clearly communicating the central point of that argument lies in writing a strong thesis statement.

What is a thesis statement?

A strong thesis statement (aka thesis sentence) is a concise summary of the main argument or claim of the paper. It serves as a critical anchor in any academic work, succinctly encapsulating the primary argument or main idea of the entire paper.

Typically found within the introductory section, a strong thesis statement acts as a roadmap of your thesis, directing readers through your arguments and findings. By delineating the core focus of your investigation, it offers readers an immediate understanding of the context and the gravity of your study.

Furthermore, an effectively crafted thesis statement can set forth the boundaries of your research, helping readers anticipate the specific areas of inquiry you are addressing.

Different types of thesis statements

A good thesis statement is clear, specific, and arguable. Therefore, it is necessary for you to choose the right type of thesis statement for your academic papers.

Thesis statements can be classified based on their purpose and structure. Here are the primary types of thesis statements:

Argumentative (or Persuasive) thesis statement

Purpose : To convince the reader of a particular stance or point of view by presenting evidence and formulating a compelling argument.

Example : Reducing plastic use in daily life is essential for environmental health.

Analytical thesis statement

Purpose : To break down an idea or issue into its components and evaluate it.

Example : By examining the long-term effects, social implications, and economic impact of climate change, it becomes evident that immediate global action is necessary.

Expository (or Descriptive) thesis statement

Purpose : To explain a topic or subject to the reader.

Example : The Great Depression, spanning the 1930s, was a severe worldwide economic downturn triggered by a stock market crash, bank failures, and reduced consumer spending.

Cause and effect thesis statement

Purpose : To demonstrate a cause and its resulting effect.

Example : Overuse of smartphones can lead to impaired sleep patterns, reduced face-to-face social interactions, and increased levels of anxiety.

Compare and contrast thesis statement

Purpose : To highlight similarities and differences between two subjects.

Example : "While both novels '1984' and 'Brave New World' delve into dystopian futures, they differ in their portrayal of individual freedom, societal control, and the role of technology."

When you write a thesis statement , it's important to ensure clarity and precision, so the reader immediately understands the central focus of your work.

What is the difference between a thesis and a thesis statement?

While both terms are frequently used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings.

A thesis refers to the entire research document, encompassing all its chapters and sections. In contrast, a thesis statement is a brief assertion that encapsulates the central argument of the research.

Here’s an in-depth differentiation table of a thesis and a thesis statement.

Now, to craft a compelling thesis, it's crucial to adhere to a specific structure. Let’s break down these essential components that make up a thesis structure

15 components of a thesis structure

Navigating a thesis can be daunting. However, understanding its structure can make the process more manageable.

Here are the key components or different sections of a thesis structure:

Your thesis begins with the title page. It's not just a formality but the gateway to your research.

Here, you'll prominently display the necessary information about you (the author) and your institutional details.

• Title of your thesis
• Your full name
• Your department
• Your institution and degree program
• Your submission date
• Your Supervisor's name (in some cases)
• Your Department or faculty (in some cases)
• Your University's logo (in some cases)
• Your Student ID (in some cases)

In a concise manner, you'll have to summarize the critical aspects of your research in typically no more than 200-300 words.

This includes the problem statement, methodology, key findings, and conclusions. For many, the abstract will determine if they delve deeper into your work, so ensure it's clear and compelling.

Acknowledgments

Research is rarely a solitary endeavor. In the acknowledgments section, you have the chance to express gratitude to those who've supported your journey.

This might include advisors, peers, institutions, or even personal sources of inspiration and support. It's a personal touch, reflecting the humanity behind the academic rigor.

Table of contents

A roadmap for your readers, the table of contents lists the chapters, sections, and subsections of your thesis.

By providing page numbers, you allow readers to navigate your work easily, jumping to sections that pique their interest.

List of figures and tables

Research often involves data, and presenting this data visually can enhance understanding. This section provides an organized listing of all figures and tables in your thesis.

It's a visual index, ensuring that readers can quickly locate and reference your graphical data.

Introduction

Here's where you introduce your research topic, articulate the research question or objective, and outline the significance of your study.

• Present the research topic : Clearly articulate the central theme or subject of your research.
• Background information : Ground your research topic, providing any necessary context or background information your readers might need to understand the significance of your study.
• Define the scope : Clearly delineate the boundaries of your research, indicating what will and won't be covered.
• Literature review : Introduce any relevant existing research on your topic, situating your work within the broader academic conversation and highlighting where your research fits in.
• State the research Question(s) or objective(s) : Clearly articulate the primary questions or objectives your research aims to address.
• Outline the study's structure : Give a brief overview of how the subsequent sections of your work will unfold, guiding your readers through the journey ahead.

The introduction should captivate your readers, making them eager to delve deeper into your research journey.

Literature review section

Your study correlates with existing research. Therefore, in the literature review section, you'll engage in a dialogue with existing knowledge, highlighting relevant studies, theories, and findings.

It's here that you identify gaps in the current knowledge, positioning your research as a bridge to new insights.

To streamline this process, consider leveraging AI tools. For example, the SciSpace literature review tool enables you to efficiently explore and delve into research papers, simplifying your literature review journey.

Methodology

In the research methodology section, you’ll detail the tools, techniques, and processes you employed to gather and analyze data. This section will inform the readers about how you approached your research questions and ensures the reproducibility of your study.

Here's a breakdown of what it should encompass:

• Research Design : Describe the overall structure and approach of your research. Are you conducting a qualitative study with in-depth interviews? Or is it a quantitative study using statistical analysis? Perhaps it's a mixed-methods approach?
• Data Collection : Detail the methods you used to gather data. This could include surveys, experiments, observations, interviews, archival research, etc. Mention where you sourced your data, the duration of data collection, and any tools or instruments used.
• Sampling : If applicable, explain how you selected participants or data sources for your study. Discuss the size of your sample and the rationale behind choosing it.
• Data Analysis : Describe the techniques and tools you used to process and analyze the data. This could range from statistical tests in quantitative research to thematic analysis in qualitative research.
• Validity and Reliability : Address the steps you took to ensure the validity and reliability of your findings to ensure that your results are both accurate and consistent.
• Ethical Considerations : Highlight any ethical issues related to your research and the measures you took to address them, including — informed consent, confidentiality, and data storage and protection measures.

Moreover, different research questions necessitate different types of methodologies. For instance:

• Experimental methodology : Often used in sciences, this involves a controlled experiment to discern causality.
• Qualitative methodology : Employed when exploring patterns or phenomena without numerical data. Methods can include interviews, focus groups, or content analysis.
• Quantitative methodology : Concerned with measurable data and often involves statistical analysis. Surveys and structured observations are common tools here.
• Mixed methods : As the name implies, this combines both qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

The Methodology section isn’t just about detailing the methods but also justifying why they were chosen. The appropriateness of the methods in addressing your research question can significantly impact the credibility of your findings.

Results (or Findings)

This section presents the outcomes of your research. It's crucial to note that the nature of your results may vary; they could be quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of both.

Quantitative results often present statistical data, showcasing measurable outcomes, and they benefit from tables, graphs, and figures to depict these data points.

Qualitative results , on the other hand, might delve into patterns, themes, or narratives derived from non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations.

Regardless of the nature of your results, clarity is essential. This section is purely about presenting the data without offering interpretations — that comes later in the discussion.

In the discussion section, the raw data transforms into valuable insights.

Start by revisiting your research question and contrast it with the findings. How do your results expand, constrict, or challenge current academic conversations?

Dive into the intricacies of the data, guiding the reader through its implications. Detail potential limitations transparently, signaling your awareness of the research's boundaries. This is where your academic voice should be resonant and confident.

Practical implications (Recommendation) section

Based on the insights derived from your research, this section provides actionable suggestions or proposed solutions.

Whether aimed at industry professionals or the general public, recommendations translate your academic findings into potential real-world actions. They help readers understand the practical implications of your work and how it can be applied to effect change or improvement in a given field.

When crafting recommendations, it's essential to ensure they're feasible and rooted in the evidence provided by your research. They shouldn't merely be aspirational but should offer a clear path forward, grounded in your findings.

The conclusion provides closure to your research narrative.

It's not merely a recap but a synthesis of your main findings and their broader implications. Reconnect with the research questions or hypotheses posited at the beginning, offering clear answers based on your findings.

Reflect on the broader contributions of your study, considering its impact on the academic community and potential real-world applications.

Lastly, the conclusion should leave your readers with a clear understanding of the value and impact of your study.

References (or Bibliography)

Every theory you've expounded upon, every data point you've cited, and every methodological precedent you've followed finds its acknowledgment here.

In references, it's crucial to ensure meticulous consistency in formatting, mirroring the specific guidelines of the chosen citation style .

Proper referencing helps to avoid plagiarism , gives credit to original ideas, and allows readers to explore topics of interest. Moreover, it situates your work within the continuum of academic knowledge.

To properly cite the sources used in the study, you can rely on online citation generator tools  to generate accurate citations!

Here’s more on how you can cite your sources.

Often, the depth of research produces a wealth of material that, while crucial, can make the core content of the thesis cumbersome. The appendix is where you mention extra information that supports your research but isn't central to the main text.

Whether it's raw datasets, detailed procedural methodologies, extended case studies, or any other ancillary material, the appendices ensure that these elements are archived for reference without breaking the main narrative's flow.

For thorough researchers and readers keen on meticulous details, the appendices provide a treasure trove of insights.

Glossary (optional)

In academics, specialized terminologies, and jargon are inevitable. However, not every reader is versed in every term.

The glossary, while optional, is a critical tool for accessibility. It's a bridge ensuring that even readers from outside the discipline can access, understand, and appreciate your work.

