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Research Article

Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a new semantic indicator

Contributed equally to this work with: Paola Belingheri, Filippo Chiarello, Andrea Fronzetti Colladon, Paola Rovelli

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Energia, dei Sistemi, del Territorio e delle Costruzioni, Università degli Studi di Pisa, Largo L. Lazzarino, Pisa, Italy

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy, Department of Management, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Faculty of Economics and Management, Centre for Family Business Management, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bozen-Bolzano, Italy

• Paola Belingheri, 
• Filippo Chiarello, 
• Andrea Fronzetti Colladon, 
• Paola Rovelli

• Published: September 21, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474
• Reader Comments

9 Nov 2021: The PLOS ONE Staff (2021) Correction: Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a new semantic indicator. PLOS ONE 16(11): e0259930. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259930 View correction

Gender equality is a major problem that places women at a disadvantage thereby stymieing economic growth and societal advancement. In the last two decades, extensive research has been conducted on gender related issues, studying both their antecedents and consequences. However, existing literature reviews fail to provide a comprehensive and clear picture of what has been studied so far, which could guide scholars in their future research. Our paper offers a scoping review of a large portion of the research that has been published over the last 22 years, on gender equality and related issues, with a specific focus on business and economics studies. Combining innovative methods drawn from both network analysis and text mining, we provide a synthesis of 15,465 scientific articles. We identify 27 main research topics, we measure their relevance from a semantic point of view and the relationships among them, highlighting the importance of each topic in the overall gender discourse. We find that prominent research topics mostly relate to women in the workforce–e.g., concerning compensation, role, education, decision-making and career progression. However, some of them are losing momentum, and some other research trends–for example related to female entrepreneurship, leadership and participation in the board of directors–are on the rise. Besides introducing a novel methodology to review broad literature streams, our paper offers a map of the main gender-research trends and presents the most popular and the emerging themes, as well as their intersections, outlining important avenues for future research.

Citation: Belingheri P, Chiarello F, Fronzetti Colladon A, Rovelli P (2021) Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a new semantic indicator. PLoS ONE 16(9): e0256474. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474

Editor: Elisa Ughetto, Politecnico di Torino, ITALY

Received: June 25, 2021; Accepted: August 6, 2021; Published: September 21, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Belingheri et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its supporting information files. The only exception is the text of the abstracts (over 15,000) that we have downloaded from Scopus. These abstracts can be retrieved from Scopus, but we do not have permission to redistribute them.

Funding: P.B and F.C.: Grant of the Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Construction of the University of Pisa (DESTEC) for the project “Measuring Gender Bias with Semantic Analysis: The Development of an Assessment Tool and its Application in the European Space Industry. P.B., F.C., A.F.C., P.R.: Grant of the Italian Association of Management Engineering (AiIG), “Misure di sostegno ai soci giovani AiIG” 2020, for the project “Gender Equality Through Data Intelligence (GEDI)”. F.C.: EU project ASSETs+ Project (Alliance for Strategic Skills addressing Emerging Technologies in Defence) EAC/A03/2018 - Erasmus+ programme, Sector Skills Alliances, Lot 3: Sector Skills Alliance for implementing a new strategic approach (Blueprint) to sectoral cooperation on skills G.A. NUMBER: 612678-EPP-1-2019-1-IT-EPPKA2-SSA-B.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The persistent gender inequalities that currently exist across the developed and developing world are receiving increasing attention from economists, policymakers, and the general public [e.g., 1 – 3 ]. Economic studies have indicated that women’s education and entry into the workforce contributes to social and economic well-being [e.g., 4 , 5 ], while their exclusion from the labor market and from managerial positions has an impact on overall labor productivity and income per capita [ 6 , 7 ]. The United Nations selected gender equality, with an emphasis on female education, as part of the Millennium Development Goals [ 8 ], and gender equality at-large as one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be achieved by 2030 [ 9 ]. These latter objectives involve not only developing nations, but rather all countries, to achieve economic, social and environmental well-being.

As is the case with many SDGs, gender equality is still far from being achieved and persists across education, access to opportunities, or presence in decision-making positions [ 7 , 10 , 11 ]. As we enter the last decade for the SDGs’ implementation, and while we are battling a global health pandemic, effective and efficient action becomes paramount to reach this ambitious goal.

Scholars have dedicated a massive effort towards understanding gender equality, its determinants, its consequences for women and society, and the appropriate actions and policies to advance women’s equality. Many topics have been covered, ranging from women’s education and human capital [ 12 , 13 ] and their role in society [e.g., 14 , 15 ], to their appointment in firms’ top ranked positions [e.g., 16 , 17 ] and performance implications [e.g., 18 , 19 ]. Despite some attempts, extant literature reviews provide a narrow view on these issues, restricted to specific topics–e.g., female students’ presence in STEM fields [ 20 ], educational gender inequality [ 5 ], the gender pay gap [ 21 ], the glass ceiling effect [ 22 ], leadership [ 23 ], entrepreneurship [ 24 ], women’s presence on the board of directors [ 25 , 26 ], diversity management [ 27 ], gender stereotypes in advertisement [ 28 ], or specific professions [ 29 ]. A comprehensive view on gender-related research, taking stock of key findings and under-studied topics is thus lacking.

Extant literature has also highlighted that gender issues, and their economic and social ramifications, are complex topics that involve a large number of possible antecedents and outcomes [ 7 ]. Indeed, gender equality actions are most effective when implemented in unison with other SDGs (e.g., with SDG 8, see [ 30 ]) in a synergetic perspective [ 10 ]. Many bodies of literature (e.g., business, economics, development studies, sociology and psychology) approach the problem of achieving gender equality from different perspectives–often addressing specific and narrow aspects. This sometimes leads to a lack of clarity about how different issues, circumstances, and solutions may be related in precipitating or mitigating gender inequality or its effects. As the number of papers grows at an increasing pace, this issue is exacerbated and there is a need to step back and survey the body of gender equality literature as a whole. There is also a need to examine synergies between different topics and approaches, as well as gaps in our understanding of how different problems and solutions work together. Considering the important topic of women’s economic and social empowerment, this paper aims to fill this gap by answering the following research question: what are the most relevant findings in the literature on gender equality and how do they relate to each other ?

To do so, we conduct a scoping review [ 31 ], providing a synthesis of 15,465 articles dealing with gender equity related issues published in the last twenty-two years, covering both the periods of the MDGs and the SDGs (i.e., 2000 to mid 2021) in all the journals indexed in the Academic Journal Guide’s 2018 ranking of business and economics journals. Given the huge amount of research conducted on the topic, we adopt an innovative methodology, which relies on social network analysis and text mining. These techniques are increasingly adopted when surveying large bodies of text. Recently, they were applied to perform analysis of online gender communication differences [ 32 ] and gender behaviors in online technology communities [ 33 ], to identify and classify sexual harassment instances in academia [ 34 ], and to evaluate the gender inclusivity of disaster management policies [ 35 ].

Applied to the title, abstracts and keywords of the articles in our sample, this methodology allows us to identify a set of 27 recurrent topics within which we automatically classify the papers. Introducing additional novelty, by means of the Semantic Brand Score (SBS) indicator [ 36 ] and the SBS BI app [ 37 ], we assess the importance of each topic in the overall gender equality discourse and its relationships with the other topics, as well as trends over time, with a more accurate description than that offered by traditional literature reviews relying solely on the number of papers presented in each topic.

This methodology, applied to gender equality research spanning the past twenty-two years, enables two key contributions. First, we extract the main message that each document is conveying and how this is connected to other themes in literature, providing a rich picture of the topics that are at the center of the discourse, as well as of the emerging topics. Second, by examining the semantic relationship between topics and how tightly their discourses are linked, we can identify the key relationships and connections between different topics. This semi-automatic methodology is also highly reproducible with minimum effort.

This literature review is organized as follows. In the next section, we present how we selected relevant papers and how we analyzed them through text mining and social network analysis. We then illustrate the importance of 27 selected research topics, measured by means of the SBS indicator. In the results section, we present an overview of the literature based on the SBS results–followed by an in-depth narrative analysis of the top 10 topics (i.e., those with the highest SBS) and their connections. Subsequently, we highlight a series of under-studied connections between the topics where there is potential for future research. Through this analysis, we build a map of the main gender-research trends in the last twenty-two years–presenting the most popular themes. We conclude by highlighting key areas on which research should focused in the future.

Our aim is to map a broad topic, gender equality research, that has been approached through a host of different angles and through different disciplines. Scoping reviews are the most appropriate as they provide the freedom to map different themes and identify literature gaps, thereby guiding the recommendation of new research agendas [ 38 ].

Several practical approaches have been proposed to identify and assess the underlying topics of a specific field using big data [ 39 – 41 ], but many of them fail without proper paper retrieval and text preprocessing. This is specifically true for a research field such as the gender-related one, which comprises the work of scholars from different backgrounds. In this section, we illustrate a novel approach for the analysis of scientific (gender-related) papers that relies on methods and tools of social network analysis and text mining. Our procedure has four main steps: (1) data collection, (2) text preprocessing, (3) keywords extraction and classification, and (4) evaluation of semantic importance and image.

Data collection

In this study, we analyze 22 years of literature on gender-related research. Following established practice for scoping reviews [ 42 ], our data collection consisted of two main steps, which we summarize here below.

Firstly, we retrieved from the Scopus database all the articles written in English that contained the term “gender” in their title, abstract or keywords and were published in a journal listed in the Academic Journal Guide 2018 ranking of the Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS) ( https://charteredabs.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/AJG2018-Methodology.pdf ), considering the time period from Jan 2000 to May 2021. We used this information considering that abstracts, titles and keywords represent the most informative part of a paper, while using the full-text would increase the signal-to-noise ratio for information extraction. Indeed, these textual elements already demonstrated to be reliable sources of information for the task of domain lexicon extraction [ 43 , 44 ]. We chose Scopus as source of literature because of its popularity, its update rate, and because it offers an API to ease the querying process. Indeed, while it does not allow to retrieve the full text of scientific articles, the Scopus API offers access to titles, abstracts, citation information and metadata for all its indexed scholarly journals. Moreover, we decided to focus on the journals listed in the AJG 2018 ranking because we were interested in reviewing business and economics related gender studies only. The AJG is indeed widely used by universities and business schools as a reference point for journal and research rigor and quality. This first step, executed in June 2021, returned more than 55,000 papers.

In the second step–because a look at the papers showed very sparse results, many of which were not in line with the topic of this literature review (e.g., papers dealing with health care or medical issues, where the word gender indicates the gender of the patients)–we applied further inclusion criteria to make the sample more focused on the topic of this literature review (i.e., women’s gender equality issues). Specifically, we only retained those papers mentioning, in their title and/or abstract, both gender-related keywords (e.g., daughter, female, mother) and keywords referring to bias and equality issues (e.g., equality, bias, diversity, inclusion). After text pre-processing (see next section), keywords were first identified from a frequency-weighted list of words found in the titles, abstracts and keywords in the initial list of papers, extracted through text mining (following the same approach as [ 43 ]). They were selected by two of the co-authors independently, following respectively a bottom up and a top-down approach. The bottom-up approach consisted of examining the words found in the frequency-weighted list and classifying those related to gender and equality. The top-down approach consisted in searching in the word list for notable gender and equality-related words. Table 1 reports the sets of keywords we considered, together with some examples of words that were used to search for their presence in the dataset (a full list is provided in the S1 Text ). At end of this second step, we obtained a final sample of 15,465 relevant papers.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.t001

Text processing and keyword extraction

Text preprocessing aims at structuring text into a form that can be analyzed by statistical models. In the present section, we describe the preprocessing steps we applied to paper titles and abstracts, which, as explained below, partially follow a standard text preprocessing pipeline [ 45 ]. These activities have been performed using the R package udpipe [ 46 ].

The first step is n-gram extraction (i.e., a sequence of words from a given text sample) to identify which n-grams are important in the analysis, since domain-specific lexicons are often composed by bi-grams and tri-grams [ 47 ]. Multi-word extraction is usually implemented with statistics and linguistic rules, thus using the statistical properties of n-grams or machine learning approaches [ 48 ]. However, for the present paper, we used Scopus metadata in order to have a more effective and efficient n-grams collection approach [ 49 ]. We used the keywords of each paper in order to tag n-grams with their associated keywords automatically. Using this greedy approach, it was possible to collect all the keywords listed by the authors of the papers. From this list, we extracted only keywords composed by two, three and four words, we removed all the acronyms and rare keywords (i.e., appearing in less than 1% of papers), and we clustered keywords showing a high orthographic similarity–measured using a Levenshtein distance [ 50 ] lower than 2, considering these groups of keywords as representing same concepts, but expressed with different spelling. After tagging the n-grams in the abstracts, we followed a common data preparation pipeline that consists of the following steps: (i) tokenization, that splits the text into tokens (i.e., single words and previously tagged multi-words); (ii) removal of stop-words (i.e. those words that add little meaning to the text, usually being very common and short functional words–such as “and”, “or”, or “of”); (iii) parts-of-speech tagging, that is providing information concerning the morphological role of a word and its morphosyntactic context (e.g., if the token is a determiner, the next token is a noun or an adjective with very high confidence, [ 51 ]); and (iv) lemmatization, which consists in substituting each word with its dictionary form (or lemma). The output of the latter step allows grouping together the inflected forms of a word. For example, the verbs “am”, “are”, and “is” have the shared lemma “be”, or the nouns “cat” and “cats” both share the lemma “cat”. We preferred lemmatization over stemming [ 52 ] in order to obtain more interpretable results.

In addition, we identified a further set of keywords (with respect to those listed in the “keywords” field) by applying a series of automatic words unification and removal steps, as suggested in past research [ 53 , 54 ]. We removed: sparse terms (i.e., occurring in less than 0.1% of all documents), common terms (i.e., occurring in more than 10% of all documents) and retained only nouns and adjectives. It is relevant to notice that no document was lost due to these steps. We then used the TF-IDF function [ 55 ] to produce a new list of keywords. We additionally tested other approaches for the identification and clustering of keywords–such as TextRank [ 56 ] or Latent Dirichlet Allocation [ 57 ]–without obtaining more informative results.

Classification of research topics

To guide the literature analysis, two experts met regularly to examine the sample of collected papers and to identify the main topics and trends in gender research. Initially, they conducted brainstorming sessions on the topics they expected to find, due to their knowledge of the literature. This led to an initial list of topics. Subsequently, the experts worked independently, also supported by the keywords in paper titles and abstracts extracted with the procedure described above.

Considering all this information, each expert identified and clustered relevant keywords into topics. At the end of the process, the two assignments were compared and exhibited a 92% agreement. Another meeting was held to discuss discordant cases and reach a consensus. This resulted in a list of 27 topics, briefly introduced in Table 2 and subsequently detailed in the following sections.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.t002

Evaluation of semantic importance

Working on the lemmatized corpus of the 15,465 papers included in our sample, we proceeded with the evaluation of semantic importance trends for each topic and with the analysis of their connections and prevalent textual associations. To this aim, we used the Semantic Brand Score indicator [ 36 ], calculated through the SBS BI webapp [ 37 ] that also produced a brand image report for each topic. For this study we relied on the computing resources of the ENEA/CRESCO infrastructure [ 58 ].

The Semantic Brand Score (SBS) is a measure of semantic importance that combines methods of social network analysis and text mining. It is usually applied for the analysis of (big) textual data to evaluate the importance of one or more brands, names, words, or sets of keywords [ 36 ]. Indeed, the concept of “brand” is intended in a flexible way and goes beyond products or commercial brands. In this study, we evaluate the SBS time-trends of the keywords defining the research topics discussed in the previous section. Semantic importance comprises the three dimensions of topic prevalence, diversity and connectivity. Prevalence measures how frequently a research topic is used in the discourse. The more a topic is mentioned by scientific articles, the more the research community will be aware of it, with possible increase of future studies; this construct is partly related to that of brand awareness [ 59 ]. This effect is even stronger, considering that we are analyzing the title, abstract and keywords of the papers, i.e. the parts that have the highest visibility. A very important characteristic of the SBS is that it considers the relationships among words in a text. Topic importance is not just a matter of how frequently a topic is mentioned, but also of the associations a topic has in the text. Specifically, texts are transformed into networks of co-occurring words, and relationships are studied through social network analysis [ 60 ]. This step is necessary to calculate the other two dimensions of our semantic importance indicator. Accordingly, a social network of words is generated for each time period considered in the analysis–i.e., a graph made of n nodes (words) and E edges weighted by co-occurrence frequency, with W being the set of edge weights. The keywords representing each topic were clustered into single nodes.

The construct of diversity relates to that of brand image [ 59 ], in the sense that it considers the richness and distinctiveness of textual (topic) associations. Considering the above-mentioned networks, we calculated diversity using the distinctiveness centrality metric–as in the formula presented by Fronzetti Colladon and Naldi [ 61 ].

Lastly, connectivity was measured as the weighted betweenness centrality [ 62 , 63 ] of each research topic node. We used the formula presented by Wasserman and Faust [ 60 ]. The dimension of connectivity represents the “brokerage power” of each research topic–i.e., how much it can serve as a bridge to connect other terms (and ultimately topics) in the discourse [ 36 ].

The SBS is the final composite indicator obtained by summing the standardized scores of prevalence, diversity and connectivity. Standardization was carried out considering all the words in the corpus, for each specific timeframe.

This methodology, applied to a large and heterogeneous body of text, enables to automatically identify two important sets of information that add value to the literature review. Firstly, the relevance of each topic in literature is measured through a composite indicator of semantic importance, rather than simply looking at word frequencies. This provides a much richer picture of the topics that are at the center of the discourse, as well as of the topics that are emerging in the literature. Secondly, it enables to examine the extent of the semantic relationship between topics, looking at how tightly their discourses are linked. In a field such as gender equality, where many topics are closely linked to each other and present overlaps in issues and solutions, this methodology offers a novel perspective with respect to traditional literature reviews. In addition, it ensures reproducibility over time and the possibility to semi-automatically update the analysis, as new papers become available.

Overview of main topics

In terms of descriptive textual statistics, our corpus is made of 15,465 text documents, consisting of a total of 2,685,893 lemmatized tokens (words) and 32,279 types. As a result, the type-token ratio is 1.2%. The number of hapaxes is 12,141, with a hapax-token ratio of 37.61%.

