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A Guide to Thesis Writing That Is a Guide to Life

“How to Write a Thesis,” by Umberto Eco, first appeared on Italian bookshelves in 1977. For Eco, the playful philosopher and novelist best known for his work on semiotics, there was a practical reason for writing it. Up until 1999, a thesis of original research was required of every student pursuing the Italian equivalent of a bachelor’s degree. Collecting his thoughts on the thesis process would save him the trouble of reciting the same advice to students each year. Since its publication, “How to Write a Thesis” has gone through twenty-three editions in Italy and has been translated into at least seventeen languages. Its first English edition is only now available, in a translation by Caterina Mongiat Farina and Geoff Farina.

We in the English-speaking world have survived thirty-seven years without “How to Write a Thesis.” Why bother with it now? After all, Eco wrote his thesis-writing manual before the advent of widespread word processing and the Internet. There are long passages devoted to quaint technologies such as note cards and address books, careful strategies for how to overcome the limitations of your local library. But the book’s enduring appeal—the reason it might interest someone whose life no longer demands the writing of anything longer than an e-mail—has little to do with the rigors of undergraduate honors requirements. Instead, it’s about what, in Eco’s rhapsodic and often funny book, the thesis represents: a magical process of self-realization, a kind of careful, curious engagement with the world that need not end in one’s early twenties. “Your thesis,” Eco foretells, “is like your first love: it will be difficult to forget.” By mastering the demands and protocols of the fusty old thesis, Eco passionately demonstrates, we become equipped for a world outside ourselves—a world of ideas, philosophies, and debates.

Eco’s career has been defined by a desire to share the rarefied concerns of academia with a broader reading public. He wrote a novel that enacted literary theory (“The Name of the Rose”) and a children’s book about atoms conscientiously objecting to their fate as war machines (“The Bomb and the General”). “How to Write a Thesis” is sparked by the wish to give any student with the desire and a respect for the process the tools for producing a rigorous and meaningful piece of writing. “A more just society,” Eco writes at the book’s outset, would be one where anyone with “true aspirations” would be supported by the state, regardless of their background or resources. Our society does not quite work that way. It is the students of privilege, the beneficiaries of the best training available, who tend to initiate and then breeze through the thesis process.

Eco walks students through the craft and rewards of sustained research, the nuances of outlining, different systems for collating one’s research notes, what to do if—per Eco’s invocation of thesis-as-first-love—you fear that someone’s made all these moves before. There are broad strategies for laying out the project’s “center” and “periphery” as well as philosophical asides about originality and attribution. “Work on a contemporary author as if he were ancient, and an ancient one as if he were contemporary,” Eco wisely advises. “You will have more fun and write a better thesis.” Other suggestions may strike the modern student as anachronistic, such as the novel idea of using an address book to keep a log of one’s sources.

But there are also old-fashioned approaches that seem more useful than ever: he recommends, for instance, a system of sortable index cards to explore a project’s potential trajectories. Moments like these make “How to Write a Thesis” feel like an instruction manual for finding one’s center in a dizzying era of information overload. Consider Eco’s caution against “the alibi of photocopies”: “A student makes hundreds of pages of photocopies and takes them home, and the manual labor he exercises in doing so gives him the impression that he possesses the work. Owning the photocopies exempts the student from actually reading them. This sort of vertigo of accumulation, a neocapitalism of information, happens to many.” Many of us suffer from an accelerated version of this nowadays, as we effortlessly bookmark links or save articles to Instapaper, satisfied with our aspiration to hoard all this new information, unsure if we will ever get around to actually dealing with it. (Eco’s not-entirely-helpful solution: read everything as soon as possible.)

But the most alluring aspect of Eco’s book is the way he imagines the community that results from any honest intellectual endeavor—the conversations you enter into across time and space, across age or hierarchy, in the spirit of free-flowing, democratic conversation. He cautions students against losing themselves down a narcissistic rabbit hole: you are not a “defrauded genius” simply because someone else has happened upon the same set of research questions. “You must overcome any shyness and have a conversation with the librarian,” he writes, “because he can offer you reliable advice that will save you much time. You must consider that the librarian (if not overworked or neurotic) is happy when he can demonstrate two things: the quality of his memory and erudition and the richness of his library, especially if it is small. The more isolated and disregarded the library, the more the librarian is consumed with sorrow for its underestimation.”

Eco captures a basic set of experiences and anxieties familiar to anyone who has written a thesis, from finding a mentor (“How to Avoid Being Exploited By Your Advisor”) to fighting through episodes of self-doubt. Ultimately, it’s the process and struggle that make a thesis a formative experience. When everything else you learned in college is marooned in the past—when you happen upon an old notebook and wonder what you spent all your time doing, since you have no recollection whatsoever of a senior-year postmodernism seminar—it is the thesis that remains, providing the once-mastered scholarly foundation that continues to authorize, decades-later, barroom observations about the late-career works of William Faulker or the Hotelling effect. (Full disclosure: I doubt that anyone on Earth can rival my mastery of John Travolta’s White Man’s Burden, owing to an idyllic Berkeley spring spent studying awful movies about race.)

In his foreword to Eco’s book, the scholar Francesco Erspamer contends that “How to Write a Thesis” continues to resonate with readers because it gets at “the very essence of the humanities.” There are certainly reasons to believe that the current crisis of the humanities owes partly to the poor job they do of explaining and justifying themselves. As critics continue to assail the prohibitive cost and possible uselessness of college—and at a time when anything that takes more than a few minutes to skim is called a “longread”—it’s understandable that devoting a small chunk of one’s frisky twenties to writing a thesis can seem a waste of time, outlandishly quaint, maybe even selfish. And, as higher education continues to bend to the logic of consumption and marketable skills, platitudes about pursuing knowledge for its own sake can seem certifiably bananas. Even from the perspective of the collegiate bureaucracy, the thesis is useful primarily as another mode of assessment, a benchmark of student achievement that’s legible and quantifiable. It’s also a great parting reminder to parents that your senior learned and achieved something.

But “How to Write a Thesis” is ultimately about much more than the leisurely pursuits of college students. Writing and research manuals such as “The Elements of Style,” “The Craft of Research,” and Turabian offer a vision of our best selves. They are exacting and exhaustive, full of protocols and standards that might seem pretentious, even strange. Acknowledging these rules, Eco would argue, allows the average person entry into a veritable universe of argument and discussion. “How to Write a Thesis,” then, isn’t just about fulfilling a degree requirement. It’s also about engaging difference and attempting a project that is seemingly impossible, humbly reckoning with “the knowledge that anyone can teach us something.” It models a kind of self-actualization, a belief in the integrity of one’s own voice.

A thesis represents an investment with an uncertain return, mostly because its life-changing aspects have to do with process. Maybe it’s the last time your most harebrained ideas will be taken seriously. Everyone deserves to feel this way. This is especially true given the stories from many college campuses about the comparatively lower number of women, first-generation students, and students of color who pursue optional thesis work. For these students, part of the challenge involves taking oneself seriously enough to ask for an unfamiliar and potentially path-altering kind of mentorship.

It’s worth thinking through Eco’s evocation of a “just society.” We might even think of the thesis, as Eco envisions it, as a formal version of the open-mindedness, care, rigor, and gusto with which we should greet every new day. It’s about committing oneself to a task that seems big and impossible. In the end, you won’t remember much beyond those final all-nighters, the gauche inside joke that sullies an acknowledgments page that only four human beings will ever read, the awkward photograph with your advisor at graduation. All that remains might be the sensation of handing your thesis to someone in the departmental office and then walking into a possibility-rich, almost-summer afternoon. It will be difficult to forget.

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How to Write a Master's Thesis

• Yvonne N. Bui - San Francisco State University, USA
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See what’s new to this edition by selecting the Features tab on this page. Should you need additional information or have questions regarding the HEOA information provided for this title, including what is new to this edition, please email [email protected] . Please include your name, contact information, and the name of the title for which you would like more information. For information on the HEOA, please go to http://ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/hea08/index.html .

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“Yvonne Bui’s How to Write a Master’s Thesis should be mandatory for all thesis track master’s students.  It steers students away from the shortcuts students may be tempted to use that would be costly in the long run. The step by step intentional approach is what I like best about this book.”

“This is the best textbook about writing an M.A. thesis available in the market.” 

“This is the type of textbook that students keep and refer to after the class.”

Excellent book. Thorough, yet concise, information for students writing their Master's Thesis who may not have had a strong background in research.

Clear, Concise, easy for students to access and understand. Contains all the elements for a successful thesis.

I loved the ease of this book. It was clear without extra nonsense that would just confuse the students.

Clear, concise, easily accessible. Students find it of great value.

NEW TO THIS EDITION:             

• Concrete instruction and guides for conceptualizing the literature review help students navigate through the most challenging topics.        
• Step-by-step instructions and more screenshots give students the guidance they need to write the foundational chapter, along with the latest online resources and general library information.          
• Additional coverage of single case designs and mixed methods help students gain a more comprehensive understanding of research methods.           
• Expanded explanation of unintentional plagiarism within the ethics chapter shows students the path to successful and professional writing.       
• Detailed information on conference presentation as a way to disseminate research , in addition to getting published, help students understand all of the tools needed to write a master’s thesis.    

KEY FEATURES:  

• An advanced chapter organizer provides an up-front checklist of what to expect in the chapter and serves as a project planner, so that students can immediately prepare and work alongside the chapter as they begin to develop their thesis.
• Full guidance on conducting successful literature reviews includes up-to-date information on electronic databases and Internet tools complete with numerous figures and captured screen shots from relevant web sites, electronic databases, and SPSS software, all integrated with the text.
• Excerpts from research articles and samples from exemplary students' master's theses relate specifically to the content of each chapter and provide the reader with a real-world context.
• Detailed explanations of the various components of the master's thesis and concrete strategies on how to conduct a literature review help students write each chapter of the master's thesis, and apply the American Psychological Association (APA) editorial style.
• A comprehensive Resources section features "Try It!" boxes which lead students through a sample problem or writing exercise based on a piece of the thesis to reinforce prior course learning and the writing objectives at hand. Reflection/discussion questions in the same section are designed to help students work through the thesis process.