By defining complex terms and providing context, you're inviting a wider audience to engage with your research, enhancing its reach and impact.

Remember, while these components provide a structured framework, the essence of your thesis lies in the originality of your ideas, the rigor of your research, and the clarity of your presentation.

As you craft each section, keep your readers in mind, ensuring that your passion and dedication shine through every page.

Thesis examples

To further elucidate the concept of a thesis, here are illustrative examples from various fields:

Example 1 (History): Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the ‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807 by Suchait Kahlon.

Example 2 (Climate Dynamics): Influence of external forcings on abrupt millennial-scale climate changes: a statistical modelling study by Takahito Mitsui · Michel Crucifix

Checklist for your thesis evaluation

Evaluating your thesis ensures that your research meets the standards of academia. Here's an elaborate checklist to guide you through this critical process.

Content and structure

• Is the thesis statement clear, concise, and debatable?
• Does the introduction provide sufficient background and context?
• Is the literature review comprehensive, relevant, and well-organized?
• Does the methodology section clearly describe and justify the research methods?
• Are the results/findings presented clearly and logically?
• Does the discussion interpret the results in light of the research question and existing literature?
• Is the conclusion summarizing the research and suggesting future directions or implications?

Clarity and coherence

• Is the writing clear and free of jargon?
• Are ideas and sections logically connected and flowing?
• Is there a clear narrative or argument throughout the thesis?

Research quality

• Is the research question significant and relevant?
• Are the research methods appropriate for the question?
• Is the sample size (if applicable) adequate?
• Are the data analysis techniques appropriate and correctly applied?
• Are potential biases or limitations addressed?

Originality and significance

• Does the thesis contribute new knowledge or insights to the field?
• Is the research grounded in existing literature while offering fresh perspectives?

Formatting and presentation

• Is the thesis formatted according to institutional guidelines?
• Are figures, tables, and charts clear, labeled, and referenced in the text?
• Is the bibliography or reference list complete and consistently formatted?
• Are appendices relevant and appropriately referenced in the main text?

Grammar and language

• Is the thesis free of grammatical and spelling errors?
• Is the language professional, consistent, and appropriate for an academic audience?
• Are quotations and paraphrased material correctly cited?

Feedback and revision

• Have you sought feedback from peers, advisors, or experts in the field?
• Have you addressed the feedback and made the necessary revisions?

Overall assessment

• Does the thesis as a whole feel cohesive and comprehensive?
• Would the thesis be understandable and valuable to someone in your field?

Ensure to use this checklist to leave no ground for doubt or missed information in your thesis.

After writing your thesis, the next step is to discuss and defend your findings verbally in front of a knowledgeable panel. You’ve to be well prepared as your professors may grade your presentation abilities.

Preparing your thesis defense

A thesis defense, also known as "defending the thesis," is the culmination of a scholar's research journey. It's the final frontier, where you’ll present their findings and face scrutiny from a panel of experts.

Typically, the defense involves a public presentation where you’ll have to outline your study, followed by a question-and-answer session with a committee of experts. This committee assesses the validity, originality, and significance of the research.

The defense serves as a rite of passage for scholars. It's an opportunity to showcase expertise, address criticisms, and refine arguments. A successful defense not only validates the research but also establishes your authority as a researcher in your field.

Here’s how you can effectively prepare for your thesis defense .

Now, having touched upon the process of defending a thesis, it's worth noting that scholarly work can take various forms, depending on academic and regional practices.

One such form, often paralleled with the thesis, is the 'dissertation.' But what differentiates the two?

Dissertation vs. Thesis

Often used interchangeably in casual discourse, they refer to distinct research projects undertaken at different levels of higher education.

To the uninitiated, understanding their meaning might be elusive. So, let's demystify these terms and delve into their core differences.

Here's a table differentiating between the two.

Wrapping up

From understanding the foundational concept of a thesis to navigating its various components, differentiating it from a dissertation, and recognizing the importance of proper citation — this guide covers it all.

As scholars and readers, understanding these nuances not only aids in academic pursuits but also fosters a deeper appreciation for the relentless quest for knowledge that drives academia.

It’s important to remember that every thesis is a testament to curiosity, dedication, and the indomitable spirit of discovery.

Good luck with your thesis writing!

Frequently Asked Questions

A thesis typically ranges between 40-80 pages, but its length can vary based on the research topic, institution guidelines, and level of study.

A PhD thesis usually spans 200-300 pages, though this can vary based on the discipline, complexity of the research, and institutional requirements.

To identify a thesis topic, consider current trends in your field, gaps in existing literature, personal interests, and discussions with advisors or mentors. Additionally, reviewing related journals and conference proceedings can provide insights into potential areas of exploration.

The conceptual framework is often situated in the literature review or theoretical framework section of a thesis. It helps set the stage by providing the context, defining key concepts, and explaining the relationships between variables.

A thesis statement should be concise, clear, and specific. It should state the main argument or point of your research. Start by pinpointing the central question or issue your research addresses, then condense that into a single statement, ensuring it reflects the essence of your paper.

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Which term is correct for a work submitted for a master's degree: paper, thesis or dissertation?

What is the difference among the terms paper , thesis and dissertation ? Which one should I use, for instance if I am completing a master's degree? Are they interchangeable ?

• publications

• 1 Use for what (e.g., in a CV or when talking to family)? –  StrongBad Commented Jun 30, 2014 at 12:35
• I like this Wikipedia quote . –  StrongBad Commented Jun 30, 2014 at 12:38

2 Answers 2

A paper usually refers to a published article but can also mean a shorter written essay, for example as in term-paper. The thesis and dissertation is basically equivalent, at least in its use. Originally a thesis is more than the written work, it is the thought or thinking coupled to the problem as the original meaning of the word indicates. From this perspective the word dissertation is used for the written work that comes out of your degree work.

So for a master degree, you will see masters thesis and masters dissertation used interchangeably. I would suggest checking what is used in your department or university and use whatever is customary.

If I get your question right:

• A paper usually refers to an article published either in a journal or presented at a conference. It is rather small in comparison to a thesis or dissertation.
• A thesis generally refers to the final written work that leads to an academical degree, like a bachelor or a master thesis.
• A dissertation is usually a general piece of written scientific work submitted for the requirements of a doctoral degree.

Depending on the language and on the user and on the context, the last two (thesis / dissertation) are sometimes interchangable. A paper is actually something distinct, although a dissertation can consist of published papers ("thesis by publication").

The "name" of the work for your master's degree usually is "master thesis".

• Outside the United States, "master's dissertation" seems to be fairly common too. –  Brian Z Commented Feb 11, 2015 at 16:33

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Not the answer you're looking for browse other questions tagged publications thesis ..

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The Academic Word List (AWL) The 570 headwords, and other forms, by level

For another look at the same content, check out YouTube » or Youku » , or the AWL infographic » .

This page describes the Academic Word List (AWL), giving information on what the AWL is , as well as a complete list of all words in the AWL . The list is rather static. More dynamic tools for understanding and using the AWL words can be found in other sections of the website, namely the AWL highlighter and gapfill maker , AWL tag cloud and gapfill maker , the AWL finder , and a vocabulary profiler . Other pages also contain information on how to use word lists as well as more detailed information on the main different word lists available for academic study .

What is the AWL?

The Academic Word List (AWL), developed by Averil Coxhead at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, contains 570 word families which frequently appear in academic texts, but which are not contained in the General Service List (GSL) . When compiling the list, the author found that the AWL covers around 10% of words in academic texts; if you are familiar with words in the GSL, which covers around 80% of words in written texts, you would have knowledge of approximately 90% of words in academic texts. The words in the AWL are not connected with any particular subject, meaning they are useful for all students.

The 570 word families of the AWL are divided into 10 lists (called sublists) according to how frequent they are. Sublist 1 has the most frequent word families, sublist 2 the next most frequent word families, up to sublist 10, which has the least frequent. Each sublist contains 60 word families, except for sublist 10, which only has 30.

The list below contains all 570 headwords in the AWL, along with sublist number, and related word forms. All words contain hyperlinks to the Wordnet dictionary , hosted on this site (definitions open in an alert box on the same page).

There is a downloadable copy of this list , with study guidance, in the vocabulary resources section .

Check out the Quizzes section for exercises to practise using words in the AWL.

The Academic Word List

Below is a complete copy of the Academic Word List. It shows headwords, sublist, and individual word forms. There are hyperlinks giving definitions. There is an alternative version of the list, with frequency information for individual word forms , on another page.

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Like the website? Try the books. This extract from Unlock the Academic Wordlist: Sublists 1-3 contains all sublist 1 words, plus exercises, answers and more!

Author: Sheldon Smith    ‖    Last modified: 05 March 2024.

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The AWL highlighter allows you to highlight words from the AWL (Academic Word List) in any text you choose.

The Academic Word List (AWL) contains 570 word families which frequently appear in academic texts.

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How To Use Latin Abbreviations Effectively and Accurately in PhD Theses

Posted by Rene Tetzner | Nov 9, 2021 | PhD Success | 0 |

6.3.11 Latin Abbreviations

Standard Latin abbreviations do not normally require definition when they are used in formal scholarly prose, but some of them are misused with a surprising frequency, presumably because their precise meanings are not fully understood by authors or are not considered carefully enough in relation to the context. The format of many of these abbreviations can vary in terms of capitalisation, font (roman or italic) and punctuation depending on the guidelines followed and the version of English (British or American) used. In a few cases, the abbreviations can be confusing for the reader and tend to be used a great deal less in the early twenty-first century than they were in the past; in others, the abbreviations are best avoided in the running text of a thesis, but can be freely used in notes, parenthetical material and other ancillary matter. The list below provides acceptable forms and variants of a number of the most common Latin abbreviations along with definitions and some brief notes on their use. While drafting and proofreading your thesis, you should ensure that each Latin abbreviation you use is formatted in an acceptable way, that the abbreviation chosen for each term is distinct from other abbreviations in your thesis (from similar English abbreviations, for example), that each abbreviation takes a consistent form throughout the thesis and that the punctuation and other elements associated with each abbreviation are consistent as well.