Fig 1 shows the list of 27 topics by decreasing SBS. The most researched topic is compensation , exceeding all others in prevalence, diversity, and connectivity. This means it is not only mentioned more often than other topics, but it is also connected to a greater number of other topics and is central to the discourse on gender equality. The next four topics are, in order of SBS, role , education , decision-making , and career progression . These topics, except for education , all concern women in the workforce. Between these first five topics and the following ones there is a clear drop in SBS scores. In particular, the topics that follow have a lower connectivity than the first five. They are hiring , performance , behavior , organization , and human capital . Again, except for behavior and human capital , the other three topics are purely related to women in the workforce. After another drop-off, the following topics deal prevalently with women in society. This trend highlights that research on gender in business journals has so far mainly paid attention to the conditions that women experience in business contexts, while also devoting some attention to women in society.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.g001

Fig 2 shows the SBS time series of the top 10 topics. While there has been a general increase in the number of Scopus-indexed publications in the last decade, we notice that some SBS trends remain steady, or even decrease. In particular, we observe that the main topic of the last twenty-two years, compensation , is losing momentum. Since 2016, it has been surpassed by decision-making , education and role , which may indicate that literature is increasingly attempting to identify root causes of compensation inequalities. Moreover, in the last two years, the topics of hiring , performance , and organization are experiencing the largest importance increase.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.g002

Fig 3 shows the SBS time trends of the remaining 17 topics (i.e., those not in the top 10). As we can see from the graph, there are some that maintain a steady trend–such as reputation , management , networks and governance , which also seem to have little importance. More relevant topics with average stationary trends (except for the last two years) are culture , family , and parenting . The feminine topic is among the most important here, and one of those that exhibit the larger variations over time (similarly to leadership ). On the other hand, the are some topics that, even if not among the most important, show increasing SBS trends; therefore, they could be considered as emerging topics and could become popular in the near future. These are entrepreneurship , leadership , board of directors , and sustainability . These emerging topics are also interesting to anticipate future trends in gender equality research that are conducive to overall equality in society.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.g003

In addition to the SBS score of the different topics, the network of terms they are associated to enables to gauge the extent to which their images (textual associations) overlap or differ ( Fig 4 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.g004

There is a central cluster of topics with high similarity, which are all connected with women in the workforce. The cluster includes topics such as organization , decision-making , performance , hiring , human capital , education and compensation . In addition, the topic of well-being is found within this cluster, suggesting that women’s equality in the workforce is associated to well-being considerations. The emerging topics of entrepreneurship and leadership are also closely connected with each other, possibly implying that leadership is a much-researched quality in female entrepreneurship. Topics that are relatively more distant include personality , politics , feminine , empowerment , management , board of directors , reputation , governance , parenting , masculine and network .

The following sections describe the top 10 topics and their main associations in literature (see Table 3 ), while providing a brief overview of the emerging topics.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.t003

Compensation.

The topic of compensation is related to the topics of role , hiring , education and career progression , however, also sees a very high association with the words gap and inequality . Indeed, a well-known debate in degrowth economics centers around whether and how to adequately compensate women for their childbearing, childrearing, caregiver and household work [e.g., 30 ].

Even in paid work, women continue being offered lower compensations than their male counterparts who have the same job or cover the same role [ 64 – 67 ]. This severe inequality has been widely studied by scholars over the last twenty-two years. Dealing with this topic, some specific roles have been addressed. Specifically, research highlighted differences in compensation between female and male CEOs [e.g., 68 ], top executives [e.g., 69 ], and boards’ directors [e.g., 70 ]. Scholars investigated the determinants of these gaps, such as the gender composition of the board [e.g., 71 – 73 ] or women’s individual characteristics [e.g., 71 , 74 ].

Among these individual characteristics, education plays a relevant role [ 75 ]. Education is indeed presented as the solution for women, not only to achieve top executive roles, but also to reduce wage inequality [e.g., 76 , 77 ]. Past research has highlighted education influences on gender wage gaps, specifically referring to gender differences in skills [e.g., 78 ], college majors [e.g., 79 ], and college selectivity [e.g., 80 ].

Finally, the wage gap issue is strictly interrelated with hiring –e.g., looking at whether being a mother affects hiring and compensation [e.g., 65 , 81 ] or relating compensation to unemployment [e.g., 82 ]–and career progression –for instance looking at meritocracy [ 83 , 84 ] or the characteristics of the boss for whom women work [e.g., 85 ].

The roles covered by women have been deeply investigated. Scholars have focused on the role of women in their families and the society as a whole [e.g., 14 , 15 ], and, more widely, in business contexts [e.g., 18 , 81 ]. Indeed, despite still lagging behind their male counterparts [e.g., 86 , 87 ], in the last decade there has been an increase in top ranked positions achieved by women [e.g., 88 , 89 ]. Following this phenomenon, scholars have posed greater attention towards the presence of women in the board of directors [e.g., 16 , 18 , 90 , 91 ], given the increasing pressure to appoint female directors that firms, especially listed ones, have experienced. Other scholars have focused on the presence of women covering the role of CEO [e.g., 17 , 92 ] or being part of the top management team [e.g., 93 ]. Irrespectively of the level of analysis, all these studies tried to uncover the antecedents of women’s presence among top managers [e.g., 92 , 94 ] and the consequences of having a them involved in the firm’s decision-making –e.g., on performance [e.g., 19 , 95 , 96 ], risk [e.g., 97 , 98 ], and corporate social responsibility [e.g., 99 , 100 ].

Besides studying the difficulties and discriminations faced by women in getting a job [ 81 , 101 ], and, more specifically in the hiring , appointment, or career progression to these apical roles [e.g., 70 , 83 ], the majority of research of women’s roles dealt with compensation issues. Specifically, scholars highlight the pay-gap that still exists between women and men, both in general [e.g., 64 , 65 ], as well as referring to boards’ directors [e.g., 70 , 102 ], CEOs and executives [e.g., 69 , 103 , 104 ].

Finally, other scholars focused on the behavior of women when dealing with business. In this sense, particular attention has been paid to leadership and entrepreneurial behaviors. The former quite overlaps with dealing with the roles mentioned above, but also includes aspects such as leaders being stereotyped as masculine [e.g., 105 ], the need for greater exposure to female leaders to reduce biases [e.g., 106 ], or female leaders acting as queen bees [e.g., 107 ]. Regarding entrepreneurship , scholars mainly investigated women’s entrepreneurial entry [e.g., 108 , 109 ], differences between female and male entrepreneurs in the evaluations and funding received from investors [e.g., 110 , 111 ], and their performance gap [e.g., 112 , 113 ].

Education has long been recognized as key to social advancement and economic stability [ 114 ], for job progression and also a barrier to gender equality, especially in STEM-related fields. Research on education and gender equality is mostly linked with the topics of compensation , human capital , career progression , hiring , parenting and decision-making .

Education contributes to a higher human capital [ 115 ] and constitutes an investment on the part of women towards their future. In this context, literature points to the gender gap in educational attainment, and the consequences for women from a social, economic, personal and professional standpoint. Women are found to have less access to formal education and information, especially in emerging countries, which in turn may cause them to lose social and economic opportunities [e.g., 12 , 116 – 119 ]. Education in local and rural communities is also paramount to communicate the benefits of female empowerment , contributing to overall societal well-being [e.g., 120 ].

Once women access education, the image they have of the world and their place in society (i.e., habitus) affects their education performance [ 13 ] and is passed on to their children. These situations reinforce gender stereotypes, which become self-fulfilling prophecies that may negatively affect female students’ performance by lowering their confidence and heightening their anxiety [ 121 , 122 ]. Besides formal education, also the information that women are exposed to on a daily basis contributes to their human capital . Digital inequalities, for instance, stems from men spending more time online and acquiring higher digital skills than women [ 123 ].

Education is also a factor that should boost employability of candidates and thus hiring , career progression and compensation , however the relationship between these factors is not straightforward [ 115 ]. First, educational choices ( decision-making ) are influenced by variables such as self-efficacy and the presence of barriers, irrespectively of the career opportunities they offer, especially in STEM [ 124 ]. This brings additional difficulties to women’s enrollment and persistence in scientific and technical fields of study due to stereotypes and biases [ 125 , 126 ]. Moreover, access to education does not automatically translate into job opportunities for women and minority groups [ 127 , 128 ] or into female access to managerial positions [ 129 ].

Finally, parenting is reported as an antecedent of education [e.g., 130 ], with much of the literature focusing on the role of parents’ education on the opportunities afforded to children to enroll in education [ 131 – 134 ] and the role of parenting in their offspring’s perception of study fields and attitudes towards learning [ 135 – 138 ]. Parental education is also a predictor of the other related topics, namely human capital and compensation [ 139 ].

Decision-making.

This literature mainly points to the fact that women are thought to make decisions differently than men. Women have indeed different priorities, such as they care more about people’s well-being, working with people or helping others, rather than maximizing their personal (or their firm’s) gain [ 140 ]. In other words, women typically present more communal than agentic behaviors, which are instead more frequent among men [ 141 ]. These different attitude, behavior and preferences in turn affect the decisions they make [e.g., 142 ] and the decision-making of the firm in which they work [e.g., 143 ].

At the individual level, gender affects, for instance, career aspirations [e.g., 144 ] and choices [e.g., 142 , 145 ], or the decision of creating a venture [e.g., 108 , 109 , 146 ]. Moreover, in everyday life, women and men make different decisions regarding partners [e.g., 147 ], childcare [e.g., 148 ], education [e.g., 149 ], attention to the environment [e.g., 150 ] and politics [e.g., 151 ].

At the firm level, scholars highlighted, for example, how the presence of women in the board affects corporate decisions [e.g., 152 , 153 ], that female CEOs are more conservative in accounting decisions [e.g., 154 ], or that female CFOs tend to make more conservative decisions regarding the firm’s financial reporting [e.g., 155 ]. Nevertheless, firm level research also investigated decisions that, influenced by gender bias, affect women, such as those pertaining hiring [e.g., 156 , 157 ], compensation [e.g., 73 , 158 ], or the empowerment of women once appointed [ 159 ].

Career progression.

Once women have entered the workforce, the key aspect to achieve gender equality becomes career progression , including efforts toward overcoming the glass ceiling. Indeed, according to the SBS analysis, career progression is highly related to words such as work, social issues and equality. The topic with which it has the highest semantic overlap is role , followed by decision-making , hiring , education , compensation , leadership , human capital , and family .

Career progression implies an advancement in the hierarchical ladder of the firm, assigning managerial roles to women. Coherently, much of the literature has focused on identifying rationales for a greater female participation in the top management team and board of directors [e.g., 95 ] as well as the best criteria to ensure that the decision-makers promote the most valuable employees irrespectively of their individual characteristics, such as gender [e.g., 84 ]. The link between career progression , role and compensation is often provided in practice by performance appraisal exercises, frequently rooted in a culture of meritocracy that guides bonuses, salary increases and promotions. However, performance appraisals can actually mask gender-biased decisions where women are held to higher standards than their male colleagues [e.g., 83 , 84 , 95 , 160 , 161 ]. Women often have less opportunities to gain leadership experience and are less visible than their male colleagues, which constitute barriers to career advancement [e.g., 162 ]. Therefore, transparency and accountability, together with procedures that discourage discretionary choices, are paramount to achieve a fair career progression [e.g., 84 ], together with the relaxation of strict job boundaries in favor of cross-functional and self-directed tasks [e.g., 163 ].

In addition, a series of stereotypes about the type of leadership characteristics that are required for top management positions, which fit better with typical male and agentic attributes, are another key barrier to career advancement for women [e.g., 92 , 160 ].

Hiring is the entrance gateway for women into the workforce. Therefore, it is related to other workforce topics such as compensation , role , career progression , decision-making , human capital , performance , organization and education .

A first stream of literature focuses on the process leading up to candidates’ job applications, demonstrating that bias exists before positions are even opened, and it is perpetuated both by men and women through networking and gatekeeping practices [e.g., 164 , 165 ].

The hiring process itself is also subject to biases [ 166 ], for example gender-congruity bias that leads to men being preferred candidates in male-dominated sectors [e.g., 167 ], women being hired in positions with higher risk of failure [e.g., 168 ] and limited transparency and accountability afforded by written processes and procedures [e.g., 164 ] that all contribute to ascriptive inequality. In addition, providing incentives for evaluators to hire women may actually work to this end; however, this is not the case when supporting female candidates endangers higher-ranking male ones [ 169 ].

Another interesting perspective, instead, looks at top management teams’ composition and the effects on hiring practices, indicating that firms with more women in top management are less likely to lay off staff [e.g., 152 ].

Performance.

Several scholars posed their attention towards women’s performance, its consequences [e.g., 170 , 171 ] and the implications of having women in decision-making positions [e.g., 18 , 19 ].

At the individual level, research focused on differences in educational and academic performance between women and men, especially referring to the gender gap in STEM fields [e.g., 171 ]. The presence of stereotype threats–that is the expectation that the members of a social group (e.g., women) “must deal with the possibility of being judged or treated stereotypically, or of doing something that would confirm the stereotype” [ 172 ]–affects women’s interested in STEM [e.g., 173 ], as well as their cognitive ability tests, penalizing them [e.g., 174 ]. A stronger gender identification enhances this gap [e.g., 175 ], whereas mentoring and role models can be used as solutions to this problem [e.g., 121 ]. Despite the negative effect of stereotype threats on girls’ performance [ 176 ], female and male students perform equally in mathematics and related subjects [e.g., 177 ]. Moreover, while individuals’ performance at school and university generally affects their achievements and the field in which they end up working, evidence reveals that performance in math or other scientific subjects does not explain why fewer women enter STEM working fields; rather this gap depends on other aspects, such as culture, past working experiences, or self-efficacy [e.g., 170 ]. Finally, scholars have highlighted the penalization that women face for their positive performance, for instance when they succeed in traditionally male areas [e.g., 178 ]. This penalization is explained by the violation of gender-stereotypic prescriptions [e.g., 179 , 180 ], that is having women well performing in agentic areas, which are typical associated to men. Performance penalization can thus be overcome by clearly conveying communal characteristics and behaviors [ 178 ].

Evidence has been provided on how the involvement of women in boards of directors and decision-making positions affects firms’ performance. Nevertheless, results are mixed, with some studies showing positive effects on financial [ 19 , 181 , 182 ] and corporate social performance [ 99 , 182 , 183 ]. Other studies maintain a negative association [e.g., 18 ], and other again mixed [e.g., 184 ] or non-significant association [e.g., 185 ]. Also with respect to the presence of a female CEO, mixed results emerged so far, with some researches demonstrating a positive effect on firm’s performance [e.g., 96 , 186 ], while other obtaining only a limited evidence of this relationship [e.g., 103 ] or a negative one [e.g., 187 ].

Finally, some studies have investigated whether and how women’s performance affects their hiring [e.g., 101 ] and career progression [e.g., 83 , 160 ]. For instance, academic performance leads to different returns in hiring for women and men. Specifically, high-achieving men are called back significantly more often than high-achieving women, which are penalized when they have a major in mathematics; this result depends on employers’ gendered standards for applicants [e.g., 101 ]. Once appointed, performance ratings are more strongly related to promotions for women than men, and promoted women typically show higher past performance ratings than those of promoted men. This suggesting that women are subject to stricter standards for promotion [e.g., 160 ].

Behavioral aspects related to gender follow two main streams of literature. The first examines female personality and behavior in the workplace, and their alignment with cultural expectations or stereotypes [e.g., 188 ] as well as their impacts on equality. There is a common bias that depicts women as less agentic than males. Certain characteristics, such as those more congruent with male behaviors–e.g., self-promotion [e.g., 189 ], negotiation skills [e.g., 190 ] and general agentic behavior [e.g., 191 ]–, are less accepted in women. However, characteristics such as individualism in women have been found to promote greater gender equality in society [ 192 ]. In addition, behaviors such as display of emotions [e.g., 193 ], which are stereotypically female, work against women’s acceptance in the workplace, requiring women to carefully moderate their behavior to avoid exclusion. A counter-intuitive result is that women and minorities, which are more marginalized in the workplace, tend to be better problem-solvers in innovation competitions due to their different knowledge bases [ 194 ].

The other side of the coin is examined in a parallel literature stream on behavior towards women in the workplace. As a result of biases, prejudices and stereotypes, women may experience adverse behavior from their colleagues, such as incivility and harassment, which undermine their well-being [e.g., 195 , 196 ]. Biases that go beyond gender, such as for overweight people, are also more strongly applied to women [ 197 ].

Organization.

The role of women and gender bias in organizations has been studied from different perspectives, which mirror those presented in detail in the following sections. Specifically, most research highlighted the stereotypical view of leaders [e.g., 105 ] and the roles played by women within firms, for instance referring to presence in the board of directors [e.g., 18 , 90 , 91 ], appointment as CEOs [e.g., 16 ], or top executives [e.g., 93 ].

Scholars have investigated antecedents and consequences of the presence of women in these apical roles. On the one side they looked at hiring and career progression [e.g., 83 , 92 , 160 , 168 , 198 ], finding women typically disadvantaged with respect to their male counterparts. On the other side, they studied women’s leadership styles and influence on the firm’s decision-making [e.g., 152 , 154 , 155 , 199 ], with implications for performance [e.g., 18 , 19 , 96 ].

Human capital.

Human capital is a transverse topic that touches upon many different aspects of female gender equality. As such, it has the most associations with other topics, starting with education as mentioned above, with career-related topics such as role , decision-making , hiring , career progression , performance , compensation , leadership and organization . Another topic with which there is a close connection is behavior . In general, human capital is approached both from the education standpoint but also from the perspective of social capital.

The behavioral aspect in human capital comprises research related to gender differences for example in cultural and religious beliefs that influence women’s attitudes and perceptions towards STEM subjects [ 142 , 200 – 202 ], towards employment [ 203 ] or towards environmental issues [ 150 , 204 ]. These cultural differences also emerge in the context of globalization which may accelerate gender equality in the workforce [ 205 , 206 ]. Gender differences also appear in behaviors such as motivation [ 207 ], and in negotiation [ 190 ], and have repercussions on women’s decision-making related to their careers. The so-called gender equality paradox sees women in countries with lower gender equality more likely to pursue studies and careers in STEM fields, whereas the gap in STEM enrollment widens as countries achieve greater equality in society [ 171 ].

Career progression is modeled by literature as a choice-process where personal preferences, culture and decision-making affect the chosen path and the outcomes. Some literature highlights how women tend to self-select into different professions than men, often due to stereotypes rather than actual ability to perform in these professions [ 142 , 144 ]. These stereotypes also affect the perceptions of female performance or the amount of human capital required to equal male performance [ 110 , 193 , 208 ], particularly for mothers [ 81 ]. It is therefore often assumed that women are better suited to less visible and less leadership -oriented roles [ 209 ]. Women also express differing preferences towards work-family balance, which affect whether and how they pursue human capital gains [ 210 ], and ultimately their career progression and salary .

On the other hand, men are often unaware of gendered processes and behaviors that they carry forward in their interactions and decision-making [ 211 , 212 ]. Therefore, initiatives aimed at increasing managers’ human capital –by raising awareness of gender disparities in their organizations and engaging them in diversity promotion–are essential steps to counter gender bias and segregation [ 213 ].

Emerging topics: Leadership and entrepreneurship

Among the emerging topics, the most pervasive one is women reaching leadership positions in the workforce and in society. This is still a rare occurrence for two main types of factors, on the one hand, bias and discrimination make it harder for women to access leadership positions [e.g., 214 – 216 ], on the other hand, the competitive nature and high pressure associated with leadership positions, coupled with the lack of women currently represented, reduce women’s desire to achieve them [e.g., 209 , 217 ]. Women are more effective leaders when they have access to education, resources and a diverse environment with representation [e.g., 218 , 219 ].

One sector where there is potential for women to carve out a leadership role is entrepreneurship . Although at the start of the millennium the discourse on entrepreneurship was found to be “discriminatory, gender-biased, ethnocentrically determined and ideologically controlled” [ 220 ], an increasing body of literature is studying how to stimulate female entrepreneurship as an alternative pathway to wealth, leadership and empowerment [e.g., 221 ]. Many barriers exist for women to access entrepreneurship, including the institutional and legal environment, social and cultural factors, access to knowledge and resources, and individual behavior [e.g., 222 , 223 ]. Education has been found to raise women’s entrepreneurial intentions [e.g., 224 ], although this effect is smaller than for men [e.g., 109 ]. In addition, increasing self-efficacy and risk-taking behavior constitute important success factors [e.g., 225 ].