Sample Materials & Chapters

1: Overview of the Master's Degree and Thesis

3: Using the Literature to Research Your Problem

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How to Write a Thesis

by Umberto Eco

Translated by Caterina Mongiat Farina and Geoff Farina

Introduction by Francesco Erspamer

ISBN: 9780262527132

Pub date: March 6, 2015

• Publisher: The MIT Press

256 pp. , 5 x 8 in , 27 tables

ISBN: 9780262328760

Pub date: February 27, 2015

• 9780262527132
• Published: March 2015
• 9780262328760
• Published: February 2015
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• Description

Umberto Eco's wise and witty guide to researching and writing a thesis, published in English for the first time.

By the time Umberto Eco published his best-selling novel The Name of the Rose , he was one of Italy's most celebrated intellectuals, a distinguished academic and the author of influential works on semiotics. Some years before that, in 1977, Eco published a little book for his students, How to Write a Thesis , in which he offered useful advice on all the steps involved in researching and writing a thesis—from choosing a topic to organizing a work schedule to writing the final draft. Now in its twenty-third edition in Italy and translated into seventeen languages, How to Write a Thesis has become a classic. Remarkably, this is its first, long overdue publication in English.

Eco's approach is anything but dry and academic. He not only offers practical advice but also considers larger questions about the value of the thesis-writing exercise. How to Write a Thesis is unlike any other writing manual. It reads like a novel. It is opinionated. It is frequently irreverent, sometimes polemical, and often hilarious. Eco advises students how to avoid “thesis neurosis” and he answers the important question “Must You Read Books?” He reminds students “You are not Proust” and “Write everything that comes into your head, but only in the first draft.” Of course, there was no Internet in 1977, but Eco's index card research system offers important lessons about critical thinking and information curating for students of today who may be burdened by Big Data.

How to Write a Thesis belongs on the bookshelves of students, teachers, writers, and Eco fans everywhere. Already a classic, it would fit nicely between two other classics: Strunk and White and The Name of the Rose .

Contents The Definition and Purpose of a Thesis • Choosing the Topic • Conducting Research • The Work Plan and the Index Cards • Writing the Thesis • The Final Draft

Umberto Eco was an Italian semiotician, philosopher, literary critic, and novelist. He is the author of The Name of the Rose, Foucault's Pendulum , and The Prague Cemetery , all bestsellers in many languages, as well as a number of influential scholarly works.

Although first published in Italian in 1977, before Eco ( The Name of the Rose ) became an internationally renowned novelist, this guide to writing a thesis—originally aimed at Italian humanities undergraduates—brims with practical advice useful for writing research papers.... His advocacy of index card files to organize data seems quaintly nostalgic in the age of laptops and online databases, but it only underscores the importance of applying these more sophisticated tools to achieve the thoroughness of the results that he advocates. Publishers Weekly

How to Write a Thesis is full of friendly, no-bullshit, entry-level advice on what to do and how to do it, illustrated with lucid examples and—significantly—explanations of why, by one of the great researchers and writers in the post-war humanities … Best of all, the absolutely superb chapter on how to write is worth triple the price of admission on its own. Robert Eaglestone Times Higher Education

How to Write a Thesis remains valuable after all this time largely thanks to the spirit of Eco's advice. It is witty but sober, genial but demanding—and remarkably uncynical about the rewards of the thesis, both for the person writing it and for the enterprise of scholarship itself.... Some of Eco's advice is, if anything, even more valuable now, given the ubiquity and seeming omniscience of our digital tools.... Eco's humor never detracts from his serious intent. And anyway, even the sardonic pointers on cheating are instructive in their way. Scott McLemee Inside Higher Education

Eco is a first-rate storyteller and unpretentious instructor who thrives on describing the twists and turns of research projects as well as how to avoid accusations of plagiarism. Jan Gardner Boston Globe

The book's enduring appeal—the reason it might interest someone whose life no longer demands the writing of anything longer than an e-mail—has little to do with the rigors of undergraduate honors requirements. Instead, it's about what, in Eco's rhapsodic and often funny book, the thesis represents: a magical process of self-realization, a kind of careful, curious engagement with the world that need not end in one's early twenties. 'Your thesis,' Eco foretells, 'is like your first love: it will be difficult to forget.' By mastering the demands and protocols of the fusty old thesis, Eco passionately demonstrates, we become equipped for a world outside ourselves—a world of ideas, philosophies, and debates. Hua Hsu The New Yorker

Well beyond the completion of the thesis, Eco's manual makes for pleasant reading and is deserving of a place on the desks of scholars and professional writers. Even sections such as that recommending the combinatory system of handwritten index cards, while outdated in the digital age, can propose a helpful exercise in critical thinking, and add a certain vintage appeal to the book. Times Literary Supplement

How to Write a Thesis has become a classic. LSE Review of Books

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Other Research Support Guides 1. Plan (Design and Discover) your Research >>  2. Find & Manage Research Literature >> 3. Doing the Research >> 5. Publish & Share >> 6. Measure Impact

Your dissertation may be the longest piece of writing you have ever done, but there are ways to approach it that will help to make it less overwhelming.

Write up as you go along. It is much easier to keep track of how your ideas develop and writing helps clarify your thinking. It also saves having to churn out 1000s of words at the end.

You don't have to start with the introduction – start at the chapter that seems the easiest to write – this could be the literature review or methodology, for example.

Alternatively you may prefer to write the introduction first, so you can get your ideas straight. Decide what will suit your ways of working best - then do it.

Think of each chapter as an essay in itself – it should have a clear introduction and conclusion. Use the conclusion to link back to the overall research question.

Think of the main argument of your dissertation as a river, and each chapter is a tributary feeding into this. The individual chapters will contain their own arguments, and go their own way, but they all contribute to the main flow.

Write a chapter, read it and do a redraft - then move on. This stops you from getting bogged down in one chapter.

Write your references properly and in full from the beginning.

Keep your word count in mind – be ruthless and don't write anything that isn't relevant. It's often easier to add information, than have to cut down a long chapter that you've slaved over for hours.

Save your work! Remember to save your work frequently to somewhere you can access it easily. It's a good idea to at least save a copy to a cloud-based service like Google Docs or Dropbox so that you can access it from any computer - if you only save to your own PC, laptop or tablet, you could lose everything if you lose or break your device.

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Nick scullin, phone:  +6433693904, find more books.

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Remember to save your work in different places

Save your work! Remember to save your work frequently to somewhere you can access it easily. It's a good idea to save your work in at least three places: on your computer, a flash drive and a copy to a cloud-based service like Google Docs or Dropbox .

Save each new file with the date in the file name as different files can get very confusing 

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How To Write Your First Thesis

• © 2017
• Paul Gruba 0 ,
• Justin Zobel 1

School of Languages & Linguistics, University of Melbourne SLL, Babel Bldg 608, Melbourne, Australia

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School of Computing & Information Systems, University of Melbourne Comp. Science & Software Engg., Carlton, VIC, Australia

• A practical guide for the entire process of producing a thesis for the first time
• Written by authors with many years of experience advising students
• Provides grounded advice to students who are new to writing extended original research, either undergraduate or graduate coursework

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About this book

Many courses and degrees require that students write a short thesis. This book guides students through their first experience of producing a thesis and undertaking original research. Written by experienced researchers and advisors, the book sets out signposts and tasks to help students to understand what is needed to succeed, including scoping a topic, managing references, interpreting data, and successful completion.

For students, the task of writing a thesis is a transition from structured coursework to becoming a researcher. The book provides advice on:

• What to expect from research and how to work with a supervisor
• Getting organized and approaching the work in a productive way
• Developing an overall thesis structure and avoidance of mistakes such as inadvertent plagiarism
• Producing each major component: a strong introduction, background chapters that are situated in the discipline, and an explanation ofmethods and results that are crucial to successful original research
• How to wrap up a complex project with an extended checklist of the many details needed to be checked before a final submission

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Persistent myths about dissertation writing and one proven way of breaking free of their spell.

• research writing
• thesis preparation
• dissertation writing
• final project preparation
• thesis structure
• learning and instruction

Table of contents (9 chapters)

Front matter, transition to your first thesis.

• Paul Gruba, Justin Zobel

Getting Organized

The structure of a thesis, a strong beginning: the introduction, situating the study: the background, explaining the investigation: methods and innovations, presenting the outcome: the results, wrapping it up: discussion and conclusion, before you submit, back matter, authors and affiliations, school of languages & linguistics, university of melbourne sll, babel bldg 608, melbourne, australia, school of computing & information systems, university of melbourne comp. science & software engg., carlton, vic, australia.

Justin Zobel

About the authors

Paul Gruba  is Associate Professor in the School of Languages and Linguistics, University of Melbourne.

Justin Zobel  is Professor in the School of Computing & Information Systems, University of Melbourne.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : How To Write Your First Thesis

Authors : Paul Gruba, Justin Zobel

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61854-8

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Computer Science , Computer Science (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-319-61853-1 Published: 06 September 2017

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-61854-8 Published: 24 August 2017

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XIII, 95

Number of Illustrations : 8 b/w illustrations

Topics : Computer Science, general , Learning & Instruction , Natural Language Processing (NLP) , Popular Social Sciences , Science, Humanities and Social Sciences, multidisciplinary

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A Practical Guide to Dissertation and Thesis Writing

• Description

This book provides a step-by-step guide to writing the different chapters of a PhD dissertation, which will benefit aspiring, beginner and mid-track PhD students and candidates in the Social Sciences. Based on the authors’ combined experience of working with both Masters and PhD students through the dissertation writing process, it offers helpful writing guidelines, from the conceptualization and problematization of the dissertation through to the literature review, methodological issues, writing up results and, finally, to the discussion, conclusions and abstract writing process.