• Academic degree abbreviations sometimes represent Latin terms instead of English ones. This is the case with ‘M.D.’ for Medicinae Doctor (Doctor of Medicine), for instance, and ‘Ph.D.’ for Philosophiae Doctor (Doctor of Philosophy); see Section 15.21 of the Chicago Manual of Style (2003) for further examples. These abbreviations can use full stops or not (‘MD’ or ‘M.D.’ and ‘PhD’ or ‘Ph.D.’) and are enclosed in commas when they follow a personal name (Sarah Jones, Ph.D., is the first applicant). Roman (rather than italic) font is used for all degree abbreviations, which can be used in the main running text of a thesis.
• cit., art. cit. : articulo citato (in the cited article). This abbreviation is used in references after an author’s name to refer to the title of an already cited article, but it is used infrequently now and some guidelines will ask that it be avoided. When used, it can appear in either roman or italic font, but using a shortened version of the article title is preferable.
• , ca , ca. : circa (‘approximately’ or ‘about’). This abbreviation is almost always set in italic font and, although the single- or double-letter form (the latter with or without a full stop) is sometimes preferred, either is acceptable as long as it is maintained throughout a thesis. The abbreviation often appears before uncertain dates and numerals, in which case there is no space between the abbreviation and the number ( c. 1325), but a space should appear if the abbreviation precedes a letter or word ( c. AD 1325). If both dates given for a span of dates are approximate, the abbreviation should appear with each date ( c. 1325– c. 1350), but dates using a circa abbreviation should not be elided. Although the abbreviation can be used in this way with dates and other numerals in the running text of a thesis, in many instances it will be preferable to use an English word instead. At the beginning of a note, this abbreviation can remain lowercase.
• , cap.: capitulum (chapter). An alternative to the English abbreviations for ‘chapter’ (see Section 6.3.10 above), this abbreviation tends to be used in citations and references and generally appears in roman font, which prevents confusion with c. for circa .

• : confer (compare). Frequently misused to mean ‘see’ instead of ‘compare’ (so do consider its meaning carefully in context when you use it), this abbreviation almost always appears in roman font and is generally only used in parentheses or ancillary material such as footnotes or endnotes. In the running text of a thesis, the English ‘compare’ or similar wording should be used instead. The abbreviation can be used in lowercase at the beginning of a note.
• V., CV: curriculum vitae (course of life). This abbreviation is used in roman font and refers to a biographical résumé of a person’s training and career such as that used when applying for a job or providing credentials. It can generally be used in the main running text of a thesis.
• pers., dram. pers. : dramatis personae (characters of the play). Usually appearing in roman font, this abbreviation is appropriate for parenthetical or ancillary material such as notes and tables; in running text, the full Latin (in italics) or equivalent English phrasing should be used instead.
• g.: exempli gratia (for example). This abbreviation almost always appears in roman font and is used with great frequency – sometimes excessive frequency – in academic and scientific writing, where it is at times confused with ‘i.e.’ (see below). As a general rule, it should be used only in parentheses or ancillary material such as notes; in the running text of a thesis, equivalent English words (‘for example,’ ‘for instance’ etc.) are preferable. The abbreviation should be preceded by a comma, semicolon or colon, or an opening parenthesis if it is provided in parentheses, and is usually followed by a comma as well. It can remain lowercase at the beginning of a note.
• Era abbreviations sometimes represent Latin instead of English terms, such as ‘AD’ for Anno Domini (‘In the Year of the Lord’: Christian), ‘AH’ for Anno Hegirae (‘In the Year of the Hegira’: Muslim) and ‘AM’ for Anno Mundi (‘In the Year of the World’: Jewish); for further examples and explanations, see the Chicago Manual of Style (2003, Section 15.41) and Ritter (2005, Section 11.6.3). A Latin abbreviation for a chronological era should appear in roman font and precede the year (AD 1325), whereas an English abbreviation of an era follows the year (316 BC). Although these Latin era abbreviations can feature full stops (‘A.D.,’ ‘A.H.’ and ‘A.M’) they usually do not, which in the last example conveniently avoids confusion with the capitalised ‘A.M.’ abbreviation for ante meridiem (see time of day abbreviations below).

• et al., et al, et al. , et al : et alii (masculine) et aliae (feminine) et alia (neuter), meaning ‘and others.’ Predominantly used for references, this abbreviation can nonetheless appear in the main running text of a thesis. A full stop should never appear after ‘et’ because it is the complete word for ‘and,’ so is not abbreviated. A full stop does usually appear after the abbreviated ‘al,’ however, but not in all styles, and italics are sometimes used and sometimes not. There is also considerable variation regarding when ‘et al.’ should be used – for three or more authors, for four or more or for six or more depending on the guidelines and whether it is used in the main text or in the reference list/bibliography (for more information on the use of ‘et al.,’ see Sections 7.2.1 and 7.3.1). Guidelines also differ with regard to whether or not a comma should be used before and/or after ‘et al.’
• : et cetera (‘and the rest,’ ‘and so forth’ or ‘and other things’). This frequently used abbreviation almost always appears in roman font and should be used only in parentheses or ancillary material such as notes; in the main running text of a thesis, equivalent English words (‘and so on,’ ‘and so forth’ or ‘and the like’) are preferable. When used in lists (as it often is), the abbreviation should follow at least two (some advice suggests three) items to provide the reader with enough information to conjecture how the list might continue (‘peaches, pears, apples etc.,’ not ‘peaches etc.’). If the serial comma is normally used in a thesis, a comma should precede ‘etc.,’ but the comma is not necessary if a serial comma is not generally used. While ‘etc.’ can be used when listing types of people, ‘and others’ (or the abbreviation ‘et al.’) is better when listing individual people. The abbreviation should not be used at the end of a list that begins with ‘such as,’ ‘e.g.,’ ‘for example’ or ‘including,’ because these indicate that the list will be incomplete, and ‘etc.’ should not be written with an ampersand (&c) except when an older source is being duplicated or transcribed.
• et seq. , et seq . (plural ‘ et seqq. , et seqq.’): et sequens with the plural et sequentes (and the following). This abbreviation is generally, but not always, set in italic font, and in its singular and plural forms it serves as an alternative to ‘f.’ and ‘ff.’ (see Section 6.3.10 above). It is used after a page number to refer to the following pages (‘pp.26 et seq. ’ and ‘pp.26 et seqq. ’), but unless guidelines indicate otherwise, ‘f.’ or ‘ff.’ is usually preferable, and a specific page range is preferable to both (‘pp.26–27’ and ‘pp.26–31’). When it is used, a full stop should not appear after et , which is not abbreviated, but a stop should appear after the abbreviated or seqq.