Finally, the topic of sustainability is worth mentioning, as it is the primary objective of the SDGs and is closely associated with societal well-being. As society grapples with the effects of climate change and increasing depletion of natural resources, a narrative has emerged on women and their greater link to the environment [ 226 ]. Studies in developed countries have found some support for women leaders’ attention to sustainability issues in firms [e.g., 227 – 229 ], and smaller resource consumption by women [ 230 ]. At the same time, women will likely be more affected by the consequences of climate change [e.g., 230 ] but often lack the decision-making power to influence local decision-making on resource management and environmental policies [e.g., 231 ].

Research gaps and conclusions

Research on gender equality has advanced rapidly in the past decades, with a steady increase in publications, both in mainstream topics related to women in education and the workforce, and in emerging topics. Through a novel approach combining methods of text mining and social network analysis, we examined a comprehensive body of literature comprising 15,465 papers published between 2000 and mid 2021 on topics related to gender equality. We identified a set of 27 topics addressed by the literature and examined their connections.

At the highest level of abstraction, it is worth noting that papers abound on the identification of issues related to gender inequalities and imbalances in the workforce and in society. Literature has thoroughly examined the (unconscious) biases, barriers, stereotypes, and discriminatory behaviors that women are facing as a result of their gender. Instead, there are much fewer papers that discuss or demonstrate effective solutions to overcome gender bias [e.g., 121 , 143 , 145 , 163 , 194 , 213 , 232 ]. This is partly due to the relative ease in studying the status quo, as opposed to studying changes in the status quo. However, we observed a shift in the more recent years towards solution seeking in this domain, which we strongly encourage future researchers to focus on. In the future, we may focus on collecting and mapping pro-active contributions to gender studies, using additional Natural Language Processing techniques, able to measure the sentiment of scientific papers [ 43 ].

All of the mainstream topics identified in our literature review are closely related, and there is a wealth of insights looking at the intersection between issues such as education and career progression or human capital and role . However, emerging topics are worthy of being furtherly explored. It would be interesting to see more work on the topic of female entrepreneurship , exploring aspects such as education , personality , governance , management and leadership . For instance, how can education support female entrepreneurship? How can self-efficacy and risk-taking behaviors be taught or enhanced? What are the differences in managerial and governance styles of female entrepreneurs? Which personality traits are associated with successful entrepreneurs? Which traits are preferred by venture capitalists and funding bodies?

The emerging topic of sustainability also deserves further attention, as our society struggles with climate change and its consequences. It would be interesting to see more research on the intersection between sustainability and entrepreneurship , looking at how female entrepreneurs are tackling sustainability issues, examining both their business models and their company governance . In addition, scholars are suggested to dig deeper into the relationship between family values and behaviors.

Moreover, it would be relevant to understand how women’s networks (social capital), or the composition and structure of social networks involving both women and men, enable them to increase their remuneration and reach top corporate positions, participate in key decision-making bodies, and have a voice in communities. Furthermore, the achievement of gender equality might significantly change firm networks and ecosystems, with important implications for their performance and survival.

Similarly, research at the nexus of (corporate) governance , career progression , compensation and female empowerment could yield useful insights–for example discussing how enterprises, institutions and countries are managed and the impact for women and other minorities. Are there specific governance structures that favor diversity and inclusion?

Lastly, we foresee an emerging stream of research pertaining how the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic challenged women, especially in the workforce, by making gender biases more evident.

For our analysis, we considered a set of 15,465 articles downloaded from the Scopus database (which is the largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature). As we were interested in reviewing business and economics related gender studies, we only considered those papers published in journals listed in the Academic Journal Guide (AJG) 2018 ranking of the Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS). All the journals listed in this ranking are also indexed by Scopus. Therefore, looking at a single database (i.e., Scopus) should not be considered a limitation of our study. However, future research could consider different databases and inclusion criteria.

With our literature review, we offer researchers a comprehensive map of major gender-related research trends over the past twenty-two years. This can serve as a lens to look to the future, contributing to the achievement of SDG5. Researchers may use our study as a starting point to identify key themes addressed in the literature. In addition, our methodological approach–based on the use of the Semantic Brand Score and its webapp–could support scholars interested in reviewing other areas of research.

Supporting information

S1 text. keywords used for paper selection..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256474.s001

Acknowledgments

The computing resources and the related technical support used for this work have been provided by CRESCO/ENEAGRID High Performance Computing infrastructure and its staff. CRESCO/ENEAGRID High Performance Computing infrastructure is funded by ENEA, the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development and by Italian and European research programmes (see http://www.cresco.enea.it/english for information).

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Gender Studies: Foundations and Key Concepts

Gender studies developed alongside and emerged out of Women’s Studies. This non-exhaustive list introduces readers to scholarship in the field.

Gender studies asks what it means to make gender salient, bringing a critical eye to everything from labor conditions to healthcare access to popular culture. Gender is never isolated from other factors that determine someone’s position in the world, such as sexuality, race, class, ability, religion, region of origin, citizenship status, life experiences, and access to resources. Beyond studying gender as an identity category, the field is invested in illuminating the structures that naturalize, normalize, and discipline gender across historical and cultural contexts.

At a college or university, you’d be hard pressed to find a department that brands itself as simply Gender Studies. You’d be more likely to find different arrangements of the letters G, W, S, and perhaps Q and F, signifying gender, women, sexuality, queer, and feminist studies. These various letter configurations aren’t just semantic idiosyncrasies. They illustrate the ways the field has grown and expanded since its institutionalization in the 1970s.

This non-exhaustive list aims to introduce readers to gender studies in a broad sense. It shows how the field has developed over the last several decades, as well as how its interdisciplinary nature offers a range of tools for understanding and critiquing our world.

Catharine R. Stimpson, Joan N. Burstyn, Domna C. Stanton, and Sandra M. Whisler, “Editorial.” Signs , 1975; “Editorial,” off our backs , 1970

The editorial from the inaugural issue of Signs , founded in 1975 by Catharine Stimpson, explains that the founders hoped that the journal’s title captured what women’s studies is capable of doing: to “represent or point to something.” Women’s studies was conceptualized as an interdisciplinary field that could represent issues of gender and sexuality in new ways, with the possibility of shaping “scholarship, thought, and policy.”

The editorial in the first issue of off our backs , a feminist periodical founded in 1970, explains how their collective wanted to explore the “dual nature of the women’s movement:” that “women need to be free of men’s domination” and “must strive to get off our backs.” The content that follows includes reports on the Equal Rights Amendment, protests, birth control, and International Women’s Day.

Robyn Wiegman, “Academic Feminism against Itself.” NWSA Journal , 2002

Gender studies developed alongside and emerged out of Women’s Studies, which consolidated as an academic field of inquiry in the 1970s. Wiegman tracks some of the anxieties that emerged with the shift from women’s to gender studies, such as concerns it would decenter women and erase the feminist activism that gave rise to the field. She considers these anxieties as part of a larger concern over the future of the field, as well as fear that academic work on gender and sexuality has become too divorced from its activist roots.

Jack Halberstam, “Gender.” Keywords for American Cultural Studies, Second Edition (2014)

Halberstam’s entry in this volume provides a useful overview for debates and concepts that have dominated the field of gender studies: Is gender purely a social construct? What is the relationship between sex and gender? How does the gendering of bodies shift across disciplinary and cultural contexts? How did the theorizing of gender performativity in the 1990s by Judith Butler open up intellectual trajectories for queer and transgender studies? What is the future of gender as an organizing rubric for social life and as a mode of intellectual inquiry? Halberstam’s synthesis of the field makes a compelling case for why the study of gender persists and remains relevant for humanists, social scientists, and scientists alike.

Miqqi Alicia Gilbert, “Defeating Bigenderism: Changing Gender Assumptions in the Twenty-First Century.” Hypatia , 2009

Scholar and transgender activist Miqqi Alicia Gilbert considers the production and maintenance of the gender binary—that is, the idea that there are only two genders and that gender is a natural fact that remains stable across the course of one’s life. Gilbert’s view extends across institutional, legal, and cultural contexts, imagining what a frameworks that gets one out of the gender binary and gender valuation would have to look like to eliminate sexism, transphobia, and discrimination.

Judith Lorber, “Shifting Paradigms and Challenging Categories.” Social Problems , 2006

Judith Lorber identifies the key paradigm shifts in sociology around the question of gender: 1) acknowledging gender as an “organizing principle of the overall social order in modern societies;” 2) stipulating that gender is socially constructed, meaning that while gender is assigned at birth based on visible genitalia, it isn’t a natural, immutable category but one that is socially determined; 3) analyzing power in modern western societies reveals the dominance of men and promotion of a limited version of heterosexual masculinity; 4) emerging methods in sociology are helping disrupt the production of ostensibly universal knowledge from a narrow perspective of privileged subjects. Lorber concludes that feminist sociologists’ work on gender has provided the tools for sociology to reconsider how it analyzes structures of power and produces knowledge.

bell hooks, “Sisterhood: Political Solidarity between Women.” Feminist Review , 1986

bell hooks argues that the feminist movement has privileged the voices, experiences, and concerns of white women at the expense of women of color. Instead of acknowledging who the movement has centered, white women have continually invoked the “common oppression” of all women, a move they think demonstrates solidarity but actually erases and marginalizes women who fall outside of the categories of white, straight, educated, and middle-class. Instead of appealing to “common oppression,” meaningful solidarity requires that women acknowledge their differences, committing to a feminism that “aims to end sexist oppression.” For hooks, this necessitates a feminism that is anti-racist. Solidarity doesn’t have to mean sameness; collective action can emerge from difference.

Jennifer C. Nash, “re-thinking intersectionality.” Feminist Review , 2008

Chances are you’ve come across the phrase “intersectional feminism.” For many, this term is redundant: If feminism isn’t attentive to issues impacting a range of women, then it’s not actually feminism. While the term “intersectional” now circulates colloquially to signify a feminism that is inclusive, its usage has become divorced from its academic origins. The legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw created the term “intersectionality” in the 1980s based on Black women’s experiences with the law in cases of discrimination and violence. Intersectionality is not an adjective or a way to describe identity, but a tool for analyzing structures of power. It aims to disrupt universal categories of and claims about identity. Jennifer Nash provides an overview of intersectionality’s power, including guidance on how to deploy it in the service of coalition-building and collective action.

Treva B. Lindsey, “Post-Ferguson: A ‘Herstorical’ Approach to Black Violability.” Feminist Studies , 2015

Treva Lindsey considers the erasure of Black women’s labor in anti-racist activism , as well as the erasure of their experiences with violence and harm. From the Civil Rights Movement to #BlackLivesMatter, Black women’s contributions and leadership have not been acknowledged to the same extent as their male counterparts. Furthermore, their experiences with state-sanctioned racial violence don’t garner as much attention. Lindsey argues that we must make visible the experiences and labor of Black women and queer persons of color in activist settings in order to strengthen activist struggles for racial justice.

Renya Ramirez, “Race, Tribal Nation, and Gender: A Native Feminist Approach to Belonging.” Meridians , 2007

Renya Ramirez (Winnebago) argues that indigenous activist struggles for sovereignty, liberation, and survival must account for gender. A range of issues impact Native American women, such as domestic abuse, forced sterilization , and sexual violence. Furthermore, the settler state has been invested in disciplining indigenous concepts and practices of gender, sexuality, and kinship, reorienting them to fit into white settler understandings of property and inheritance. A Native American feminist consciousness centers gender and envisions decolonization without sexism.

Hester Eisenstein, “A Dangerous Liaison? Feminism and Corporate Globalization.” Science & Society , 2005

Hester Eisenstein argues that some of contemporary U.S. feminism’s work in a global context has been informed by and strengthened capitalism in a way that ultimately increases harms against marginalized women. For example, some have suggested offering poor rural women in non-U.S. contexts microcredit as a path to economic liberation. In reality, these debt transactions hinder economic development and “continue the policies that have created the poverty in the first place.” Eisenstein acknowledges that feminism has the power to challenge capitalist interests in a global context, but she cautions us to consider how aspects of the feminist movement have been coopted by corporations.

Afsaneh Najmabadi, “Transing and Transpassing Across Sex-Gender Walls in Iran.” Women’s Studies Quarterly , 2008

Afsaneh Najmabadi remarks on the existence of sex-reassignment surgeries in Iran since the 1970s and the increase in these surgeries in the twenty-first century. She explains that these surgeries are a response to perceived sexual deviance; they’re offered to cure persons who express same-sex desire. Sex-reassignment surgeries ostensibly “heteronormaliz[e]” people who are pressured to pursue this medical intervention for legal and religious reasons. While a repressive practice, Najmabadi also argues that this practice has paradoxically provided “ relatively safer semipublic gay and lesbian social space” in Iran. Najmabadi’s scholarship illustrates how gender and sexual categories, practices, and understandings are influenced by geographical and cultural contexts.

Susan Stryker, Paisley Currah, and Lisa Jean Moore’s “Introduction: Trans-, Trans, or Transgender?” Women’s Studies Quarterly , 2008

Susan Stryker, Paisley Currah, and Lisa Jean Moore map the ways that transgender studies can expand feminist and gender studies. “Transgender” does not need to exclusively signify individuals and communities, but can provide a lens for interrogating all bodies’ relationships to gendered spaces, disrupting the bounds of seemingly strict identity categories, and redefining gender. The “trans-” in transgender is a conceptual tool for interrogating the relationship between bodies and the institutions that discipline them.

David A. Rubin, “‘An Unnamed Blank That Craved a Name’: A Genealogy of Intersex as Gender.” Signs , 2012

David Rubin considers the fact that intersex persons have been subject to medicalization, pathologization, and “regulation of embodied difference through biopolitical discourses, practices, and technologies” that rely on normative cultural understandings of gender and sexuality. Rubin considers the impact intersexuality had on conceptualizations of gender in mid-twentieth century sexology studies, and how the very concept of gender that emerged in that moment has been used to regulate the lives of intersex individuals.

Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, “Feminist Disability Studies.” Signs , 2005

Rosemarie Garland-Thomson provides a thorough overview of the field of feminist disability studies. Both feminist and disability studies contend that those things which seem most natural to bodies are actually produced by a range of political, legal, medical, and social institutions. Gendered and disabled bodies are marked by these institutions. Feminist disability studies asks: How are meaning and value assigned to disabled bodies? How is this meaning and value determined by other social markers, such as gender, sexuality, race, class, religion, national origin, and citizenship status?

The field asks under what conditions disabled bodies are denied or granted sexual, reproductive, and bodily autonomy and how disability impacts the exploration of gender and sexual expression in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood historical and contemporary pathologization of genders and sexualities. It explores how disabled activists, artists, and writers respond to social, cultural, medical, and political forces that deny them access, equity, and representation

Karin A. Martin, “William Wants a Doll. Can He Have One? Feminists, Child Care Advisors, and Gender-Neutral Child Rearing.” Gender and Society , 2005

Karin Martin examines the gender socialization of children through an analysis of a range of parenting materials. Materials that claim to be (or have been claimed as) gender-neutral actually have a deep investment in training children in gender and sexual norms. Martin invites us to think about how adult reactions to children’s gender nonconformity pivots on a fear that gender expression in childhood is indicative of present or future non-normative sexuality. In other words, U.S. culture is unable to separate gender from sexuality. We imagine gender identity and expression maps predictably onto sexual desire. When children’s gender identity and expression exceeds culturally-determined permissible bounds in a family or community, adults project onto the child and discipline accordingly.

Sarah Pemberton, “Enforcing Gender: The Constitution of Sex and Gender in Prison Regimes.” Signs , 2013

Sarah Pemberton’s considers how sex-segregated prisons in the U.S. and England discipline their populations differently according to gender and sexual norms. This contributes to the policing, punishment, and vulnerability of incarcerated gender-nonconforming, transgender, and intersex persons. Issues ranging from healthcare access to increased rates of violence and harassment suggest that policies impacting incarcerated persons should center gender.

Dean Spade, “Some Very Basic Tips for Making High Education More Accessible to Trans Students and Rethinking How We Talk about Gendered Bodies.” The Radical Teacher , 2011

Lawyer and trans activist Dean Spade offers a pedagogical perspective on how to make classrooms accessible and inclusive for students. Spade also offers guidance on how to have classroom conversations about gender and bodies that don’t reassert a biological understanding of gender or equate certain body parts and functions with particular genders. While the discourse around these issues is constantly shifting, Spade provides useful ways to think about small changes in language that can have a powerful impact on students.

Sarah S. Richardson, “Feminist Philosophy of Science: History, Contributions, and Challenges.” Synthese , 2010

Feminist philosophy of science is a field comprised of scholars studying gender and science that has its origins in the work of feminist scientists in the 1960s. Richardson considers the contributions made by these scholars, such as increased opportunities for and representation of women in STEM fields , pointing out biases in seemingly neutral fields of scientific inquiry. Richardson also considers the role of gender in knowledge production, looking at the difficulties women have faced in institutional and professional contexts. The field of feminist philosophy of science and its practitioners are marginalized and delegitimized because of the ways they challenge dominant modes of knowledge production and disciplinary inquiry.

Bryce Traister’s “Academic Viagra: The Rise of American Masculinity Studies.” American Quarterly , 2000

Bryce Traister considers the emergence of masculinity studies out of gender studies and its development in American cultural studies. He argues that the field has remained largely invested in centering heterosexuality, asserting the centrality and dominance of men in critical thought. He offers ways for thinking about how to study masculinity without reinstituting gendered hierarchies or erasing the contributions of feminist and queer scholarship.

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• 06 September 2023

Gender equality: the route to a better world

You have full access to this article via your institution.

The Mosuo people of China include sub-communities in which inheritance passes down either the male or the female line. Credit: TPG/Getty

The fight for global gender equality is nowhere close to being won. Take education: in 87 countries, less than half of women and girls complete secondary schooling, according to 2023 data. Afghanistan’s Taliban continues to ban women and girls from secondary schools and universities . Or take reproductive health: abortion rights have been curtailed in 22 US states since the Supreme Court struck down federal protections, depriving women and girls of autonomy and restricting access to sexual and reproductive health care .

SDG 5, whose stated aim is to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”, is the fifth of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, all of which Nature is examining in a series of editorials. SDG 5 includes targets for ending discrimination and violence against women and girls in both public and private spheres, eradicating child marriage and female genital mutilation, ensuring sexual and reproductive rights, achieving equal representation of women in leadership positions and granting equal rights to economic resources. Globally, the goal is not on track to being achieved, and just a handful of countries have hit all the targets.

How the world should oppose the Taliban’s war on women and girls

In July, the UN introduced two new indices (see go.nature.com/3eus9ue ), the Women’s Empowerment Index (WEI) and the Global Gender Parity Index (GGPI). The WEI measures women’s ability and freedoms to make their own choices; the GGPI describes the gap between women and men in areas such as health, education, inclusion and decision making. The indices reveal, depressingly, that even achieving a small gender gap does not automatically translate to high levels of women’s empowerment: 114 countries feature in both indices, but countries that do well on both scores cover fewer than 1% of all girls and women.

The COVID-19 pandemic has made things worse, with women bearing the highest burden of extra unpaid childcare when schools needed to close, and subjected to intensified domestic violence. Although child marriages declined from 21% of all marriages in 2016 to 19% in 2022, the pandemic threatened even this incremental progress, pushing up to 10 million more girls into risk of child marriage over the next decade, in addition to the 100 million girls who were at risk before the pandemic.

Of the 14 indicators for SDG 5, only one or two are close to being met by the 2030 deadline. As of 1 January 2023, women occupied 35.4% of seats in local-government assemblies, an increase from 33.9% in 2020 (the target is gender parity by 2030). In 115 countries for which data were available, around three-quarters, on average, of the necessary laws guaranteeing full and equal access to sexual and reproductive health and rights had been enacted. But the UN estimates that worldwide, only 57% of women who are married or in a union make their own decisions regarding sexual and reproductive health and rights.

