examples of critical thinking in sociology

Critical Theory in Sociology: Examples, Definition, Critique

Gregory Paul C. (MA)

Gregory Paul C. is a licensed social studies educator, and has been teaching the social sciences in some capacity for 13 years. He currently works at university in an international liberal arts department teaching cross-cultural studies in the Chuugoku Region of Japan. Additionally, he manages semester study abroad programs for Japanese students, and prepares them for the challenges they may face living in various countries short term.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Critical theory is a theory that examine s , evaluates, and critiques binary power dynamics in society. It takes a Marxist perspective.

The aims of the theory are to identify, challenge, and eventually change oppressive power structures in society. A core principle is that social hierarchies are not natural but created and maintained through oppression and domination.

Common research methodologies employed by critical theorists include textual analysis , critical discourse analysis and ethnography .

Summary: Critical Theory in Sociology

• Critical theory’s core focus of inquiry is power and how it produces social inequality.
• It believes that power is unfairly distributed and is wielded by the powerful to maintain their power while oppressing the marginalized.
• It aims to call into question dominant cultural narratives by promoting marginalized voices and highlighting their oppression .
• It believes that power structures need to be upended for justice and equality to be achieved.

Overview of Critical Theory

Critical theory is primarily associated with the Marxist-oriented Frankfurt School of social theory and philosophy.

Its origin is in the Institute for Social Research established in 1923 at Goethe University in Frankfurt. Famous sociologists from this school of though include Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Carl Grünberg, Herbert Marcuse, Eric Fromm, and Walter Benjamin. This was the first research center with a Marxist focus in a German university.

In addition to focusing on the current power structures and questioning the existing order, critical theory also identifies oppressive regulations, laws, and ideologies that have been embedded in a given society.

It is a method of assessing the world with skepticism; fully conscious of the power dynamics that exist in it. As Paradis et al. (2020) explains:

“Critical theory assumes an ontological position in which reality is shaped over time by structures such as social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, and gender constructs. These structures, and other institutional and cultural forces, interact dynamically to form the tapestry of social life. Social structures are elaborate and can determine one’s thinking and behavior, often unconsciously” (p. 842).

Critical Theory Examples

The following perspectives have each extensively been examined from a critical theory perspective. Note, however, that they can also be seen from competing paradigms , such as postmodernism, which has a competing view of power (see later in this article for a comparison).

• Marxism – Marxist theories assert that societies are divided. The division lies between a ruling class and a working class. Using various divisive methods, the ruling class exploits the working class for their economic benefit.
• Postcolonialism – Many postcolonialists examine the lasting influences that colonialism has had on societies that were once colonized by another country.
• Feminist Critical Theory – Although it has gone through distinct phases (waves) throughout history, many feminists of the 1980s used critical theory and its methods to examine the systematic oppression of women in society.
• Intersectionality – Intersectionality is a concept used within critical theory ro identify how different forms of prejudice (e.g., gender bias , racial prejudice, homophobia, socio-economic prejudice) interconnect with one another and cross-over, often creating unexpected outcomes.
• Cultural Imperialism – This generally refers to the cultural changes, whether forced or organic, that are a result of a dominant culture imposing their values and cultural norms onto other cultures.
• Social Constructionism – This perspective sargue that natural or standard social conceptions, for instance, ideas about gender, race, class, and disability, are a product of societal influence and do not accurately reflect the truth.
• Conflict Theory – This perspective holds that social order is maintained by manipulation and control, as opposed to mutual agreement and peaceful conformity. According to conflict theory, those with wealth and power make every effort to retain it, usually at the expense of people from lower economic classes.
• Structural-Functional Theory – Functionalism contends that society as a whole is a complex structure, and the multitude of elements within it, function to meet the physical and social requirements of those living in it.
• Critical Race Theory – CRT reveals how race and advantage are incorporated into American social structures and organizations; it posits that racism is embedded in the way power and resources are distributed in society.
• Chomsky’s Critique of Imperialism – Chomsky uses critical theory to demonstrate how the United States has acted as an imperial power with the objective of oppressing weaker nations and exploiting their resources.

See Detailed Examples of Critical Theory Here

Critical Theory vs Postmodernism

Critical theory is not postmodernism. The two theories have tended to be wrongly associated with one another by right-wing punditry, especially in the United States.

In sociological analysis, critical theory and postmodernism have competing ideas about power and how it operates in society. In fact, the two are at loggerheads and highly critical of one another.

One could not write a PhD from a postmodernist perspective without articulating their critique of critical theory, for example.

Their differences are perhaps most notably visible in the famous Foucault vs Chomsky debate, with Foucault promoting the postmodernism perspective.

Their different views of power can be summarized as follows:

• Critical Theory’s View of Power: Power is exercised and leveraged by the powerful over the powerless. Power is held by the powerful and withheld from the weak and marginalized. It is used to set norms and values but also control who has to obey the laws (the weak) and who can evade them (the powerful).
• Postmodernism’s View of Power : Power exists in language and discourse. The way we speak about people shape their lived experiences. Power is not just oppressive but also productive – a marginalized person can use, subvert, and embrace power to make meaning in their life. For example, a drag queen may be oppressed, but she may also embrace a feminine identity and use it to talk her way into a club.

