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Cross-referencing

Introduction.

Cross-referencing is a powerful tool that can greatly enhance your work. Good cross-referencing allows readers to link quickly to related material elsewhere in your work, adding significant functionality and value.

Pointing to a specific, relevant target is the key to effective cross-referencing, particularly in digital formats.

Please follow these instructions for effective cross-referencing:

Limit your cross-referencing to one type of target within your work, e.g. headings or paragraph numbers. Ensure the wording for your cross references are consistent. OUP’s preference is for ‘see [para/section/chapter number or heading]’. This need for consistency is particularly important if you are editing a multi-contributor volume.
Give a clear target for each cross-reference and do not use terms such as ‘see above/below’, ‘infra’/’supra’, ‘ante/post’, or print-specific language such as ‘see overleaf’/'see opposite’. Instead, reference specific headings (see the section ‘ cross-referencing by heading ’).
Place cross references within the main body of the text, as marginal references are not visible in digital formats.
Do not include cross references within headings. Headings and cross references are both treated as hyperlinks, and a single link cannot point to more than one place.
Your submitted manuscript should include (at least) placeholders for all cross references; new cross references cannot be added during the production process.

Cross-referencing figures, tables, and boxes

All figures, tables, and boxes must have a specific call-out from the main body of the text (e.g. ‘see Figure 1.1’). Layout varies in print and digital versions. When a reader needs to locate an exact figure, table, or box in the text, the direction to ‘see figure above/below’ may not be correct, depending on the format and if a hyperlink is used. This is even more important when viewing a publication on a hand-held device and only limited text is visible at any time.

Please do not include call-outs in headings, footnotes, or captions (there are a few exceptions to this rule, in some reference and trade titles). If you are unsure, please discuss this with your OUP editorial contact.

Cross-referencing by heading

Headings offer a clear and specific point to reference or link to that works well in both print and digital formats. The more specific the cross reference is, the easier it will be for your reader to locate the information that they need. Drill down to the lowest level of heading available and direct your reader to a targeted point.

Cross-referencing via headings doesn’t work with long streams of unbroken text. Break it up by placing main headings and sub-headings at regular and appropriate intervals. In addition to facilitating cross-referencing, this practice allows your reader to easily read and navigate your work.

Cross-referencing by numbered heading

Heading numbers can be used to point to cross-referencing targets (e.g. ‘see 4.3.2’). They make short, unobtrusive, and specific targets that are not tied to pagination. This method is especially useful in textbooks and reference works with a lot of cross-referencing, as well as in digital publications. Completing cross-referencing before submission cuts down on queries during the production process.

Figure 9 : An example of using numbered headings for cross-referencing.

Cross-referencing by unnumbered heading

If your manuscript does not use numbered headings, please use the heading itself for cross-referencing:

When cross-referencing to a section in the same chapter use the heading name: ‘see “An introduction to private enforcement”’.
Where the cross reference is to material in another chapter, include the chapter number: ‘see “An introduction to private enforcement” in Chapter 3’.
Because this method of cross-referencing is more cumbersome than with numbered headings, consider using numbered headings in your text If you anticipate much cross-referencing.

Figure 10 : An example of using unnumbered headings for cross-referencing.

Cross-referencing by heading and page number

If page numbers are important for your print edition, a good option is to cross-reference by both heading and page number. The headings enable cross-referencing in the digital edition. If you are using numbered headings, adding page numbers to cross references is unnecessary. The numbered heading is sufficient to provide a specific target that is easy to locate.

Some tips for cross-referencing by headings and page numbers:

Because page numbers are completed at proof stage, don’t include page numbers from the manuscript in the final script—this could obscure the need for these to be replaced at proof stage. Use ‘p. 000’ instead.
Always include the relevant heading as well as the page number in your script (e.g. ‘see “An introduction to private enforcement”, p. 000’).
When cross-referencing to material in another chapter, also include that chapter name (e.g. ‘see Ch. 3, “An introduction to private enforcement”, p. 000’).
Where you are referencing a discussion over a series of pages, include the heading that covers that entire discussion to enable an appropriate link in the digital version.

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How to write your references quickly and easily

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Table of Contents

Every scientific paper builds on previous research – even if it’s in a new field, related studies will have preceded and informed it. In peer-reviewed articles, authors must give credit to this previous research, through citations and references. Not only does this show clearly where the current research came from, but it also helps readers understand the content of the paper better.

There is no optimum number of references for an academic article but depending on the subject you could be dealing with more than 100 different papers, conference reports, video articles, medical guidelines or any number of other resources.

That’s a lot of content to manage. Before submitting your manuscript, this needs to be checked, cross-references in the text and the list, organized and formatted.

The exact content and format of the citations and references in your paper will depend on the journal you aim to publish in, so the first step is to check the journal’s Guide for Authors before you submit.

There are two main points to pay attention to – consistency and accuracy. When you go through your manuscript to edit or proofread it, look closely at the citations within the text. Are they all the same? For example, if the journal prefers the citations to be in the format (name, year), make sure they’re all the same: (Smith, 2016).

Your citations must also be accurate and complete. Do they match your references list? Each citation should be included in the list, so cross-checking is important. It’s also common for journals to prefer that most, if not all, of the articles listed in your references be cited within the text – after all, these should be studies that contributed to the knowledge underpinning your work, not just your bedtime reading. So go through them carefully, noting any missing references or citations and filling the gaps.