Systemic discrimination against girls and women by men, in many contexts, remains a colossal barrier to achieving gender equality. But patriarchy is not some “natural order of things” , argues Ruth Mace, an anthropologist at University College London. Hundreds of women-centred societies exist around the world. As the science writer Angela Saini describes in her latest book, The Patriarchs , these are often not the polar opposite of male-dominated systems, but societies in which men and women share decision making .

After Roe v. Wade: dwindling US abortion access is harming health a year later

One example comes from the Mosuo people in China, who have both ‘matrilineal’ and ‘patrilineal’ communities, with rights such as inheritance passing down either the male or female line. Researchers compared outcomes for inflammation and hypertension in men and women in these communities, and found that women in matrilineal societies, in which they have greater autonomy and control over resources, experienced better health outcomes. The researchers found no significant negative effect of matriliny on health outcomes for men ( A.  Z. Reynolds et al. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117 , 30324–30327; 2020 ).

When it comes to the SDGs, evidence is emerging that a more gender-equal approach to politics and power benefits many goals. In a study published in May, Nobue Amanuma, deputy director of the Integrated Sustainability Centre at the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies in Hayama, Japan, and two of her colleagues tested whether countries with more women legislators, and more younger legislators, are performing better in the SDGs ( N. Amanuma et al. Environ. Res. Lett. 18 , 054018; 2023 ). They found it was so, with the effect more marked for socio-economic goals such as ending poverty and hunger, than for environmental ones such as climate action or preserving life on land. The researchers recommend further qualitative and quantitative studies to better understand the reasons.

The reality that gender equality leads to better outcomes across other SDGs is not factored, however, into most of the goals themselves. Of the 230 unique indicators of the SDGs, 51 explicitly reference women, girls, gender or sex, including the 14 indicators in SDG 5. But there is not enough collaboration between organizations responsible for the different SDGs to ensure that sex and gender are taken into account. The indicator for the sanitation target (SDG 6) does not include data disaggregated by sex or gender ( Nature 620 , 7; 2023 ). Unless we have this knowledge, it will be hard to track improvements in this and other SDGs.

The road to a gender-equal world is long, and women’s power and freedom to make choices is still very constrained. But the evidence from science is getting stronger: distributing power between genders creates the kind of world we all need and want to be living in.

Nature 621 , 8 (2023)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-02745-9

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TOP 100 Gender Equality Essay Topics

Table of Contents

Need ideas for argumentative essay on gender inequality? We’ve got a bunch!

… But let’s start off with a brief intro.

What is gender equality?

Equality between the sexes is a huge part of basic human rights. It means that men and women have the same opportunities to fulfil their potential in all spheres of life.

Today, we still face inequality issues as there is a persistent gap in access to opportunities for men and women.

Women have less access to decision-making and higher education. They constantly face obstacles at the workplace and have greater safety risks. Maintaining equal rights for both sexes is critical for meeting a wide range of goals in global development.

Inequality between the sexes is an interesting area to study so high school, college, and university students are often assigned to write essays on gender topics.

In this article, we are going to discuss the key peculiarities of gender equality essay. Besides, we have created a list of the best essay topic ideas.

What is the specifics of gender equality essay?

Equality and inequality between the sexes are important historical and current social issues which impact the way students and their families live. They are common topics for college papers in psychology, sociology, gender studies.

When writing an essay on equality between the sexes, you need to argue for a strong point of view and support your argument with relevant evidence gathered from multiple sources.

But first, you’d need to choose a good topic which is neither too broad nor too narrow to research.

Research is crucial for the success of your essay because you should develop a strong argument based on an in-depth study of various scholarly sources.

Equality between sexes is a complex problem. You have to consider different aspects and controversial points of view on specific issues, show your ability to think critically, develop a strong thesis statement, and build a logical argument, which can make a great impression on your audience.

If you are looking for interesting gender equality essay topics, here you will find a great list of 100 topic ideas for writing essays and research papers on gender issues in contemporary society.

Should you find that some topics are too broad, feel free to narrow them down.

Powerful gender equality essay topics

Here are the top 25 hottest topics for your argumentative opinion paper on gender issues.

Whether you are searching for original creative ideas for gender equality in sports essay or need inspiration for gender equality in education essay, we’ve got you covered.

Use imagination and creativity to demonstrate your approach.

• Analyze gender-based violence in different countries
• Compare wage gap between the sexes in different countries
• Explain the purpose of gender mainstreaming
• Implications of sex differences in the human brain
• How can we teach boys and girls that they have equal rights?
• Discuss gender-neutral management practices
• Promotion of equal opportunities for men and women in sports
• What does it mean to be transgender?
• Discuss the empowerment of women
• Why is gender-blindness a problem for women?
• Why are girls at greater risk of sexual violence and exploitation?
• Women as victims of human trafficking
• Analyze the glass ceiling in management
• Impact of ideology in determining relations between sexes
• Obstacles that prevent girls from getting quality education in African countries
• Why are so few women in STEM?
• Major challenges women face at the workplace
• How do women in sport fight for equality?
• Women, sports, and media institutions
• Contribution of women in the development of the world economy
• Role of gender diversity in innovation and scientific discovery
• What can be done to make cities safer for women and girls?
• International trends in women’s empowerment
• Role of schools in teaching children behaviours considered appropriate for their sex
• Feminism on social relations uniting women and men as groups

Gender roles essay topics

We can measure the equality of men and women by looking at how both sexes are represented in a range of different roles. You don’t have to do extensive and tiresome research to come up with gender roles essay topics, as we have already done it for you.

Have a look at this short list of top-notch topic ideas .

• Are paternity and maternity leaves equally important for babies?
• Imagine women-dominated society and describe it
• Sex roles in contemporary western societies
• Compare theories of gender development
• Adoption of sex-role stereotyped behaviours
• What steps should be taken to achieve gender-parity in parenting?
• What is gender identity?
• Emotional differences between men and women
• Issues modern feminism faces
• Sexual orientation and gender identity
• Benefits of investing in girls’ education
• Patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes in family relationships
• Toys and games of girls and boys
• Roles of men and women in politics
• Compare career opportunities for both sexes in the military
• Women in the US military
• Academic careers and sex equity
• Should men play larger roles in childcare?
• Impact of an ageing population on women’s economic welfare
• Historical determinants of contemporary differences in sex roles
• Gender-related issues in gaming
• Culture and sex-role stereotypes in advertisements
• What are feminine traits?
• Sex role theory in sociology
• Causes of sex differences and similarities in behaviour

Gender inequality research paper topics

Examples of inequality can be found in the everyday life of different women in many countries across the globe. Our gender inequality research paper topics are devoted to different issues that display discrimination of women throughout the world.

Choose any topic you like, research it, brainstorm ideas, and create a detailed gender inequality essay outline before you start working on your first draft.

Start off with making a debatable thesis, then write an engaging introduction, convincing main body, and strong conclusion for gender inequality essay .

• Aspects of sex discrimination
• Main indications of inequality between the sexes
• Causes of sex discrimination
• Inferior role of women in the relationships
• Sex differences in education
• Can education solve issues of inequality between the sexes?
• Impact of discrimination on early childhood development
• Why do women have limited professional opportunities in sports?
• Gender discrimination in sports
• Lack of women having leadership roles
• Inequality between the sexes in work-family balance
• Top factors that impact inequality at a workplace
• What can governments do to close the gender gap at work?
• Sex discrimination in human resource processes and practices
• Gender inequality in work organizations
• Factors causing inequality between men and women in developing countries
• Work-home conflict as a symptom of inequality between men and women
• Why are mothers less wealthy than women without children?
• Forms of sex discrimination in a contemporary society
• Sex discrimination in the classroom
• Justification of inequality in American history
• Origins of sex discrimination
• Motherhood and segregation in labour markets
• Sex discrimination in marriage
• Can technology reduce sex discrimination?

Most controversial gender topics

Need a good controversial topic for gender stereotypes essay? Here are some popular debatable topics concerning various gender problems people face nowadays.

They are discussed in scientific studies, newspaper articles, and social media posts. If you choose any of them, you will need to perform in-depth research to prepare an impressive piece of writing.

• How do gender misconceptions impact behaviour?
• Most common outdated sex-role stereotypes
• How does gay marriage influence straight marriage?
• Explain the role of sexuality in sex-role stereotyping
• Role of media in breaking sex-role stereotypes
• Discuss the dual approach to equality between men and women
• Are women better than men or are they equal?
• Sex-role stereotypes at a workplace
• Racial variations in gender-related attitudes
• Role of feminism in creating the alternative culture for women
• Feminism and transgender theory
• Gender stereotypes in science and education
• Are sex roles important for society?
• Future of gender norms
• How can we make a better world for women?
• Are men the weaker sex?
• Beauty pageants and women’s empowerment
• Are women better communicators?
• What are the origins of sexual orientation?
• Should prostitution be legal?
• Pros and cons of being a feminist
• Advantages and disadvantages of being a woman
• Can movies defy gender stereotypes?
• Sexuality and politics

Feel free to use these powerful topic ideas for writing a good college-level gender equality essay or as a starting point for your study.

No time to do decent research and write your top-notch paper? No big deal! Choose any topic from our list and let a pro write the essay for you!

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100 Gender Research Topics For Academic Papers

Gender research topics are very popular across the world. Students in different academic disciplines are often asked to write papers and essays about these topics. Some of the disciplines that require learners to write about gender topics include:

Sociology Psychology Gender studies Business studies

When pursuing higher education in these disciplines, learners can choose what to write about from a wide range of gender issues topics. However, the wide range of issues that learners can research and write about when it comes to gender makes choosing what to write about difficult. Here is a list of the top 100 gender and sexuality topics that students can consider.

Controversial Gender Research Topics

Do you like the idea of writing about something controversial? If yes, this category has some of the best gender topics to write about. They touch on issues like gender stereotypes and issues that are generally associated with members of a specific gender. Here are some of the best controversial gender topics that you can write about.

• How human behavior is affected by gender misconceptions
• How are straight marriages influenced by gay marriages
• Explain the most common sex-role stereotypes
• What are the effects of workplace stereotypes?
• What issues affect modern feminism?
• How sexuality affects sex-role stereotyping
• How does the media break sex-role stereotypes
• Explain the dual approach to equality between women and men
• What are the most outdated sex-role stereotypes
• Are men better than women?
• How equal are men and women?
• How do politics and sexuality relate?
• How can films defy gender-based stereotypes
• What are the advantages of being a woman?
• What are the disadvantages of being a woman?
• What are the advantages of being a man?
• Discuss the disadvantages of being a woman
• Should governments legalize prostitution?
• Explain how sexual orientation came about?
• Women communicate better than men
• Women are the stronger sex
• Explain how the world can be made better for women
• Discuss the future gender norms
• How important are sex roles in society
• Discuss the transgender and feminism theory
• How does feminism help in the creation of alternative women’s culture?
• Gender stereotypes in education and science
• Discuss racial variations when it comes to gender-related attitudes
• Women are better leaders
• Men can’t survive without women

This category also has some of the best gender debate topics. However, learners should be keen to pick topics they are interested in. This will enable them to ensure that they enjoy the research and writing process.

Interesting Gender Inequality Topics

Gender-based inequality is witnessed almost every day. As such, most learners are conversant with gender inequality research paper topics. However, it’s crucial to pick topics that are devoid of discrimination of members of a specific gender. Here are examples of gender inequality essay topics.

• Sex discrimination aspects in schools
• How to identify inequality between sexes
• Sex discrimination causes
• The inferior role played by women in relationships
• Discuss sex differences in the education system
• How can gender discrimination be identified in sports?
• Can inequality issues between men and women be solved through education?
• Why are professional opportunities for women in sports limited?
• Why are there fewer women in leadership positions?
• Discuss gender inequality when it comes to work-family balance
• How does gender-based discrimination affect early childhood development?
• Can sex discrimination be reduced by technology?
• How can sex discrimination be identified in a marriage?
• Explain where sex discrimination originates from
• Discuss segregation and motherhood in labor markets
• Explain classroom sex discrimination
• How can inequality in American history be justified?
• Discuss different types of sex discrimination in modern society
• Discuss various factors that cause gender-based inequality
• Discuss inequality in human resource practices and processes
• Why is inequality between women and men so rampant in developing countries?
• How can governments bridge gender gaps between women and men?
• Work-home conflict is a sign of inequality between women and men
• Explain why women are less wealthy than men
• How can workplace gender-based inequality be addressed?

After choosing the gender inequality essay topics they like, students should research, brainstorm ideas, and come up with an outline before they start writing. This will ensure that their essays have engaging introductions and convincing bodies, as well as, strong conclusions.

Amazing Gender Roles Topics for Academic Papers and Essays

This category has ideas that slightly differ from gender equality topics. That’s because equality or lack of it can be measured by considering the representation of both genders in different roles. As such, some gender roles essay topics might not require tiresome and extensive research to write about. Nevertheless, learners should take time to gather the necessary information required to write about these topics. Here are some of the best gender topics for discussion when it comes to the roles played by men and women in society.

• Describe gender identity
• Describe how a women-dominated society would be
• Compare gender development theories
• How equally important are maternity and paternity levees for babies?
• How can gender-parity be achieved when it comes to parenting?
• Discuss the issues faced by modern feminism
• How do men differ from women emotionally?
• Discuss gender identity and sexual orientation
• Is investing in the education of girls beneficial?
• Explain the adoption of gender-role stereotyped behaviors
• Discuss games and toys for boys and girls
• Describe patriarchal attitudes in families
• Explain patriarchal stereotypes in family relationships
• What roles do women and men play in politics?
• Discuss sex equity and academic careers
• Compare military career opportunities for both genders
• Discuss the perception of women in the military
• Describe feminine traits
• Discus gender-related issues faced by women in gaming
• Men should play major roles in the welfare of their children
• Explain how the aging population affects the economic welfare of women?
• What has historically determined modern differences in gender roles?
• Does society need stereotyped gender roles?
• Does nature have a role to play in stereotyped gender roles?
• The development and adoption of gender roles

The list of gender essay topics that are based on the roles of each sex can be quite extensive. Nevertheless, students should be keen to pick interesting gender topics in this category.

Important Gender Issues Topics for Research Paper

If you want to write a paper or essay on an important gender issue, this category has the best ideas for you. Students can write about different issues that affect individuals of different genders. For instance, this category can include gender wage gap essay topics. Wage variation is a common issue that affects women in different countries. Some of the best gender research paper topics in this category include:

• Discuss gender mainstreaming purpose
• Discuss the issue of gender-based violence
• Why is the wage gap so common in most countries?
• How can society promote equality in opportunities for women and men in sports?
• Explain what it means to be transgender
• Discuss the best practices of gender-neutral management
• What is women’s empowerment?
• Discuss how human trafficking affects women
• How problematic is gender-blindness for women?
• What does the glass ceiling mean in management?
• Why are women at a higher risk of sexual exploitation and violence?
• Why is STEM uptake low among women?
• How does ideology affect the determination of relations between genders
• How are sporting women fighting for equality?
• Discuss sports, women, and media institutions
• How can cities be made safer for girls and women?
• Discuss international trends in the empowerment of women
• How do women contribute to the world economy?
• Explain how feminism on different social relations unites men and women as groups
• Explain how gender diversity influence scientific discovery and innovation

This category has some of the most interesting women’s and gender studies paper topics. However, most of them require extensive research to come up with hard facts and figures that will make academic papers or essays more interesting.

Students in high schools and colleges can pick what to write about from a wide range of gender studies research topics. However, some gender studies topics might not be ideal for some learners based on the given essay prompt. Therefore, make sure that you have understood what the educator wants you to write about before you pick a topic. Our experts can help you choose a good thesis topic . Choosing the right gender studies topics enables learners to answer the asked questions properly. This impresses educators to award them top grades.

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Twenty years of gender equality research: A scoping review based on a new semantic indicator

Paola belingheri.

1 Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Energia, dei Sistemi, del Territorio e delle Costruzioni, Università degli Studi di Pisa, Largo L. Lazzarino, Pisa, Italy

Filippo Chiarello

Andrea fronzetti colladon.

2 Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

3 Department of Management, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland

Paola Rovelli

4 Faculty of Economics and Management, Centre for Family Business Management, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bozen-Bolzano, Italy

Associated Data

All relevant data are within the manuscript and its supporting information files. The only exception is the text of the abstracts (over 15,000) that we have downloaded from Scopus. These abstracts can be retrieved from Scopus, but we do not have permission to redistribute them.

Gender equality is a major problem that places women at a disadvantage thereby stymieing economic growth and societal advancement. In the last two decades, extensive research has been conducted on gender related issues, studying both their antecedents and consequences. However, existing literature reviews fail to provide a comprehensive and clear picture of what has been studied so far, which could guide scholars in their future research. Our paper offers a scoping review of a large portion of the research that has been published over the last 22 years, on gender equality and related issues, with a specific focus on business and economics studies. Combining innovative methods drawn from both network analysis and text mining, we provide a synthesis of 15,465 scientific articles. We identify 27 main research topics, we measure their relevance from a semantic point of view and the relationships among them, highlighting the importance of each topic in the overall gender discourse. We find that prominent research topics mostly relate to women in the workforce–e.g., concerning compensation, role, education, decision-making and career progression. However, some of them are losing momentum, and some other research trends–for example related to female entrepreneurship, leadership and participation in the board of directors–are on the rise. Besides introducing a novel methodology to review broad literature streams, our paper offers a map of the main gender-research trends and presents the most popular and the emerging themes, as well as their intersections, outlining important avenues for future research.

Introduction

The persistent gender inequalities that currently exist across the developed and developing world are receiving increasing attention from economists, policymakers, and the general public [e.g., 1 – 3 ]. Economic studies have indicated that women’s education and entry into the workforce contributes to social and economic well-being [e.g., 4 , 5 ], while their exclusion from the labor market and from managerial positions has an impact on overall labor productivity and income per capita [ 6 , 7 ]. The United Nations selected gender equality, with an emphasis on female education, as part of the Millennium Development Goals [ 8 ], and gender equality at-large as one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be achieved by 2030 [ 9 ]. These latter objectives involve not only developing nations, but rather all countries, to achieve economic, social and environmental well-being.

As is the case with many SDGs, gender equality is still far from being achieved and persists across education, access to opportunities, or presence in decision-making positions [ 7 , 10 , 11 ]. As we enter the last decade for the SDGs’ implementation, and while we are battling a global health pandemic, effective and efficient action becomes paramount to reach this ambitious goal.

Scholars have dedicated a massive effort towards understanding gender equality, its determinants, its consequences for women and society, and the appropriate actions and policies to advance women’s equality. Many topics have been covered, ranging from women’s education and human capital [ 12 , 13 ] and their role in society [e.g., 14 , 15 ], to their appointment in firms’ top ranked positions [e.g., 16 , 17 ] and performance implications [e.g., 18 , 19 ]. Despite some attempts, extant literature reviews provide a narrow view on these issues, restricted to specific topics–e.g., female students’ presence in STEM fields [ 20 ], educational gender inequality [ 5 ], the gender pay gap [ 21 ], the glass ceiling effect [ 22 ], leadership [ 23 ], entrepreneurship [ 24 ], women’s presence on the board of directors [ 25 , 26 ], diversity management [ 27 ], gender stereotypes in advertisement [ 28 ], or specific professions [ 29 ]. A comprehensive view on gender-related research, taking stock of key findings and under-studied topics is thus lacking.