• , fl.: floruit (flourished). This abbreviation is used, generally parenthetically, along with a date or dates to indicate the approximate active or productive period of a historical individual when birth and death dates are uncertain. It usually (but not always) appears in italic font before the relevant date or dates with a space between the abbreviation and the first date: William Langland ( fl. 1350–1390). In the main running text of a thesis, equivalent English words are usually preferable: ‘William Langland was active in the second half of the fourteenth century.’
• , ibid. (occasionally, ‘ib.’ or ‘ ib. ’): ibidem (‘in the same place’ or ‘in that very place’). Appearing in roman or (occasionally) italic font, ‘ibid.’ is used particularly in references, but not as often as it once was; it now tends to be used primarily for footnote and endnote references in the humanities, especially when guidelines call for it. It is used instead of repeating bibliographical information when a source is cited again immediately (without any intervening references) after it has been cited in the preceding note (or sentence within a note). Because it means ‘in that very place,’ it must be used with great care: only if everything about the second citation is exactly the same as the first can it be used alone, and any information that differs must be provided along with ‘ibid.’ (e.g., ‘ibid., p.13’ for the same author and title but a different page). ‘Ibid.’ should only be used if the reference and other information intended are absolutely clear; otherwise, it should be avoided. A comma sometimes but not always appears between ‘ibid.’ and a following page number (or other indicator of location).
• , id. , ead., ead. , eid., eid. , eaed., eaed. : idem (masculine), eadem (feminine), eidem (masculine plural), eaedem (feminine plural), meaning ‘the same person’ or, for the plural, ‘the same people.’ Although it is more common to use the full versions of these Latin words, the abbreviations are occasionally used in references in either roman or italic font. Their use is much rarer than it once was, but either the full or abbreviated forms can be used as substitutes for author names when works by the same author(s) are cited consecutively. A comma should normally follow the abbreviation or Latin word, just as it would an author’s name. Either form (abbreviated or full) must be used appropriately in terms of gender and number, so the name of a single male author should be replaced with ‘id.’ or idem , the name of a single female author with ‘ead.’ or eadem , the names of joint male authors or a mixture of male and female authors with ‘eid.’ or eidem and the names of joint female authors with ‘eaed.’ or eaedem . If there is any doubt about the author or authors intended or any doubt about the gender of the author or authors, the use of both the abbreviations and the full versions should be avoided.
• e.: id est (that is). This abbreviation almost always appears in roman font and is frequently used in academic and scientific writing, where it is sometimes confused with ‘e.g.’ (see above). As a general rule, it should be used only in parentheses or ancillary material such as notes; in the running text of a thesis, equivalent English words (‘that is’ or even ‘namely’ in some cases) are preferable. The abbreviation should be preceded by a comma, semicolon or colon, or an opening parenthesis if it is provided in parentheses, and is usually followed by a comma as well. It can remain lowercase at the beginning of a note.
• , inf. : infra (below). Appearing in either roman or italic font, this abbreviation is used primarily for (parenthetical) cross references, as is the full word in some instances, but it is usually best to replace both with the English word ‘below.’
• cit., loc. cit. : loco citato (in the cited place). Used for referencing in either roman or italic font, this abbreviation represents a specific location within a work, so its function is extremely limited; it is also often misunderstood and used in inappropriate ways. Although it can prevent the repetition of long and complex location references, this abbreviation must be used with absolute precision to be effective, and since repeating the information usually takes very little more space than the abbreviation and is always clearer, the abbreviation is best avoided.
• MS (plural MSS): manuscriptum with the plural manuscripta (‘manuscript’ or ‘manuscripts’). Set in roman font, this abbreviation is often read as abbreviating the English word ‘manuscript,’ but is technically a Latin abbreviation. It is normally not used in the running prose of a thesis except when providing the name and number of a particular manuscript (Cambridge, University Library MS Ff.1.6), but it can be used more freely in parenthetical and ancillary material such as notes and tables.
• , n. : natus (born). This abbreviation can be used in either roman or italic font before the birth date of an individual without any intervening space between the abbreviation and the date (n.1945), but only in parenthetical or ancillary material, and often the English abbreviation ‘b.’ for ‘born’ (used in exactly the same way but always in roman font) is preferred.
• (add an ‘s’ for the plural): numero (number). Although often understood as abbreviating the English word ‘number,’ this abbreviation is actually a contraction of the Latin numero , but one that almost always uses a full stop, which conveniently distinguishes it from the word ‘no’ in English. Set in roman font, this abbreviation tends to be used in references and in ancillary material such as tables and figures. It can be used along with numerals in running text, but otherwise, it is usually best to write out the word ‘number’ instead.
• , ob. : obiit (died). This abbreviation can be used in either roman or italic font before the death date of an individual without any intervening space between the abbreviation and the date (ob.2011), but only in parenthetical or ancillary material, and often the English abbreviation ‘d.’ for ‘died’ (used in exactly the same way but always in roman font) is preferred.
• cit., op. cit. : opere citato (in the cited work). Used in references after an author’s name to refer to the title of an already cited work, this abbreviation is now little used and some guidelines will ask that it be avoided. When used, it can appear in either roman or italic font, but using a shortened version of the title is preferable.
• per cent, percent, %: per centum (by the hundred). Although this abbreviation (and symbol) is essentially naturalised in English, it remains an abbreviation of a pure Latin term and often appears in scholarly writing. Some guidelines will recommend that the symbol (%) not be used in running text, but both that and the longer form of the abbreviation are often used in the main body of a thesis, with the two-word abbreviation predominant in British English and the one-word abbreviation in American English. It always appears in roman font, features no full stop and is usually (especially as ‘%’) accompanied by a number in the form of a numeral rather than a word; when the amount is not exact, the number can appear as a word with ‘per cent’ or ‘percent.’
• r: recto (on the right). Almost always set in roman font, this abbreviation is used to refer to the front or first page of a folio, which appears on the right side when a book lies open before the reader. In theses, it is used primarily in references to manuscripts and early printed books immediately after the folio number without intervening space (fol.86r), sometimes in a superscript font (fol.86 r ), and it is acceptable in both parenthetical material and running text. The recto abbreviation is sometimes omitted, however, as unnecessary, with ‘fol.86’ referring to the recto of the folio, and ‘fol.86v’ referring to the verso (the back or second page) of the folio (see the abbreviation ‘v’ below). When recto and/or verso references are used, folio numbers should not be elided.
• (‘ss.’ for the plural): saeculum with the plural saecula (‘an age’ or ‘a century,’ or, in the plural, ‘ages’ or ‘centuries’). Almost always set in roman font, this abbreviation is used along with (usually lowercase) Roman numerals to indicate centuries (with ‘s. xiii’ referring to the thirteenth century), particularly when dating medieval manuscripts. It is most acceptable in parenthetical material, but is often used in figure captions and legends as well.
• , sup. : supra (above). Appearing in either roman or italic font, this abbreviation is used primarily for cross references, as is the full word in some instances, but it is often best to replace both with the English word ‘above.’ The same is the case with ‘ut sup./ ut sup. ’ (abbreviating ut supra ) – ‘as above’ is clearer for English readers.
• Time of day in relation to noon is indicated by the Latin abbreviations ‘a.m.’ or ‘A.M.’ for ante meridiem (before noon), ‘p.m.’ or ‘P.M.’ for post meridiem (after noon) and, far more rarely, ‘m.’ or ‘M.’ for meridies (noon). Although these abbreviations sometimes appear, particularly in American English, without full stops when capitalised (‘AM,’ ‘PM’ and ‘M’), this can produce confusion with the abbreviation ‘AM’ for Anno Mundi (see era abbreviations above), so including the full stops is the best policy. ‘Morning,’ ‘afternoon,’ ‘evening,’ ‘night’ and ‘o’clock’ should not be used along with ‘a.m.’ or ‘p.m.’ – either ‘10.30 a.m.’ or ‘ten thirty in the morning’ is correct and, similarly, either ‘7.00 p.m.’ or ‘seven o’clock in the evening’ is correct. As these examples show, the abbreviation should follow the time indicated, and a space should be used between the numeral and the abbreviation. It is acceptable to use this abbreviation in the main running text of a thesis.
• v: verso (on the turned). Almost always set in roman font, this abbreviation is derived from ‘in verso folio’ (on the turned leaf) and used to refer to the back or second page of a folio. In theses, it is used primarily in references to manuscripts and early printed books immediately after the folio number without intervening space (fol.86v), sometimes in a superscript font (fol.86 v ), and is acceptable in both parenthetical material and running text. Unlike recto references, verso references are always required. When recto and/or verso references are used, folio numbers should not be elided.
• : videlicet (namely). Almost always set in roman font, this abbreviation has a function similar to that of ‘i.e.,’ but is used more rarely. Like ‘i.e.,’ it should only be used in parentheses or ancillary material such as notes; in the running text of a thesis, equivalent English words (‘namely’ or even ‘that is’ in some cases) are preferable. The abbreviation is usually preceded by a comma, semicolon or colon, or an opening parenthesis if it is provided in parentheses, and tends to be followed by a comma as well, but it is often either replaced with ‘i.e.’ or written out in English.
• , v.: versus (versus). This abbreviation almost always appears in roman font, and the ‘vs.’ form is the most common; ‘v.’ is used between the names of parties in legal cases, but notice that it can also mean ‘verse’ (see Section 6.3.10 above). As a general rule, ‘vs.’ is used in parenthetical or ancillary material and should not be used in the running text of a thesis, where the word ‘versus’ should be used instead.

PRS Tip: Confusion is all too possible if the abbreviations you use in your thesis are not completely accurate and recorded with absolute precision and consistency. I have already mentioned the distinction (a full stop) between the abbreviations for ‘Saint’ and ‘Street,’ but a couple more examples will illustrate the potential for ambiguity and the importance of attending to each and every detail associated with abbreviations and their use, no matter how small or insignificant those details may seem. The first is the ‘#’ symbol (referred to as the number, pound or hash sign) which is often used in American English to indicate ‘number.’ Given the potential (and desire) for an international readership for most theses, this symbol should be avoided as a general rule, because it does not usually mean ‘number’ in Britain, for instance, and has other meanings depending on the context: it is used, for example, as a symbol in linguistics, music and proof correction, on telephone keyboards (the ‘pound key’) and, more recently, in hashtags for social networking and the like. Therefore, the standard Latin abbreviation ‘no.’ (plural ‘nos.’) is a much better choice. The abbreviation ‘MS’ also has more than one meaning, so the meaning intended in any particular situation needs to be specified via the format of the abbreviation and the way in which it is used in a sentence. ‘MS’ as an initialism means ‘multiple sclerosis’ and is read as individual letters, so it should be used with ‘an’ when an indefinite article is required (an MS patient). ‘MS’ in exactly the same form also means ‘manuscript’ (technically, the Latin manuscriptum ), however, and while the plural ‘MSS’ clearly indicates this meaning, identifying what is represented by the singular form depends upon context and the fact that it is pronounced as the word ‘ manuscriptum /manuscript,’ so is preceded by ‘a’ when an indefinite article is needed (a MS). To complicate matters further, ‘MS’ can also be used to abbreviate ‘Master of Science,’ though in this case alternate forms can be used to specify that meaning – ‘M.S.,’ ‘MSc’ and ‘M.Sc.’ In addition, when the same abbreviation uses an initial capital only – ‘Ms’ (or ‘Ms.’) – it is a social title preferred by many women because it does not determine marital status as ‘Mrs’ or ‘Miss’ does. Finally, ‘ms’ using all lowercase letters abbreviates ‘millisecond.’ With the last three forms there is much less potential for confusion, of course, but in all cases clarity is determined by extremely careful usage, so this abbreviation is a good reminder of the fact that abbreviations are only as effective as their use is accurate, consistent and precise. If you are having difficulties formatting and integrating abbreviations into your prose or are simply unsure that your own use of abbreviations achieves the precision it should, do send your thesis chapters to PRS, where professional academic and scientific proofreaders can ensure that your use of abbreviations (and other elements in your writing) is just what it should be.

Why PhD Success?

To Graduate Successfully

This article is part of a book called "PhD Success" which focuses on the writing process of a phd thesis, with its aim being to provide sound practices and principles for reporting and formatting in text the methods, results and discussion of even the most innovative and unique research in ways that are clear, correct, professional and persuasive.