Each journal has its own requirements when it comes to the content and format of references, as well as where and how you should include them in your submission, so double-check before you hit send!

In general, a reference will include authors’ names and initials, the title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue, date, page numbers and DOI. On ScienceDirect, articles are linked to their original source (if also published on ScienceDirect) or to their Scopus record, so including the DOI can help link to the correct article.

A spotless reference list

Luckily, compiling and editing the references in your scientific manuscript can be easy – and it no longer has to be manual. Management tools like Mendeley can keep track of all your references, letting you share them with your collaborators. With the Word plugin, it’s possible to select the right citation style for the journal you’re submitting to and the tool will format your references automatically.

Like with any other part of your manuscript, it’s important to make sure your reference list has been checked and edited. Elsevier Author Services Language Editing can help, with professional manuscript editing that will help make sure your references don’t hold you back from publication.

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Cross-Referencing: A Definitive Gide

Written By Elizabeth Chey
Updated: February 22, 2024

In this series, we examine how Umberto Eco’s book, ‘How to Write a Thesis,’ can be used to help writers improve their focus, research smarter and get any writing project done faster. In part 10, we examine the skills of cross-referencing.

There are many research techniques and processes explored in Umberto Eco ’s recently-English-translated book, “How to Write a Thesis” that many veteran and novice writers can learn from. One technique the author praises is cross-referencing, which Eco says results in a well-organized thesis.

In this blog post, we examine the skills of cross-referencing, which helps us find the center and periphery of our work.

Why cross-referencing is important, according to Eco:

Cross-referencing avoids unnecessary repetition; and demonstrates the cohesion of the work as a whole.
Cross-referencing can signify that the same concept is valid from two different points of view.
Cross-referencing can show that the same example demonstrates two different arguments.
Cross-referencing can show that what has been said in a general sense is also applicable to a specific point in the same study.

It’s a tool to sew through-lines in your work to parts of itself (from one idea in one chapter to another idea in a different chapter, or from an idea in your text to a part in another author’s text). It demonstrates how a piece of writing and the original ideas within it, fold into, or are connect to other thought-systems that came before it.

The world systems paradigm

Let’s take a modern-day idea called the “world systems paradigm” to demonstrate why cross-referencing is crucial to making your ideas clear.

Penned by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein, the “ world systems paradigm ” claims that the world can be divided into “core” countries, “semi-periphery” countries and “periphery” countries linked together under a global and capitalist economy.

Core areas like the U.S., Canada, and the European Union draw into their inter-regional orbs higher skilled workers, higher wages and capital-intensive production.

Meanwhile, semi-periphery areas like China, Brazil and India and some parts of Southeast Asia, show signs of having high-tech industries and better-educated populations but also suffer from what periphery areas like Africa and Central America face such as a low-skills workforce, labor-intensive production and/or intense extraction of raw materials.

Taking this example of writing a thesis on the world systems paradigm, how would Eco help an audience of thesis-novices find the center and periphery for a paper on this topic?

Steps to establishing a thesis’ center

Eco explains that the logical structure of a thesis contains: topic, center and periphery, and ramifications. (To see a more detailed breakdown of his logical structure for a thesis, see the Tree Diagram ).

Here are some helpful tips Eco gives for finding the center of a thesis:

Don’t assume your audience of scholars or your advisor knows all the terms you are using or referring to. So, first step is to define your terms, unless they are irrefutable canonical terms of the discipline. Define all technical terms used as key categories in your argument.

In a world systems paradigm paper, it might be good for the writer to define what is meant by the use of the words, such as: “core,” “semi-periphery,” and “periphery” and why they might differ from words such as, “industrialized” or “underdeveloped.”

Don’t presume readers have done the work you have. Clearly introduce the ideas of other authors from which you will compare, contrast and share points with.

Clearly, a writer would quickly summarize and cross-reference all the thought-systems that are related to the world systems paradigm, such as dependency theory, economic anthropology and political economy. There would be clear cross-references to the Marxist tradition and the Annales school.

Hinting at a thesis’ periphery

It could be argued that there is no end to cross-referencing. A writer, frustrated with too much information, might shrug their shoulders and simply say: well, everything is related to everything else!

Eco wants writers to focus by holding their ground and stating boldly what is the center of their thesis. He says writers can do that by defining their terms and being explicit. Yet there is no denying that like one constellation has a bridge to other constellations, a cross-reference lets the writer allude to a network of other people’s ideas which feed and nurture your main ideas, but also opens up new key questions.

The periphery is a way of suggesting to your readers, areas of research questions that you could not and did not cover in this thesis, but others could take on given the ground you’ve covered.

To extend that to a paper on the world systems paradigm, a writer might raise new questions in the periphery, such as:

What causes world systems to change?
What are possible indicators to track or predict the change from the existing hierarchy of core and periphery nations now to what might happen in the future?

Good writers and major thinkers often concede that nothing they write about comes out of a vacuum. Whatever ideas they present are linked to other pathways. It’s what makes research and writing an endlessly fruitful endeavor. Even though a reader is thoroughly engaged in the current work you are presenting them, cross-references show the reverence you have to a “periphery,” where countless thought system exists, or can be discovered.

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What is Cross Referencing, or Lateral Reading?

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What is it?

"The technique, modeled after source-evaluation strategies used by fact-checkers who work for news organizations and outlets, is lateral reading—that is..."investigating... the site itself.” The MLA Guide to Digital Literacy suggests calling it “cross-referencing” a source" (The MLA Style Center)

Why should I cross reference?