Extant literature has also highlighted that gender issues, and their economic and social ramifications, are complex topics that involve a large number of possible antecedents and outcomes [ 7 ]. Indeed, gender equality actions are most effective when implemented in unison with other SDGs (e.g., with SDG 8, see [ 30 ]) in a synergetic perspective [ 10 ]. Many bodies of literature (e.g., business, economics, development studies, sociology and psychology) approach the problem of achieving gender equality from different perspectives–often addressing specific and narrow aspects. This sometimes leads to a lack of clarity about how different issues, circumstances, and solutions may be related in precipitating or mitigating gender inequality or its effects. As the number of papers grows at an increasing pace, this issue is exacerbated and there is a need to step back and survey the body of gender equality literature as a whole. There is also a need to examine synergies between different topics and approaches, as well as gaps in our understanding of how different problems and solutions work together. Considering the important topic of women’s economic and social empowerment, this paper aims to fill this gap by answering the following research question: what are the most relevant findings in the literature on gender equality and how do they relate to each other ?

To do so, we conduct a scoping review [ 31 ], providing a synthesis of 15,465 articles dealing with gender equity related issues published in the last twenty-two years, covering both the periods of the MDGs and the SDGs (i.e., 2000 to mid 2021) in all the journals indexed in the Academic Journal Guide’s 2018 ranking of business and economics journals. Given the huge amount of research conducted on the topic, we adopt an innovative methodology, which relies on social network analysis and text mining. These techniques are increasingly adopted when surveying large bodies of text. Recently, they were applied to perform analysis of online gender communication differences [ 32 ] and gender behaviors in online technology communities [ 33 ], to identify and classify sexual harassment instances in academia [ 34 ], and to evaluate the gender inclusivity of disaster management policies [ 35 ].

Applied to the title, abstracts and keywords of the articles in our sample, this methodology allows us to identify a set of 27 recurrent topics within which we automatically classify the papers. Introducing additional novelty, by means of the Semantic Brand Score (SBS) indicator [ 36 ] and the SBS BI app [ 37 ], we assess the importance of each topic in the overall gender equality discourse and its relationships with the other topics, as well as trends over time, with a more accurate description than that offered by traditional literature reviews relying solely on the number of papers presented in each topic.

This methodology, applied to gender equality research spanning the past twenty-two years, enables two key contributions. First, we extract the main message that each document is conveying and how this is connected to other themes in literature, providing a rich picture of the topics that are at the center of the discourse, as well as of the emerging topics. Second, by examining the semantic relationship between topics and how tightly their discourses are linked, we can identify the key relationships and connections between different topics. This semi-automatic methodology is also highly reproducible with minimum effort.

This literature review is organized as follows. In the next section, we present how we selected relevant papers and how we analyzed them through text mining and social network analysis. We then illustrate the importance of 27 selected research topics, measured by means of the SBS indicator. In the results section, we present an overview of the literature based on the SBS results–followed by an in-depth narrative analysis of the top 10 topics (i.e., those with the highest SBS) and their connections. Subsequently, we highlight a series of under-studied connections between the topics where there is potential for future research. Through this analysis, we build a map of the main gender-research trends in the last twenty-two years–presenting the most popular themes. We conclude by highlighting key areas on which research should focused in the future.

Our aim is to map a broad topic, gender equality research, that has been approached through a host of different angles and through different disciplines. Scoping reviews are the most appropriate as they provide the freedom to map different themes and identify literature gaps, thereby guiding the recommendation of new research agendas [ 38 ].

Several practical approaches have been proposed to identify and assess the underlying topics of a specific field using big data [ 39 – 41 ], but many of them fail without proper paper retrieval and text preprocessing. This is specifically true for a research field such as the gender-related one, which comprises the work of scholars from different backgrounds. In this section, we illustrate a novel approach for the analysis of scientific (gender-related) papers that relies on methods and tools of social network analysis and text mining. Our procedure has four main steps: (1) data collection, (2) text preprocessing, (3) keywords extraction and classification, and (4) evaluation of semantic importance and image.

Data collection

In this study, we analyze 22 years of literature on gender-related research. Following established practice for scoping reviews [ 42 ], our data collection consisted of two main steps, which we summarize here below.

Firstly, we retrieved from the Scopus database all the articles written in English that contained the term “gender” in their title, abstract or keywords and were published in a journal listed in the Academic Journal Guide 2018 ranking of the Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS) ( https://charteredabs.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/AJG2018-Methodology.pdf ), considering the time period from Jan 2000 to May 2021. We used this information considering that abstracts, titles and keywords represent the most informative part of a paper, while using the full-text would increase the signal-to-noise ratio for information extraction. Indeed, these textual elements already demonstrated to be reliable sources of information for the task of domain lexicon extraction [ 43 , 44 ]. We chose Scopus as source of literature because of its popularity, its update rate, and because it offers an API to ease the querying process. Indeed, while it does not allow to retrieve the full text of scientific articles, the Scopus API offers access to titles, abstracts, citation information and metadata for all its indexed scholarly journals. Moreover, we decided to focus on the journals listed in the AJG 2018 ranking because we were interested in reviewing business and economics related gender studies only. The AJG is indeed widely used by universities and business schools as a reference point for journal and research rigor and quality. This first step, executed in June 2021, returned more than 55,000 papers.

In the second step–because a look at the papers showed very sparse results, many of which were not in line with the topic of this literature review (e.g., papers dealing with health care or medical issues, where the word gender indicates the gender of the patients)–we applied further inclusion criteria to make the sample more focused on the topic of this literature review (i.e., women’s gender equality issues). Specifically, we only retained those papers mentioning, in their title and/or abstract, both gender-related keywords (e.g., daughter, female, mother) and keywords referring to bias and equality issues (e.g., equality, bias, diversity, inclusion). After text pre-processing (see next section), keywords were first identified from a frequency-weighted list of words found in the titles, abstracts and keywords in the initial list of papers, extracted through text mining (following the same approach as [ 43 ]). They were selected by two of the co-authors independently, following respectively a bottom up and a top-down approach. The bottom-up approach consisted of examining the words found in the frequency-weighted list and classifying those related to gender and equality. The top-down approach consisted in searching in the word list for notable gender and equality-related words. Table 1 reports the sets of keywords we considered, together with some examples of words that were used to search for their presence in the dataset (a full list is provided in the S1 Text ). At end of this second step, we obtained a final sample of 15,465 relevant papers.

Text processing and keyword extraction

Text preprocessing aims at structuring text into a form that can be analyzed by statistical models. In the present section, we describe the preprocessing steps we applied to paper titles and abstracts, which, as explained below, partially follow a standard text preprocessing pipeline [ 45 ]. These activities have been performed using the R package udpipe [ 46 ].

The first step is n-gram extraction (i.e., a sequence of words from a given text sample) to identify which n-grams are important in the analysis, since domain-specific lexicons are often composed by bi-grams and tri-grams [ 47 ]. Multi-word extraction is usually implemented with statistics and linguistic rules, thus using the statistical properties of n-grams or machine learning approaches [ 48 ]. However, for the present paper, we used Scopus metadata in order to have a more effective and efficient n-grams collection approach [ 49 ]. We used the keywords of each paper in order to tag n-grams with their associated keywords automatically. Using this greedy approach, it was possible to collect all the keywords listed by the authors of the papers. From this list, we extracted only keywords composed by two, three and four words, we removed all the acronyms and rare keywords (i.e., appearing in less than 1% of papers), and we clustered keywords showing a high orthographic similarity–measured using a Levenshtein distance [ 50 ] lower than 2, considering these groups of keywords as representing same concepts, but expressed with different spelling. After tagging the n-grams in the abstracts, we followed a common data preparation pipeline that consists of the following steps: (i) tokenization, that splits the text into tokens (i.e., single words and previously tagged multi-words); (ii) removal of stop-words (i.e. those words that add little meaning to the text, usually being very common and short functional words–such as “and”, “or”, or “of”); (iii) parts-of-speech tagging, that is providing information concerning the morphological role of a word and its morphosyntactic context (e.g., if the token is a determiner, the next token is a noun or an adjective with very high confidence, [ 51 ]); and (iv) lemmatization, which consists in substituting each word with its dictionary form (or lemma). The output of the latter step allows grouping together the inflected forms of a word. For example, the verbs “am”, “are”, and “is” have the shared lemma “be”, or the nouns “cat” and “cats” both share the lemma “cat”. We preferred lemmatization over stemming [ 52 ] in order to obtain more interpretable results.

In addition, we identified a further set of keywords (with respect to those listed in the “keywords” field) by applying a series of automatic words unification and removal steps, as suggested in past research [ 53 , 54 ]. We removed: sparse terms (i.e., occurring in less than 0.1% of all documents), common terms (i.e., occurring in more than 10% of all documents) and retained only nouns and adjectives. It is relevant to notice that no document was lost due to these steps. We then used the TF-IDF function [ 55 ] to produce a new list of keywords. We additionally tested other approaches for the identification and clustering of keywords–such as TextRank [ 56 ] or Latent Dirichlet Allocation [ 57 ]–without obtaining more informative results.

Classification of research topics

To guide the literature analysis, two experts met regularly to examine the sample of collected papers and to identify the main topics and trends in gender research. Initially, they conducted brainstorming sessions on the topics they expected to find, due to their knowledge of the literature. This led to an initial list of topics. Subsequently, the experts worked independently, also supported by the keywords in paper titles and abstracts extracted with the procedure described above.

Considering all this information, each expert identified and clustered relevant keywords into topics. At the end of the process, the two assignments were compared and exhibited a 92% agreement. Another meeting was held to discuss discordant cases and reach a consensus. This resulted in a list of 27 topics, briefly introduced in Table 2 and subsequently detailed in the following sections.

Evaluation of semantic importance

Working on the lemmatized corpus of the 15,465 papers included in our sample, we proceeded with the evaluation of semantic importance trends for each topic and with the analysis of their connections and prevalent textual associations. To this aim, we used the Semantic Brand Score indicator [ 36 ], calculated through the SBS BI webapp [ 37 ] that also produced a brand image report for each topic. For this study we relied on the computing resources of the ENEA/CRESCO infrastructure [ 58 ].

The Semantic Brand Score (SBS) is a measure of semantic importance that combines methods of social network analysis and text mining. It is usually applied for the analysis of (big) textual data to evaluate the importance of one or more brands, names, words, or sets of keywords [ 36 ]. Indeed, the concept of “brand” is intended in a flexible way and goes beyond products or commercial brands. In this study, we evaluate the SBS time-trends of the keywords defining the research topics discussed in the previous section. Semantic importance comprises the three dimensions of topic prevalence, diversity and connectivity. Prevalence measures how frequently a research topic is used in the discourse. The more a topic is mentioned by scientific articles, the more the research community will be aware of it, with possible increase of future studies; this construct is partly related to that of brand awareness [ 59 ]. This effect is even stronger, considering that we are analyzing the title, abstract and keywords of the papers, i.e. the parts that have the highest visibility. A very important characteristic of the SBS is that it considers the relationships among words in a text. Topic importance is not just a matter of how frequently a topic is mentioned, but also of the associations a topic has in the text. Specifically, texts are transformed into networks of co-occurring words, and relationships are studied through social network analysis [ 60 ]. This step is necessary to calculate the other two dimensions of our semantic importance indicator. Accordingly, a social network of words is generated for each time period considered in the analysis–i.e., a graph made of n nodes (words) and E edges weighted by co-occurrence frequency, with W being the set of edge weights. The keywords representing each topic were clustered into single nodes.

The construct of diversity relates to that of brand image [ 59 ], in the sense that it considers the richness and distinctiveness of textual (topic) associations. Considering the above-mentioned networks, we calculated diversity using the distinctiveness centrality metric–as in the formula presented by Fronzetti Colladon and Naldi [ 61 ].

Lastly, connectivity was measured as the weighted betweenness centrality [ 62 , 63 ] of each research topic node. We used the formula presented by Wasserman and Faust [ 60 ]. The dimension of connectivity represents the “brokerage power” of each research topic–i.e., how much it can serve as a bridge to connect other terms (and ultimately topics) in the discourse [ 36 ].

The SBS is the final composite indicator obtained by summing the standardized scores of prevalence, diversity and connectivity. Standardization was carried out considering all the words in the corpus, for each specific timeframe.

This methodology, applied to a large and heterogeneous body of text, enables to automatically identify two important sets of information that add value to the literature review. Firstly, the relevance of each topic in literature is measured through a composite indicator of semantic importance, rather than simply looking at word frequencies. This provides a much richer picture of the topics that are at the center of the discourse, as well as of the topics that are emerging in the literature. Secondly, it enables to examine the extent of the semantic relationship between topics, looking at how tightly their discourses are linked. In a field such as gender equality, where many topics are closely linked to each other and present overlaps in issues and solutions, this methodology offers a novel perspective with respect to traditional literature reviews. In addition, it ensures reproducibility over time and the possibility to semi-automatically update the analysis, as new papers become available.

Overview of main topics

In terms of descriptive textual statistics, our corpus is made of 15,465 text documents, consisting of a total of 2,685,893 lemmatized tokens (words) and 32,279 types. As a result, the type-token ratio is 1.2%. The number of hapaxes is 12,141, with a hapax-token ratio of 37.61%.

Fig 1 shows the list of 27 topics by decreasing SBS. The most researched topic is compensation , exceeding all others in prevalence, diversity, and connectivity. This means it is not only mentioned more often than other topics, but it is also connected to a greater number of other topics and is central to the discourse on gender equality. The next four topics are, in order of SBS, role , education , decision-making , and career progression . These topics, except for education , all concern women in the workforce. Between these first five topics and the following ones there is a clear drop in SBS scores. In particular, the topics that follow have a lower connectivity than the first five. They are hiring , performance , behavior , organization , and human capital . Again, except for behavior and human capital , the other three topics are purely related to women in the workforce. After another drop-off, the following topics deal prevalently with women in society. This trend highlights that research on gender in business journals has so far mainly paid attention to the conditions that women experience in business contexts, while also devoting some attention to women in society.

Fig 2 shows the SBS time series of the top 10 topics. While there has been a general increase in the number of Scopus-indexed publications in the last decade, we notice that some SBS trends remain steady, or even decrease. In particular, we observe that the main topic of the last twenty-two years, compensation , is losing momentum. Since 2016, it has been surpassed by decision-making , education and role , which may indicate that literature is increasingly attempting to identify root causes of compensation inequalities. Moreover, in the last two years, the topics of hiring , performance , and organization are experiencing the largest importance increase.

Fig 3 shows the SBS time trends of the remaining 17 topics (i.e., those not in the top 10). As we can see from the graph, there are some that maintain a steady trend–such as reputation , management , networks and governance , which also seem to have little importance. More relevant topics with average stationary trends (except for the last two years) are culture , family , and parenting . The feminine topic is among the most important here, and one of those that exhibit the larger variations over time (similarly to leadership ). On the other hand, the are some topics that, even if not among the most important, show increasing SBS trends; therefore, they could be considered as emerging topics and could become popular in the near future. These are entrepreneurship , leadership , board of directors , and sustainability . These emerging topics are also interesting to anticipate future trends in gender equality research that are conducive to overall equality in society.

In addition to the SBS score of the different topics, the network of terms they are associated to enables to gauge the extent to which their images (textual associations) overlap or differ ( Fig 4 ).

There is a central cluster of topics with high similarity, which are all connected with women in the workforce. The cluster includes topics such as organization , decision-making , performance , hiring , human capital , education and compensation . In addition, the topic of well-being is found within this cluster, suggesting that women’s equality in the workforce is associated to well-being considerations. The emerging topics of entrepreneurship and leadership are also closely connected with each other, possibly implying that leadership is a much-researched quality in female entrepreneurship. Topics that are relatively more distant include personality , politics , feminine , empowerment , management , board of directors , reputation , governance , parenting , masculine and network .

The following sections describe the top 10 topics and their main associations in literature (see Table 3 ), while providing a brief overview of the emerging topics.

Compensation

The topic of compensation is related to the topics of role , hiring , education and career progression , however, also sees a very high association with the words gap and inequality . Indeed, a well-known debate in degrowth economics centers around whether and how to adequately compensate women for their childbearing, childrearing, caregiver and household work [e.g., 30 ].

Even in paid work, women continue being offered lower compensations than their male counterparts who have the same job or cover the same role [ 64 – 67 ]. This severe inequality has been widely studied by scholars over the last twenty-two years. Dealing with this topic, some specific roles have been addressed. Specifically, research highlighted differences in compensation between female and male CEOs [e.g., 68 ], top executives [e.g., 69 ], and boards’ directors [e.g., 70 ]. Scholars investigated the determinants of these gaps, such as the gender composition of the board [e.g., 71 – 73 ] or women’s individual characteristics [e.g., 71 , 74 ].

Among these individual characteristics, education plays a relevant role [ 75 ]. Education is indeed presented as the solution for women, not only to achieve top executive roles, but also to reduce wage inequality [e.g., 76 , 77 ]. Past research has highlighted education influences on gender wage gaps, specifically referring to gender differences in skills [e.g., 78 ], college majors [e.g., 79 ], and college selectivity [e.g., 80 ].

Finally, the wage gap issue is strictly interrelated with hiring –e.g., looking at whether being a mother affects hiring and compensation [e.g., 65 , 81 ] or relating compensation to unemployment [e.g., 82 ]–and career progression –for instance looking at meritocracy [ 83 , 84 ] or the characteristics of the boss for whom women work [e.g., 85 ].

The roles covered by women have been deeply investigated. Scholars have focused on the role of women in their families and the society as a whole [e.g., 14 , 15 ], and, more widely, in business contexts [e.g., 18 , 81 ]. Indeed, despite still lagging behind their male counterparts [e.g., 86 , 87 ], in the last decade there has been an increase in top ranked positions achieved by women [e.g., 88 , 89 ]. Following this phenomenon, scholars have posed greater attention towards the presence of women in the board of directors [e.g., 16 , 18 , 90 , 91 ], given the increasing pressure to appoint female directors that firms, especially listed ones, have experienced. Other scholars have focused on the presence of women covering the role of CEO [e.g., 17 , 92 ] or being part of the top management team [e.g., 93 ]. Irrespectively of the level of analysis, all these studies tried to uncover the antecedents of women’s presence among top managers [e.g., 92 , 94 ] and the consequences of having a them involved in the firm’s decision-making –e.g., on performance [e.g., 19 , 95 , 96 ], risk [e.g., 97 , 98 ], and corporate social responsibility [e.g., 99 , 100 ].

Besides studying the difficulties and discriminations faced by women in getting a job [ 81 , 101 ], and, more specifically in the hiring , appointment, or career progression to these apical roles [e.g., 70 , 83 ], the majority of research of women’s roles dealt with compensation issues. Specifically, scholars highlight the pay-gap that still exists between women and men, both in general [e.g., 64 , 65 ], as well as referring to boards’ directors [e.g., 70 , 102 ], CEOs and executives [e.g., 69 , 103 , 104 ].

Finally, other scholars focused on the behavior of women when dealing with business. In this sense, particular attention has been paid to leadership and entrepreneurial behaviors. The former quite overlaps with dealing with the roles mentioned above, but also includes aspects such as leaders being stereotyped as masculine [e.g., 105 ], the need for greater exposure to female leaders to reduce biases [e.g., 106 ], or female leaders acting as queen bees [e.g., 107 ]. Regarding entrepreneurship , scholars mainly investigated women’s entrepreneurial entry [e.g., 108 , 109 ], differences between female and male entrepreneurs in the evaluations and funding received from investors [e.g., 110 , 111 ], and their performance gap [e.g., 112 , 113 ].