Critical Theory Criticism

While being highly influential, critical theory is also probably the most heavily critiqued sociological theory . Below are just a few criticisms.

• Lack of Nuance in its Critique of Power: Critical theory tends to see power in binary terms. Power is in the hands of the dominant group and absent from the marginalized. Many of its views seem to create dualisms: powerful versus powerless, men versus women, rich versus poor. Poststructuralism (postmodernism), on the other hand, sees power as something that is diffuse and, while tending to restrain the marginalized, can be manipulated and is much more context-dependent.
• Extremely Impractical: Many critics would hold that critical theory’s logical conclusion is communism . Indeed, many critical theorists historically embraced Marx – the writer of The Communist Manifesto . As the 20th Century demonstrated, communism is highly impractical and with the aim of putting power in the hands of the working-class, ends with dictatorship and oppression.
• Subjective : Critical theory has a clear political goal. As a result, it is highly susceptible to criticisms of self-serving bias. Its focus is on finding and uprooting power structures, meaning it enters its analyses in a highly politicized way, rather than through with an intent to aproximate objectivity.

Of course, these criticisms each have their rebuttals and have varying degrees of validity – vast sociological debates about these criticisms are written into university dissertations on a daily basis.

Using Critical Theory: Key Lines of Inquiry

1. postcolonialism from a critical theory perspective.

Postcolonialism examines the lasting influences that colonialism has had on societies that were once colonized by another country.

Slyvester (1999) suggests that developmental and post-colonial technique may help to uncover formerly hidden truths. She believes:

“postcolonial studies ventures into the now, thrusting its colonial history alongside its postcolonial moments, not to reject all that is European in its heritage but to insert the periphery, the marginal, the non-expert into their own destinies”(p. 704).

In reference to Japanese colonial rule over Korea in the early 20 th century, Cumings (2021) explains:

“Instead of creation, the Japanese engaged in substitution after l9l0: exchanging a Japanese ruling elite for the Korean yangban scholar-officials, most of whom were either co-opted or dismissed; instituting colonial imperative coordination for the old central statecontrol. Its　connections were only to the administration; exchanging Japanese modern education for the Confucian classics; building Japanese capital and expertise in place of the incipient Korean versions, Japanese talent for Korean talent; eventually even replacing the Korean language with Japanese”(p. 2).

Postcolonial researchers seek to uncover the overall effect of colonialism, gauge attitudes of different demographics within a society who experienced it, and analyze cultural remnants from colonizers, that have impacted fundamental areas of the colonized country in question.

2. Conflict Theory as a Critical Theory

Conflict Theory insinuates that social order is maintained by manipulation and control, as opposed to mutual agreement and peaceful conformity.

As Williams (1975) explains a strong proponent of the conflict theory was Lewis Coser, he believed that through research it could make great contributions to the avoidance of social alteration, becoming a uniting force.

According to Coser, conflict provides a way to solve tensions between groups, and helps to stabilize the conflicting parts of their relationship (p. 34).

Coser (1957) expresses it in this way:

“Conflict, though apparently dysfunctional for highly rationalized systems, may actually have im- portant latent functional consequences. By attacking and overcoming the resistance to innovation and change that seems to be an ‘occupational psychosis’ always threatening the bureaucratic office holder, it can help to insure that the system do not stifle in the deadening routine of habituation and that in the planning activity itself creativity and invention can be applied” (p. 200).

In more simple and understandable terms, through conflict comes positive change. Conflict is, by nature disruptive, and it is disrupting these static organized systems (e.g., societies, technological business sectors, laws and policies) that influences positive changes.

Coser (1957) provides a metaphoric example:

“a natural scientist, describing the function of earthquakes, recently stated admirably what could be considered the function of conflict….a quake is the earth’s way of maintaining its equilibrium, a form of adjustment that enables the crust to yield to stresses that tend to reorganize and redistribute the material of which it is composed…. the larger the shift, the more violent the quake, and the more frequent the shifts, the more frequent are the shocks….whether the quake is violent or not, it has served to maintain or re- establish the equilibrium of the earth”(p. 201).

For more from a criminology perspective, see: Conflict Theory of Deviance

3. Feminism from a Critical Theory Perspective

Feminism, although it has gone through distinct phases (waves) throughout history, critiques methods of systematic oppressed that have marginalized women in society . Many feminists use critical theory as an underlying paradigm.

A theory, or rather a long-standing movement, feminism is the belief that men and women should have both equal rights and opportunities (socialy, politicaly, and in within the economic structures of society).

Feminism has grown to encompass a broad spectrum of beliefs and initiatives, ranging from defending women’s rights to confronting gender-based violence or bias.

Leading researchers, and political leaders that strongly support feminism, maintain that gender equality is a key factor in a fair and balanced community. Rhodes (1990) succinctly states:

“What distinguishes feminist critical theories from other analysis is both the focus on gender equality and the conviction that it cannot be obtained under existing ideological and institutional structures. This theoretical approach partly overlaps, and frequently draws upon other critical approaches, including CLS and critical race scholarship. At the most general level, these traditions share a common goal: to challenge existing distributions of power. They also often employ similar deconstructive or narrative methodologies aimed at similar targets – certain organizing premises of conventional liberal legalism”(p. 619).