"One reason digital sources are difficult to evaluate for bias is that the bias is often intentionally hidden in a practice called astroturfing: masking the true intent (be it political, religious, commercial, or social) of the organization by making it appear more widespread and organic in origin."

MLA Style Center - Lateral Reading

Follow these steps

"Find an article by an organization with a clear bias but one that does not identify its stance, such as “ Bullying at School: Never Acceptable ,” by the American College of Pediatricians, which the SHEG used in its lateral reading study.

Research the website’s author or organization . Identify any possible bias or messaging associated with the organization.
Identify keywords in your source and complete your own web search of that topic. Compare the results with your original source.
Find a quotation attributed to specific people. Conduct your own research to verify the quotation and confirm it has not been taken out of context or misconstrued.
Look for hyperlinks or citations to other organizations or sources. Conduct an online search of those organizations to determine any possible bias or messaging associated with the organization or sources.
Look for any advertisements or sponsored content on the website. Conduct a web search to identify possible bias." (The MLA Style Center)
Instructor Resources for Teaching Research Lesson plans, activities, suggested tutorials, and handouts for each part of the research process. Resources are included for both in person, and online asynchronous classes.
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Accessibility Statement

How to refer to tables and figures, sections, and other parts of your paper

Cross-referencing, or referring to sections or objects elsewhere in your paper, is important for making your text structured and coherent. but how do you do this for this post, we analyzed how authors usually cross-reference within their research paper..

Our analysis

You may have seen our recent analysis on the most frequently used sentence connectors in academic writing , based on a data set of 30 million sentences from published papers.

For the current post, we used the same data set, but this time we explored how authors cross-reference within their paper. We extracted and analyzed three types: 1) references to tables and figures; 2) references to other sections of the paper; and 3) references to previous parts of the paper (something covered before).

1. References to tables and figures

Where authors start their sentence referring to a table or figure, the most frequent phrases are:

1 - In table/figure X, … 2 - From table/figure X, … 3 - Table/figure X shows … After these, authors often write ‘ As [verb] in table/figure X, … ’; for example: ‘ As shown in table/figure X, …’ . Below, you see a list of frequent phrases, most of which follow this construction.

2. References to other paper sections The most frequent phrases to refer to other sections are: 1 - In Section X, ... 2 - In the next section, ... 3 - In the following section(s), ... Just like we saw with references to figures and tables, a popular construction is ‘As [verb] in section X, …’ . The figure below shows the entire list following this construction.

3. References to previous parts of the paper

In some cases, you might want to refer to something you’ve already covered in your paper: a theory you’ve explained or a point you’ve made earlier on, for example. Authors usually make these cross-references starting with ‘As …’ . The image below shows the most frequent constructions used. They all follow the same pattern, with changes in the verb used ( as mentioned , described , noted , shown , discussed ), their word order ( As discussed previously vs. As previously discussed ) and word choice ( previously , earlier , before , or above ).

About the author

Hilde is Chief Applied Linguist at Writefull.

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Referencing and citations - OSCOLA: Cross referencing

Legislation
Other sources
Cross referencing
Referencing software
Help and support

Cross-referencing Contents

In a nutshell.

You will only have to give the full/long citation of a source once in your work.

Providing you have given all the details in a footnote the first time you reference, you can, in subsequent footnotes, briefly refer to the source, and then provide a cross-citation in brackets to the footnote in which the full citation can be found.

If the subsequent citation is in the footnote immediately following the full citation, you can generally use ‘ibid’ instead.

Aside from 'ibid', avoid the use of ‘Latin gadgets’ such as supra , infra , ante, id, op cit , loc cit, and contra , which are not widely understood.

Avoid sending the reader off to another part of the text when a short point could as easily be restated. Never make a cross-reference that will be difficult for the reader to find, such as ‘See above’.

Cross-referencing the immediately preceding footnote

Regardless of material type, if a footnote refers to the same source as the IMMEDIATELY PRECEDING footnote, you can indicate this with 'ibid', including a new pinpoint if necessary. You can continue doing this for several footnotes as long as the source doesn't change, eg

22 Robert Stevens, Torts and Rights (OUP 2007).

23 ibid 217-78.

24 ibid 290.

Cross-referencing a case

Give the full citation as per advice for cases the first time you reference it. If you mention the full name of the case in the body of your work you do not need to repeat it in the footnote. If the next citation is to the same case, simply put 'ibid' with a new pinpoint if necessary. If it does not follow on directly, use the short name of the case (usually the first party, or the respondent in criminal cases, or the ship name in some maritime cases) then give the cross reference to the original footnote, eg

1 Austin v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [2009] UKHL5, [2009] AC 564.

7 Austin (n 1).

Cross-referencing legislation

Give the full citation as per advice for legislation the first time you reference it, and indicate the 'short form' in brackets at the end - eg FSMA, e-commerce directive. The title and short form do not need to be repeated if specified in the body of your essay. If the next citation is to the same piece of legislation, simply put 'ibid' with a new pinpoint if necessary. If it does not follow on directly, you can now just use the short form of the legislation without cross referencing, eg

32 Council Directive (EC) 93/104 concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time [1993] OJ L307/18 (Working Time Directive).