The assumption of the book is that the doctoral candidate reading it is both eager to write and more than capable of doing so, but nonetheless requires information and guidance on exactly what he or she should be writing and how best to approach the task. The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples.

The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples. PhD Success provides guidance for students familiar with English and the procedures of English universities, but it also acknowledges that many theses in the English language are now written by candidates whose first language is not English, so it carefully explains the scholarly styles, conventions and standards expected of a successful doctoral thesis in the English language.

Individual chapters of this book address reflective and critical writing early in the thesis process; working successfully with thesis supervisors and benefiting from commentary and criticism; drafting and revising effective thesis chapters and developing an academic or scientific argument; writing and formatting a thesis in clear and correct scholarly English; citing, quoting and documenting sources thoroughly and accurately; and preparing for and excelling in thesis meetings and examinations. 

Completing a doctoral thesis successfully requires long and penetrating thought, intellectual rigour and creativity, original research and sound methods (whether established or innovative), precision in recording detail and a wide-ranging thoroughness, as much perseverance and mental toughness as insight and brilliance, and, no matter how many helpful writing guides are consulted, a great deal of hard work over a significant period of time. Writing a thesis can be an enjoyable as well as a challenging experience, however, and even if it is not always so, the personal and professional rewards of achieving such an enormous goal are considerable, as all doctoral candidates no doubt realise, and will last a great deal longer than any problems that may be encountered during the process.

Interested in Proofreading your PhD Thesis? Get in Touch with us

If you are interested in proofreading your PhD thesis or dissertation, please explore our expert dissertation proofreading services.

Rene Tetzner

Rene Tetzner's blog posts dedicated to academic writing. Although the focus is on How To Write a Doctoral Thesis, many other important aspects of research-based writing, editing and publishing are addressed in helpful detail.

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• What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

Published on September 14, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on April 16, 2024.

A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the final step of a master’s program or a capstone to a bachelor’s degree.

Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Other than a dissertation , it is one of the longest pieces of writing students typically complete. It relies on your ability to conduct research from start to finish: choosing a relevant topic , crafting a proposal , designing your research , collecting data , developing a robust analysis, drawing strong conclusions , and writing concisely .

Thesis template

You can also download our full thesis template in the format of your choice below. Our template includes a ready-made table of contents , as well as guidance for what each chapter should include. It’s easy to make it your own, and can help you get started.

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Table of contents

Thesis vs. thesis statement, how to structure a thesis, acknowledgements or preface, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review, methodology, reference list, proofreading and editing, defending your thesis, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about theses.

You may have heard the word thesis as a standalone term or as a component of academic writing called a thesis statement . Keep in mind that these are two very different things.

• A thesis statement is a very common component of an essay, particularly in the humanities. It usually comprises 1 or 2 sentences in the introduction of your essay , and should clearly and concisely summarize the central points of your academic essay .
• A thesis is a long-form piece of academic writing, often taking more than a full semester to complete. It is generally a degree requirement for Master’s programs, and is also sometimes required to complete a bachelor’s degree in liberal arts colleges.
• In the US, a dissertation is generally written as a final step toward obtaining a PhD.
• In other countries (particularly the UK), a dissertation is generally written at the bachelor’s or master’s level.

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The final structure of your thesis depends on a variety of components, such as:

• Your discipline
• Your theoretical approach

Humanities theses are often structured more like a longer-form essay . Just like in an essay, you build an argument to support a central thesis.

In both hard and social sciences, theses typically include an introduction , literature review , methodology section ,  results section , discussion section , and conclusion section . These are each presented in their own dedicated section or chapter. In some cases, you might want to add an appendix .

Thesis examples

We’ve compiled a short list of thesis examples to help you get started.

• Example thesis #1:   “Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the ‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807” by Suchait Kahlon.
• Example thesis #2: “’A Starving Man Helping Another Starving Man’: UNRRA, India, and the Genesis of Global Relief, 1943-1947″ by Julian Saint Reiman.

The very first page of your thesis contains all necessary identifying information, including:

• Your full title
• Your full name
• Your department
• Your institution and degree program
• Your submission date.

Sometimes the title page also includes your student ID, the name of your supervisor, or the university’s logo. Check out your university’s guidelines if you’re not sure.

Read more about title pages

The acknowledgements section is usually optional. Its main point is to allow you to thank everyone who helped you in your thesis journey, such as supervisors, friends, or family. You can also choose to write a preface , but it’s typically one or the other, not both.

Read more about acknowledgements Read more about prefaces

An abstract is a short summary of your thesis. Usually a maximum of 300 words long, it’s should include brief descriptions of your research objectives , methods, results, and conclusions. Though it may seem short, it introduces your work to your audience, serving as a first impression of your thesis.

Read more about abstracts

A table of contents lists all of your sections, plus their corresponding page numbers and subheadings if you have them. This helps your reader seamlessly navigate your document.

Your table of contents should include all the major parts of your thesis. In particular, don’t forget the the appendices. If you used heading styles, it’s easy to generate an automatic table Microsoft Word.

Read more about tables of contents

While not mandatory, if you used a lot of tables and/or figures, it’s nice to include a list of them to help guide your reader. It’s also easy to generate one of these in Word: just use the “Insert Caption” feature.

Read more about lists of figures and tables

If you have used a lot of industry- or field-specific abbreviations in your thesis, you should include them in an alphabetized list of abbreviations . This way, your readers can easily look up any meanings they aren’t familiar with.

Read more about lists of abbreviations

Relatedly, if you find yourself using a lot of very specialized or field-specific terms that may not be familiar to your reader, consider including a glossary . Alphabetize the terms you want to include with a brief definition.

Read more about glossaries

An introduction sets up the topic, purpose, and relevance of your thesis, as well as expectations for your reader. This should:

• Ground your research topic , sharing any background information your reader may need
• Define the scope of your work
• Introduce any existing research on your topic, situating your work within a broader problem or debate
• State your research question(s)
• Outline (briefly) how the remainder of your work will proceed

In other words, your introduction should clearly and concisely show your reader the “what, why, and how” of your research.

Read more about introductions

A literature review helps you gain a robust understanding of any extant academic work on your topic, encompassing:

• Selecting relevant sources
• Determining the credibility of your sources
• Critically evaluating each of your sources
• Drawing connections between sources, including any themes, patterns, conflicts, or gaps

A literature review is not merely a summary of existing work. Rather, your literature review should ultimately lead to a clear justification for your own research, perhaps via:

• Addressing a gap in the literature
• Building on existing knowledge to draw new conclusions
• Exploring a new theoretical or methodological approach
• Introducing a new solution to an unresolved problem
• Definitively advocating for one side of a theoretical debate

Read more about literature reviews

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework, but these are not the same thing. A theoretical framework defines and analyzes the concepts and theories that your research hinges on.

Read more about theoretical frameworks

Your methodology chapter shows your reader how you conducted your research. It should be written clearly and methodically, easily allowing your reader to critically assess the credibility of your argument. Furthermore, your methods section should convince your reader that your method was the best way to answer your research question.

A methodology section should generally include:

• Your overall approach ( quantitative vs. qualitative )
• Your research methods (e.g., a longitudinal study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., interviews or a controlled experiment
• Any tools or materials you used (e.g., computer software)
• The data analysis methods you chose (e.g., statistical analysis , discourse analysis )
• A strong, but not defensive justification of your methods

Read more about methodology sections

Your results section should highlight what your methodology discovered. These two sections work in tandem, but shouldn’t repeat each other. While your results section can include hypotheses or themes, don’t include any speculation or new arguments here.

Your results section should:

• State each (relevant) result with any (relevant) descriptive statistics (e.g., mean , standard deviation ) and inferential statistics (e.g., test statistics , p values )
• Explain how each result relates to the research question
• Determine whether the hypothesis was supported

Additional data (like raw numbers or interview transcripts ) can be included as an appendix . You can include tables and figures, but only if they help the reader better understand your results.

Read more about results sections

Your discussion section is where you can interpret your results in detail. Did they meet your expectations? How well do they fit within the framework that you built? You can refer back to any relevant source material to situate your results within your field, but leave most of that analysis in your literature review.

For any unexpected results, offer explanations or alternative interpretations of your data.

Read more about discussion sections

Your thesis conclusion should concisely answer your main research question. It should leave your reader with an ultra-clear understanding of your central argument, and emphasize what your research specifically has contributed to your field.

Why does your research matter? What recommendations for future research do you have? Lastly, wrap up your work with any concluding remarks.

Read more about conclusions

In order to avoid plagiarism , don’t forget to include a full reference list at the end of your thesis, citing the sources that you used. Choose one citation style and follow it consistently throughout your thesis, taking note of the formatting requirements of each style.

Which style you choose is often set by your department or your field, but common styles include MLA , Chicago , and APA.

Create APA citations Create MLA citations

In order to stay clear and concise, your thesis should include the most essential information needed to answer your research question. However, chances are you have many contributing documents, like interview transcripts or survey questions . These can be added as appendices , to save space in the main body.

Read more about appendices

Once you’re done writing, the next part of your editing process begins. Leave plenty of time for proofreading and editing prior to submission. Nothing looks worse than grammar mistakes or sloppy spelling errors!

Consider using a professional thesis editing service or grammar checker to make sure your final project is perfect.

Once you’ve submitted your final product, it’s common practice to have a thesis defense, an oral component of your finished work. This is scheduled by your advisor or committee, and usually entails a presentation and Q&A session.