With chapters dedicated to offering guidelines, suggestions and pitfalls to watch out for, this book will assist PhD students and candidates in the fields of the various Social Sciences with exercises and pointers on successfully navigating the writing of a PhD dissertation. It takes the PhD student in the Social Sciences through the maze of writing a dissertation, and provides a step-by-step train of thought throughout the entire writing process.

Mark Stephan Felix earned his BA and MA in Organizational Communication from Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, USA, and his PhD from Universiti Sains Malaysia. He is presently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Society and Health of Mahidol University, Thailand. His areas of expertise include homosexuality, masculinity, academic writing, and the elderly.

Ian Smith holds a PhD in Education from Stanford University, USA, where he was a Fulbright Scholar. He was also awarded the University Medal in Education when he graduated with First Class Honours in his Bachelor of Arts degree at the University of Sydney, Australia. He has conducted research and published widely in the fields of human development and educational psychology.

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ISBN: 1-5275-3681-5

ISBN13: 978-1-5275-3681-4

Release Date: 27th August 2019

Price: £61.99

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Think of yourself as a member of a jury, listening to a lawyer who is presenting an opening argument. You'll want to know very soon whether the lawyer believes the accused to be guilty or not guilty, and how the lawyer plans to convince you. Readers of academic essays are like jury members: before they have read too far, they want to know what the essay argues as well as how the writer plans to make the argument. After reading your thesis statement, the reader should think, "This essay is going to try to convince me of something. I'm not convinced yet, but I'm interested to see how I might be."

An effective thesis cannot be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." A thesis is not a topic; nor is it a fact; nor is it an opinion. "Reasons for the fall of communism" is a topic. "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe" is a fact known by educated people. "The fall of communism is the best thing that ever happened in Europe" is an opinion. (Superlatives like "the best" almost always lead to trouble. It's impossible to weigh every "thing" that ever happened in Europe. And what about the fall of Hitler? Couldn't that be "the best thing"?)

A good thesis has two parts. It should tell what you plan to argue, and it should "telegraph" how you plan to argue—that is, what particular support for your claim is going where in your essay.

Steps in Constructing a Thesis

First, analyze your primary sources.  Look for tension, interest, ambiguity, controversy, and/or complication. Does the author contradict himself or herself? Is a point made and later reversed? What are the deeper implications of the author's argument? Figuring out the why to one or more of these questions, or to related questions, will put you on the path to developing a working thesis. (Without the why, you probably have only come up with an observation—that there are, for instance, many different metaphors in such-and-such a poem—which is not a thesis.)

Once you have a working thesis, write it down.  There is nothing as frustrating as hitting on a great idea for a thesis, then forgetting it when you lose concentration. And by writing down your thesis you will be forced to think of it clearly, logically, and concisely. You probably will not be able to write out a final-draft version of your thesis the first time you try, but you'll get yourself on the right track by writing down what you have.

Keep your thesis prominent in your introduction.  A good, standard place for your thesis statement is at the end of an introductory paragraph, especially in shorter (5-15 page) essays. Readers are used to finding theses there, so they automatically pay more attention when they read the last sentence of your introduction. Although this is not required in all academic essays, it is a good rule of thumb.

Anticipate the counterarguments.  Once you have a working thesis, you should think about what might be said against it. This will help you to refine your thesis, and it will also make you think of the arguments that you'll need to refute later on in your essay. (Every argument has a counterargument. If yours doesn't, then it's not an argument—it may be a fact, or an opinion, but it is not an argument.)

This statement is on its way to being a thesis. However, it is too easy to imagine possible counterarguments. For example, a political observer might believe that Dukakis lost because he suffered from a "soft-on-crime" image. If you complicate your thesis by anticipating the counterargument, you'll strengthen your argument, as shown in the sentence below.

Some Caveats and Some Examples

A thesis is never a question.  Readers of academic essays expect to have questions discussed, explored, or even answered. A question ("Why did communism collapse in Eastern Europe?") is not an argument, and without an argument, a thesis is dead in the water.

A thesis is never a list.  "For political, economic, social and cultural reasons, communism collapsed in Eastern Europe" does a good job of "telegraphing" the reader what to expect in the essay—a section about political reasons, a section about economic reasons, a section about social reasons, and a section about cultural reasons. However, political, economic, social and cultural reasons are pretty much the only possible reasons why communism could collapse. This sentence lacks tension and doesn't advance an argument. Everyone knows that politics, economics, and culture are important.

A thesis should never be vague, combative or confrontational.  An ineffective thesis would be, "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe because communism is evil." This is hard to argue (evil from whose perspective? what does evil mean?) and it is likely to mark you as moralistic and judgmental rather than rational and thorough. It also may spark a defensive reaction from readers sympathetic to communism. If readers strongly disagree with you right off the bat, they may stop reading.

An effective thesis has a definable, arguable claim.  "While cultural forces contributed to the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, the disintegration of economies played the key role in driving its decline" is an effective thesis sentence that "telegraphs," so that the reader expects the essay to have a section about cultural forces and another about the disintegration of economies. This thesis makes a definite, arguable claim: that the disintegration of economies played a more important role than cultural forces in defeating communism in Eastern Europe. The reader would react to this statement by thinking, "Perhaps what the author says is true, but I am not convinced. I want to read further to see how the author argues this claim."

A thesis should be as clear and specific as possible.  Avoid overused, general terms and abstractions. For example, "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe because of the ruling elite's inability to address the economic concerns of the people" is more powerful than "Communism collapsed due to societal discontent."

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The Thesis Writing Survival Guide: Research and Write an Academic Thesis or Disseration with Less Stress Kindle Edition

Writing a thesis or dissertation can be a tough task—this practical guide will make it much easier.

Are you a student who’s just a thesis or dissertation away from completing your degree? Do you feel it’s a hugely daunting task and you’re not sure where to begin, or how to tackle all the reading, researching, and writing ahead of you? Don’t worry—you don’t have to do it alone! This concise guide will support you every step of the way on your journey from initial idea to completed thesis. In this practical guide, packed with tips, tricks, and tools, you will learn:

• How to find the right topic for your thesis or dissertation
• How to write a convincing research proposal
• How to conduct a literature review
• How to choose and correctly apply an appropriate qualitative or quantitative research method
• How to develop a mindset that will keep you writing
• How to write like an academic and build up convincing arguments

With The Thesis Writing Survival Guide at your side, you will confidently overcome all the challenges that students typically encounter on their thesis or dissertation writing journey. The book is written with a focus on the typical needs of graduate students in the social sciences, although students from other disciplines and those who are writing a thesis as part of their undergraduate studies will also find plenty of useful advice in it. Learn the nuts and bolts of thesis writing—and successfully complete your degree! “This is a masterful guide! Concise but rich in wisdom and practical advice, the authors offer step-by-step advice on how to make the process of writing an academic thesis more of an adventure of discovery, and less of an onerous task—and do so with elegance, clarity, and even a bit of humor.” — Professor James J. Kennelly , Professor of International Business & Management, Skidmore College, New York (USA) “An engaging and very practical guide to the process of writing a thesis. It is full of practical, actionable tips which graduate students and doctoral candidates will find invaluable.” — Dr Jonathan Stoddart , Lecturer (Teaching), Academic Writing Centre, UCL Institute of Education, University College London (UK) “As a PhD student, I have found this book to be an excellent companion in own my thesis writing journey. It’s definitely my survival guide!” — Michela Bearzi , PhD student at the University of Udine (Italy) and the University of Jonkoping (Sweden) “The Thesis Writing Survival Guide provides many helpful guidelines and tips to guide and motivate the student.” — Dr Arona Dison , Coordinator of the UWC Writing Centre, University of the Western Cape (South Africa) “The perfect handbook to navigate the tumultuous process of writing a thesis. In this survival guide, the authors provide down to earth advice on how to avoid the pitfalls encountered by most students when writing their thesis.” — Professor Olivier Furrer , Chair of Marketing, University of Fribourg (Switzerland) About the authors: Dr Dietmar Sternad is an award-winning management professor with a passion for helping his students succeed. He is experienced in supervising thesis projects and enjoys helping students overcome the many hurdles they face when writing their theses. Harriet Power is an experienced editor who has spent over a decade editing and writing resources for leading educational publishers. She loves helping writers to express their ideas in a clear and engaging way.

• Print length 330 pages
• Language English
• Sticky notes On Kindle Scribe
• Publication date May 1, 2023
• File size 16948 KB
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From the Publisher

All you need to succeed in your thesis or dissertation project in one book, editorial reviews.

"This is a masterful guide! Concise but rich in wisdom and practical advice, the authors offer step-by-step advice on how to make the process of writing an academic thesis more of an adventure of discovery, and less of an onerous task-and do so with elegance, clarity, and even a bit of humor."

-Professor James J. Kennelly, Professor of International Business & Management, Skidmore College, New York (USA)

"An engaging and very practical guide to the process of writing a thesis. It is full of practical, actionable tips which graduate students and doctoral candidates will find invaluable."

-Dr Jonathan Stoddart, Lecturer (Teaching), Academic Writing Centre, UCL Institute of Education, University College London (UK)

"As a PhD student, I have found this book to be an excellent companion in own my thesis writing journey. It's definitely my survival guide!"

-Michela Bearzi, PhD student at the University of Udine (Italy) and the University of Jonkoping (Sweden)

"The Thesis Writing Survival Guide provides many helpful guidelines and tips to guide and motivate the student."

-Dr Arona Dison, Coordinator of the UWC Writing Centre, University of the Western Cape (South Africa)

"The perfect handbook to navigate the tumultuous process of writing a thesis. In this survival guide, the authors provide down to earth advice on how to avoid the pitfalls encountered by most students when writing their thesis."