40 Working Time Directive, art 2.

Cross-referencing secondary sources

Give the full citation the first time you reference it. If the next citation is to the same source, simply put ibid, with a new pinpoint if necessary. If it does not follow on directly, put the author's surname followed by a cross reference to the original footnote, eg

1 Robert Stevens, Torts and Rights (OUP 2007).

26 Stevens (n 1) 110.

27 ibid 271–78.

<< Previous: Other sources
Next: Referencing software >>
Last Updated: Jun 6, 2024 4:11 PM
URL: https://libguides.ials.sas.ac.uk/referencing

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Cross-References
Introduction, Template, & Resources
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Combining Chapter Files
Commenting and Reviewing
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Using Cross-References

When you refer to a particular figure in your document, rather than typing in “Figure 12, page 43”, you can have Word manage it automatically by using a cross-reference. This means that if the figure number or page location changes, the in-text reference will also change.

You must be using the Insert Caption tool to create your captions for cross-references to Figures/Tables/Equations/etc... to work. If you'll be cross-referencing chapters and sections within chapters, then you must be using Heading Styles .

As an example of how the Cross-reference tool works, here's how to use it to cross-reference a figure:

For figures, select Only Label and Number from the Insert reference to: pulldown, unless you want the entire caption to appear in the text.
Select the item you want to reference from the For which caption: section.
Click Insert and close the Cross-reference dialog box.

When your caption number changes, you can update the in-text references by right-clicking the in-text reference and selecting Update field .

Cross referencing multiple items

What if you want to refer to multiple items, as in (Figures 1, 2, and 4), or (Figs. 5-6)?

You can do this by modifying the Field Codes, which are the normally-hidden codes controlling what's displayed in the cross-reference.

First off, go ahead and insert the cross-references for each. Then:

Right-click on each cross reference and select Toggle Field Codes
the \h only appears if you're including the chapter number in your figure number
that's a zero, not a letter "o"
Right-click on it again and Toggle Field Codes so it goes back to "Figure X"
Right-click on Figure X and Update Field
The word "Figure" will disappear
Repeat for each of the cross-references you'd like to appear this way
Manually type in the world "Figures" before your figure numbers.

There's not really a way to handle "Figures 5-10"...since figures 6, 7, 8, 9 aren't displayed, so there's nothing to click on if you want to jump to one of those.

Changing "See Figure X" to "See Fig. X"

This gets into some geeky stuff...

When you insert a cross-reference to a figure as we've described above, Word will insert "Figure X". But there may be an expectation in your discipline that parenthetical references like this should refer to "Fig. X". We can't hack Word to get it to automatically do that exactly, but we can get it to leave off the word "Figure", giving us a chance to type in "Fig." ourselves.

After you insert a cross-reference (this is similar to what we talked about in the section above):

Right-click on “Figure #” and choose “Toggle field codes”
Change “\h” to “\# 0 \h”. (The "0" is a zero)
Right-click on the code and choose “update field”
This will leave you with just the figure number by itself
Type “Fig.” before the #

Yes, you'll have to do that with each individual cross-reference.

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How to check citations and references match in a manually prepared document with APA author (year) citations?

I like to use bibliographic software (e.g., Endnote, BibTex, etc.) to manage my references. However, sometimes I am working on an existing article that has been written with APA citations and references written manually. For example, I might be working with a collaborator who has written the first draft or I'm adapting a student thesis for journal publication. As a result, citations get added and deleted, and there are reference errors: (1) citations present with no reference; reference needs to be added (2) references present with not citation; reference needs to be deleted.

So, a common task when such documents are being finalised is to go through the document and pull out all the citations and check them against the reference list and fix any errors. This is generally a frustrating task, because (1) unless you are careful errors can be made, and (2) if the document is edited further, the document may need to be rechecked.

What is an efficient strategy for identifying citations without references and references without citations in a document with author (year) style citations (e.g., APA, Harvard)?
Are there any automated tools that perform this checking?
reference-managers

I would rewrite the document in LaTeX, using BiBTeX and apacite. – JRN Commented Jan 26, 2015 at 10:02

3 Answers 3

In the "old days" this was what had to be done manually. I simply printed the reference list (one-sided print) and went through the text and checked the references I passed in the text and checked the corresponding one in the reference list. This would take maybe 20-30 minutes(?). It is clear that this is easier to do on paper than on screen but it is a very safe way to do the checking. In the end you will (hopefully not) end up with references missing ticks in either the text or the list.

So considering, the time it takes, doing the manual check on paper copies, is perhaps boring but not a terrible loss. Sometimes you pick up on other errors as well. Although one should not rely on external help to solve ones own problems, many journals use copy-editors that check for inconsistencies so there may be a back-up for the stray miss.

As for software, I cannot point at one directly. It would have to be able to match first author name and the year between text and the reference list. I does not sound like an impossible task but I would probably just do the job the manual way in the few cases where this is necessary. You can also ask your collaborator to do a separate initial check (as "punishment" for not using bibliographic software). In addition, if you author in LaTeX then writing the bibliography directly with \bibitem and using \cite (or natbib cite commands) commands will at least do half the job.

Take a look at

www.keytectype.co.uk/keypreps.htm

KeyPreps contains tools for matching citation to references and vice versa for any Word doument. It gives you a report such "The citation Smith 2009 has no corresponding entry in the refernence list" "The reference Bloggs and Layabout (2009) is not cited" etc

30 day free trial available of the complete KeyPreps package

The following online solution is (currently) free: https://reciteworks.com/check

From the website:

Recite checks that your in text citations match the reference list at the end of your work. Recite is optimised for those who use APA or Harvard referencing styles. Recite may be of most use to those who don't use reference management software like Endnote or RefWorks.