After your defense , your committee will meet to determine if you deserve any departmental honors or accolades. However, keep in mind that defenses are usually just a formality. If there are any serious issues with your work, these should be resolved with your advisor way before a defense.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Research bias

• Survivorship bias
• Self-serving bias
• Availability heuristic
• Halo effect
• Hindsight bias
• Deep learning
• Generative AI
• Machine learning
• Reinforcement learning
• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

 (AI) Tools

• Grammar Checker
• Paraphrasing Tool
• Text Summarizer
• AI Detector
• Plagiarism Checker
• Citation Generator

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation shouldn’t take up more than 5–7% of your overall word count.

If you only used a few abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation , you don’t necessarily need to include a list of abbreviations .

If your abbreviations are numerous, or if you think they won’t be known to your audience, it’s never a bad idea to add one. They can also improve readability, minimizing confusion about abbreviations unfamiliar to your reader.

When you mention different chapters within your text, it’s considered best to use Roman numerals for most citation styles. However, the most important thing here is to remain consistent whenever using numbers in your dissertation .

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organize your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation , such as:

• Your anticipated title
• Your abstract
• Your chapters (sometimes subdivided into further topics like literature review , research methods , avenues for future research, etc.)

A thesis is typically written by students finishing up a bachelor’s or Master’s degree. Some educational institutions, particularly in the liberal arts, have mandatory theses, but they are often not mandatory to graduate from bachelor’s degrees. It is more common for a thesis to be a graduation requirement from a Master’s degree.

Even if not mandatory, you may want to consider writing a thesis if you:

• Plan to attend graduate school soon
• Have a particular topic you’d like to study more in-depth
• Are considering a career in research
• Would like a capstone experience to tie up your academic experience

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Workshops | Formatting | Pagination | Submission Prep

UNO graduate program requirements include an electronic version of the thesis, thesis-equivalent project, Ed.S. field project, or dissertation (collectively referred to as ETDs). An ETD is a document expressed in a format simultaneously suitable for machine archives and worldwide retrieval. Preparation of the ETD may be done using most word processor or document preparation systems that incorporate relevant multimedia objects. The ETD has many benefits including:

• More access to research both on campus and worldwide
• Less expense to authors as there are no paper costs
• Can provide a better presentation of the research than available in the traditional paper format

The Culmination of Your Dedicated Graduate Work: Master's Thesis or Ed.S. Field Project A master's thesis, thesis-equivalent project, or Ed.S. field project provides the opportunity for students to acquire first-hand experience in research or creative activities with the supervision of experienced faculty. A thesis (or thesis-equivalent project) is equivalent to six credit hours; and the Ed.S. field project is equivalent to three credit hours.

The Culmination of Your Scholarly Work in Graduate School: Doctoral Dissertation

The doctoral dissertation should make a creative contribution to knowledge in the field while also demonstrating mastery of relevant resources and methods. Given the diverse nature of the fields in which dissertations are written and the wide variety of topics that are explored, it is impossible to designate an ideal length for the dissertation. A long dissertation is not necessarily better than a shorter one since the value and scale of the dissertation topic ultimately depends on the quality of its thought and the clarity of its exposition. Your dissertation supervisory committee will determine the appropriateness of these and other issues.

Thesis and Dissertation Formatting Workshops

Join us at an upcoming live workshop to review detailed instructions on the required formatting of a thesis, Ed.S. field project, or dissertation - including important forms, steps to take, and pitfalls to avoid.

Fall 2024 workshops

• Wednesday, October 2 from 4:00 PM-5:00 PM - In person - Location TBD
• Tuesday, November 5 from 12:00 PM-1:00 PM - Virtual

Contact Joe Champion at [email protected] with questions, clarifications, or to schedule a virtual appointment.

Document Formatting Instructions

Page numbering.

Number all pages in your ETD, except the Title Page and the Abstract. Page numbers appear in page headers and are right justified. For pages before the introductory text, use small Roman numerals (i. ii. iii. iv. etc.) placed in the upper right corner of the page. Number all pages through the remainder of the ETD using Arabic numbers (1,2,3 etc.). These numbers are to appear in the upper right corner and are to be placed so that, when printed, they are at least 1/2" from the top and 1" from the right margin. Do not include a running head. (Consult the help files of your software on how to set up "Page Headers.")

All margins for your ETD should be as follows: Left: 1 1/2", Right 1"; Top and Bottom 1". This format applies to all materials in the document. The extra space along the left margin allows space for binding.

Double-space all sections of the ETD except footnotes/endnotes, bibliographic entries, and lists in appendices. Single spacing may be used on tables and figures at the discretion of the student's supervisory committee.

Times New Roman or a comparable appearing font, usually at 12 pt, is recommended for best readability. All fonts must be embedded fonts and used consistently throughout the text.

Manuscripts will appear in color when viewed electronically. Microfilm and print reproductions of the manuscript, however, will occur only as shades of gray so consider this when deciding how or whether to use color in your ETD.

Section Summary | Order of Pagination

Be sure the title you provide on the submission form is the same one you show as the title on the Title Page.

Review sample Title Pages on the Forms and Documents page.

Each ETD must be accompanied by an abstract that has been approved by the student's Supervisory Committee. Abstracts are limited to 350 words including the title. Note, however, that the thesis and project abstracts published by ProQuest will be truncated to 150 words.

Review a sample Abstract on the Forms and Documents page.

Copyright Page

In any work, copyright implicitly devolves to the author of that work. One may make a statement of ownership explicit, however, by including a copyright notice, such as "Copyright 1988, John J. Smith" on a separate page of your ETD. Additionally, you may pay an optional fee, to ProQuest to register your copyright with the U.S. Copyright Office. This option is offered when you submit your final PDF file to ProQuest. You and your advisor should discuss copyrighting and whether copyrighting as the sole owner is an option for you.

• Dedication (optional)
• Author's Acknowledgement (optional)
• Grant Acknowledgement Information (optional)

Table of Contents

Include the section headings of your ETD as well as the page on which each begins.

Lists of Multimedia Objects

On a separate page, list the number and title for each of the multimedia used (e.g. table, figure, graph, diagram, equation, etc.) list the number and title of the object and the page on which it occurs.

In general, the following format is recommended although, specific formatting (e.g. chapters, sections, etc.) should be consistent with your discipline. See your Supervisory Committee for guidance. Label the beginning of each chapter or section (e.g. Introduction, Methods, etc.) using a font larger than that used in the subsequent text. Follow a standard format of your discipline for sub-section formatting. Chapters, sections, etc. should be separated by an extra space. Indent quotes on both left and right margin.

• Footnotes: You may use footnotes and/or endnotes. Lengthy footnotes are probably best formatted as endnotes. Place footnotes on the same page as the statement to which they refer. Footnotes in the main body text should be numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals, starting with 1.
• Multimedia Objects: Multimedia objects include tables, figures, complex equations, graphs, diagrams, digital pictures, digital video, digital audio, virtual reality, and even computer software that you have developed.
• Simple Objects: Most simple objects (e.g. tables, figures, graphs, and diagrams) are embedded in your ETD using your word processor. Typically, they are embedded immediately after they are mentioned in the text. Center the object between the left and right margins of the text or page. Titles are placed directly below for figures, graphs, etc. and directly above for tables. Figures and tables are separately numbered consecutively (e.g. Figure 1, Figure 2, etc. and Table 1, Table 2, etc.). Numbering may be further divided into chapters (e.g., in Chapters 5 we may have Table 5.1, Table 5.2, and Figures 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3). Titles should be concise but sufficiently descriptive to explain all aspects of the object.
• Complex Objects: Most complex multimedia objects, require special treatment since they may not fit naturally on the page or the file size may be too large to fit reasonably within a document. For complex objects, place the type and number of the object along with its concise, descriptive title, centered on a line by itself. In parentheses, include the media encoding (e.g., JPEG) and file size (e.g., 1.5 Megabytes). Then, connect each object title to a separate file containing the object. Many complex multimedia object types have a simple object version (often called "thumbnail") that is a reduction of the picture or one frame of the video. If possible, include this reduction in the main document along with a PDF link to the complex object. Be sure you submit the object file(s) with your ETD.

Consult your departmental/school guidelines for the standard forms for citations.

A separate page with the word "Appendix" centered on it is recommended as an easily observed indication of the break between the main body and appendices. The source code or output of computer programs may be included as an enumerated appendix.

Place figures references with PDF links to multimedia objects in the Appendix as well. Following the same format in the Appendix as you followed in the main body of your ETD, place the word "Appendix", the appendix letter or letters, and the appendix title in large type at the beginning of each appendix section. Appendices are enumerated alphabetically from A to Z, then AA, AB, and so on to ZZ, then AAA, AAB, etc.

Thesis and Dissertation Submission

As a part of the ETD submission students' abstracts are published in ProQuest's Master's Theses or Dissertations Abstracts publications. Upon submission, you are authorizing ProQuest to produce copies of your work on demand for a fee. However, you may request ProQuest not distribute (or embargo) your ETD until further notice (up to two years). Some reasons for this may be if there is a patent-pending, your employers require a review of your work, or a publishing agreement requires initial publication.

Theses, Thesis-Equivalent Projects, and Ed.S. Field Project Submission Preparation

At least one semester prior to your anticipated graduation date, you must initiate the thesis, thesis-equivalent project, or Ed.S. field project. Students must file the following forms with the Office of Graduate Studies (Forms & Resources page):

• Proposed Supervisory Committee form
• Thesis Proposal Approval Form

The Supervisory Committee’s final recommendations of the final product are typically provided to the student at the time of the final oral examination, although details vary among department/schools and individual faculty. Final approval of the document (in PDF format) is contingent upon approval by the supervisory committee and the Office of Graduate Studies. Once approved, the student must submit the Report on Completion of Degree form, signed by supervisory committee, to the Office of Graduate Studies.