Education has long been recognized as key to social advancement and economic stability [ 114 ], for job progression and also a barrier to gender equality, especially in STEM-related fields. Research on education and gender equality is mostly linked with the topics of compensation , human capital , career progression , hiring , parenting and decision-making .

Education contributes to a higher human capital [ 115 ] and constitutes an investment on the part of women towards their future. In this context, literature points to the gender gap in educational attainment, and the consequences for women from a social, economic, personal and professional standpoint. Women are found to have less access to formal education and information, especially in emerging countries, which in turn may cause them to lose social and economic opportunities [e.g., 12 , 116 – 119 ]. Education in local and rural communities is also paramount to communicate the benefits of female empowerment , contributing to overall societal well-being [e.g., 120 ].

Once women access education, the image they have of the world and their place in society (i.e., habitus) affects their education performance [ 13 ] and is passed on to their children. These situations reinforce gender stereotypes, which become self-fulfilling prophecies that may negatively affect female students’ performance by lowering their confidence and heightening their anxiety [ 121 , 122 ]. Besides formal education, also the information that women are exposed to on a daily basis contributes to their human capital . Digital inequalities, for instance, stems from men spending more time online and acquiring higher digital skills than women [ 123 ].

Education is also a factor that should boost employability of candidates and thus hiring , career progression and compensation , however the relationship between these factors is not straightforward [ 115 ]. First, educational choices ( decision-making ) are influenced by variables such as self-efficacy and the presence of barriers, irrespectively of the career opportunities they offer, especially in STEM [ 124 ]. This brings additional difficulties to women’s enrollment and persistence in scientific and technical fields of study due to stereotypes and biases [ 125 , 126 ]. Moreover, access to education does not automatically translate into job opportunities for women and minority groups [ 127 , 128 ] or into female access to managerial positions [ 129 ].

Finally, parenting is reported as an antecedent of education [e.g., 130 ], with much of the literature focusing on the role of parents’ education on the opportunities afforded to children to enroll in education [ 131 – 134 ] and the role of parenting in their offspring’s perception of study fields and attitudes towards learning [ 135 – 138 ]. Parental education is also a predictor of the other related topics, namely human capital and compensation [ 139 ].

Decision-making

This literature mainly points to the fact that women are thought to make decisions differently than men. Women have indeed different priorities, such as they care more about people’s well-being, working with people or helping others, rather than maximizing their personal (or their firm’s) gain [ 140 ]. In other words, women typically present more communal than agentic behaviors, which are instead more frequent among men [ 141 ]. These different attitude, behavior and preferences in turn affect the decisions they make [e.g., 142 ] and the decision-making of the firm in which they work [e.g., 143 ].

At the individual level, gender affects, for instance, career aspirations [e.g., 144 ] and choices [e.g., 142 , 145 ], or the decision of creating a venture [e.g., 108 , 109 , 146 ]. Moreover, in everyday life, women and men make different decisions regarding partners [e.g., 147 ], childcare [e.g., 148 ], education [e.g., 149 ], attention to the environment [e.g., 150 ] and politics [e.g., 151 ].

At the firm level, scholars highlighted, for example, how the presence of women in the board affects corporate decisions [e.g., 152 , 153 ], that female CEOs are more conservative in accounting decisions [e.g., 154 ], or that female CFOs tend to make more conservative decisions regarding the firm’s financial reporting [e.g., 155 ]. Nevertheless, firm level research also investigated decisions that, influenced by gender bias, affect women, such as those pertaining hiring [e.g., 156 , 157 ], compensation [e.g., 73 , 158 ], or the empowerment of women once appointed [ 159 ].

Career progression

Once women have entered the workforce, the key aspect to achieve gender equality becomes career progression , including efforts toward overcoming the glass ceiling. Indeed, according to the SBS analysis, career progression is highly related to words such as work, social issues and equality. The topic with which it has the highest semantic overlap is role , followed by decision-making , hiring , education , compensation , leadership , human capital , and family .

Career progression implies an advancement in the hierarchical ladder of the firm, assigning managerial roles to women. Coherently, much of the literature has focused on identifying rationales for a greater female participation in the top management team and board of directors [e.g., 95 ] as well as the best criteria to ensure that the decision-makers promote the most valuable employees irrespectively of their individual characteristics, such as gender [e.g., 84 ]. The link between career progression , role and compensation is often provided in practice by performance appraisal exercises, frequently rooted in a culture of meritocracy that guides bonuses, salary increases and promotions. However, performance appraisals can actually mask gender-biased decisions where women are held to higher standards than their male colleagues [e.g., 83 , 84 , 95 , 160 , 161 ]. Women often have less opportunities to gain leadership experience and are less visible than their male colleagues, which constitute barriers to career advancement [e.g., 162 ]. Therefore, transparency and accountability, together with procedures that discourage discretionary choices, are paramount to achieve a fair career progression [e.g., 84 ], together with the relaxation of strict job boundaries in favor of cross-functional and self-directed tasks [e.g., 163 ].

In addition, a series of stereotypes about the type of leadership characteristics that are required for top management positions, which fit better with typical male and agentic attributes, are another key barrier to career advancement for women [e.g., 92 , 160 ].

Hiring is the entrance gateway for women into the workforce. Therefore, it is related to other workforce topics such as compensation , role , career progression , decision-making , human capital , performance , organization and education .

A first stream of literature focuses on the process leading up to candidates’ job applications, demonstrating that bias exists before positions are even opened, and it is perpetuated both by men and women through networking and gatekeeping practices [e.g., 164 , 165 ].

The hiring process itself is also subject to biases [ 166 ], for example gender-congruity bias that leads to men being preferred candidates in male-dominated sectors [e.g., 167 ], women being hired in positions with higher risk of failure [e.g., 168 ] and limited transparency and accountability afforded by written processes and procedures [e.g., 164 ] that all contribute to ascriptive inequality. In addition, providing incentives for evaluators to hire women may actually work to this end; however, this is not the case when supporting female candidates endangers higher-ranking male ones [ 169 ].

Another interesting perspective, instead, looks at top management teams’ composition and the effects on hiring practices, indicating that firms with more women in top management are less likely to lay off staff [e.g., 152 ].

Performance

Several scholars posed their attention towards women’s performance, its consequences [e.g., 170 , 171 ] and the implications of having women in decision-making positions [e.g., 18 , 19 ].

At the individual level, research focused on differences in educational and academic performance between women and men, especially referring to the gender gap in STEM fields [e.g., 171 ]. The presence of stereotype threats–that is the expectation that the members of a social group (e.g., women) “must deal with the possibility of being judged or treated stereotypically, or of doing something that would confirm the stereotype” [ 172 ]–affects women’s interested in STEM [e.g., 173 ], as well as their cognitive ability tests, penalizing them [e.g., 174 ]. A stronger gender identification enhances this gap [e.g., 175 ], whereas mentoring and role models can be used as solutions to this problem [e.g., 121 ]. Despite the negative effect of stereotype threats on girls’ performance [ 176 ], female and male students perform equally in mathematics and related subjects [e.g., 177 ]. Moreover, while individuals’ performance at school and university generally affects their achievements and the field in which they end up working, evidence reveals that performance in math or other scientific subjects does not explain why fewer women enter STEM working fields; rather this gap depends on other aspects, such as culture, past working experiences, or self-efficacy [e.g., 170 ]. Finally, scholars have highlighted the penalization that women face for their positive performance, for instance when they succeed in traditionally male areas [e.g., 178 ]. This penalization is explained by the violation of gender-stereotypic prescriptions [e.g., 179 , 180 ], that is having women well performing in agentic areas, which are typical associated to men. Performance penalization can thus be overcome by clearly conveying communal characteristics and behaviors [ 178 ].

Evidence has been provided on how the involvement of women in boards of directors and decision-making positions affects firms’ performance. Nevertheless, results are mixed, with some studies showing positive effects on financial [ 19 , 181 , 182 ] and corporate social performance [ 99 , 182 , 183 ]. Other studies maintain a negative association [e.g., 18 ], and other again mixed [e.g., 184 ] or non-significant association [e.g., 185 ]. Also with respect to the presence of a female CEO, mixed results emerged so far, with some researches demonstrating a positive effect on firm’s performance [e.g., 96 , 186 ], while other obtaining only a limited evidence of this relationship [e.g., 103 ] or a negative one [e.g., 187 ].

Finally, some studies have investigated whether and how women’s performance affects their hiring [e.g., 101 ] and career progression [e.g., 83 , 160 ]. For instance, academic performance leads to different returns in hiring for women and men. Specifically, high-achieving men are called back significantly more often than high-achieving women, which are penalized when they have a major in mathematics; this result depends on employers’ gendered standards for applicants [e.g., 101 ]. Once appointed, performance ratings are more strongly related to promotions for women than men, and promoted women typically show higher past performance ratings than those of promoted men. This suggesting that women are subject to stricter standards for promotion [e.g., 160 ].

Behavioral aspects related to gender follow two main streams of literature. The first examines female personality and behavior in the workplace, and their alignment with cultural expectations or stereotypes [e.g., 188 ] as well as their impacts on equality. There is a common bias that depicts women as less agentic than males. Certain characteristics, such as those more congruent with male behaviors–e.g., self-promotion [e.g., 189 ], negotiation skills [e.g., 190 ] and general agentic behavior [e.g., 191 ]–, are less accepted in women. However, characteristics such as individualism in women have been found to promote greater gender equality in society [ 192 ]. In addition, behaviors such as display of emotions [e.g., 193 ], which are stereotypically female, work against women’s acceptance in the workplace, requiring women to carefully moderate their behavior to avoid exclusion. A counter-intuitive result is that women and minorities, which are more marginalized in the workplace, tend to be better problem-solvers in innovation competitions due to their different knowledge bases [ 194 ].

The other side of the coin is examined in a parallel literature stream on behavior towards women in the workplace. As a result of biases, prejudices and stereotypes, women may experience adverse behavior from their colleagues, such as incivility and harassment, which undermine their well-being [e.g., 195 , 196 ]. Biases that go beyond gender, such as for overweight people, are also more strongly applied to women [ 197 ].

Organization

The role of women and gender bias in organizations has been studied from different perspectives, which mirror those presented in detail in the following sections. Specifically, most research highlighted the stereotypical view of leaders [e.g., 105 ] and the roles played by women within firms, for instance referring to presence in the board of directors [e.g., 18 , 90 , 91 ], appointment as CEOs [e.g., 16 ], or top executives [e.g., 93 ].

Scholars have investigated antecedents and consequences of the presence of women in these apical roles. On the one side they looked at hiring and career progression [e.g., 83 , 92 , 160 , 168 , 198 ], finding women typically disadvantaged with respect to their male counterparts. On the other side, they studied women’s leadership styles and influence on the firm’s decision-making [e.g., 152 , 154 , 155 , 199 ], with implications for performance [e.g., 18 , 19 , 96 ].

Human capital

Human capital is a transverse topic that touches upon many different aspects of female gender equality. As such, it has the most associations with other topics, starting with education as mentioned above, with career-related topics such as role , decision-making , hiring , career progression , performance , compensation , leadership and organization . Another topic with which there is a close connection is behavior . In general, human capital is approached both from the education standpoint but also from the perspective of social capital.

The behavioral aspect in human capital comprises research related to gender differences for example in cultural and religious beliefs that influence women’s attitudes and perceptions towards STEM subjects [ 142 , 200 – 202 ], towards employment [ 203 ] or towards environmental issues [ 150 , 204 ]. These cultural differences also emerge in the context of globalization which may accelerate gender equality in the workforce [ 205 , 206 ]. Gender differences also appear in behaviors such as motivation [ 207 ], and in negotiation [ 190 ], and have repercussions on women’s decision-making related to their careers. The so-called gender equality paradox sees women in countries with lower gender equality more likely to pursue studies and careers in STEM fields, whereas the gap in STEM enrollment widens as countries achieve greater equality in society [ 171 ].

Career progression is modeled by literature as a choice-process where personal preferences, culture and decision-making affect the chosen path and the outcomes. Some literature highlights how women tend to self-select into different professions than men, often due to stereotypes rather than actual ability to perform in these professions [ 142 , 144 ]. These stereotypes also affect the perceptions of female performance or the amount of human capital required to equal male performance [ 110 , 193 , 208 ], particularly for mothers [ 81 ]. It is therefore often assumed that women are better suited to less visible and less leadership -oriented roles [ 209 ]. Women also express differing preferences towards work-family balance, which affect whether and how they pursue human capital gains [ 210 ], and ultimately their career progression and salary .

On the other hand, men are often unaware of gendered processes and behaviors that they carry forward in their interactions and decision-making [ 211 , 212 ]. Therefore, initiatives aimed at increasing managers’ human capital –by raising awareness of gender disparities in their organizations and engaging them in diversity promotion–are essential steps to counter gender bias and segregation [ 213 ].

Emerging topics: Leadership and entrepreneurship

Among the emerging topics, the most pervasive one is women reaching leadership positions in the workforce and in society. This is still a rare occurrence for two main types of factors, on the one hand, bias and discrimination make it harder for women to access leadership positions [e.g., 214 – 216 ], on the other hand, the competitive nature and high pressure associated with leadership positions, coupled with the lack of women currently represented, reduce women’s desire to achieve them [e.g., 209 , 217 ]. Women are more effective leaders when they have access to education, resources and a diverse environment with representation [e.g., 218 , 219 ].

One sector where there is potential for women to carve out a leadership role is entrepreneurship . Although at the start of the millennium the discourse on entrepreneurship was found to be “discriminatory, gender-biased, ethnocentrically determined and ideologically controlled” [ 220 ], an increasing body of literature is studying how to stimulate female entrepreneurship as an alternative pathway to wealth, leadership and empowerment [e.g., 221 ]. Many barriers exist for women to access entrepreneurship, including the institutional and legal environment, social and cultural factors, access to knowledge and resources, and individual behavior [e.g., 222 , 223 ]. Education has been found to raise women’s entrepreneurial intentions [e.g., 224 ], although this effect is smaller than for men [e.g., 109 ]. In addition, increasing self-efficacy and risk-taking behavior constitute important success factors [e.g., 225 ].

Finally, the topic of sustainability is worth mentioning, as it is the primary objective of the SDGs and is closely associated with societal well-being. As society grapples with the effects of climate change and increasing depletion of natural resources, a narrative has emerged on women and their greater link to the environment [ 226 ]. Studies in developed countries have found some support for women leaders’ attention to sustainability issues in firms [e.g., 227 – 229 ], and smaller resource consumption by women [ 230 ]. At the same time, women will likely be more affected by the consequences of climate change [e.g., 230 ] but often lack the decision-making power to influence local decision-making on resource management and environmental policies [e.g., 231 ].

Research gaps and conclusions

Research on gender equality has advanced rapidly in the past decades, with a steady increase in publications, both in mainstream topics related to women in education and the workforce, and in emerging topics. Through a novel approach combining methods of text mining and social network analysis, we examined a comprehensive body of literature comprising 15,465 papers published between 2000 and mid 2021 on topics related to gender equality. We identified a set of 27 topics addressed by the literature and examined their connections.

At the highest level of abstraction, it is worth noting that papers abound on the identification of issues related to gender inequalities and imbalances in the workforce and in society. Literature has thoroughly examined the (unconscious) biases, barriers, stereotypes, and discriminatory behaviors that women are facing as a result of their gender. Instead, there are much fewer papers that discuss or demonstrate effective solutions to overcome gender bias [e.g., 121 , 143 , 145 , 163 , 194 , 213 , 232 ]. This is partly due to the relative ease in studying the status quo, as opposed to studying changes in the status quo. However, we observed a shift in the more recent years towards solution seeking in this domain, which we strongly encourage future researchers to focus on. In the future, we may focus on collecting and mapping pro-active contributions to gender studies, using additional Natural Language Processing techniques, able to measure the sentiment of scientific papers [ 43 ].

All of the mainstream topics identified in our literature review are closely related, and there is a wealth of insights looking at the intersection between issues such as education and career progression or human capital and role . However, emerging topics are worthy of being furtherly explored. It would be interesting to see more work on the topic of female entrepreneurship , exploring aspects such as education , personality , governance , management and leadership . For instance, how can education support female entrepreneurship? How can self-efficacy and risk-taking behaviors be taught or enhanced? What are the differences in managerial and governance styles of female entrepreneurs? Which personality traits are associated with successful entrepreneurs? Which traits are preferred by venture capitalists and funding bodies?

The emerging topic of sustainability also deserves further attention, as our society struggles with climate change and its consequences. It would be interesting to see more research on the intersection between sustainability and entrepreneurship , looking at how female entrepreneurs are tackling sustainability issues, examining both their business models and their company governance . In addition, scholars are suggested to dig deeper into the relationship between family values and behaviors.

Moreover, it would be relevant to understand how women’s networks (social capital), or the composition and structure of social networks involving both women and men, enable them to increase their remuneration and reach top corporate positions, participate in key decision-making bodies, and have a voice in communities. Furthermore, the achievement of gender equality might significantly change firm networks and ecosystems, with important implications for their performance and survival.

Similarly, research at the nexus of (corporate) governance , career progression , compensation and female empowerment could yield useful insights–for example discussing how enterprises, institutions and countries are managed and the impact for women and other minorities. Are there specific governance structures that favor diversity and inclusion?

Lastly, we foresee an emerging stream of research pertaining how the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic challenged women, especially in the workforce, by making gender biases more evident.

For our analysis, we considered a set of 15,465 articles downloaded from the Scopus database (which is the largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature). As we were interested in reviewing business and economics related gender studies, we only considered those papers published in journals listed in the Academic Journal Guide (AJG) 2018 ranking of the Chartered Association of Business Schools (CABS). All the journals listed in this ranking are also indexed by Scopus. Therefore, looking at a single database (i.e., Scopus) should not be considered a limitation of our study. However, future research could consider different databases and inclusion criteria.

With our literature review, we offer researchers a comprehensive map of major gender-related research trends over the past twenty-two years. This can serve as a lens to look to the future, contributing to the achievement of SDG5. Researchers may use our study as a starting point to identify key themes addressed in the literature. In addition, our methodological approach–based on the use of the Semantic Brand Score and its webapp–could support scholars interested in reviewing other areas of research.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments.

The computing resources and the related technical support used for this work have been provided by CRESCO/ENEAGRID High Performance Computing infrastructure and its staff. CRESCO/ENEAGRID High Performance Computing infrastructure is funded by ENEA, the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development and by Italian and European research programmes (see http://www.cresco.enea.it/english for information).

Funding Statement

P.B and F.C.: Grant of the Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Construction of the University of Pisa (DESTEC) for the project “Measuring Gender Bias with Semantic Analysis: The Development of an Assessment Tool and its Application in the European Space Industry. P.B., F.C., A.F.C., P.R.: Grant of the Italian Association of Management Engineering (AiIG), “Misure di sostegno ai soci giovani AiIG” 2020, for the project “Gender Equality Through Data Intelligence (GEDI)”. F.C.: EU project ASSETs+ Project (Alliance for Strategic Skills addressing Emerging Technologies in Defence) EAC/A03/2018 - Erasmus+ programme, Sector Skills Alliances, Lot 3: Sector Skills Alliance for implementing a new strategic approach (Blueprint) to sectoral cooperation on skills G.A. NUMBER: 612678-EPP-1-2019-1-IT-EPPKA2-SSA-B.