Whilst this may theoretically answer the question, it would be preferable to include the essential parts of the answer here, and provide the link for reference. – Anton Menshov Commented Feb 20, 2021 at 17:01

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Why is a cross † used as footnote marker for people?

This not exactly about TeX, but about typography, and the TeX SE is the closest place I think of to ask this question in.

In academic texts, I’ve very often come across a cross (no pun intended; I mean this: † ). It is used as a footnote marker after people’s names, and for a moment, it always makes me think its purpose is to denote that the person has passed away (which is not the case).

Why is this symbol used?

6 Your reasoning is wrong way round. The dagger ( \dag ) looks like a cross, which is probably why it is also used for death. It is just a glyph, used for various things. Other than footnotes, it also appears in mathematical equations from time to time, for instance to denote some type of pseudo-inverse or Hermitian adjoint. However, I can't answer the question why the shape of a dagger specifically is used as a glyph. Note that there is also a double dagger ( \ddag ). More information: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagger_(typography) . – JJM Driessen Commented Sep 19, 2015 at 21:37
1 My guess would be that the dagger symbol is used as a footnote marker due to historic reasons and as you never need it for anything else. – Martin Thoma Commented Sep 20, 2015 at 6:42
2 @JJMDriessen Thanks. When I wrote the question, I didn’t know anything about it, but thought it looks like a cross, and that it was used as a death mark, but also in other contexts. Now, after reading the replies and the wiki articles I know more. – Philipp Commented Sep 20, 2015 at 7:44
3 General typography questions should be asked at Graphic Design instead. (So this should be migrated.) – curiousdannii Commented Sep 20, 2015 at 11:28
1 The dagger can be used to indicate that a person is recently deceased, as in a list of contributors to an edition (in which case it might be taken to mean "the late X" or "X of blessed memory"), and I have seen it used to mark death dates, where the asterisk marks the birth date. – musarithmia Commented Sep 20, 2015 at 20:44

4 Answers 4

It is not a cross, it is a dagger. It is used for footnotes if an asterisk has already been used. See also: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Note_(typography)

2 Interesting! The article also mentions that the dagger is actually (in some cases) used to “indicate death, extinction, or obsolescence.” – Philipp Commented Sep 19, 2015 at 18:04
@Philipp Yes, and the dagger is also called crux philologorum , as it is in some way connected with pain. – Przemysław Scherwentke Commented Sep 19, 2015 at 18:07
1 I’m a fairly new user. Should I edit my question with the right names to make it easier for other people to find the answer? – Philipp Commented Sep 19, 2015 at 18:11
5 @Philipp I think no. As the same source says "While daggers are freely used in English-language texts, they are often avoided in other languages because of their similarity to the Christian cross. In German, for example, daggers are commonly employed only to indicate a person's death or the extinction of a word, language, species or the like.", it is probable, than other users will also search a cross. – Przemysław Scherwentke Commented Sep 19, 2015 at 18:14
3 @PrzemysławScherwentke -- and since the word "dagger" appears in the answer, a search on that word will pull up this question even if the word is not in the question. – barbara beeton Commented Sep 19, 2015 at 18:17

The dagger, which sometimes looks like a cross, has long been used to as a foot- or sidenote. Here's an example from 1582, though the practice is much older than this:

Here's a link to the page on Google Books

As you can see, the dagger is used (here) at a "secondary level" from the main set of glosses, which used suprascript letters. The dagger in this case is to the note on the far right by the editors of this edition of the book to make a comment about different readings for the word Bononiae (= Bologna).

8 Extra thumbs up for the image documentation – daleif Commented Sep 19, 2015 at 18:18
3 @daleif -- Cheers! Reading TeX.SX and old law books pretty much sums up how I like to spend my Saturdays.... It is rare when the two coincide! – jon Commented Sep 19, 2015 at 18:24
7 @daleif -- Well, canon law: The Liber Extra (aka the Decretales ) of Pope Gregory IX, which was published/promulgated back in the 13th century. This edition represents the work of the so-called "Roman Correctors" who "fixed" the deficiencies of the earlier version in a number of ways; it was issued during the reign of Gregory XIII. And it remained in force (for Catholics) until 1917. For Europeans, canon law and Roman law were two chief components of the "ius commune" until the era of national codifications in the modern era (the Napoleonic Code of 1804 was among the first of these). – jon Commented Sep 19, 2015 at 18:36
6 @Sebb -- I suppose the "why" is implicit: the dagger has been used for centuries as a "footnotemark" (to use LaTeX terminology). It was one of many symbols used in this way. Isidore of Seville's Etymologies 1.21 discusses many marks used in late antiquity / early middle ages for textual criticism (not the dagger, however). – jon Commented Sep 20, 2015 at 3:05
2 @moose -- The Bavarian State Library in Munich has an absolutely fantastic collection of digitzed incunabula (= books printed before 1501) and other early printed books. See here (check the highlights!); for example, here's the results for Bartolus of Saxoferrato one of the most influential (and therefore widely printed) of the medieval jurists (he worked on Roman law). Usually you can download a PDF of the scan. – jon Commented Sep 20, 2015 at 15:46

The cross mentioned is not really a cross, essential a cross-looking symbol. It is more precisely, or more generally, called the dagger symbol (\dagger in LaTeX ).