Critical theory was a dominant approach to sociological analysis for many decades in academia. While it lost some steam in the 1990s with the rise of postmodernism with its more nuanced analysis of power, the theory remains an extremely influential approach and knowledge of it is essential for any sociology student. It is closely tied to Marxism and social class analysis, but has also been used in the analysis of gender (through feminism) and colonialism (through postcolonial theory).

Cumings, B. (2021). Korea, A Unique Colony: Last to be Colonized and First to Revolt.  The Asia-Pacific Journal ,  19 (21;2).  https://apjjf.org/-Bruce-Cumings/5646/article.pdf

Coser, L. A. (1957). Social Conflict and the Theory of Social Change.  British Journal of Sociology ,  8 (3), 197.  https://doi.org/10.2307/586859

Paradis, E., Nimmon, L., Wondimagegn, D., & Whitehead, C. R. (2020). Critical Theory.  Academic Medicine ,  95 (6), 842-845. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/acm.0000000000003108

Rhode, D. L. (1990). Feminist Critical Theories.  Stanford Law Review ,  42 (3), 617.  https://doi.org/10.2307/1228887

Sylvester, C. (1999). Development studies and postcolonial studies: Disparate tales of the “Third World.”  Third World Quarterly ,  20 (4), 703–721.  https://doi.org/10.1080/01436599913514

Williams, J. T. (1976). Conflict Theory and Race Conflict.  Social Science ,  51 (1), 32–36. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41886040

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Is that true? : critical thinking for sociologists

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• Acknowledgments
• 1. What Is Critical Thinking?
• 2. The Basics: Arguments and Assumptions
• 3. Everyday Arguments Anecdotes * Ad Hominem Arguments * Myths * Folk Wisdom and Metaphors * Facts * Everyday Reasoning
• 4. The Logic of Social Science Patterns * Causality * Judging Social Scientific Claims * The Importance of Evidence
• 5. Authority and Social Science Arguments Challenges for Social Science * The Case of Sociology * Thinking about Sociology and Critical Thinking
• 6. Sociology as a Social World Camps * Envy * Sociology's Subdivisions
• 7. Orientations Optimism and Pessimism * Team Culture and Team Structure * Insiders and Outsiders * Tragedy and Comedy * The Importance of Orientations Contents
• 8. Words Jargon * Word Fads * Definitions * Concept Creep
• 9. Questions and Measurements Sociological Questions * Empirical Questions * Measurement * What Is Being Measured? * Questioning Measurements
• 10. Variables and Comparison Variables * Issues with Comparison * Varieties of Comparative Findings * Replication * Comparison in Qualitative Research * Questioning Comparisons
• 11. Tendencies Patterned Tendencies * The Ecological Fallacy * The Modesty of Sociological Explanations * Thinking about Tendencies
• 12. Evidence Effective Evidence * Not-So-Effective Evidence * Questioning Evidence Choices * Questions about Research
• 13. Echo Chambers Recognizing and Addressing One's Own Biases * Expectations and Sociologists * The Complications of Ideological Homogeneity * The Importance of Self-Criticism
• 14. Tough Topics Cultural Waves * Good Guys and Bad Guys * Taboos * Thinking about What's Difficult Afterword: Why Critical Thinking Is Important Notes References Index.
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Critically Thinking About Critical Thinking

Critical thinking. Almost every teacher everywhere asserts that this is the one skill above all others they are trying to develop in their students. And yet.

And yet, have you ever explicitly taught a student the mechanics of critical thinking? That is, how to take apart the logic of an argument and then evaluate it piece by piece? Or are you assuming that your students should have learned that before they come to college?

I don’t think a single professor I ever had stopped and explained critical thinking to me. In my experience my professors, even the great ones, thought that if they role modeled critical thinking enough times their students would tacitly develop the skill. Doesn’t it strike you as odd that almost no one teaches the skill that we as an industry are intensely focused on?

I’ve heard so many of my peers gripe about how their students couldn’t critically think their way out of a paper bag. Heck, I’ve done my fair share of complaining too. The fact that so many of us are struggling with student critical thinking, or lack thereof, makes it even more perplexing that so few of us teach the skill we are desperately missing.

Teaching Critical Thinking

Last summer I came across www.criticalthinking.org and found it’s wonderful Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools pamphlet by Paul and Elder. It’s a 23 page guide to reason, rationality, and logic that only costs $3. The pamphlet begins by explaining why critical thinking is a valuable skill worth developing and then moves into the mechanics of the intellectual approach. Paul and Elder ask students to break apart an article and locate the main purpose of the article, the key questions the author is asking, the important information the author is basing her or his argument on, the inferences/conclusions the author is drawing, the key concepts we would need to understand the author’s argument, the main assumptions the author is making, and finally what we should do if we take the author’s line of reasoning seriously. As that near run on sentence I just wrote makes clear, Paul and Elder take their critical thinking seriously.