Dissertation Submission Preparation Procedures

Final recommendations from the dissertation committee are provided to the student at the time of the final oral examination, although details vary among department/schools and individual faculty. Final approval of the dissertation is contingent upon approval by the supervisory committee and the Office of Graduate Studies. At least three (3) weeks prior to the last published date for holding oral exams, provide the following to the Office of Graduate Studies:

• Application for Final Oral Examination or Waiver

When the final dissertation has been approved by the dissertation committee, the student must submit the following to the Office of Graduate Studies for the final, administrative step in the approval process:

• Report on Completion of Degree form, signed by the dissertation committee
• Completed Survey of Earned Doctorates

ProQuest Account Set-Up and Document Submission

The final step in submitting your ETD to ProQuest involves setting up an account and transmitting your ETD. After the documents noted above are submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies, the student must upload their thesis, Ed.S. field project, or dissertation to ProQuest. Be certain the electronic version, in PDF format is exactly as approved by the Supervisory Committee. ETDs are to be checked for formatting, pagination, spelling, grammar, and typos by the student and the student's Supervisory Committee.

Since errors may occur when converting from a word processor file to a PDF, it is essential the student review the final version of the PDF. There may be fees incurred if you select options such as copyright or open access, or if you wish to order bound copies of your document, which is determined based upon your selections at the time of account creation with ProQuest. The amounts are noted on the ProQuest website.

Once submitted, the Office of Gradu ate Studies will review the submission for formatting. A student often has formatting edits required and may need to submit a second time. Final approval must be granted by the Office of Graduate Studies before 5:00 P.M. (CST) on the deadline, which is 12 working days prior to the commencement ceremony/last day of the semester in the case of summer graduation.

• Connect to ProQuest online.
• Create a new account.
• Follow the directions on the screen to answer all required questions within your ProQuest account. You will then be prompted to upload your ETD, so be sure to have the ETD file on an internal or connected hard drive. If the document is to be held pending patent issuance, etc., you must specify that at the time the PDF file is submitted to ProQuest.

CONNECT TO PROQUEST

Open access.

During the submission process you will be asked if you wish to select "Open Access," which includes an additional fee. Be aware that selecting this option allows full web access to your entire document. For reasons that include concern for plagiarism of your work, the Office of Graduate Studies does NOT recommend this option.

After Submission

After submitting the ETD to ProQuest, the Office of Graduate Studies will be notified electronically of the submission and asked to provide final approval. If formatting edits are required, you will receive an email notification that prompts those changes. You will then also receive an email for each step of the process until the ETD is transmitted to ProQuest and finally accepted.

If you also wish to submit a copy of your thesis/dissertation to Digital Commons ( UNO’s institutional repository ), email a copy with any embargo information to [email protected] . You can also email them with any questions you may have on submitting to the repository. This step is voluntary.

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Thesis / dissertation formatting manual (2024).

• Filing Fees and Student Status
• Submission Process Overview
• Electronic Thesis Submission
• Paper Thesis Submission
• Formatting Overview
• Fonts/Typeface
• Pagination, Margins, Spacing
• Paper Thesis Formatting
• Preliminary Pages Overview
• Copyright Page
• Dedication Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures (etc.)
• Acknowledgments
• Text and References Overview
• Figures and Illustrations
• Using Your Own Previously Published Materials
• Using Copyrighted Materials by Another Author
• Open Access and Embargoes
• Copyright and Creative Commons
• Ordering Print (Bound) Copies
• Tutorials and Assistance
• FAQ This link opens in a new window

UCI Libraries maintains the following  templates to assist in formatting your graduate manuscript. If you are formatting your manuscript in Microsoft Word, feel free to download and use the template. If you would like to see what your manuscript should look like, PDFs have been provided. If you are formatting your manuscript using LaTex, UCI maintains a template on OverLeaf.

• Annotated Template (Dissertation) 2024 PDF of a template with annotations of what to look out for
• Word: Thesis Template 2024 Editable template of the Master's thesis formatting.
• PDF Thesis Template 2024
• Word: Dissertation Template 2024 Editable template of the PhD Dissertation formatting.
• PDF: Dissertation Template 2024
• Overleaf (LaTex) Template
• << Previous: Tutorials and Assistance
• Next: FAQ >>
• Last Updated: Jul 18, 2024 9:46 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uci.edu/gradmanual

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Trump draws fire for remarks about Medal of Honor recipients

Trump has previously sparked criticism for swipes at servicemembers.

Former president Donald Trump sparked criticism when he said the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian award, is "much better" than the Medal of Honor, the nation's highest military honor, because soldiers are in "bad shape" or dead when they receive it – comments Trump's campaign suggested were misinterpreted.

During an event at his Bedminster, New Jersey, estate Thursday night, which was about antisemitism, Trump called attention to a major donor, Miriam Adelson – the widow of his friend and business mogul Sheldon Adelson – upon whom he bestowed the Medal of Freedom in 2018.

"Sheldon and Miriam were best friends together, and I was in their group. And we just had always a great relationship, known her for a long time," Trump said. "Sheldon was one of the greatest businessmen in the world, and she's turning out to be one of the greatest businesswomen of the world."

Trump then recalled the moment Miriam Adelson received the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

"But I really, I watched Sheldon sitting so proud in the White House when we gave Miriam the Presidential Medal of Freedom," he said. "That's the highest award you can get as a civilian. It's the equivalent of the Congressional Medal of Honor, but civilian version, it's actually much better, because everyone gets the Congressional Medal of Honor, they're soldiers. They're either in very bad shape because they've been hit so many times by bullets, or they're dead. She gets it and she's healthy, beautiful woman."

Miriam Adelson was awarded the Medal of Freedom as a "committed doctor, philanthropist, and humanitarian." "As a committed member of the American Jewish community, she has supported Jewish schools, Holocaust memorial organizations, Friends of the Israel Defense Forces, and Birthright Israel, among other causes," the Trump White House wrote in part.

A prominent national veterans group leader released a statement on Friday criticizing Trump's comments, calling them "asinine."

"These asinine comments not only diminish the significance of our nation's highest award for valor, but also crassly characterizes the sacrifices of those who have risked their lives above and beyond the call of duty," Veterans of Foreign Wars National Commander Al Lipphardt said.

"When a candidate to serve as our military's commander-in-chief so brazenly dismisses the valor and reverence symbolized by the Medal of Honor and those who have earned it, I must question whether they would discharge their responsibilities to our men and women in uniform with the seriousness and discernment necessary for such a powerful position," Lipphardt continued. "It is even more disappointing when these comments come from a man who already served in this noble office and should frankly already know better," he said.

The Kamala Harris campaign pounced on Trump's words, saying he "knows nothing about service to anyone or anything but himself."

And progressive veterans group VoteVets said in a statement: "It isn't just that Donald Trump doesn't respect Veterans and their sacrifice. It's that Donald Trump hates Veterans and their sacrifice, because he looks so small in comparison to them."

In a statement, the Trump campaign said the former president was referring to the experience of giving the award, not denigrating the Medal of Honor or the actions of servicemembers.

"President Trump was simply saying how it can be an emotionally difficult experience to give the Congressional Medal of Honor to veterans who have been wounded or tragically killed defending our country, as he proudly did when he was Commander in Chief," said campaign spokesperson Brian Hughes.

On Friday, Trump's running mate, Ohio Sen. JD Vance, a Marine veteran, defended the former president.

"This is a guy who loves our veterans and who honors our veterans," Vance said during an event at the Milwaukee Police Association. "I don't think him complimenting and saying a nice word about a person who received the Presidential Medal of Freedom is in any way denigrating those who received military honors."

MORE: Trump says he's 'entitled' to make personal attacks on Harris, citing lack of respect

Trump, who holds himself up as a champion of the military and regularly discusses his record of rebuilding the military while in office, has drawn fire for swipes at servicemembers.

One of the most notable examples was when he criticized another Republican, John McCain -- the late Arizona senator and former presidential candidate -- who spent five years as a POW during the Vietnam War, casting doubt on his status as a war hero.

"I like people who weren't captured," Trump said in 2015 . At the time, the remarks set off a firestorm, including from members of the Republican party, who called for him to drop out of the 2016 presidential race.

More recently, Trump came under scrutiny when The Atlantic reported in 2020 that he had called those who died in war "suckers" and "losers." Trump has vehemently denied the reported remarks, which President Biden repeated on the campaign trail before he dropped out of the race. ABC News has not independently confirmed the story.

During the Bedminster event, Trump highlighted the importance of the Jewish vote, while also making false claims about various Democrats, including Harris.

"We're here tonight because we believe that this vicious outbreak of militant and antisemitism is very militant. Must be given no quarter, no safe harbor, no place in a civilized society. We must reject it in our schools, reject it in our foreign policy, reject it in our immigration system and reject it at the ballot box," Trump told the crowd.

Trump then repeated a dual loyalty trope – that itself has been criticized as antisemitic – that American Jews owe a dual loyalty to Israel or having two separate interests that conflict, telling the audience, "Jewish people have to not vote by habit. You vote by habit for Democrats, and the Democrats are really against you."

Trump continued to make similar comments, suggesting that Jewish people need to "stop" voting for Democrats. "You have to be smart," Trump said, before discussing his list of accomplishments such as the Abraham Accords and withdrawing from the Iran nuclear deal.

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Trump says Medal of Freedom "equivalent" to and "much better" than Medal of Honor, sparking backlash from veterans

By James LaPorta

Updated on: August 16, 2024 / 5:57 PM EDT / CBS News

Former President Donald Trump received an immediate backlash Thursday when he said the Presidential Medal of Freedom he awarded to Dr. Miriam Adelson, the widow of Republican mega-donor Sheldon Adelson, was "equivalent" and "much better" than the Medal of Honor, the nation's highest military award for bravery in combat. 