It appears as a variant of the obelus (same root as a pointy obelisk ), a symbol apparently invented and used by Greek scholars (potentially by Zenodotus or Aristarchus ), with many sword-shaped variations:

It was used to mark corrupted, doubtful, interpolated or spurious texts, or even superfluous passages in ancient manuscripts (initially, Homeric epics). Other variants are depicted below, from Characters from the Margins of Ancient Texts :

Asterisks and Obeli: Categories of Usage provides many examples and details, such as in the following picture:

It is composed of an horizontal bar, accompanied by two dots, one above and one below. Its uses and interpretations have varied along time. For instance, the sign has been occasionally used as a subtraction sign in mathematics. It was first used for division by mathematician Johann Rahn in 1659.

It is called dagger or obelisk equally in Henry Beadnell, A guide to typography: In two parts, literary and practical , 1859.

The word obelos ( ὀβελός ) in Greek stands for "spit roast" or "roasting jack". It was meant to roast meat devoted to Gods. Obelisk is its diminutive form (small " obelos "). It may originate from belos ( βελός ), the Greek for arrow , dart, missile.

There is thus a strange weaponry connection (between the dagger and the arrow) behind this typographic sign.

According to my typographic bible, Robert Bringhurst's The Elements of Typographic Style the traditional order for footnote marks is asterisk * , dagger \dag , double dagger \ddag , section \S , parallel $\parallel$ , and paragraph \P . He notes that beyond the double dagger the order is not, and never has been, familiar to most readers.

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$research paper cross reference$

Some cross-references in a research paper, informally Crossword Clue

Some cross references in a research paper informally NYT Crossword Clue Answers are listed below. Did you came up with a solution that did not solve the clue? No worries we keep a close eye on all the clues and update them regularly with the correct answers.

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Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence

Title: crab: cross-environment agent benchmark for multimodal language model agents.

Abstract: The development of autonomous agents increasingly relies on Multimodal Language Models (MLMs) to perform tasks described in natural language with GUI environments, such as websites, desktop computers, or mobile phones. Existing benchmarks for MLM agents in interactive environments are limited by their focus on a single environment, lack of detailed and generalized evaluation methods, and the complexities of constructing tasks and evaluators. To overcome these limitations, we introduce Crab, the first agent benchmark framework designed to support cross-environment tasks, incorporating a graph-based fine-grained evaluation method and an efficient mechanism for task and evaluator construction. Our framework supports multiple devices and can be easily extended to any environment with a Python interface. Leveraging Crab, we developed a cross-platform Crab Benchmark-v0 comprising 100 tasks in computer desktop and mobile phone environments. We evaluated four advanced MLMs using different single and multi-agent system configurations on this benchmark. The experimental results demonstrate that the single agent with GPT-4o achieves the best completion ratio of 35.26%. All framework code, agent code, and task datasets are publicly available at this https URL .

Subjects:	Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI)
Cite as:	[cs.AI]
	(or [cs.AI] for this version)
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2024 July 01

Celebrating five years of Grant IDs: where are we with the Crossref Grant Linking System?

We’re happy to note that this month, we are marking five years since Crossref launched its Grant Linking System. The Grant Linking System (GLS) started life as a joint community effort to create ‘grant identifiers’ and support the needs of funders in the scholarly communications infrastructure. The system includes a funder-designed metadata schema and a unique link for each award which enables connections with millions of research outputs, better reporting on the research and outcomes of funding, and a contribution to open science infrastructure.

2024 June 27

The anatomy of metadata matching

In our previous blog post about metadata matching, we discussed what it is and why we need it (tl;dr: to discover more relationships within the scholarly record). Here, we will describe some basic matching-related terminology and the components of a matching process. We will also pose some typical product questions to consider when developing or integrating matching solutions. Basic terminology Metadata matching is a high-level concept, with many different problems falling into this category.

2024 June 15

Drawing on the Research Nexus with Policy documents: Overton’s use of Crossref API

Update 2024-07-01: This post is based on an interview with Euan Adie, founder and director of Overton._ What is Overton? Overton is a big database of government policy documents, also including sources like intergovernmental organizations, think tanks, and big NGOs and in general anyone who’s trying to influence a government policy maker. What we’re interested in is basically, taking all the good parts of the scholarly record and applying some of that to the policy world.

Measuring Metadata Impacts: Books Discoverability in Google Scholar

Lettie Conrad , Michelle Urberg , Jennifer Kemp – 2023 January 25

In Metadata Books Search

This blog post is from Lettie Conrad and Michelle Urberg, cross-posted from the The Scholarly Kitchen. As sponsors of this project, we at Crossref are excited to see this work shared out. The scholarly publishing community talks a LOT about metadata and the need for high-quality, interoperable, and machine-readable descriptors of the content we disseminate. However, as we’ve reflected on previously in the Kitchen, despite well-established information standards (e.g., persistent identifiers), our industry lacks a shared framework to measure the value and impact of the metadata we produce.

Crossref Metadata Search++

Geoffrey Bilder – 2012 October 11

In Citation Formats Crossref Labs Search

We have just released a bunch of new functionality for Crossref Metadata Search. The tool now supports the following features: A completely new UI Faceted searches Copying of search results as formatted citations using CSL COinS, so that you can easily import results into Zotero and other document management tools An API, so that you can integrate Crossref Metadata Search into your own applications, plugins, etc. Basic OpenSearch support- so that you can integrate Crossref Metadata Search into your browser’s search bar.