I created a worksheet for my students based on Paul and Elder (2009) that asks them to break down an article using all of the points I just mentioned above. ( Download : Word | pdf ) I assigned it to my students this semester for the first time and guess what? They HATED it! When we discussed the critical thinking guide in class they thought it was simply stating what everyone already knew and they thought it had little to no value what-so-ever. So you can imagine my delight when they came back to class and said the assignment was, “too hard”.

“Wait, last week you said this was too obvious to spend time on. Now you are telling me this was a hard assignment? You can’t have it both ways,” I said to my class with a sly smile. After talking about their experience for a few minutes it became clear that my students found in-depth critical thinking harder than it looked.

Which leads me too…

The Thing I Hate The Most

The thing I hate the most during an in class discussion is when a student says, “I thought the author was totally biased.” It takes everything I have not to cock my head to the side and say, “oh really?” The accusation that some one is biased requires that you have something to compare one author’s claims against. Bias is a relative term; this argument is biased compared to this other argument.

When students say something is biased it’s an opportunity to develop critical thinking skills. The next time a student throws the bias card out ask them, “What about the authors argument do you find is biased? What questions did they not ask that you would have liked them to ask? What assumptions were they making that you thought unjust? What are they over emphasizing or under emphasizing? And also, what evidence do you have to suggest this over/under emphasis?” With a few rare exceptions, students who argue that something is biased are dismissing the authors argument WITHOUT critically thinking about it. Often calling something biased is really nothing more than intellectual laziness. Students in our classes best come correct.

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Critical Thinking Definition, Skills, and Examples

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Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings.

Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions. These skills are especially helpful at school and in the workplace, where employers prioritize the ability to think critically. Find out why and see how you can demonstrate that you have this ability.

Examples of Critical Thinking

The circumstances that demand critical thinking vary from industry to industry. Some examples include:

• A triage nurse analyzes the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should be treated.
• A plumber evaluates the materials that would best suit a particular job.
• An attorney reviews the evidence and devises a strategy to win a case or to decide whether to settle out of court.
• A manager analyzes customer feedback forms and uses this information to develop a customer service training session for employees.

Why Do Employers Value Critical Thinking Skills?

Employers want job candidates who can evaluate a situation using logical thought and offer the best solution.

Someone with critical thinking skills can be trusted to make decisions independently, and will not need constant handholding.

Hiring a critical thinker means that micromanaging won't be required. Critical thinking abilities are among the most sought-after skills in almost every industry and workplace. You can demonstrate critical thinking by using related keywords in your resume and cover letter and during your interview.

How to Demonstrate Critical Thinking in a Job Search

If critical thinking is a key phrase in the job listings you are applying for, be sure to emphasize your critical thinking skills throughout your job search.

Add Keywords to Your Resume

You can use critical thinking keywords (analytical, problem solving, creativity, etc.) in your resume. When describing your work history, include top critical thinking skills that accurately describe you. You can also include them in your resume summary, if you have one.

For example, your summary might read, “Marketing Associate with five years of experience in project management. Skilled in conducting thorough market research and competitor analysis to assess market trends and client needs, and to develop appropriate acquisition tactics.”

Mention Skills in Your Cover Letter

Include these critical thinking skills in your cover letter. In the body of your letter, mention one or two of these skills, and give specific examples of times when you have demonstrated them at work. Think about times when you had to analyze or evaluate materials to solve a problem.

Show the Interviewer Your Skills

You can use these skill words in an interview. Discuss a time when you were faced with a particular problem or challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking to solve it.

Some interviewers will give you a hypothetical scenario or problem, and ask you to use critical thinking skills to solve it. In this case, explain your thought process thoroughly to the interviewer. He or she is typically more focused on how you arrive at your solution rather than the solution itself. The interviewer wants to see you analyze and evaluate (key parts of critical thinking) the given scenario or problem.

Of course, each job will require different skills and experiences, so make sure you read the job description carefully and focus on the skills listed by the employer.

Top Critical Thinking Skills

Keep these in-demand skills in mind as you refine your critical thinking practice —whether for work or school.

Part of critical thinking is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text. People with analytical skills can examine information, understand what it means, and properly explain to others the implications of that information.

• Asking Thoughtful Questions
• Data Analysis
• Interpretation
• Questioning Evidence
• Recognizing Patterns

Communication

Often, you will need to share your conclusions with your employers or with a group of classmates or colleagues. You need to be able to communicate with others to share your ideas effectively. You might also need to engage in critical thinking in a group. In this case, you will need to work with others and communicate effectively to figure out solutions to complex problems.

• Active Listening
• Collaboration
• Explanation
• Interpersonal
• Presentation
• Verbal Communication
• Written Communication

Critical thinking often involves creativity and innovation. You might need to spot patterns in the information you are looking at or come up with a solution that no one else has thought of before. All of this involves a creative eye that can take a different approach from all other approaches.

• Flexibility
• Conceptualization
• Imagination
• Drawing Connections
• Synthesizing

Open-Mindedness

To think critically, you need to be able to put aside any assumptions or judgments and merely analyze the information you receive. You need to be objective, evaluating ideas without bias.