Speaking from his golf club in Bedminster, New Jersey, during an event on fighting antisemitism, Trump praised the late Las Vegas casino magnate as "one of the greatest businessmen in the world," before addressing Sheldon Adelson's widow to make a comparison between the Medal of Honor and the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor, which is typically given for significant achievements in the arts, public service and other fields. 

"I watched Sheldon sitting so proud in the White House when we gave Miriam the Presidential Medal of Freedom. That's the highest award you can get as a civilian. It's the equivalent of the Congressional Medal of Honor, but civilian version," said Trump as he spoke from the podium in front of multiple American and Israeli flags. 

He added, "It's actually much better because everyone gets the Congressional Medal of Honor, they're soldiers. They're either in very bad shape because they've been hit so many times by bullets or they are dead. She gets it and she's a healthy, beautiful woman. And they're rated equal, but she got the Presidential Medal of Freedom." 

Miriam Adelson is a physician who specializes in drug addiction and is known for her humanitarian work and donations to Jewish organizations. In 2018, Trump awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom during a White House ceremony. The Trump administration at the time noted her two research centers aimed at stemming substance abuse and the work of the Adelson Medical Research Foundation, established to combat life-threatening illnesses. 

GOP Sen. JD Vance of Ohio was asked about his running mate's remarks on Friday. 

"This is a guy who loves our veterans and who honors our veterans," Vance replied. "I don't think him complimenting and saying a nice word about a person who received the Presidential Medal of Freedom is in any way denigrating those who received military honors." 

But many veterans with prominent platforms on social media denounced Thursday's remarks from the 2024 Republican presidential nominee , lambasting the comments about the medal as "offensive" and "disrespectful." Trump's statement about the Medal of Honor and his characterization of service members who receive the award became a top trending topic of discussion on X, the social media platform. 

Trump's comments on Thursday evening recalled past criticism of the former president over his disparaging comments about the late Republican Sen. John McCain in 2015 when he said McCain  was "only a war hero because he was captured" during the Vietnam War, adding, "I like people that weren't captured, OK?" There was also backlash when he allegedly called Americans who died at war "losers" and "suckers" following a canceled trip to visit the Aisne-Marne American Cemetery near Paris in 2018. Trump denies he made the belittling comments about fallen U.S. service members. 

Many critics online noted the millions of dollars the Adelsons had donated to Trump and other GOP candidates and causes, and contrasted that with the extraordinary bravery of Medal of Honor recipients who receive the award for great courage in the face of extreme danger. Often, these service members, some of whom die in the process, completely disregard their own lives to save others or eliminate heavy bombardments and enemy gunfire. 

The Adelsons donated $20 million to Trump's 2016 presidential campaign and $5 million for his inauguration. Another half a million was given to a legal fund for Trump aides in 2018, according to Politico. That same year, the couple ponied up more than $100 million to conservative groups and GOP candidates during the election cycle. In 2020 , the couple gave $75 million to the Preserve America PAC, a pro-Trump super PAC. The Adelson's total contributions to Republicans totaled more than $218 million between 2019 and 2020, according to Open Secrets, which tracks money in politics. 

Contacted by CBS News on Friday, Pentagon spokesperson Maj. Gen. Patrick Ryder said it's longstanding Defense Department policy to not comment on remarks from political campaigns, given the department's apolitical nature. 

"Separately, the Department of Defense is eternally grateful for the service, sacrifice, and bravery of all those awarded the Medal of Honor, which is by law the nation's highest military award for valor presented only to U.S. service members who have distinguished themselves through conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of life above and beyond the call of duty," said Ryder. 

Matt Zeller, a former Army captain and CIA officer who served in Afghanistan and has since worked for years to resettle Afghan allies who served with U.S. and coalition partners during America's longest war, denounced the former president's comments. 

"People need to see that this is who Trump is and how he sees those of us who have served in the military. He's been disparaging us for years," Zeller told CBS News. "I can only hope this latest affront against military service is the one that finally makes the rest of my fellow veterans see the light — the man is a con." 

The Medal of Honor was first presented in 1863, according to a U.S. Senate committee print on the medal. It is the nation's highest military award for combat valor and is awarded by the president in the name of Congress — this is why the prestigious honor is often referred to as the Congressional Medal of Honor. 

Out of the 41 million who have served in the U.S. military, only 3,517 service members have received the Medal of Honor — 19 of whom were awarded the medal twice — according to the Congressional Medal of Honor Society. 

Conversely, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, created by President Harry S. Truman in 1945, is often given to recipients who reflect a president's "political and personal interests," according to the Congressional Research Service. As of July, between 1963 and 2024, the medal has been awarded 653 times. Past recipients include great figures in the world of art and entertainment, the Apollo 13 Mission Operations Team, and two double recipients: the late U.S. Ambassador Ellsworth Bunker and Colin Powell, the former secretary of state and chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who died in 2021.

The day Miriam Adelson received her medal, Republican Sen. Orrin Hatch of Utah, former NFL football player turned Minnesota Supreme Court judge Alan Page, and Hall of Fame Dallas Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach, also received the honor. The award was also given posthumously to Elvis Presley, Babe Ruth and conservative Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia. 

Medal of Honor recipient and retired Army Capt. Florent Groberg said on X that he has a "tremendous amount of respect for the Medal of Freedom and what it symbolizes" and that "it's important to recognize the contributions of civilians" but added, "I feel that it's not quite comparable to the Medal of Honor, as they are two very different awards with different criteria and significance." 

Retired Army Sgt. Maj. Kenneth Ramos echoed Groberg's assessment and drew a contrast between the Presidential Medals of Freedom Trump gave to Adelson and others and the Medal of Honor the former president authorized posthumously to Army Sgt. 1st Class Alwyn Cashe before leaving the White House. His widow, Tamara, accepted the medal on his behalf from President Biden in 2021. 

During a nighttime mounted patrol on Oct. 17, 2005 in Iraq's Salah Ad Din Province, Cashe and his soldiers found themselves in a dire situation when his unit was ambushed. Their Bradley Fighting Vehicle struck an improvised explosive device, engulfing them in flames while a barrage of gunfire ensued from enemy forces. 

After escaping the inferno, Cashe dove back into the vehicle to rescue his fellow soldiers, first pulling out his driver. As Cashe was extinguishing the flames on the driver, the veteran soldier's uniform, which was drenched in fuel, ignited. Cashe received severe second and third degree burns over nearly 72% of his body, per the U.S. Army. 

Despite the painful wounds, Cashe again re-entered the vehicle under the threat of fire and enemy bullets, to retrieve six additional soldiers and an Iraqi interpreter from the burning vehicle. When reinforcements arrived, Cashe insisted his soldiers receive medical attention first and refused to be evacuated to follow-on medical care before them. Cashe died on Nov. 8, 2005 at Brooke Army Medical Center in San Antonio, Texas. 

"Cashe knew the danger in his attempts to rescue his fellow soldiers and absolutely cannot be placed in the same category of a civilian award," Ramos told CBS News. "It dishonors his memory as a hero, but also devalues the Medal of Honor coming from someone hoping to be the commander-in-chief of our armed forces again." 

• Medal of Honor
• Donald Trump
• Presidential Medal of Freedom

James LaPorta is a verification producer with CBS News Confirmed. He is a former U.S. Marine infantryman and veteran of the Afghanistan war.

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The Fourteenth Amendment. Of all the amendments to the U.S. Constitution, the 14th is a big one. It's shaped all of our lives, whether we realize it or not: Roe v. Wade, Brown v. Board of Education, Bush v. Gore, plus other Supreme Court cases that legalized same-sex marriage, interracial marriage, access to birth control — they've all been built on the back of the 14th. The amendment was ratified after the Civil War, and it's packed full of lofty phrases like due process, equal protection, and liberty. But what do those words really guarantee us? Today on Throughline's We the People : How the 14th Amendment has remade America — and how America has remade the 14th (Originally ran as The Fourteenth Amendment ).

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Sweeping Raids, Giant Camps and Mass Deportations: Inside Trump’s 2025 Immigration Plans

If he regains power, Donald Trump wants not only to revive some of the immigration policies criticized as draconian during his presidency, but expand and toughen them.

Donald Trump wants to reimpose a Covid 19-era policy of refusing asylum claims — this time basing that refusal on assertions that migrants carry other infectious diseases like tuberculosis. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Charlie Savage Maggie Haberman and Jonathan Swan

• Nov. 11, 2023

Former President Donald J. Trump is planning an extreme expansion of his first-term crackdown on immigration if he returns to power in 2025 — including preparing to round up undocumented people already in the United States on a vast scale and detain them in sprawling camps while they wait to be expelled.

The plans would sharply restrict both legal and illegal immigration in a multitude of ways.

Mr. Trump wants to revive his first-term border policies, including banning entry by people from certain Muslim-majority nations and reimposing a Covid 19-era policy of refusing asylum claims — though this time he would base that refusal on assertions that migrants carry other infectious diseases like tuberculosis.

He plans to scour the country for unauthorized immigrants and deport people by the millions per year.

To help speed mass deportations, Mr. Trump is preparing an enormous expansion of a form of removal that does not require due process hearings. To help Immigration and Customs Enforcement carry out sweeping raids, he plans to reassign other federal agents and deputize local police officers and National Guard soldiers voluntarily contributed by Republican-run states.

To ease the strain on ICE detention facilities, Mr. Trump wants to build huge camps to detain people while their cases are processed and they await deportation flights. And to get around any refusal by Congress to appropriate the necessary funds, Mr. Trump would redirect money in the military budget, as he did in his first term to spend more on a border wall than Congress had authorized.

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