-Professor Olivier Furrer, Chair of Marketing, University of Fribourg (Switzerland)

"Graduate students are often not explicitly taught how to write a thesis or dissertation, and this modern "how to" guide can provide actionable answers to the questions they have! This book conveys the scaffolded and iterative nature of thesis writing in digestible chapters and explains how graduate students can set themselves up for thesis success. As a graduate writing specialist, I definitely recommend this guide to all students working on their theses!"

-Samantha Demmerle, Assistant Director, Graduate Writing and Support, KU Writing Center, The University of Kansas (USA)

Product details

• ASIN ‏ : ‎ B0C43XFX1W
• Publisher ‏ : ‎ econcise (May 1, 2023)
• Publication date ‏ : ‎ May 1, 2023
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• File size ‏ : ‎ 16948 KB
• Simultaneous device usage ‏ : ‎ Unlimited
• Text-to-Speech ‏ : ‎ Enabled
• Screen Reader ‏ : ‎ Supported
• Enhanced typesetting ‏ : ‎ Enabled
• X-Ray ‏ : ‎ Not Enabled
• Word Wise ‏ : ‎ Enabled
• Sticky notes ‏ : ‎ On Kindle Scribe
• Print length ‏ : ‎ 330 pages
• #22 in College Guides (Kindle Store)
• #38 in Education Theory Research
• #285 in Writing Skill Reference (Kindle Store)

About the author

Dietmar sternad.

Dr Dietmar Sternad is a passionate management educator. He aims to create highly engaging learning experiences and learning materials that help his students and other people to become better leaders who can make a difference in the world.

Dietmar is a Professor of International Management at CUAS/FH Kärnten (Austria) and has extensive experience as a CEO of publishing companies as well as in teaching, consulting, and coaching top managers. He holds degrees from universities in Austria, Slovenia, and the UK, is an alumnus of the GLOCOLL (Harvard Business School) and IMTA (CEEMAN) management teachers programs and has received several national and international awards (e.g. from the Academy of Management or the Austrian State Prize for Teaching Excellence).

Dietmar is also the founder and CEO of econcise, an internationally active publisher of concise, approachable, and affordable management and leadership textbooks and ebooks.

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Read the Jury Instructions in the Trump Manhattan Criminal Trial

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The judge in former President Donald J. Trump’s Manhattan criminal trial, Juan M. Merchan, issued instructions to jurors on Wednesday that serve as a guide to applying the law in deliberations.

A PDF version of this document with embedded text is available at the link below:

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Post-Summation Instructions Introduction Members of the jury, I will now instruct you on the law. I will first review the general principles of law that apply to this case and all criminal cases. You have heard me explain some of those principles at the beginning of the trial. I am sure you can appreciate the benefits of repeating those instructions at this stage of the proceedings. Next, I will define the crimes charged in this case, explain the law that applies to those definitions, and spell out the elements of each charged crime. Finally, I will outline the process of jury deliberations. These instructions will take at least an hour, and you will not receive copies of them. You may however, request that I read them back to you in whole or in part as many times as you wish, and I will be happy to do so. Page | 1

Role of Court and Jury During these instructions, I will not summarize the evidence. If necessary, I may refer to portions of the evidence to explain the law that relates to it. My reference to evidence, or my decision not to refer to evidence, expresses no opinion about the truthfulness, accuracy, or importance of any particular evidence. In fact, nothing I have said in the course of this trial was meant to suggest that I have an opinion about this case. If you have formed an impression that I do have an opinion, you must put it out of your mind and disregard it. The level of my voice or intonation may vary during these instructions. If I do that, it is done to help you understand. It is not done to communicate any opinion about the law or the facts of the case or of whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty. It is not my responsibility to judge the evidence here. It is yours. You are the judges of the facts, and you are responsible for deciding whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty. Page 2

Reminder: Fairness Remember, you have promised to be a fair juror. A fair juror is a person who will keep their promise to be fair and impartial and who will not permit the verdict to be influenced by a bias or prejudice in favor of or against a person who appeared in this trial on account of that person's race, color, national origin, ancestry, gender, gender identity or expression, religion, religious practice, age, disability or sexual orientation, and further, a fair juror must be mindful of any stereotypes or attitudes about people or about groups of people that the juror may have, and must not allow those stereotypes or attitudes to affect their verdict. As I have explained, we all develop and hold unconscious views on many subjects. Some of those unconscious views may come from stereotypes and attitudes about people or groups of people that may impact on a person's thinking and decision- making without that person even knowing it. As a juror, you are asked to make a very important decision about another member of the community. I know you would not want to make that decision based on such stereotypes or attitudes, that is, on what we call implicit biases, and it would be wrong for you to do so. A fair juror must guard against the impact of such stereotypes or attitudes. You can do this by asking yourself during your deliberations whether your views and conclusions would be different if the defendant, witnesses or others that you have heard about or seen in court were of a different race, color, national origin, ancestry, gender, gender identity or expression, religious practice, age or sexual orientation, or if they did not have a disability. If the answer is yes, then, in keeping with your promise to be fair, reconsider your views and conclusions along with the other jurors, and make sure your verdict is based on the evidence and not on stereotypes or attitudes. Justice requires no less. Page 3

Limiting Instruction Regarding the Defendant Jurors, you will recall that during jury selection you agreed that you would set aside any personal opinions or bias you might have in favor of or against the Defendant, and that you would decide this case fairly on the evidence and the law. Again, I direct you to decide this case on the evidence and the law as it relates to the Defendant here on trial. You must set aside any personal opinions or bias you might have in favor of or against the Defendant, and you must not allow any such opinions to influence your verdict. Page 4

Sentence: Not Consider Remember also, in your deliberations, you may not consider or speculate about matters relating to sentence or punishment. If there is a verdict of guilty, it will be my responsibility to impose an appropriate sentence. Page 5

Evidence When you judge the facts, you are to consider only the evidence. The evidence in the case includes: the testimony of the witnesses, the exhibits that were received in evidence, and the stipulations agreed to by the parties. Remember, a stipulation is information the parties have agreed to present to the jury as evidence, without calling a witness to testify. Testimony which was stricken from the record or to which an objection was sustained must be disregarded by you. Exhibits that were received in evidence are available, upon your request, for your inspection and consideration. Exhibits that were just seen during the trial, or marked for identification but not received in evidence, are not evidence, and are thus not available for your inspection and consideration. But testimony based on those exhibits that were not received in evidence may be considered by you. It is just that the exhibit itself is not available for your inspection and consideration. Page 6

Evidentiary Inferences In evaluating the evidence, you may consider any fact that is proven and any inference which may be drawn from such fact. To draw an inference means to infer, find, conclude that a fact exists or does not exist based upon proof of some other fact or facts. For example, suppose you go to bed one night when it is not raining and when you wake up in the morning, you look out your window; you do not see rain, but you see that the street and sidewalk are wet, and that people are wearing raincoats and carrying umbrellas. Under those circumstances, it may be reasonable to infer, that is conclude, that it rained during the night. In other words, the fact of it having rained while you were asleep is an inference that might be drawn from the proven facts of the presence of the water on the street and sidewalk, and people in raincoats and carrying umbrellas. An inference must only be drawn from a proven fact or facts and then only if the inference flows naturally, reasonably, and logically from the proven fact or facts, not if it is speculative. Therefore, in deciding whether to draw an inference, you must look at and consider all the facts in the light of reason, common sense, and experience. Page 7

REDACTIONS As you know, certain exhibits were admitted into evidence with some portions blacked out or redacted. Those redactions were made to remove personal identifying information and to ensure that only relevant admissible evidence was put before you. You may not speculate as to what material was redacted or why, and you may not draw any inference, favorable or unfavorable against either party, from the fact that certain material has been redacted. Page 8

Limiting Instructions You may recall that I instructed you several times during the trial that certain exhibits were being accepted into evidence for a limited purpose only and that you were not to consider that evidence for any other purpose. Under the law we refer to that as a limiting instruction. I will now remind you of some of the limiting instructions you were given during the trial. AMI - You will recall that you heard testimony that while David Pecker was an executive at AMI, AMI entered into a non- prosecution agreement with federal prosecutors, as well as a conciliation agreement with the Federal Election Commission (FEC). I remind you that evidence was permitted to assist you, the jury, in assessing David Pecker's credibility and to help provide context for some of the surrounding events. You may consider that testimony for those purposes only. Neither the non-prosecution agreement, nor the conciliation agreement is evidence of the Defendant's guilt, and you may not consider them in determining whether the Defendant is guilty or not guilty of the charged crimes. Michael Cohen - You also heard testimony that the Federal Election Commission ("FEC") conducted an investigation into the payment to Stormy Daniels and of responses submitted by Michael Cohen and his attorney to the investigation. That evidence was permitted to assist you, the jury, in assessing Michael Cohen's credibility and to help provide context for some of the surrounding events. You may consider that evidence for those purposes only. Likewise, you will recall that you heard testimony that Michael Cohen pleaded guilty to violating the Federal Election Campaign Act, otherwise known as FECA. I remind you that evidence was permitted to assist you, the jury, in assessing Mr. Cohen's credibility as a witness and to help provide context for some of the events that followed. You may Page 9

consider that testimony for those purposes only. Neither the fact of the FEC investigation, Mr. Cohen and his attorney's responses or the fact that Mr. Cohen pleaded guilty, constitutes evidence of the Defendant's guilt and you may not consider them in determining whether the Defendant is guilty or not guilty of the charged crimes. - Wall Street Journal News articles You will recall that certain Wall Street Journal news articles were accepted into evidence during the trial. I remind you now that the articles were accepted and may be considered by you for the limited purpose of demonstrating that the articles were published on or about a certain date and to provide context for the other evidence. The exhibits may not be considered by you as evidence that any of the assertions in the articles is true. - Other hearsay evidence not accepted for its truth – There were other exhibits which contained hearsay and were not accepted for the truth of the matter asserted but for another purpose. For example, there were several National Enquirer headlines and an invoice from Investor Advisory Services (People's 161). Those were accepted for the limited purpose of demonstrating that the articles were published and the document created. There were also some text messages that were accepted with a similar limitation. For example, People's Exhibit 171.A with respect to Gina Rodriguez's texts only and 257 with respect to Chris Cuomo's texts only. Those text messages were accepted for the limited purpose of providing context for the responses by Dylan Howard and Michael Cohen. The exhibits which were accepted into evidence with a limiting instruction are 152, 153.A, 153.B, 153.C, 161, 171.A, 180, 181 and 257. Page 10