Data Availability

5 Powerful Essays Advocating for Gender Equality

Gender equality – which becomes reality when all genders are treated fairly and allowed equal opportunities –  is a complicated human rights issue for every country in the world. Recent statistics are sobering. According to the World Economic Forum, it will take 108 years to achieve gender parity . The biggest gaps are found in political empowerment and economics. Also, there are currently just six countries that give women and men equal legal work rights. Generally, women are only given ¾ of the rights given to men. To learn more about how gender equality is measured, how it affects both women and men, and what can be done, here are five essays making a fair point.

Take a free course on Gender Equality offered by top universities!

“Countries With Less Gender Equity Have More Women In STEM — Huh?” – Adam Mastroianni and Dakota McCoy

This essay from two Harvard PhD candidates (Mastroianni in psychology and McCoy in biology) takes a closer look at a recent study that showed that in countries with lower gender equity, more women are in STEM. The study’s researchers suggested that this is because women are actually especially interested in STEM fields, and because they are given more choice in Western countries, they go with different careers. Mastroianni and McCoy disagree.

They argue the research actually shows that cultural attitudes and discrimination are impacting women’s interests, and that bias and discrimination is present even in countries with better gender equality. The problem may lie in the Gender Gap Index (GGI), which tracks factors like wage disparity and government representation. To learn why there’s more women in STEM from countries with less gender equality, a more nuanced and complex approach is needed.

“Men’s health is better, too, in countries with more gender equality” – Liz Plank

When it comes to discussions about gender equality, it isn’t uncommon for someone in the room to say, “What about the men?” Achieving gender equality has been difficult because of the underlying belief that giving women more rights and freedom somehow takes rights away from men. The reality, however, is that gender equality is good for everyone. In Liz Plank’s essay, which is an adaption from her book For the Love of Men: A Vision for Mindful Masculinity, she explores how in Iceland, the #1 ranked country for gender equality, men live longer. Plank lays out the research for why this is, revealing that men who hold “traditional” ideas about masculinity are more likely to die by suicide and suffer worse health. Anxiety about being the only financial provider plays a big role in this, so in countries where women are allowed education and equal earning power, men don’t shoulder the burden alone.

Liz Plank is an author and award-winning journalist with Vox, where she works as a senior producer and political correspondent. In 2015, Forbes named her one of their “30 Under 30” in the Media category. She’s focused on feminist issues throughout her career.

“China’s #MeToo Moment” –  Jiayang Fan

Some of the most visible examples of gender inequality and discrimination comes from “Me Too” stories. Women are coming forward in huge numbers relating how they’ve been harassed and abused by men who have power over them. Most of the time, established systems protect these men from accountability. In this article from Jiayang Fan, a New Yorker staff writer, we get a look at what’s happening in China.

The essay opens with a story from a PhD student inspired by the United States’ Me Too movement to open up about her experience with an academic adviser. Her story led to more accusations against the adviser, and he was eventually dismissed. This is a rare victory, because as Fan says, China employs a more rigid system of patriarchy and hierarchy. There aren’t clear definitions or laws surrounding sexual harassment. Activists are charting unfamiliar territory, which this essay explores.

“Men built this system. No wonder gender equality remains as far off as ever.” – Ellie Mae O’Hagan

Freelance journalist Ellie Mae O’Hagan (whose book The New Normal is scheduled for a May 2020 release) is discouraged that gender equality is so many years away. She argues that it’s because the global system of power at its core is broken.  Even when women are in power, which is proportionally rare on a global scale, they deal with a system built by the patriarchy. O’Hagan’s essay lays out ideas for how to fix what’s fundamentally flawed, so gender equality can become a reality.

Ideas include investing in welfare; reducing gender-based violence (which is mostly men committing violence against women); and strengthening trade unions and improving work conditions. With a system that’s not designed to put women down, the world can finally achieve gender equality.

“Invisibility of Race in Gender Pay Gap Discussions” – Bonnie Chu

The gender pay gap has been a pressing issue for many years in the United States, but most discussions miss the factor of race. In this concise essay, Senior Contributor Bonnie Chu examines the reality, writing that within the gender pay gap, there’s other gaps when it comes to black, Native American, and Latina women. Asian-American women, on the other hand, are paid 85 cents for every dollar. This data is extremely important and should be present in discussions about the gender pay gap. It reminds us that when it comes to gender equality, there’s other factors at play, like racism.

Bonnie Chu is a gender equality advocate and a Forbes 30 Under 30 social entrepreneur. She’s the founder and CEO of Lensational, which empowers women through photography, and the Managing Director of The Social Investment Consultancy.

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About the author, emmaline soken-huberty.

Emmaline Soken-Huberty is a freelance writer based in Portland, Oregon. She started to become interested in human rights while attending college, eventually getting a concentration in human rights and humanitarianism. LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights, and climate change are of special concern to her. In her spare time, she can be found reading or enjoying Oregon’s natural beauty with her husband and dog.

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33 Best Women’s and Gender Studies Paper Topics

Gender equity is among the trending issues around the globe. This has been characterized by women empowerment movements in various countries and rules geared towards protecting women in multiple societies.

To do this, institutions have focused on studies on gender, thus empowering women to reduce their vulnerability. The regular changes bring about diverse gender paper topics, making it hard to settle for a specific idea for your thesis paper.

This article will suggest some gender issues topics for the research paper to boost your brainstorming efforts.

Women’s Gender Studies Paper Topics

Gender research paper topics.

• Factors that discourage parents from providing their daughters with a decent education in third world countries
• Discrimination against women in the workplace and how to overcome the bias
• A case study on the psychological implications of single parenting on women
• Differences in raising of a girl and boy child and the limitations of their societal expectations
• Evolution of movements against gender discrimination
• The role of marital partners in the well being
• Reasons as to why women are underrepresented in the upper tier of business management
• Do family roles in couples hold back the career progress of the wife?
• Why elections are biased towards male candidates: Steps to overcoming the bias
• Analyzing gender-based violence in various countries across the globe

Research topics in gender studies

• How to instill the culture of gender equity in children at a tender age
• The role of women in the development of the world economy
• Measures that you can take to protect women from gender violence in cities
• Women wage-gap across the globe and steps to bridge the gap
• Gender role stereotype: their relevance in early days and why their relevance in the modern society
• Development of gender studies and the impact of gender studies in women empowerment
• Maternity and paternity leave: Are both necessary? Are parenting roles defined for each gender?
• Is education a viable option for eliminating societal gender bias?
• Factors that contribute to gender inequality within developing countries
• Are women inferior to their male counterparts? Factors behind the stereotype and approaches to do away with this stereotype

Feminist research paper topics

• The role of environment in the mental growth and role assumption among women
• Masculinity vs. femininity: Does the societal view of each gender contribute to the overall gender bias?
• Role of mainstream media in eradicating gender bias in society
• Famous feminist literary works and their impact on the societal view of gender
• How to eliminate sexual exploitation among women in developed and developing countries
• Historical roots of male chauvinism and the effect on the feminist movement in Africa
• Role of African Women in society and steps to ensuring gender equality
• A case study on how social media is shaping the view of feminism
• Why feminism is viewed as men hatred in some societies
• The impact of little female representation on women political participation

Women’s studies research paper topics

• Reasons why women were barred from serving in the US military until 2013. Factors that led to the change.
• How women’s health and rights have been associated throughout history
• What factors made it easy for Japan to adopt equality laws compared to its European counterparts

How to choose a gender paper topic

When studying gender, the selection of a good topic is essential to have an easy writing process. When brainstorming a subject for your gender papers, you may follow the following tips:

• Formulate questions – after reading the thesis statement, formulate a question regarding the main idea encapsulated in the statement.
• Compile a keyword list – when formulating your topic, you may consider writing the keywords on the trending issues within the subject. Next, interconnect these keywords and determine how a single case can tackle your ideas.
• Check available information – before settling on a topic, check for the availability of materials to back your arguments. However, steer free of issues that have been over addressed as they may limit new ideas without plagiarizing existing work.

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569 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender

Looking for gender research topics for your paper? Look no further! In this awesome list, you will find here plenty of research questions about gender, essay topics, discussion ideas, and more. Check it out!

🏆 Best Essay Topics on Gender

⭐ catchy gender essay topics, 👍 good gender research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot gender studies research topics to write about, 🎓 most interesting gender research titles, 💡 simple gender issues topics for research paper, 📌 easy gender essay topics, ❓ research questions about gender, 🔥 interesting research topics on women’s issues, ✅ gender studies topics to write about.