• Objectivity
• Observation

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is another critical thinking skill that involves analyzing a problem, generating and implementing a solution, and assessing the success of the plan. Employers don’t simply want employees who can think about information critically. They also need to be able to come up with practical solutions.

• Attention to Detail
• Clarification
• Decision Making
• Groundedness
• Identifying Patterns

More Critical Thinking Skills

• Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive Reasoning
• Noticing Outliers
• Adaptability
• Emotional Intelligence
• Brainstorming
• Optimization
• Restructuring
• Integration
• Strategic Planning
• Project Management
• Ongoing Improvement
• Causal Relationships
• Case Analysis
• Diagnostics
• SWOT Analysis
• Business Intelligence
• Quantitative Data Management
• Qualitative Data Management
• Risk Management
• Scientific Method
• Consumer Behavior

Key Takeaways

• Demonstrate you have critical thinking skills by adding relevant keywords to your resume.
• Mention pertinent critical thinking skills in your cover letter, too, and include an example of a time when you demonstrated them at work.
• Finally, highlight critical thinking skills during your interview. For instance, you might discuss a time when you were faced with a challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking skills to solve it.

University of Louisville. " What is Critical Thinking ."

American Management Association. " AMA Critical Skills Survey: Workers Need Higher Level Skills to Succeed in the 21st Century ."

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What is Critical Thinking? Here’s everything you need to know

Critical thinking refers to making reliable judgments through the objective analysis of factual information. The term ‘critical’ is derived from the Greek word kritikos that means discerning.

What Does A Critical Thinker Do?

Importance of critical thinking.

Benefits of Critical Thinking

Process of Critical Thinking

The American philosopher John Dewey recognized five steps of critical thinking. First, is a suggestion wherein the mind recommends a conceivable solution to the issue. Next, the difficulty is transformed into a problem that must be solved. The third step involves using one suggestion after the other as a hypothesis . This helps to initiate observation and the collection of facts surrounding the problem. The next step is reasoning which refers to the mental interpretation of an idea. Finally, the whole process comes to an end by testing the hypothesis through overt or covert action.

Top 10 Critical Thinking Skills

Many mental actions occur in the process of critical thinking. The most important skills used are elaborated below:

1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Describe the ways that sociological theories are used to explain social institutions.
• Differentiate between functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

Sociologists study social events, interactions, and patterns, and they develop theories to explain why things work as they do. In sociology, a theory is a way to explain different aspects of social interactions and to create a testable proposition, called a hypothesis , about society (Allan 2006).

For example, although suicide is generally considered an individual phenomenon, Émile Durkheim was interested in studying the social factors that affect it. He studied social solidarity , social ties within a group, and hypothesized that differences in suicide rates might be explained by religious differences. Durkheim gathered a large amount of data about Europeans and found that Protestants were more likely to commit suicide than Catholics. His work supports the utility of theory in sociological research.

Theories vary in scope depending on the scale of the issues that they are meant to explain. Macro-level theories relate to large-scale issues and large groups of people, while micro-level theories look at very specific relationships between individuals or small groups. Grand theories attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change. Sociological theory is constantly evolving and should never be considered complete. Classic sociological theories are still considered important and current, but new sociological theories build upon the work of their predecessors and add to them (Calhoun, 2002).

In sociology, a few theories provide broad perspectives that help explain many different aspects of social life, and these are called paradigms . Paradigms are philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them. Three paradigms have come to dominate sociological thinking because they provide useful explanations: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

Functionalism

Functionalism , also called structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society. Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist, Herbert Spencer, who saw similarities between society and the human body. He argued that just as the various organs of the body work together to keep the body functioning, the various parts of society work together to keep society functioning (Spencer, 1898). The parts of society that Spencer referred to were the social institutions , or patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs, such as government, education, family, healthcare, religion, and the economy.

Émile Durkheim applied Spencer’s theory to explain how societies change and survive over time. Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of interrelated and interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability (Durkheim, 1893), and that society is held together by shared values, languages, and symbols. He believed that to study society, a sociologist must look beyond individuals to social facts such as laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashion, and rituals, which all serve to govern social life (Durkheim, 1895). Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881–1955), a social anthropologist, defined the function of any recurrent activity as the part it played in social life as a whole, and therefore the contribution it makes to social stability and continuity (Radcliffe-Brown 1952). In a healthy society, all parts work together to maintain stability, a state called dynamic equilibrium by later sociologists such as Parsons (1961).

Durkheim believed that individuals may make up society, but in order to study society, sociologists have to look beyond individuals to social facts. . Each of these social facts serves one or more functions within a society. For example, one function of a society’s laws may be to protect society from violence, while another is to punish criminal behavior, while another is to preserve public health.