If you have any additional questions or need clarification as to which exhibits were accepted into evidence with limitations, just send me a note with your question and I will be happy to clarify. Presumption of Innocence We now turn to the fundamental principles of our law that apply in all criminal trials-the presumption of innocence, the burden of proof, and the requirement of proof beyond a reasonable doubt. Throughout these proceedings, the defendant is presumed to be innocent. As a result, you must find the defendant not guilty, unless, on the evidence presented at this trial, you conclude that the People have proven the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. In determining whether the People have satisfied their burden of proving the defendant's guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, you may consider all the evidence presented, whether by the People or by the defendant. In doing so, however, remember that, even though the defendant introduced evidence, the burden of proof remains on the People. Defendant Did Not Testify The fact that the defendant did not testify is not a factor from which any inference unfavorable to the defendant may be drawn. Page 11

Burden of Proof The defendant is not required to prove that he is not guilty. In fact, the defendant is not required to prove or disprove anything. To the contrary, the People have the burden of proving the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. That means, before you can find the defendant guilty of a crime, the People must prove beyond a reasonable doubt every element of the crime including that the defendant is the person who committed that crime. The burden of proof never shifts from the People to the defendant. If the People fail to satisfy their burden of proof, you must find the defendant not guilty and if the People satisfy their burden of proof, you must find the defendant guilty. Page 12

Reasonable Doubt What does our law mean when it requires proof of guilt "beyond a reasonable doubt"? The law uses the term, "proof beyond a reasonable doubt," to tell you how convincing the evidence of guilt must be to permit a verdict of guilty. The law recognizes that, in dealing with human affairs, there are very few things in this world that we know with absolute certainty. Therefore, the law does not require the People to prove a defendant guilty beyond all possible doubt. On the other hand, it is not sufficient to prove that the defendant is probably guilty. In a criminal case, the proof of guilt must be stronger than that. It must be beyond a reasonable doubt. A reasonable doubt is an honest doubt of the defendant's guilt for which a reason exists based upon the nature and quality of the evidence. It is an actual doubt, not an imaginary doubt. It is a doubt that a reasonable person, acting in a matter of this importance, would be likely to entertain because of the evidence that was presented or because of the lack of convincing evidence. Proof of guilt beyond a reasonable doubt is proof that leaves you so firmly convinced of the defendant's guilt that you have no reasonable doubt of the existence of any element of the crime or of the defendant's identity as the person who committed the crime. In determining whether the People have proven the defendant's guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, you should be guided solely by a full and fair evaluation of the evidence. After carefully evaluating the evidence, each of you must decide Page 13

whether that evidence convinces you beyond a reasonable doubt of the defendant's guilt. Whatever your verdict may be, it must not rest upon baseless speculation. Nor may it be influenced in any way by bias, prejudice, sympathy, or by a desire to bring an end to your deliberations or to avoid an unpleasant duty. If you are not convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is guilty of a charged crime, you must find the defendant not guilty of that crime and if you are convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is guilty of a charged crime, you must find the defendant guilty of that crime. Page 14

Credibility of Witnesses Introduction As judges of the facts, you alone determine the truthfulness and accuracy of the testimony of each witness. You must decide whether a witness told the truth and was accurate, or instead, testified falsely or was mistaken. You must also decide what importance to give to the testimony you accept as truthful and accurate. It is the quality of the testimony that is controlling, not the number of witnesses who testify. Accept in Whole or in Part (Falsus in Uno) If you find that any witness has intentionally testified falsely as to any material fact, you may disregard that witness's entire testimony. Or, you may disregard so much of it as you find was untruthful, and accept so much of it as you find to have been truthful and accurate. Credibility factors There is no particular formula for evaluating the truthfulness and accuracy of another person's statements or testimony. You bring to this process all of your varied experiences. In life, you frequently decide the truthfulness and accuracy of statements made to you by other people. The same factors used to make those decisions, should be used in this case when evaluating the testimony. Page 15

In General Some of the factors that you may wish to consider in evaluating the testimony of a witness are as follows: Did the witness have an opportunity to see or hear the events about which he or she testified? Did the witness have the ability to recall those events accurately? Was the testimony of the witness plausible and likely to be true, or was it implausible and not likely to be true? Was the testimony of the witness consistent or inconsistent with other testimony or evidence in the case? Did the manner in which the witness testified reflect upon the truthfulness of that witness's testimony? To what extent, if any, did the witness's background, training, education, or experience affect the believability of that witness's testimony? Did the witness have a conscious bias, hostility or some other attitude that affected the truthfulness of the witness's testimony? Did the witness show an "unconscious bias," that is, a bias that the witness may have even unknowingly acquired from stereotypes and attitudes about people or groups of people, and if so, did that unconscious bias impact that witness's ability to be truthful and accurate. Page | 16

Motive You may consider whether a witness had, or did not have, a motive to lie. If a witness had a motive to lie, you may consider whether and to what extent, if any, that motive affected the truthfulness of that witness's testimony. If a witness did not have a motive to lie, you may consider that as well in evaluating the witness's truthfulness. Benefit You may consider whether a witness hopes for or expects to receive a benefit for testifying. If so, you may consider whether and to what extent it affected the truthfulness of the witness's testimony. Interest/Lack of Interest You may consider whether a witness has any interest in the outcome of the case, or instead, whether the witness has no such interest. You are not required to reject the testimony of an interested witness, or to accept the testimony of a witness who has no interest in the outcome of the case. You may, however, consider whether an interest in the outcome, or the lack of such interest, affected the truthfulness of the witness's testimony. Page 17

Previous Criminal Conduct You may consider whether a witness has been convicted of a crime or has engaged in criminal conduct, and if so, whether and to what extent it affects your evaluation of the truthfulness of that witness's testimony. You are not required to reject the testimony of a witness. who has been convicted of a crime or has engaged in criminal conduct, or to accept the testimony of a witness who has not. You may, however, consider whether a witness's criminal conviction or conduct has affected the truthfulness of the witness's testimony. Page 18

Inconsistent Statements You may consider whether a witness made statements at this trial that are inconsistent with each other. You may also consider whether a witness made previous statements that are inconsistent with his or her testimony at trial. You may consider whether a witness testified to a fact here at trial that the witness omitted to state, at a prior time, when it would have been reasonable and logical for the witness to have stated the fact. In determining whether it would have been reasonable and logical for the witness to have stated the omitted fact, you may consider whether the witness' attention was called to the matter and whether the witness was specifically asked about it. If a witness has made such inconsistent statements or omissions, you may consider whether and to what extent they affect the truthfulness or accuracy of that witness's testimony here at this trial. The contents of a prior inconsistent statement are not proof of what happened. You may use evidence of a prior inconsistent statement only to evaluate the truthfulness or accuracy of the witness's testimony here at trial. Page 19

Consistency You may consider whether a witness's testimony is consistent with the testimony of other witnesses or with other evidence in the case. If there were inconsistencies by or among witnesses, you may consider whether they were significant inconsistencies related to important facts, or instead were the kind of minor inconsistencies that one might expect from multiple witnesses to the same event. Witness Pre-trial Preparation You have heard testimony about the prosecution and defense counsel_speaking to a witness about the case before the witness testified at this trial. The law permits the prosecution and defense counsel to speak to a witness about the case before the witness testifies, and permits a prosecutor and defense counsel to review with the witness the questions that will or may be asked at trial, including the questions that may be asked on cross-examination. You have also heard testimony that a witness read or reviewed certain materials pertaining to this case before the witness testified at trial. The law permits a witness to do so. Speaking to a witness about his or her testimony and permitting the witness to review materials pertaining to the case before the witness testifies is a normal part of preparing for trial. It is not improper as long as it is not suggested that the witness depart from the truth. Page | 20

Identification The People have the burden of proving beyond a reasonable doubt, not only that a charged crime was committed, but that the defendant is the person who committed that crime. Thus, even if you are convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that a charged crime was committed by someone, you cannot convict the defendant of that crime unless you are also convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that he is the person who committed that crime. Page 21

Accomplice as a Matter of Law Under our law, Michael Cohen is an accomplice because there is evidence that he participated in a crime based upon conduct involved in the allegations here against the defendant. Our law is especially concerned about the testimony of an accomplice who implicates another in the commission of a crime, particularly when the accomplice has received, expects or hopes for a benefit in return for his testimony. Therefore, our law provides that a defendant may not be convicted of any crime upon the testimony of an accomplice unless it is supported by corroborative evidence tending to connect the defendant with the commission of that crime. In other words, even if you find the testimony of Michael Cohen to be believable, you may not convict the defendant solely upon that testimony unless you also find that it was corroborated by other evidence tending to connect the defendant with the commission of the crime. The corroborative evidence need not, by itself, prove that a crime was committed or that the defendant is guilty. What the law requires is that there be evidence that tends to connect the defendant with the commission of the crime charged in such a way as may reasonably satisfy you that the accomplice is telling the truth about the defendant's participation in that crime. In determining whether there is the necessary corroboration, you may consider whether there is material, believable evidence, apart from the testimony of Michael Cohen, which itself tends to connect the defendant with the commission of the crime. Page 22