OpenSearch/SRU Integration Paper

Tony Hammond – 2010 July 19

In Interoperability Search Standards

Since I’ve already blogged about this a number of times before here, I thought I ought to include a link to a fuller writeup in this month’s D-Lib Magazine of our nature.com OpenSearch service which serves as a case study in OpenSearch and SRU integration: doi:10.1045/july2010-hammond

Search: An Evolution

Tony Hammond – 2010 April 28

(Click image for full size graphic.) I thought I could take this opportunity to demonstrate one evolution path from traditional record-based search to a more contemporary triple-based search. The aim is to show that these two modes of search do not have to be alternative approaches but can co-exist within a single workflow. Let me first mention a couple of terms I’m using here: ‘graphs’ and ‘properties’. I’m using ‘property’ loosely to refer to the individual RDF statement (or triple) containing a property, i.

got SEARCH if you want it!

Tony Hammond – 2009 November 24

[See this link if you’re short on time: facets search client. Only tested on Firefox at this point. Caveat: At time of writing the Crossref Metadata Search was being very slow but was still functional. Previously it was just slow.] Following on from Geoff’s announcement last month of a prototype Crossref Metadata OpenSearch on labs.crossref.org, I wanted to show what typical OpenSearch responses might look like in a more mature implementation.

A Cheatsheet for nature.com OpenSearch

Tony Hammond – 2009 October 22

Following on from my recent post about our shiny new nature.com OpenSearch service we just put up a cheatsheet for users. I’m posting about this here as this may also be of interest especially to those exploring how SRU and OpenSearch intersect. The cheatsheet can be downloaded from our nature.com OpenSearch test page and is available in two forms: Cheatsheet (PDF, 65K) Cheatsheet (PNG, 141K) Naurally, all comments welcome.

nature.com OpenSearch: A Structured Search Service

Tony Hammond – 2009 October 05

(Click panels in figure to read related posts.) Following up on my earlier posts here about the structured search technologies OpenSearch and SRU, I wanted to reference three recent posts on our web publishing blog Nascent which discuss our new nature.com OpenSearch service: 1. Service Describes the new nature.com OpenSearch service which provides a structured resource discovery facility for content hosted on nature.com. 2. Clients Points to a small gallery of demo web clients for nature.

OpenSearch Formats for Review

Tony Hammond – 2009 July 23

In an earlier post I talked about using the PAM (PRISM Aggregator Message) schema for an SRU result set. I have also noted in another post that a Search Web Service could support both SRU and OpenSearch interfaces. This does then beg the question of what a corresponding OpenSearch result set might look like for such a record. Based on the OpenSearch spec and also on a new Atom extension for SRU, I have contrived to show how a PAM record might be returned in a coomon OpenSearch format.

OASIS Drafts of SRU 2.0 and CQL 2.0

Tony Hammond – 2009 July 22

As posted here on the SRU Implementors list, the OASIS Search Web Services Technical Committee has announced the release of drafts of SRU and CQL version 2.0: sru-2-0-draft.doc cql-2-0-draft.doc The Committee is soliciting feedback on these two documents. Comments should be posted to the SRU list by August 13.

Aligning OpenSearch and SRU

Tony Hammond – 2009 June 05

[ Update - 2009.06.07: As pointed out by Todd Carpenter of NISO (see comments below) the phrase “ SRU by contrast is an initiative to update Z39.50 for the Web ” is inaccurate. I should have said “ By contrast SRU is an initiative recognized by ZING (Z39.50 International Next Generation) to bring Z39.50 functionality into the mainstream Web “.]

[ Update - 2009.06.08: Bizarrely I find in mentioning query languages below that I omitted to mention SQL. I don’t know what that means. Probably just that there’s no Web-based API. And that again it’s tied to a particular technology - RDBMS.]

(Click image to enlarge.)

There are two well-known public search APIs for generic Web-based search: OpenSearch and SRU . (Note that the key term here is “generic”, so neither Solr / Lucene nor XQuery really qualify for that slot. Also, I am concentrating here on “classic” query languages rather than on semantic query languages such as SPARQL .)

OpenSearch was created by Amazon’s A9.com and is a cheap and cheerful means to interface to a search service by declaring a template URL and returning a structured XML format. It therefore allows for structured result sets while placing no constraints on the query string. As outlined in my earlier post Search Web Service , there is support for search operation control parameters (pagination, encoding, etc.), but no inroads are made into the query string itself which is regarded as opaque.

SRU by contrast is an initiative to update Z39.50 for the Web and is firmly focussed on structured queries and responses. Specifically a query can be expressed in the high-level query language CQL which is independent of any underlying implementation. Result records are returned using any declared W3C XML Schema format and are transported within a defined XML wrapper format for SRU. (Note that the SRU 2.0 draft provides support for arbitrary result formats based on media type.)

One can summarize the respective OpenSearch and SRU functionalities as in this table:

Structure
query
results
control
diagnostics

What I wanted to discuss here was the OpenSearch and SRU interfaces to a Search Web Service such as outlined in my previous post. The diagram at top of this post shows query forms for OpenSearch and SRU and associated result types. The Search Web Service is taken to be exposing an SRU interface. It might be simplest to walk through each of the cases.

(Continues below.)