Another noted structural functionalist, Robert Merton (1910–2003), pointed out that social processes often have many functions. Manifest functions are the consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated, while latent functions are the unsought consequences of a social process. A manifest function of a college education, for example, includes gaining knowledge, preparing for a career, and finding a good job that utilizes that education. Latent functions of your college years include meeting new people, participating in extracurricular activities, or even finding a spouse or partner. Another latent function of education is creating a hierarchy of employment based on the level of education attained. Latent functions can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Social processes that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society are called dysfunctions . In education, examples of dysfunction include getting bad grades, truancy, dropping out, not graduating, and not finding suitable employment.

One criticism of the structural-functional theory is that it can’t adequately explain social change even though the functions are processes. Also problematic is the somewhat circular nature of this theory: repetitive behavior patterns are assumed to have a function, yet we profess to know that they have a function only because they are repeated. Furthermore, dysfunctions may continue, even though they don’t serve a function, which seemingly contradicts the basic premise of the theory. Many sociologists now believe that functionalism is no longer useful as a macro-level theory, but that it does serve a useful purpose in some mid-level analyses.

Big Picture

A global culture.

Sociologists around the world look closely for signs of what would be an unprecedented event: the emergence of a global culture. In the past, empires such as those that existed in China, Europe, Africa, and Central and South America linked people from many different countries, but those people rarely became part of a common culture. They lived too far from each other, spoke different languages, practiced different religions, and traded few goods. Today, increases in communication, travel, and trade have made the world a much smaller place. More and more people are able to communicate with each other instantly—wherever they are located—by telephone, video, and text. They share movies, television shows, music, games, and information over the Internet. Students can study with teachers and pupils from the other side of the globe. Governments find it harder to hide conditions inside their countries from the rest of the world.

Sociologists research many different aspects of this potential global culture. Some explore the dynamics involved in the social interactions of global online communities, such as when members feel a closer kinship to other group members than to people residing in their own countries. Other sociologists study the impact this growing international culture has on smaller, less-powerful local cultures. Yet other researchers explore how international markets and the outsourcing of labor impact social inequalities. Sociology can play a key role in people’s abilities to understand the nature of this emerging global culture and how to respond to it.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources. This perspective is a macro-level approach most identified with the writings of German philosopher and economist Karl Marx, who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social classes who must compete for social, material, and political resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time. Social institutions like government, education, and religion reflect this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal social structure. Some individuals and organizations are able to obtain and keep more resources than others, and these “winners” use their power and influence to maintain social institutions. The perpetuation of power results in the perpetuation of oppression.

Several theorists suggested variations on this basic theme like Polish-Austrian sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838–1909) who expanded on Marx’s ideas by arguing that war and conquest are the bases of civilizations. He believed that cultural and ethnic conflicts led to states being identified and defined by a dominant group that had power over other groups (Irving, 2007).

German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) agreed with Marx but also believed that, in addition to economic inequalities, inequalities of political power and social structure cause conflict. Weber noted that different groups were affected differently based on education, race, and gender, and that people’s reactions to inequality were moderated by class differences and rates of social mobility, as well as by perceptions about the legitimacy of those in power. A reader of Marx, Georg Simmel believed that conflict can help integrate and stabilize a society. He said that the intensity of the conflict varies depending on the emotional involvement of the parties, the degree of solidarity within the opposing groups, and the clarity and limited nature of the goals. Simmel also showed that groups work to create internal solidarity, centralize power, and reduce dissent. The stronger the bond, the weaker the discord. Resolving conflicts can reduce tension and hostility and can pave the way for future agreements.

In the 1930s and 1940s, German philosophers, known as the Frankfurt School, developed critical theory as an elaboration on Marxist principles. Critical theory is an expansion of conflict theory and is broader than just sociology, incorporating other social sciences and philosophy. A critical theory is a holistic theory and attempts to address structural issues causing inequality. It must explain what’s wrong in current social reality, identify the people who can make changes, and provide practical goals for social transformation (Horkeimer, 1982).

More recently, inequality based on gender or race has been explained in a similar manner and has identified institutionalized power structures that help to maintain inequality between groups. Janet Saltzman Chafetz (1941–2006) presented a model of feminist theory that attempts to explain the forces that maintain gender inequality as well as a theory of how such a system can be changed (Turner, 2003). Similarly, critical race theory grew out of a critical analysis of race and racism from a legal point of view. Critical race theory looks at structural inequality based on white privilege and associated wealth, power, and prestige.

Sociology in the Real World

Farming and locavores: how sociological perspectives might view food consumption.

The consumption of food is a commonplace, daily occurrence. Yet, it can also be associated with important moments in our lives. Eating can be an individual or a group action, and eating habits and customs are influenced by our cultures. In the context of society, our nation’s food system is at the core of numerous social movements, political issues, and economic debates. Any of these factors might become a topic of sociological study.

A structural-functional approach to the topic of food consumption might analyze the role of the agriculture industry within the nation’s economy and how this has changed from the early days of manual-labor farming to modern mechanized production. Another might study the different functions of processes in food production, from farming and harvesting to flashy packaging and mass consumerism.

A conflict theorist might be interested in the power differentials present in the regulation of food, by exploring where people’s right to information intersects with corporations’ drive for profit and how the government mediates those interests. Or a conflict theorist might examine the power and powerlessness experienced by local farmers versus large farming conglomerates, such as the documentary Food Inc., which depicts as resulting from Monsanto’s patenting of seed technology. Another topic of study might be how nutrition varies between different social classes.