You may also consider whether there is material, believable evidence, apart from the testimony of Michael Cohen, which, while it does not itself tend to connect the defendant with the commission of the crime charged, it nonetheless so harmonizes with the narrative of the accomplice as to satisfy you that the accomplice is telling the truth about the defendant's participation in the crime and thereby tends to connect the defendant to the commission of the crime. Page | 23

The Charged Crimes I will now instruct you on the law applicable to the charged offenses. That offense is Falsifying Business Records in the First Degree 34 Counts. - Page 24

Accessorial Liability Our law recognizes that two or more individuals can act jointly to commit a crime, and that in certain circumstances, each can be held criminally liable for the acts of the others. In that situation, those persons can be said to be "acting in concert" with each other. Our law defines the circumstances under which one person may be criminally liable for the conduct of another. That definition is as follows: When one person engages in conduct which constitutes an offense, another is criminally liable for such conduct when, acting with the state of mind required for the commission of that offense, he or she solicits, requests, commands, importunes, or intentionally aids such person to engage in such conduct. Under that definition, mere presence at the scene of a crime, even with knowledge that the crime is taking place, or mere association with a perpetrator of a crime, does not by itself make a defendant criminally liable for that crime. In order for the defendant to be held criminally liable for the conduct of another which constitutes an offense, you must find beyond a reasonable doubt: (1) That he solicited, requested, commanded, importuned, or intentionally aided that person to engage in that conduct, and (2) That he did so with the state of mind required for the commission of the offense. Page | 25

If it is proven beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is criminally liable for the conduct of another, the extent or degree of the defendant's participation in the crime does not matter. A defendant proven beyond a reasonable doubt to be criminally liable for the conduct of another in the commission of a crime is as guilty of the crime as if the defendant, personally, had committed every act constituting the crime. The People have the burden of proving beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant acted with the state of mind required for the commission of the crime, and either personally, or by acting in concert with another person, committed each of the remaining elements of the crime. Your verdict, on each count you consider, whether guilty or not guilty, must be unanimous. In order to find the defendant guilty, however, you need not be unanimous on whether the defendant committed the crime personally, or by acting in concert with another, or both. Page 26

The Charged Crimes I will now instruct you on the law applicable to the charged offense. That offense is FALSIFYING BUSINESS RECORDS IN THE FIRST DEGREE – 34 COUNTS. - FALSIFYING BUSINESS RECORDS IN THE FIRST DEGREE Penal Law § 175.10 Under our law, a person is guilty of falsifying business. records in the first degree when, with intent to defraud that includes an intent to commit another crime or to aid or conceal the commission thereof, that person: makes or causes a false entry in the business records of an enterprise. The following terms used in that definition have a special meaning: ENTERPRISE means any entity of one or more persons, corporate or otherwise, public or private, engaged in business, commercial, professional, industrial, social, political or governmental activity. BUSINESS RECORD means any writing or article, including computer data or a computer program, kept or maintained by an enterprise for the purpose of evidencing or reflecting its condition or activity. Page 27

INTENT means conscious objective or purpose. Thus, a person acts with intent to defraud when his or her conscious objective or purpose is to do so. Intent does not require premeditation. In other words, intent does not require advance planning. Nor is it necessary that the intent be in a person's mind for any particular period of time. The intent can be formed, and need only exist, at the very moment the person engages in prohibited conduct or acts to cause the prohibited result, and not at any earlier time. The question naturally arises as to how to determine whether a defendant had the intent required for the commission of a crime. To make that determination in this case, you must decide if the required intent can be inferred beyond a reasonable doubt from the proven facts. In doing so, you may consider the person's conduct and all of the circumstances surrounding that conduct, including, but not limited to, the following: what, if anything, did the person do or say; what result, if any, followed the person's conduct; and was that result the natural, necessary and probable consequence of that conduct. Therefore, in this case, from the facts you find to have been proven, decide whether you can infer beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant had the intent required for the commission of this crime. Page 28

INTENT TO DEFRAUD As I previously explained, a person acts with intent to defraud when his or her conscious objective or purpose is to do SO. In order to prove an intent to defraud, the People need not prove that the defendant acted with the intent to defraud any particular person or entity. A general intent to defraud any person or entity suffices. Intent to defraud is also not constricted to an intent to deprive another of property or money and can extend beyond economic concerns. INTENT TO COMMIT OR CONCEAL ANOTHER CRIME For the crime of Falsifying Business Records in the First Degree, the intent to defraud must include an intent to commit another crime or to aid or conceal the commission thereof. Under our law, although the People must prove an intent to commit another crime or to aid or conceal the commission thereof, they need not prove that the other crime was in fact committed, aided, or concealed. Page 29

NEW YORK ELECTION LAW § 17-152 PREDICATE The People allege that the other crime the defendant intended to commit, aid, or conceal is a violation of New York Election Law section 17-152. Section 17-152 of the New York Election Law provides that any two or more persons who conspire to promote or prevent the election of any person to a public office by unlawful means and which conspiracy is acted upon by one or more of the parties thereto, shall be guilty of conspiracy to promote or prevent an election. Under our law, a person is guilty of such a conspiracy when, with intent that conduct be performed that would promote or prevent the election of a person to public office by unlawful means, he or she agrees with one or more persons to engage in or cause the performance of such conduct. Knowledge of a conspiracy does not by itself make the defendant a coconspirator. The defendant must intend that conduct be performed that would promote or prevent the election of a person to public office by unlawful means. Intent means conscious objective or purpose. Thus, a person acts with the intent that conduct be performed that would promote or prevent the election of a person to public office by unlawful means when his or her conscious objective or purpose is that such conduct be performed. Evidence that defendant was present when others agreed to engage in the performance of a crime does not by itself show that he personally agreed to engage in the conspiracy. Page 30

"By Unlawful Means" Although you must conclude unanimously that the defendant conspired to promote or prevent the election of any person to a public office by unlawful means, you need not be unanimous as to what those unlawful means were. In determining whether the defendant conspired to promote or prevent the election of any person to a public office by unlawful means, you may consider the following: (1) violations of the Federal Election Campaign Act otherwise known as FECA; (2) the falsification of other business records; or (3) violation of tax laws. THE FEDERAL ELECTION CAMPAIGN ACT The first of the People's theories of “unlawful means" which I will now define for you is the Federal Election Campaign Act. Under the Federal Election Campaign Act, it is unlawful for an individual to willfully make a contribution to any candidate with respect to any election for federal office, including the office of President of the United States, which exceeds a certain limit. In 2015 and 2016, that limit was $2,700. It is also unlawful under the Federal Election Campaign Act for any corporation to willfully make a contribution of any amount to a candidate or candidate's campaign in connection with any federal election, or for any person to cause such a corporate contribution. For purposes of these prohibitions, an expenditure made in cooperation, consultation, or concert with, or at the request or suggestion of, a candidate or his agents shall be considered to be a contribution to such candidate. Page 31

The terms CONTRIBUTION and EXPENDITURE include anything of value, including any purchase, payment, loan, or advance, made by any person for the purpose of influencing any election for federal office. Under federal law, a third party's payment of a candidate's expenses is deemed to be a contribution to the candidate unless the payment would have been made irrespective of the candidacy. If the payment would have been made even in the absence of the candidacy, the payment should not be treated as a contribution. FECA's definitions of "contribution" and "expenditure" do not include any cost incurred in covering or carrying a news story, commentary, or editorial by a magazine, periodical publication, or similar press entity, so long as such activity is a normal, legitimate press function. This is called the press exemption. For example, the term legitimate press function includes solicitation letters seeking new subscribers to a publication. FALSIFICATION OF OTHER BUSINESS RECORDS The second of the People's theories of "unlawful means" which I will define for you now is the falsification of other business records. Under New York law, a person is guilty of Falsifying. Business Records in the Second Degree when with intent to defraud, he or she makes or causes a false entry in the business records of an enterprise. Page 32

I previously defined for you the terms enterprise, business records, and intent to defraud. For purposes of determining whether Falsifying Business Records in the Second Degree was an unlawful means used by a conspiracy to promote or prevent an election here, you may consider: (i) the bank records associated with Michael Cohen's account formation paperwork for Resolution Consultants LLC and Essential Consultants LLC accounts; (ii) the bank records associated with Michael Cohen's wire to Keith Davidson; (iii) the invoice from Investor Advisory Services Inc. to Resolution Consultants LLC; and (iv) the 1099-MISC forms that the Trump Organization issued to Michael Cohen. Page 33

VIOLATION OF TAX LAWS The People's third theory of “unlawful means" which I will define for you now is a Violation of Tax Laws. Under New York State and New York City law, it is unlawful to knowingly supply or submit materially false or fraudulent information in connection with any tax return. Likewise, under federal law, it is unlawful for a person to willfully make any tax return, statement, or other document that is fraudulent or false as to any material matter, or that the person does not believe to be true and correct as to every material matter. Under these federal, state, and local laws, such conduct is unlawful even if it does not result in underpayment of taxes. COUNT-SPECIFIC In order for you to find the defendant guilty of the crime of Falsifying Business Records in the First Degree under Count 1 of the Indictment, the People are required to prove, from all of the evidence in the case, beyond a reasonable doubt, each of the following two elements: 1. That on or about February 14, 2017, in the county of New York and elsewhere, the defendant, personally, or by acting in concert with another person or persons, made or caused a false entry in the business records of an enterprise, specifically, an invoice from Michael Cohen dated February 14, 2017, marked as a record of the Donald J. Trump Revocable Trust, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization; and Page 34