««
»»

Rate Cycles

Context. Monetary policy has undergone a remarkable transformation over the past four years. Most central banks have quickly pivoted from aggressively easing monetary policy in 2020 to aggressively tightening it. Amid a series of global shocks, including the COVID-19 pandemic, disruptions in global supply chains, and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, concerns about inflation being too low were quickly replaced by worries about inflation being too high.

Objective. This paper provides the first systematic, cross-country analysis of “rate cycles” in 24 advanced economies over 1970-2024 in order to put today’s monetary policy challenges into context. By combining a new application of business cycle methodology with rich time-series decompositions of the shocks driving rate movements, it analyzes the characteristics of easing and tightening phases; how they have changed over time; how economic growth, employment, and inflation have evolved over these cycles; the extent to which rate cycles have been synchronized globally; and the causes of these cycles. This historical analysis, and particularly the examination of how countries have exited similar, highly synchronized rate cycles, can improve our understanding of the trade-offs currently faced by central banks. Today’s monetary policy cycle in advanced economies is unique from many perspectives, but it also shares some important similarities with cycles from earlier periods.

Differences. The post-pandemic tightening in monetary policy involved the most synchronized period of rate increases over the past 55 years. The transition from actively easing to actively tightening monetary policy was also the fastest pivot in any historical period. Nonetheless, this shift to tightening was still unusually late based on comparisons of the evolution of economic activity, labor markets, and inflation to that at the start of prior tightening episodes. The subsequent tightening phase was the most aggressive by most characteristics since the 1990s, reversing the previous trend of tightening phases becoming more muted over time. Rates have also been held constant at their peaks for longer than has occurred at the end of historical tightening phases. These unusual characteristics of the most recent monetary policy cycle reflect an equally unusual confluence of shocks starting in 2020, combined with a long-term and slow-moving backdrop of interest rates becoming more globalized since 1970. Global shocks explained about 65 percent of the variation in interest rates over 2020-23—much more than the contribution of domestic shocks for the first time. These recent global shocks included very large contributions of global supply and oil price shocks––more than double their contribution during the well-known oil price shocks in the 1970s and 1980s.

Similarities. The aggressive tightening in monetary policy after the pandemic is a reversion to historical tightening phases by most measures after unusually muted tightening phases since 2008. As in the last few years, demand shocks—both global and domestic in origin—explain the lion’s share of the variation in interest rates across most of the sample, particularly during tightening phases. While global shocks have played an increasing role in driving rate cycles since the 1970s and have become dominant since 2020, this primarily reflects a continuation of the increasing significance of global demand shocks.

Implications for monetary policy today.

Even though central banks were slower to start the latest tightening phase of monetary policy than in past cycles (and with the benefit of hindsight), the subsequent aggressive path of rate hikes and unusually long period of holding rates constant at higher levels seems to have caught them up as most macroeconomic variables are now returning to levels (on average across our sample) typical of this stage of a tightening phase.
Any recalibration of interest rates going forward should be gradual, taking into account domestic circumstances and the substantial uncertainty as to whether rate cycles have reverted to pre-2008 patterns. This could involve substantial divergence in when individual economies adjust rates. In the one historical precedent when several economies started easing policy before the United States following a period of a highly synchronized global tightening, there was substantial divergence in when economies began cutting rates, with the timing of rate cuts correlated with inflation rates.
Although central bank mandates focus on domestic inflation, monetary policy decisions are likely to increasingly be influenced by global shocks. While the global shocks behind the recent swings in inflation and monetary policy were unprecedented, this is against a backdrop of a greater globalization in policy rates over time. This is unlikely to change. Policy interest rates can—and should—still diverge to reflect domestic economic conditions, but this divergence will be around a larger, shared global component.
This increased global component in monetary policy does not necessarily imply that central banks will be responding more to global supply shocks (including oil and other commodity shocks). Instead, global shocks will likely continue to be predominantly demand shocks—as occurred during the ongoing interest rate cycle. Correctly identifying the components of global shocks that are demand versus supply is important as this decomposition could imply different monetary policy responses—with supply shocks generally requiring a more muted response (albeit subject to the characteristics of the shock and state of the economy). It is possible that overestimating the supply component of the post-2021 global shocks resulted in a slower-than-optimal response to the post-pandemic inflation. Granted, identifying global supply and demand shocks in real time is challenging, especially during periods of heightened macroeconomic volatility. Improving our ability to accurately identify these global demand and supply shocks will be increasingly crucial, however, as international factors are likely to continue to play an outsized role in the determinants of interest rates and inflation.

Please use the following when citing this paper: Forbes, Kristin, Jongrim Ha, and M. Ayhan Kose (2024). “Rate Cycles.” World Bank Working Paper, World Bank, Washington, DC.

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in the working paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank and its affiliated organizations.

Full paper (PDF)

For more information, please contact Jongrim Ha ([email protected]).

Related Studies

Show More +
Inflation Expectations: Review and Evidence (March 2019)
A Decade After the Global Recession: Lessons and Challenges for Emerging and Developing Economies (2019)
Inflation in Emerging and Developing Economies (October 2018)
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Measuring Metadata Impacts: Books Discoverability in Google Scholar

Crossref Metadata Search++

OpenSearch/SRU Integration Paper

Search: An Evolution

got SEARCH if you want it!

A Cheatsheet for nature.com OpenSearch

nature.com OpenSearch: A Structured Search Service

OpenSearch Formats for Review

OASIS Drafts of SRU 2.0 and CQL 2.0

Aligning OpenSearch and SRU