A sociologist viewing food consumption through a symbolic interactionist lens would be more interested in microlevel topics, such as the symbolic use of food in religious rituals, or the role it plays in the social interaction of a family dinner. This perspective might also explore the interactions among group members who identify themselves based on their sharing a particular diet, such as vegetarians (people who don’t eat meat) or locavores (people who strive to eat locally produced food).

Just as structural functionalism was criticized for focusing too much on the stability of societies, conflict theory has been criticized because it tends to focus on conflict to the exclusion of recognizing stability. Many social structures are extremely stable or have gradually progressed over time rather than changing abruptly as conflict theory would suggest.

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society. Communication—the exchange of meaning through language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds. Theorists Herman and Reynolds (1994) note that this perspective sees people as being active in shaping the social world rather than simply being acted upon.

George Herbert Mead is considered a founder of symbolic interactionism though he never published his work on it (LaRossa and Reitzes, 1993). Mead’s student, Herbert Blumer (1900-1987), coined the term “symbolic interactionism” and outlined these basic premises: humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those things; the ascribed meaning of things comes from our interactions with others and society; the meanings of things are interpreted by a person when dealing with things in specific circumstances (Blumer 1969). If you love books, for example, a symbolic interactionist might propose that you learned that books are good or important in the interactions you had with family, friends, school, or church. Maybe your family had a special reading time each week, getting your library card was treated as a special event, or bedtime stories were associated with warmth and comfort.

Social scientists who apply symbolic-interactionist thinking look for patterns of interaction between individuals. Their studies often involve observation of one-on-one interactions. For example, while a conflict theorist studying a political protest might focus on class difference, a symbolic interactionist would be more interested in how individuals in the protesting group interact, as well as the signs and symbols protesters use to communicate their message.

The focus on the importance of symbols in building a society led sociologists like Erving Goffman (1922-1982) to develop a technique called dramaturgical analysis . Goffman used theater as an analogy for social interaction and recognized that people’s interactions showed patterns of cultural “scripts.” He argued that individuals were actors in a play. We switched roles, sometimes minute to minute—for example, from student or daughter to dog walker. Because it can be unclear what part a person may play in a given situation, he or she has to improvise his or her role as the situation unfolds (Goffman, 1958).

Studies that use the symbolic interactionist perspective are more likely to use qualitative research methods, such as in-depth interviews or participant observation, because they seek to understand the symbolic worlds in which research subjects live.

Constructivism is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be. We develop social constructs based on interactions with others, and those constructs that last over time are those that have meanings which are widely agreed-upon or generally accepted by most within the society. This approach is often used to examine what’s defined as deviant within a society. There is no absolute definition of deviance, and different societies have constructed different meanings for deviance, as well as associating different behaviors with deviance.

One situation that illustrates this is what you believe you’re to do if you find a wallet in the street. In the United States, turning the wallet in to local authorities would be considered the appropriate action, and to keep the wallet would be seen as deviant. In contrast, many Eastern societies would consider it much more appropriate to keep the wallet and search for the owner yourself. Turning it over to someone else, even the authorities, would be considered deviant behavior.

Research done from this perspective is often scrutinized because of the difficulty of remaining objective. Others criticize the extremely narrow focus on symbolic interaction. Proponents, of course, consider this one of its greatest strengths.

Sociological Theory Today

These three approaches still provide the main foundation of modern sociological theory though they have evolved. Structural-functionalism was a dominant force after World War II and until the 1960s and 1970s. At that time, sociologists began to feel that structural-functionalism did not sufficiently explain the rapid social changes happening in the United States at that time. The women’s movement and the Civil Rights movement forced academics to develop approaches to study these emerging social practices.

Conflict theory then gained prominence, with its emphasis on institutionalized social inequality. Critical theory, and the particular aspects of feminist theory and critical race theory, focused on creating social change through the application of sociological principles. The field saw a renewed emphasis on helping ordinary people understand sociology principles, in the form of public sociology.

Gaining prominence in the wake of Mead’s work in the 1920s and 1930s, symbolic interactionism declined in influence during the 1960s and 1970s only to be revitalized at the turn of the twenty-first century (Stryker, 1987). Postmodern social theory developed in the 1980s to look at society through an entirely new lens by rejecting previous macro-level attempts to explain social phenomena. Its growth in popularity coincides with the rise of constructivist views of symbolic interactionism.

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• Book title: Introduction to Sociology 3e
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Social Barriers to Critical Thinking

Thinking about the application of critical thinking in public settings..

Posted August 13, 2024 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• We must acknowledge our biases when evaluating research presented via media and strive to find the source.
• In situations that have important consequences, how we deal with the bias-based conflict is what matters.
• Those living in places where free speech is protected are lucky; this right should not be taken for granted.

I recently wrote a research paper on cognitive barriers to critical thinking (CT), discussing flaws in thinking associated with intuitive judgment, emotion , bias , and epistemological misunderstanding, as well as inadequate CT skills and dispositions (Dwyer, 2023). A colleague progressed this thinking by asking me about social barriers to CT, through a number of specific questions. After thinking about these questions for a bit, I thought it useful to answer some of them here as consideration for CT in social situations.