2. That the defendant did so with intent to defraud that included an intent to commit another crime or to aid or conceal the commission thereof. If you find the People have proven beyond a reasonable doubt each of those two elements, you must find the defendant guilty of this crime. If you find the People have not proven beyond a reasonable doubt either one or both of those two elements, you must find the defendants not guilty of this crime. You have now heard me define the law for Count One. There are thirty-three remaining counts in the indictment. Each for Falsifying Business Records in the First Degree and each occurring in New York County. The only difference is that each count pertains to a different business record and possibly a different date. The underlying law applies in the same way to each of the remaining counts so I will only repeat it in full one more time before I read Count 34. Of course, you can ask me to repeat the law in its entirety as many times as you wish and I will be happy to do so. The second count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for the Donald J. Trump Revocable Trust, dated February 14, 2017, bearing voucher number 842457, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The third count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for the Donald J. Trump Revocable Trust, dated February 14, 2017, bearing voucher number 842460, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The fourth count pertains to a Donald J. Trump Revocable Trust Account check and check stub dated February 14, 2017, bearing check number 000138, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. Page | 35

The fifth count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated March 16, 2017, marked as a record of the Donald J. Trump Revocable Trust, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The sixth count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for the Donald J. Trump Revocable Trust, dated March 17, 2017, bearing voucher number 846907, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The seventh count pertains to a Donald J. Trump Revocable Trust Account check and check stub dated March 17, 2017, bearing check number 000147, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The eighth count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated April 13, 2017, marked as a record of Donald J. Trump, and kept or maintained by the Trump. Organization. The ninth count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for Donald J. Trump, dated June 19, 2017, bearing voucher number 858770, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The tenth count pertains to a Donald J. Trump account check and check stub dated June 19, 2017, bearing check number 002740, and kept or maintained by the Trump. Organization. The eleventh count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated May 22, 2017, marked as a record of Donald J. Trump, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. Page 36

The twelfth count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for Donald J. Trump, dated May 22, 2017, bearing voucher number 855331, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The thirteenth count pertains to a Donald J. Trump account check and check stub dated May 23, 2017, bearing check number 002700, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The fourteenth count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated June 16, 2017, marked as a record of Donald J. Trump, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The fifteenth count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for Donald J. Trump, dated June 19, 2017, bearing voucher number 858772, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The sixteenth count pertains to a Donald J. Trump account check and check stub dated June 19, 2017, bearing check number 002741, and kept or maintained by the Trump. Organization. The seventeenth count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated July 11, 2017, marked as a record of Donald J. Trump, and kept or maintained by the Trump. Organization. The eighteenth count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for Donald J. Trump, dated July 11, 2017, bearing voucher number 861096, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. Page 37

The nineteenth count pertains to a Donald J. Trump account check and check stub dated July 11, 2017, bearing check number 002781, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The twentieth count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated August 1, 2017, marked as a record of Donald J. Trump, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The twenty-first count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for Donald J. Trump, dated August 1, 2017, bearing voucher number 863641, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The twenty-second count pertains to a Donald J. Trump account check and check stub dated August 1, 2017, bearing check number 002821, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The twenty-third count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated September 11, 2017, marked as a record of Donald J. Trump, and kept or maintained by the Trump. Organization. The twenty-fourth count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for Donald J. Trump, dated September 11, 2017, bearing voucher number 868174, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The twenty-fifth count pertains to a Donald J. Trump. account check and check stub dated September 12, 2017, bearing check number 002908, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. Page 38

The twenty-sixth count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated October 18, 2017, marked as a record of Donald J. Trump, and kept or maintained by the Trump. Organization. The twenty-seventh count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for Donald J. Trump, dated October 18, 2017, bearing voucher number 872654, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The twenty-eighth count pertains to a Donald J. Trump. account check and check stub dated October 18, 2017, bearing check number 002944, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The twenty-ninth count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated November 20, 2017, marked as a record of Donald J. Trump, and kept or maintained by the Trump. Organization. The thirtieth count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for Donald J. Trump, dated November 20, 2017, bearing voucher number 876511, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The thirty-first count pertains to a Donald J. Trump account check and check stub dated November 21, 2017, bearing check number 002980, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The thirty-second count pertains to an invoice from Michael Cohen dated December 1, 2017, marked as a record of Donald J. Trump, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. Page 39

The thirty-third count pertains to an entry in the Detail General Ledger for Donald J. Trump, dated December 1, 2017, bearing voucher number 877785, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization. The Thirty Fourth Count is also Falsifying Business Records in the First Degree but as it pertains to a check and check stub dated December 5, 2017. I will now repeat for you the law pertaining to the crime of Falsifying Business Records in the First Degree in its entirety. FALSIFYING BUSINESS RECORDS IN THE FIRST DEGREE Penal Law § 175.10 Under our law, a person is guilty of Falsifying Business Records in the First Degree when, with intent to defraud that includes an intent to commit another crime or to aid or conceal the commission thereof, that person: makes or causes a false entry in the business records of an enterprise. The following terms used in that definition have a special meaning: ENTERPRISE means any entity of one or more persons, corporate or otherwise, public or private, engaged in business, commercial, professional, industrial, social, political or governmental activity. BUSINESS RECORD means any writing or article, including computer data or a computer program, kept or maintained by an enterprise for the purpose of evidencing or reflecting its condition or activity. Page 40

INTENT means conscious objective or purpose. Thus, a person acts with intent to defraud when his or her conscious objective or purpose is to do so. Intent does not require premeditation. In other words, intent does not require advance planning. Nor is it necessary that the intent be in a person's mind for any particular period of time. The intent can be formed, and need only exist, at the very moment the person engages in prohibited conduct or acts to cause the prohibited result, and not at any earlier time. The question naturally arises as to how to determine whether a defendant had the intent required for the commission of a crime. To make that determination in this case, you must decide if the required intent can be inferred beyond a reasonable doubt from the proven facts. In doing so, you may consider the person's conduct and all of the circumstances surrounding that conduct, including, but not limited to, the following: what, if anything, did the person do or say; what result, if any, followed the person's conduct; and was that result the natural, necessary and probable consequence of that conduct. Therefore, in this case, from the facts you find to have been proven, decide whether you can infer beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant had the intent required for the commission of this crime. Page 41

INTENT TO DEFRAUD As I previously explained, a person acts with intent to defraud when his or her conscious objective or purpose is to do SO. In order to prove an intent to defraud, the People need not prove that the defendant acted with the intent to defraud any particular person or entity. A general intent to defraud any person or entity suffices. Intent to defraud is also not constricted to an intent to deprive another of property or money and can extend beyond economic concerns. INTENT TO COMMIT OR CONCEAL ANOTHER CRIME For the count of Falsifying Business Records in the First Degree, the intent to defraud must include an intent to commit another crime or to aid or conceal the commission thereof. Under our law, although the People must prove an intent to commit another crime or to aid or conceal the commission thereof, they need not prove that the other crime was in fact committed, aided, or concealed. Page 42

NEW YORK ELECTION LAW § 17-152 PREDICATE The People allege that the other crime the defendant intended to commit, aid, or conceal is a violation of New York Election Law section 17-152. Section 17-152 of the New York Election Law provides that any two or more persons who conspire to promote or prevent the election of any person to a public office by unlawful means and which conspiracy is acted upon by one or more of the parties thereto, shall be guilty of conspiracy to promote or prevent an election. Under our law, a person is guilty of such a conspiracy when, with intent that conduct be performed that would promote or prevent the election of a person to public office by unlawful means, he or she agrees with one or more persons to engage in or cause the performance of such conduct. Knowledge of a conspiracy does not by itself make the defendant a coconspirator. The defendant must intend that conduct be performed that would promote or prevent the election of a person to public office by unlawful means. Intent means conscious objective or purpose. Thus, a person acts with the intent that conduct be performed that would promote or prevent the election of a person to public office by unlawful means when his or her conscious objective or purpose is that such conduct be performed. Evidence that defendant was present when others agreed to engage in the performance of a crime does not by itself show that he personally agreed to engage in the conspiracy. Page 43

"By Unlawful Means" Although you must conclude unanimously that the defendant conspired to promote or prevent the election of any person to a public office by unlawful means, you need not be unanimous as to what those unlawful means were. In determining whether the defendant conspired to promote or prevent the election of any person to a public office by unlawful means, you may consider the following unlawful means: (1) violations of the Federal Election Campaign Act otherwise known as FECA; (2) the falsification of other business records; or (3) violation of tax laws. THE FEDERAL ELECTION CAMPAIGN ACT The first of the People's theories of “unlawful means" which I will now define for you is the Federal Election Campaign Act. Under the Federal Election Campaign Act, it is unlawful for an individual to willfully make a contribution to any candidate with respect to any election for federal office, including the office of President of the United States, which exceeds a certain limit. In 2015 and 2016, that limit was $2,700. It is also unlawful under the Federal Election Campaign Act for any corporation to willfully make a contribution of any amount to a candidate or candidate's campaign in connection with any federal election, or for any person to cause such a corporate contribution. For purposes of these prohibitions, an expenditure made in cooperation, consultation, or concert with, or at the request or suggestion of, a candidate or his agents shall be considered to be a contribution to such candidate. Page 44

The terms CONTRIBUTION and EXPENDITURE include anything of value, including any purchase, payment, loan, or advance, made by any person for the purpose of influencing any election for federal office. Under federal law, a third party's payment of a candidate's expenses is deemed to be a contribution to the candidate unless the payment would have been made irrespective of the candidacy. If the payment would have been made even in the absence of the candidacy, the payment should not be treated as a contribution. FECA's definitions of "contribution" and "expenditure" do not include any cost incurred in covering or carrying a news story, commentary, or editorial by a magazine, periodical publication, or similar press entity, so long as such activity is a normal, legitimate press function. This is called the press exemption. For example, the term legitimate press function includes solicitation letters seeking new subscribers to a publication. FALSIFICATION OF OTHER BUSINESS RECORDS The People's second theory of "unlawful means" which I will define for you is the falsification of other business records. Under New York law, a person is guilty of Falsifying. Business Records in the Second Degree when with intent to defraud, he or she makes or causes a false entry in the business records of an enterprise. I previously defined for you the terms enterprise, business records, and intent to defraud. Page 45