What happens when people believe they’re thinking critically, but they are just repeating some party line?

The simple answer is that because the individual isn’t thinking critically and they’re just telling you what they believe, it’s up to you to decide whether or not it’s worth the effort to tell them. This depends on who the person is and how open they are to changing their mind —which people are quite hesitant to do; so, this might well be a futile endeavour. I probably would avoid engaging unless it’s someone I care about, who’s about to make an important decision based on erroneous information. Context is important here.

Of course, the folly is an example of in-group bias. The individual likely believes that their "group" has thought critically about the topic in question because they believe said party is credible with respect to the information they present. Thus, the individual might fail to evaluate the claim themselves because they are using their party’s thinking as some form of "expert opinion," even when there might be no relevant expertise to cite.

But, let’s say some research has been cited. Though the individual is right to talk about the research in the sense that research represents the most credible source of evidence , it does not ensure that this particular piece of research is credible. For example, consider how most people hear about new research. Academics know to read the relevant peer-reviewed journals, but not everyone is an academic. Most people hear about research from the news. It’s easy for a TV program or news radio show to talk about new research, but how sure can we be that such sources know how to properly interpret said research? Moreover, how do we know that the research was adequately conducted? We are hearing about research from a secondary source as opposed to the people who conducted it. This is problematic because a lot can be lost in the translation from the initial source, through the "middleman," and onto the public. As consumers of information, we must acknowledge our own potential biases when evaluating research presented to us through media outlets and strive to find the source of the research to ensure that we’re getting the full story.

Does one’s ideology and self-interest play a role in CT?

Ideology and self-interest are essentially bias-based cognitive structures; so, yes, they can affect one’s CT. However, if your decision is made in light of ideology and/or self-interest, then what you’re doing is not CT. If the information a person is presented with aligns with their pre-existing worldviews, they are likely to treat it as new information or as additional knowledge. Simply, if the information supports what we already believe, we are more likely to trust it (i.e., consider confirmation bias ). However, if the information contradicts such worldviews, we’re more likely to declare " fake news " without looking into it much further or, instead, pick flaws in it. This happens to the best of us from time to time, especially if the stakes aren’t particularly high (i.e., the decision you make doesn’t bear any important consequences ).

But, in situations that have important consequences, how we deal with the bias-based conflict is what matters. Our intuitive judgment will always tell us our gut feeling on a matter, but whether or not we engage in reflective judgment and dig deeper into the matter will determine whether or not we think critically . A critical thinker will look further into an important idea that they initially considered silly and might find that it’s actually well-supported by evidence (or it may not be, but at least they made the effort to further evaluate). Such evidence might lead them to further question the perspective and, ultimately, change their mind.

Is it worth sharing one’s CT in environments that punish CT?

This is a tough question because there are two equally acceptable answers—an idealistic one (yes) and a practical one (no)—the application of which, again, comes down to context. Some environments might discourage or even punish CT if the conclusions drawn contradict what is deemed "acceptable" (be it socially, politically, or even legally). In such cases, staying "quiet" seems like a practical and prudent move (even though it contradicts what many might view as intellectual integrity). That is, what’s more important, being right or avoiding punishment ? Another way of looking at this is thinking about whether speaking up is just a matter of being right, or the other party’s mistake is going to impact you in an important way. Is that "important way" worth potential punishment? Context is a key consideration here. Of course, environments where free speech is encouraged change things a bit; but if your CT contradicts the status quo, though you may not be "punished" for your conclusions, you might risk other negative knock-on effects. Sure, the ideal might seem more palatable in this context (i.e., sharing your CT), but there are many who might well stay quiet for reasons of practicality. Again, it depends on their own personal contexts (e.g., are you only risking offending someone or could you potentially put your employment in danger by stating your conclusions?).

All in all, each situation requires evaluation and appraisal of whether or not it is worth sharing one’s CT. From an idealistic perspective, this is a shame . Ideally , one should always feel free to share their thinking if CT has been applied. However, this is not always the practical strategy. Ultimately, what one can actually gain from sharing their conclusions (relative to what is likely to be lost), is what should determine whether or not such thinking is shared (e.g., Are you in a meaningful position to genuinely elicit positive change? ). The only real conclusion I can draw in this context is that those living in places where free speech is protected are truly very lucky, and this right should not be taken for granted. It should be practiced and maintained, but it is also imperative that it is well-informed. If it’s not, someone else with the right to speak freely, who has conducted CT, will hopefully call out that erroneous information. Of course, I recognise how that might seem a bit idealistic, because, unfortunately, as discussed above, many people often believe they have thought critically, even when they have not.

Dwyer, C.P. (2023). An evaluative review of barriers to critical thinking in educational and real-world settings. Journal of Intelligence: Critical Thinking in Everyday Life (Special Issue) , 11:105, doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060105.

Christopher Dwyer, Ph.D., is a lecturer at the Technological University of the Shannon in Athlone, Ireland.

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