For purposes of determining whether Falsifying Business Records in the Second Degree was an unlawful means used by a conspiracy to promote or prevent an election here, you may consider: (i) the bank records associated with Michael Cohen's account formation paperwork for the Resolution Consultants LLC and Essential Consultants LLC accounts; (ii) the bank records associated with Michael Cohen's wire to Keith Davidson; (iii) the invoice from Investor Advisory Services Inc. to Resolution Consultants LLC; and (iv) the 1099-MISC forms that the Trump Organization issued to Michael Cohen. VIOLATION OF TAX LAWS The People's third theory of "unlawful means" which I will define for you is a Violation of Tax Laws. Under New York State and New York City law, it is unlawful to knowingly supply or submit materially false or fraudulent information in connection with any tax return. Likewise, under federal law, it is unlawful for a person to willfully make any tax return, statement, or other document that is fraudulent or false as to any material matter, or that the person does not believe to be true and correct as to every material matter. Under these federal, state, and local laws, such conduct is unlawful even if it does not result in underpayment of taxes. Page 46

In order for you to find the defendant guilty of the crime of Falsifying Business Records in the First Degree under Count 34, the People are required to prove, from all of the evidence in the case, beyond a reasonable doubt, each of the following two elements: 1. That on or about December 5, 2017, in the county of New York and elsewhere, the defendant, personally, or by acting in concert with another person or persons, made or caused a false entry in the business records of an enterprise, specifically, a Donald J. Trump account check and check stub dated December 5, 2017, bearing check number 003006, and kept or maintained by the Trump Organization; and 2. That the defendant did so with intent to defraud that included an intent to commit another crime or to aid or conceal the commission thereof. If you find the People have proven beyond a reasonable doubt both of those two elements, you must find the defendant guilty of this crime. If you find the People have not proven beyond a reasonable doubt either one or both of those two elements, you must find the defendants not guilty of this crime. Page 47

Motive When Not Element of Crime Let me now explain motive, and in particular, the difference between motive and intent. Intent means conscious objective or purpose. Thus, a person commits a criminal act with intent when that person's conscious objective or purpose is to engage in the act which the law forbids or to bring about an unlawful result. Motive, on the other hand, is the reason why a person chooses to engage in criminal conduct. If intent is an element of a charged crime, that element must be proved by the People beyond a reasonable doubt. this case, intent is, as I have explained, an element of the crime of Falsifying Business Records in the First degree. Motive, however, is not an element of the crimes charged. Therefore, the People are not required to prove a motive for the commission of the charged crimes. Nevertheless, evidence of a motive, or evidence of the lack of a motive, may be considered by the jury. For example, if you find from the evidence that the defendant had a motive to commit the crime charged, that is a circumstance you may wish to consider as tending to support a finding of guilt. On the other hand, if the proof establishes that the defendant had no motive to commit the crime charged, that is a circumstance you may wish to consider as tending to establish that the defendant is not guilty of the crime charged. Page 48

Deliberations Your verdict, on each count you consider, whether guilty or not guilty, must be unanimous; that is, each and every juror must agree to it. To reach a unanimous verdict you must deliberate with the other jurors. That means you should discuss the evidence and consult with each other, listen to each other, give each other's views careful consideration, and reason together when considering the evidence. And when you deliberate, you should do so with a view towards reaching an agreement if that can be done without surrendering individual judgment. Each of you must decide the case for yourself, but only after a fair and impartial consideration of the evidence with the other jurors. You should not surrender an honest view of the evidence simply because you want the trial to end, or because you are outvoted. At the same time, you should not hesitate to reexamine your views and change your mind if you become convinced that your position was not correct. Page 49

Jury Note Taking Some jurors took notes. Any notes taken are only an aid to your memory and must not take precedence over your independent recollection. Those jurors who chose not to take notes must rely on their own independent recollection and must not be influenced by any notes that another juror may have taken. Any notes you took are only for your own personal use in refreshing your recollection. A juror's notes are not a substitute for the recorded transcript of the testimony or for any exhibit received in evidence. If there is a discrepancy between a juror's recollection and his or her notes regarding the evidence, you should ask to have the relevant testimony read back or the exhibit produced in the jury room. In addition, a juror's notes are not a substitute for the detailed explanation I have given you of the principles of law that govern this case. If there is a discrepancy between a juror's recollection and his or her notes regarding those principles, you should ask me to explain those principles again, and I will be happy to do so. Page 50

Exhibits, Readback & Law Questions You may see any or all of the exhibits that were received in evidence. Simply write me a note telling me which exhibit or exhibits you want to see. You may also have the testimony of any witness read back to you in whole or in part. Again, if you want a read back, write me a note telling me what testimony you wish to hear. If you are interested in hearing only a portion of a witness' testimony, please specify in your note which witness and, with as much detail as possible, which part of the testimony you want to hear. Of course, when testimony is read back, questions to which an objection was sustained and material otherwise struck from the record is not read back. If you have a question on the law, write me a note specifying what you want me to review with you. Page 51

Foreperson's Role Under our law, the first juror selected is known as the foreperson. During deliberations, the foreperson's opinion and vote are not entitled to any more importance than that of any other juror. What we ask the foreperson to do during deliberations is to sign any written note that the jury sends to the court. The foreperson does not have to write the note or agree with its contents. The foreperson's signature indicates only that the writing comes from the jury. The foreperson may also chair the jury's discussions during deliberations. When the jury has reached a verdict, guilty or not guilty, the entire jury will be asked to come into court. The foreperson will be asked whether the jury has reached a verdict. If the foreperson says yes, the foreperson will then be asked what the verdict is for each charged count. After that, the entire jury will be asked whether that is their verdict and will answer yes or no. Finally, upon the request of a party, each juror will be asked individually whether the announced verdict is the verdict of that juror, and upon being asked, each juror will answer yes or no. Page 52

Verdict Sheet The I will give you a form known as a verdict sheet. verdict sheet lists each count submitted for your consideration and the possible verdicts. Please use the form to record your verdict with an X or a check mark in the appropriate place. In addition to listing the counts, I have added some additional language on the verdict sheet in order to distinguish the counts: You will notice that I have indicated whether a count pertains to an invoice, a voucher or a check. For the invoices, I have added the date and for the vouchers and checks I have added the number. The sole reason for doing this is to help you distinguish between the various counts. It is not a substitute for my full instructions on the meaning and elements of each charge, and it should not discourage you from asking me to define a crime again if a question about it arises. Page 53

Jury Deliberation Rules Finally, there are a few remaining rules which you must observe during your deliberations. 1. While you are here in the courthouse, deliberating on the case, you will be kept together in the jury room. You may not leave the jury room during deliberations. Lunch will of course be provided. If you have a cell phone or other electronic device, please give it to a court officer to hold for you while you are engaged in deliberations. 2. You must deliberate about the case only when you are all gathered together in the jury room. You must not, for example, discuss the case as you go to and from the courtroom. It is important that each juror have the opportunity to hear whatever another juror has to say about the case, and that by law must only be done when you are all gathered together in the jury room. Thus, if for any reason, all twelve of you are not gathered together in the jury room, please stop deliberating until you are all present. 3. During your deliberations, you must discuss the case only among yourselves; you must not discuss the case with anyone else, including a court officer, or permit anyone other than a fellow juror to discuss the case in your presence. 4. If you have a question or request, you must communicate with me by writing a note, which you will give to a court officer to give to me. The law requires that you communicate with me in writing in part to make sure there are no misunderstandings. 5. We will work every day until about 4:30. However, we can work later if the jury wishes to do so and all the jurors are in agreement. Simply send me a note as early in the day as possible and let me know that you wish to stay beyond 4:30 and if so, what time you would like to work until. Depending on the time you select, we may order dinner for you. I should explain that, under our law, I am not permitted to have a conversation about the facts of the case, or a possible verdict, or the vote of the jury on any count with any one juror, or group of jurors, or even all the jurors. Thus, in any note that you send me, do not tell me what the vote of the jury is on any count.

If a juror wants to speak to me during deliberations, a meeting here in the courtroom with the parties will be arranged. No juror, however, can tell me what is being said about the facts of the case, or a possible verdict, or what the vote of any juror or the jury is on any count. And, while I will of course listen to whatever a juror has to say that does not involve those subjects, I may not be able to respond to that juror if the response involves instructions on the law. I may be required to call into court the entire jury and respond by speaking to the entire jury. The reason for that is that our law wants to make sure that each and every juror hears, at exactly the same time, whatever I have to say about the law, and our law wants to make sure that the jury hears those instructions from me and not from another juror. That concludes my instructions on the law.

Our Coverage of the Trump Hush-Money Trial

Guilty Verdict : Donald Trump was convicted on all 34 counts  of falsifying records to cover up a sex scandal that threatened his bid for the White House in 2016, making him the first American president to be declared a felon .

Next Steps: The judge in the case set Trump’s sentencing for July 11, and Trump already indicated that he plans to appeal. Here’s what else may happen .

Reactions: Trump’s conviction reverberated quickly across the country. Here’s what Trump , voters , New Yorkers , Republicans  and the White House  had to say.

Making the Case: Over six weeks and the testimony of 20 witnesses, the Manhattan district attorney’s office wove a sprawling story  of election interference and falsified business records.

Legal Luck Runs Out: The four criminal cases that threatened Trump’s freedom had been stumbling along, pleasing his advisers. Then his good fortune expired .

Connecting the Dots: As rumors circulated of Trump’s reported infidelity, two accounts of women  being paid to stay silent about their encounters became central to his indictment.