• Gender-Based Violence in South Africa
• The Social Construction of Gender
• Preventing Gender-Based Violence
• Gender-Based Violence and Its Effects: Literature Review
• The Social Construction of Gender Roles
• Gender and Sexuality: Essay Example
• Gender Roles in The Tempest
• Gender Inequality Issue and Solutions Gender equality is a key human right that should be enjoyed by everyone. All people – regardless of their gender – should be able to enjoy the same rights and opportunities.
• Elizabethan Era Gender Roles in Shakespeare Plays Searching for an essay on gender roles in Shakespeare’s plays? Here is an excellent essay sample on the topic! Use it for inspiration.
• Gender Roles Effects on Children Development Many aspects of children education affect their development. One of these aspects is the way in which they are taught about gender roles.
• Gender Inequality in the Workplace The global fight against gender inequality in the workplace can be successful if appropriate initiatives and interventions are taken at the organizational level.
• “Lanval”: Summary & Analysis of Gender Roles and Courtly Love “Lanval” is one of Marie de France’s lais in which the idea of love is discussed from the specific perspective according to which women and men are equal in their love.
• Gender Roles in Medea – Stereotypes & Resistance With the help of Medea and Jason, the main characters of the play “Medea”, Euripides presented individuals as complex creatures who carry both women’s and man’s characteristics.
• Horizontal and Vertical Gender Segregation in Employment Gender segregation refers to unequal distribution of men and women in the occupational structure. Vertical segregation refers to placing men at the top of occupational hierarchies.
• Gender Stereotyping in the “Pretty Woman” Movie The movie Pretty Woman, starring Julia Roberts and Richard Gere, created quite a bit of stirring among the feminist supporters of the country.
• Gender Discrimination and Performance in the Workplace While talking about the gender discrimination, both sexes are considered although on discrimination the female are mainly on the receiving end.
• Impact of Fashion on Gender and Sexual Identity Fashion has long been used to communicate gender and sexuality. Clothing is a powerful way of expressing identity and communicating with the outside world.
• Gender-Neutral Toilets in Schools Schools with both gender-expansive and transgender students are often endeavoring to create an enabling environment that addresses the needs of such a diverse population.
• Gender in The Great Gatsby & The Yellow Wallpaper The complexities of men and women in the texts were examined and evaluated on the basis of sexuality and relationship and the inferences would be supported by the text itself.
• Gender Stereotypes in Western and Eastern Culture Stereotypes claim that the girls from the east are well behaved. They are shy and respectful, quiet and smart.
• Gender Roles in “The Handmaid’s Tale” by Atwood Margaret Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale” is a novel illustrating a dystopian system in which fertile women become the maids of couples who cannot conceive.
• Postmodern Feminism and Its Theory of Gender as Social Construction Post modern feminists argue that there are no natural building blocks between genders. It is the society that structures human being in a particular way to keep differences.
• Gender and Sexuality in Contemporary Culture In the contemporary society, gender and sexuality forms the basis for recognition. In effect, social construction defines that males and females are different creatures.
• Gender and Grade Point Average: Statistical Analysis This research paper aims to assess the relationship between Grade Point Average and gender by applying correlation analysis with stratified sampling.
• Gender Differences in Delinquency Research shows that gender is the most influential correlate for juvenile delinquency. In other words, males tend to commit more crimes than women.
• Gender Representation in Akira Kurosawa’s Films This paper is intended to analyze one of the most controversial topics of Kurosawa’s films, specifically gender representation.
• Women and Gender Roles in “Antigone” by Sophocles Sophocles’ “Antigone” tells a story of a woman who disobeys the order of the ruler of Thebes who decided to leave the body of her brother unburied on the battlefield.
• Gender Discrimination Issues and Interventions Women should be encouraged to more actively protect their labor rights, do not be afraid to apply to the prosecutor’s office, the state labor inspectorate, or the court.
• Gender Roles in “Wide Sargasso Sea” by Jean Rhys The impacts of colonialism and civilisation on the society in the Jean Rhys’ novel, Wide Sargasso Sea and specifically regarding its impact on gender roles in society.
• Gender & Feminism in A Doll’s House The paper uses a combination of gender focus and reader-response approaches and argues that in “A Doll’s House” women’s self-sacrifice is viewed as a regular responsibility.
• Gender Discrimination in Society and Social Media: Solutions The paper finds out to what extent discriminatory attitudes are present in different societies and how much social media induce them.
• Changing Gender Roles in Families This essay analyzes two articles on family gender roles and argues that the changing gender roles in modern society is rapidly being driven by single parent family controversy.
• Social Learning and Gender Schema Theories The paper states that social learning theory and gender schema theory, studying the same subject, provide their perceptions of gender-role development.
• Social Construction of Gender and Sexual Dichotomy Gender is usually divided into two sexes, namely male and female, in modern society. Traditionally, gender is determined by various physiological features, such as genitalia.
• Gender, Racial Discrimination, and Exclusion in Toni Morrison’s “Paradise” “Paradise” addresses the issue of racism by narrating a story about African Americans who move to the town of Ruby, in which people repeat certain mistakes.
• The Issue of Gender-Separated Sports Gender-separated sports provide better opportunities for all gender involved while also respecting gender-related patterns of building social relations.
• Women: Gender Inequality and Discrimination This paper explains whether innate gender differences exist and how they determine the abilities, choices, and aptitudes that differentiate men from women.
• Gender Differences in Using the English Language This paper investigates gender differences in using the English language to understand the attitudes of men and women when they choose the way of pronunciation and vocabulary.
• Gender Discrimination in “Disgrace” by J.M Coetzee J.M Coetzee’s book “Disgrace” that has been examined in this paper explores the nature of gender discrimination meted on women in South Africa.
• Speech of Emma Watson: Gender Equality The paper discusses the process of Emma Watson makes the first speech called United Nations Address on Gender Equality, focusing on gender equality.
• Gender and Sexual activity: Literature Review This literature review focus on various perspectives of gender and sexuality in the context of different arenas of social groups.
• Performative Acts and Gender Constitution The rationale for Butler’s idea that gender represents actions that are norms and traditions of our society reflects cultural and historical experience.
• Gender Roles Within Greek Society Gender roles in Greek society were determined by social and cultural traditions, position of women in society and their significance as citizens.
• Modern Issues of Gender Studies The study of gender entails consideration of men and women in the society. The subject defines the notion of gender and how society has been shaping the concept over the time.
• How Gender Stereotypes Affect Society Gender stereotypes are harmful because they only teach men and women to act in certain ways; they confine people to a set of behaviors associated with their gender.
• Gender Lightbulb Moment in Personal Experience The sex-role stereotyping and gender bias can be countered by educating people on the importance of diversity.
• Biology and Culture of Gender Color Stereotypes This paper attempts to answer this question and determine whether the indicated color genders are biologically based or culturally embedded.
• Aspects of Parenting and Gender Roles For children to develop a healthy understanding of gender roles, it is essential that parents choose the right approach to their formation.
• Sex and Gender as a Social Phenomenon The paper establishes the differences between sex and gender; defines the term of gender identity; interprets gender from the viewpoint of every sociological angle.
• Multiculturalism as a Threat to Gender Equality To make democratic states realize that tolerance must not equal acceptance and that the specifics of a particular culture must not be projected onto another one.
• Sally Haslanger’s “Gender and Race” Review In Sally Haslanger’s philosophical essay ‘Gender and Race: (What) are they? (What) do we want them to be?’ the author utilizes an analytical approach to gender and race.
• Role of Mass Media in Gender Issues This paper discusses the role of mass media in the presentation of gender and examines standards from various media sources to demonstrate how some news stories develop.
• Single Parenthood Households and Gender-Related Issues In contemporary society, single parenthood has become common. Marriages between two couples are no longer popular.
• Women and Men Empowerment for Gender Equality The current world has emphasized women empowerment that has led to men’s disempowerment. It is important to involve men in the intervention of gender equality.
• Stereotypes of Gender Roles The paper details the scientific justification, impacts, development, prevention strategies, and how gender role stereotypes can be addressed.
• Is Gender Natural or Acquired? Gender may be categorized as both natural and acquired since one has the ability to transform from one gender to another.
• Impact of Globalization on Norms and Experiences around Gender Inequality is one of the most prolonged global debates that have refused to go away despite the great strides made through globalization
• Race and Gender Stereotypes in Literature Literary texts are used to advance gender and race-related stereotypes. In this paper, the author examines three literary texts: Araby, The Hound of the Baskervilles and The False Gems.
• Societal and Gender Construction Affecting Incidents of Domestic Violence The paper intends to explore how societal and gender construction can affect the incidences of domestic violence.
• Influence of Culture and Gender on Personality Disorders Diagnosis The ongoing polemics is believed to have a positive influence on the functioning and finding new approaches while treating personality disorders.
• Addressing the Issue of Gender Equality Gender equality is one of the core problems of the current century. It means providing equal conditions for men and women
• Is Gender a Culturally or Biologically Perscribed Role? The concept of gender as a product of culture or biology has been debated and analyzed by various researchers. The result of this debate has further polarized the topic.
• Marriage and Inequalities With Gender The issue of bridging gender equality has been the center of debate in the 21 century. The role of women in society could no longer be underestimated.
• Personal Awareness: Gender Identity Personal awareness is an important aspect of life cause it empowers a person on how to make cognizant decisions. Friends, family and society have a profound impact on personality.
• Gender Differences in Agressive Behavior The belief that violence is observed mostly in men than in women in the daily observations has a stable base in the records of crime and also in the common perception about gender.
• Japanese vs. American Male Gender Roles American males perceived their women as weak and powerless creatures requiring protection, whereas the Japanese male stereotypes envisioned their women as being subordinate to men.
• Gender in Sophocles’ Tragedy Antigone One such tragedy is Antigone, written by Sophocles; it features a strong female character in opposition to an oppressive, politically bound male.
• How Society Influences the Gender Roles Society should reconsider some of the gender roles to close the gap and give people equal opportunities to thrive and explore.
• Objective Social Structure: Race, Gender, and Class The vast majority of social divisions take place based on race, gender, and class, where one or all three categories are imposed on individuals.
• Gender Inequality in French Hospitality Industry The study scrutinizes the French hotel and tourism sector and the concerns and challenges women encounter in management roles and compares them to the trends.
• Rethinking Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination The paper focuses on the theory of egoism and when to apply the theory in the work environment to avoid sexual discrimination.
• Gender Roles: “What’s That Smell in the Kitchen” by Piercy “What’s That Smell in the Kitchen” by Marge Piercy is a poem that speaks against gender-stereotyped roles in society. It considers as a feminist literary piece of the 20th century.
• Sexuality in “Love Beyond Gender” by Alysia Abbott The question of sexuality has always been an ongoing issue for human society. Sexual interest impacts the life of an individual and predetermines the choice of a partner.
• The Color of Sex: Postwar Histories of Race and Gender The article “The Color of Sex: Postwar Photogenic Histories of Race and Gender in National Geographic Magazines” disclosed how the images of people of color are formed by the popular culture.
• Role of Gender in Society In today’s society, equality is an issue that has not been fully achieved and integrated in the society, and hence gender roles are very distinguishable
• Gender Divide and Solidarity in Susan Glaspell’s ‘Trifles’ Trifles is an one-act play written by Susan Glaspell which crux of the story is the murder of John Wright, and the subsequent investigation of this event by other characters.
• Sexuality and Gender-Related Behavior During Adolescence The paper analyzes identity development in adolescence, the neurological shifts that occur at this age, as well as other changes characteristic.
• Gender Roles and Inequalities in Advertisement The perfume for men, Dior Sauvage, was released in 2019, and an advertising campaign supported it with Johnny Depp.
• Cinderella and Girl: Feminist and Gender Critique Anne Sexton, in her poem Cinderella focuses on the position of women in society on the material of the well-known fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm.
• Sexism and Gender Inequality in Sport The paper reviews an example of sexism and gender inequality and academic scholarship on the topic. Women athletes have faced gender inequality and sexism.
• Influence of Gender on Life and Sexism Sexism is a negative phenomenon meaning that individuals face various opportunities and attitudes based on their genders.
• Gender Issues in the Leadership of the Organization Traditional stereotypes of women as being less suited for leadership roles is also one of the reasons why gender has been linked to leadership.
• Gender Expectations in the Disney Film “The Little Mermaid” This article will show that the Disney’s work magnifies the evolving roles of women in society, and despite the existing tensions and backlash, women are integrating successfully into the society.
• Gender Pay Gap From Feminist Perspective Feminists are in the best position to comprehend and articulate the causes of the problems women face in society, which include the gender pay gap.
• Contemporary Gender Equality Challenge This essay investigates the issues associated with gender equality on both individual and community levels and identifies the possible responses to those challenges.
• Gender Role Differences and Immigration Gender roles have played a considerable role in the ways that women were assimilated in the process of immigration.
• The Issue of Gender Discrimination Related to Business and Society In this paper, the issue of gender discrimination will be analyzed based on how the deteriorated relationships taking root from societal issues affect all sides of the conflict.
• “Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment” by Kabeer Gender inequality is an issue that has led to endless debates with different people proposing diverse solutions to ensure equality is exercised.
• The Politics of Gender and Race in the Ilbert Bill Controversy The Ilbert Bill is an essential contribution to the study of women. It was one of the first attempts to eliminate racial discrimination under the Indian Criminal Code.
• Gender and Cultures in Conflict Resolution The conflict resolution measures should not solely end conflicts, but should also help to restore the fighting communities together.
• Susan Glaspell’s ‘Trifles’ – Gender Oppression and Justice The drama Trifles by Susan Glaspell revolves around the murder of John Wright, a farmer described by his peers as an honest and hard-working man.
• Gender-Neutral Upbringing: Reasonable and Possible? The gender-neutral upbringing gains popularity. The paper finds out if it is reasonable to set the goal of gender-neutrality and if it can ever be accomplished.
• Gender and Race in Langston Hughes’ Poetry of the Spanish Civil War Langston Hughes was a crucial figure in the 1920s Harlem Renaissance, which blossomed black intellectual, literary, and creative life in several American cities, particularly Harlem.
• Gender Identity Development This paper discusses the development of one’s gender identity from an early age and the different factors that affected that development.
• Gender Bias During the Hiring Process Gender bias in hiring has been a problem that many organizations have dealt with, as many employers prefer to hire men because of the notion that they are more committed.
• Nature-Nurture Debate of Gender Identity The paper states that what determines the gender of an individual, nature or nurture, was of interest to people long before the advent of gender studies.
• The Movie”Smurfs”: The Problem of Gender Roles The gender roles in the Smurfs are polarized and fixed between male and female stereotypes, which is a mentality of the past.
• What Makes an Ideal Society? Revolutionary Ideas for Gender Equality The article is relevant because it demonstrates how a perfect society can be achieved by first realizing social change, as it was done before the women’s movements.
• The Importance of Gender in Marketing The behaviour of the consumer is the activity aimed directly on the reception, consumption and the arrangements of products and services, including processes of decision-making.
• Themes of Feminism & Gender in A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen Ibsen is considered one of the most successful play writers of the 19th century. He has a large body of work in various genres of literature.
• Shifting Gender Norms in Isabel Allende’s The House of the Spirits The questions of gender equality and the role of women in family and society are central for Isabel Allende’s novel The House of the Spirits that was first published in 1982.
• Gender Equality in Jackson’s “The Lottery” The issue of gender relationships has been widely discussed in the literature, and Jackson’s “The Lottery” is one of the strongest examples of the gender inequality problem.
• Does the Gender Pay Gap Still Exist? Although a lot of people believe that in the modern world, the gender pay gap is closing fast, in fact, the real state of things is quite the opposite–the discrepancy is as wide as it has ever been.
• Gender Dynamics in Development This essay opens with the indication of how serious gender dynamics affect life. Gender issues must be understood if development goals are to be realized.
• The Relationship Between Gender and GPA The impact of students’ socio-demographic characteristics on their overall academic performance is the subject of the current paper.
• Gender Inequality and Feminism in a TV Series Gender inequality indicators measure quantifiable aspects of biases against women or men. It is the women who suffer the most from gender discrimination.
• “Glass Ceiling” in the Theory of Gender Studies The term ‘glass ceiling’ in the theory of gender studies describes an invisible and formally unmarked barrier that limits the advancement of women through the ranks.
• Gender Equality Strategies in Education Global organizations make substantial efforts to solve the problem of gender inequality, which remains relevant despite the improvements made.
• Role of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising The paper states that it is of great significance to understand the reasons behind the advertisers’ attachment to socially constructed gender differences.
• Gender Bias in the Aviation Industry The findings of the court of appeal in the case of Cello Diaz versus Pan American World Airways, was significant towards employment equity.
• Perkin-Gilman’s Feminist Theory and View on Gender Discrimination In “The Yellow Wallpaper”, Gilman depicts in novel structure how the house turns into a women’s jail and how being shut in could lead to mental distress in women.
• Gender Stereotyping in Audi’s Used Car Ad Audi’s Used Car Ad was chosen because it sparked outrage on Chinese social media and worldwide because of the severe misogyny and stereotyping.
• Gender, Social Structure and Division of Labor In every community, there is a gender structure that provides bodies with inequality through the sex category.
• Woman and Gender Equality in Canada With the modernization of society, there is a need for additional measures to ensure the rights of women all over the country.
• Gender Relations in Roman Society The aspect of gender relations in Rome involves some peculiarities which help to perceive the whole essence of the Roman culture.
• Female Gender and Changes over the Last 150 Years The main problem of the female gender is that we are living in the so-called “gender prison” because a set of biological characteristics pre determines our behavior.
• Gender Hierarchy in English Language This paper shows how the asymmetry in male and female terms in the English language preserves gender hierarchy and male control.
• Gender Discrimination Topic for Research Gender discrimination is a social phenomenon based on cultural practices that set a glass ceiling to women in many aspects of life.
• Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parental Influence on an Adolescent’s Career Choice Gender stereotypes are still persistent in societies that often seem to be egalitarian. These stereotypes are transmitted to younger generations that copy their parents’ role models.
• Behavioral Learning Approach and Gender-Role Behavior Individuals learn particular behaviors when influenced by various environmental factors associated with specific macro- and micro-social contexts.
• Sex, Gender, and Inequalities In this paper, gender binarism, sexism, institutionalized gender, and sex patterns in the society are assessed. It is important in reviewing the differences between gender and sex.
• Gender Roles in Cartoons Most people believe that children can use the portrayals of gender in cartoons arrangement to establish their roles of their gender and to understand their roles in their culture.
• Gender Differences in the Prevalence and Characteristics of Pain in Spain Culture plays an important role in people’s approach to sickness and healthcare. Providing culturally appropriate medical services is pivotal to meeting Spanish patients’ needs.
• Critical Areas in Women and Gender Studies Women and Gender studies investigate how larger structural influences, including nation-building, globalization, economic growth, and the legal system.
• Understanding Different Gender Roles and the Impact on Marketing There are traditional and nontraditional gender roles that determine how male and female models are used in commercials.
• Factors Contributing to the Gender Pay Gap in the UK The gender pay gap still exists; this essay will discuss what causes the gap and human resource strategies to eliminate the inequalities in remunerations.
• The Issue of Gender Inequality in Kenya Kenya is one of the countries in sub-Saharan Africa with oppressive conditions, most preferably the gender inequality and marginalization of a specific proportion of the populace.
• The Gender Pay Gap in Australia The existence of a gender gap is a severe problem for economic equality in a democratic society. This paper tests the idea that a gender pay gap exists using Australian workers.
• Gender Roles in the Boys Don’t Cry Movie Boys Don’t Cry is a famous movie directed by Kimberly Peirce. It explores the influence of rigid gender-based behavioral expectations on a person’s well-being and safety.
• Gender Bias in Sports Commentary Observations The analysis of the ESPN coverage of sporting events shows that, although women are portrayed mostly equally, they generally receive less media attention than men.
• Gender Diversity in Organizations A strategy to combat gender bias in the workplace is now in place. Equalization of opportunities and access to resources for both genders has become a key method of this approach.
• Gender Roles in a Modern Society Throughout the history of humanity, a woman has been assigned the role of being dependent on a man and, to some extent, subordinate to him.
• Gender in Traditional Superhero Costumes The traditional superhero costumes reinforce gender and sexuality by emphasizing the need for men to be well-built and the women to reveal their upper body and legs.
• Gender, Philosophy, and Religion in the Axial Age The philosophers of the axial age were primarily involved in the discussion of justice as the principal condition of citizens’ wellbeing.
• Gender Inequality in Social Inequality This topic was chosen because the problem of gender inequality has existed for a long time and is being solved with varying success.
• Issues of Sex and Gender in Society Today All issues related to gender have been rather acute and debated since early times. One can deftly manipulate people for the sake of one’s benefit.
• Discussion of Gender Roles in Modern World During human history, gender stereotypes have been widespread, and the community has defined the person’s role based on gender.
• “Women’s Assessments of Gender Equality Critique” by Kurzman This article explains how women’s assessment of gender equality does not continually match with the worldwide indices of gender inequality.
• Images and Messages Patterns About Gender Given by Advertisers in Mass Media The use of gender stereotypes in advertisements by the mass media has elicited a lot of problems. Advertisements are seen as perpetrators of inequality and social prejudice.
• Gender Roles and Psychological Health The emergence of traditional gender roles and the images of masculinity and femininity can be regarded as an attempt to organize society and create stable social structures.
• The Fifth Element: Gender and Sexuality in Cinema The work learns gender and sexuality in the context of the movie The Fifth Element that will add a better understanding of popular mistakes and stereotypes used by cinematographers.
• Impact of Globalization on Gender Norms and Experiences The contemporary world is characterized by economic, social, cultural, and political integration of both men and women across all spheres.
• Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations Psychologists have paid significant attention to gender stereotypes, and many important trends have been identified and evaluated. Researchers use various methodologies.
• ANOVA Research: Person’s Gender and Level of Education A one-way repeated measures ANOVA will be appropriate for a research because this test allows for comparing the means of a variable of the same sample when these means were measured.
• Gender Stereotypes Developed Within Families The researchers hypothesized that parents’ views on gender roles as well as their stereotypes would be adopted by their children.
• Gender-Neutral Schools in Sweden Boys and girls should be treated equally from the very start. Some schools in Sweden have utilized this approach to ensure that any unfairness is avoided.
• Chip ‘n Dale Rescue Rangers: Gender Roles The domination of the female gender in the cartoon Chip ‘n Dale Rescue Rangers is presented with the expression of the males’ agreement to subject to that domination.
• Examples of Employment Discrimination: Gender, Age, Race, & Others Discrimination in the workplace can be detrimental since it leads to depression and other psychological disorders that affect employees’ productivity.
• Gender: The Social Roles of Men and Women The paper states that the term “gender” describes how society and culture make distinctions between men and women based on things like sex.
• Sexual and Gender-Based Violence The media frequently sensationalizes domestic violence against women and diverts attention from the perpetrator, according to international reporting on violence against women.
• Gender Inequality in “The Yellow Wallpaper”, “A Rose for Emily”, and “Trifels” The paper focuses on analyzing A Rose for Emily, written by William Faulkner, The Yellow Wallpaper, by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and Susan Glaspell’s Trifles.
• The Role of Gender in Social and Moral Development Gender is a quality that society has been using as a source of information about a person for centuries, concluding one’s personality.
• Gender Equality: Language and Literature The universal human rights principles propound that every person must be treated equally before the law regardless of their gender.
• Gender Equality Cannot Be a Universal Concept This paper addresses whether gender equality is a universal concept that needs to strive across regions and cultures or whether it should have different meanings.
• The Problem of Gender Identity in Sports Allowing athletes to compete regardless of their gender may effectively address gender segregation often shown in sports.
• Gender and Sexuality in Modern Society The topic of gender and sexuality emphasized how anthropology is connected to modern society and the world as it provides a cultural perspective on women’s role in society.
• Gender Differences in Aggression The propensity in women toward verbal aggression rather than a physical one as a quick way of resolving conflict in men is a notable difference.
• Gender Equality in the Media Workforce Gender equality has come a long way since what it had been 40 years ago that’s why denying the progress is pointless, as many changes were made, for the better.
• Global Misunderstanding of the Idea of Feminism and Gender Equality Global misunderstanding of the idea of feminism and gender equality in education leads to devastating consequences that cannot be allowed.
• Gender Stereotyping at Workplaces Many women develop sophisticated coping mechanisms to ignore gender roles in the workplace, leading them to believe they have not experienced inequality.
• Researching of Gender and Work-Life Balance When linking organizational performance to work-life balance, it is crucial to mention that stress-free individuals can generally be less prone to not being in control of their output.
• Gender Pay Gap Problem Overview This paper aims to discuss why the gender pay gap is an important issue that needs to be addressed by the HRM globally.
• Role of Ideology and Institutions in Gender Inequality This paper aims to present the current status of the issue while evaluating the importance of ideologies and institutions, masculine and feminine norms, the racialization of gender.
• Discusses of the Role of Gender in the Employment The paper presents annotated bibliography about gender impact on employment and problems of inequality on workforce.
• Culture, Gender, and Price in Consumer Behavior Customers’ mindset and behavior are defined by cultural background, gender, and price of products, generating the approximate image of purchases.
• The Problems of Gender Inequality This paper tells that gender inequality is a serious issue, which affects everyone. It starts with the stereotype of males’ superiority and turns into numerous problems.
• Factors that Contribute to the Housework Gender Gap The problem of the housework gender gap affects almost any adult American, which explains a number of biased sources of information about it.
• Comparison of Gender Differences in Communication
• Dominant Parenting Styles: Gender-Differentiated Parenting Revisited
• Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: An Etiquette Without Gender Discrimination Terms
• Issues in Sports: Gender Equality
• Social Experiment: Informal Norms of Gender Issues
• Gender Studies: The Queer of Color Theory
• Gender Identification in Coed Dormitories
• Gender Studies and Feminization in Education
• Gender Display in TV Shows, Movies and News
• The Gender Dysphoria Concept
• Income Inequality Based on Gender
• Gender Dysphoria: Classification, Causes and Treatment
• Gender Equality in Britain in the 20th Century
• Unveiling the Gender Gap: Feminist Theory in Sociology
• Children and Gender: Growing Up Trans by Frontline PBS Review
• Cultural Impact on Gender and Sexuality
• Gender Norms’ Impact on Men and Women
• Age and Gender Stratification in Older Adults
• Gender, Generations, and Communications
• Gender Differences and Self-Esteem in Exact Sciences
• Gender, Sexuality, Power Relations, and Social Expectations
• Gender Inequality in Security Sector
• Does Gender Affect the Type of Law Violation?
• Gender Inequality at Google Inc.
• Futurama Series Speaks Against Gender Stereotypes
• Absurd of Predetermined Gender Roles in Literature
• Gender Pay Gap for Women: The Main Causes
• Nursing Attitudes toward Trans and Gender-Nonconforming Pediatric Patients
• Social Construction of Race and Gender in the United States and Brazil
• Discussion of Gender and Society Themes in Films
• Gender and Entrepreneurship Relations
• Families, Gender Relations and Social Change in Brazil
• Gender Discrimination as an Ethical Issue
• “Gender Wage Gap”: The Pay Disparity Issue
• Intersectionality of Religion with Gender, Race, and Class
• Gender Identity in Life-Span Development
• Gender Norms, Roles, and Stereotypes: Act Analysis
• Embracing Equality: Gender in Medieval Europe
• Sex and Gender Beyond the Binaries
• Trans Individuals’ Sexual and Gender Identities
• Racial and Gender Diversity in Hollywood
• Gender-Assigned Social Norms: Male Socialization Experiences
• Gender Gaps in Student Academic Achievement
• Gender Stigmas: From the Past to the Present
• Ethical Dilemma of Worldwide Gender Equality
• Human Rights and Gender Issues: “The Love Suicides at Amijima” & “Tale of Kieu”
• Representation of Australian Indigenous Sex and Gender
• Gender Non-Conforming or Transgender Children Care
• Gender Gap in Financial Literacy
• Gender and Sexuality in “The Exorcist” Film
• Race and Gender in Public Relations
• Gender Studies: Feminine Men and Masculine Women
• Gender in “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck
• Gender and the Rights of Women in Morocco and Saudi Arabia
• Gender in the Saudi Arabian Educational Setting
• Gender Discrimination and Intervention Program
• The Gender Stereotypes in the Workplace
• The Five-Factor Theory, Personality, and Gender
• Gender Discrimination and Equality Promotion at Work
• Gender is a Role, not a Biological Sex, and it is Cultural
• Gender is an Often Culturally-Prescribed Role
• How Gender Norms and Stereotypes Contribute to Inequality in Society
• Untraditional Gender Roles Distribution
• A Critical Analysis of Gender Dynamics in Glaspell’s ‘Trifles’
• Gender Dynamics in American Slavery
• Plato vs. Wollstonecraft on Education and Gender Relations
• Gender: Navigating State, Religion and Gender
• The Role of Gender in Gilman’s “The Yellow Wallpaper”
• Chapter 5 “Gender” of “The Family” by Cohen
• Gender Roles in Dual-Income Families
• Racial Formation and Gender Performance in “13th”
• The Autism-Gender Relationship Analysis
• How Societies Construct Gender Identities, Sexual Practices, and Gendered Bodies
• The Gender-Based Pay Inequality Factors
• Gender and Students’ Performance
• Gender Intersectionality: Fighting Discrimination
• The Gender Pay Gap and Coping Strategies
• Gender Socialization During the First 12 Years of Life
• Heart Disease Risk Profiles and Gender Differences
• “Gender Disparity in Students’ Choices…” by Zhang et al.
• Gender Diversity Within and Beyond School Contexts
• Career-Related Decision-Making and Gender Differences
• Analyzing Gender Bias in the Fire Department
• Forum: Gender and Gender Roles
• Embracing Gender Identity: Pursuing a Fulfilling and Authentic Life
• Gender and Sexuality and Their Role in Life
• Smoking and Gender Factors of Lung Cancer
• Discussion: Race, Gender, and Science
• Gender Identity and Correctional Institutions
• Global Gender Inequality and Its Main Trends
• Gender and Sexuality in the United States History
• Gender Differences in Schizophrenia
• Gender, Labor, and Power in the Global Apparel Industry by Jane L. Collins
• Shifting Gender Politics in Fashion and Textiles
• Gender and Racial Equality Barriers in the Workplace
• The Influence of Gender and Power Disparities on the Workplace
• Sociology of Race, Gender, Identity, and Sexuality
• Gender Inequality for Men and Women
• The Types of Law Violations: Gender Effects
• Race, Sex, and Gender in Cultural Anthropology
• Gender as a Social Construct and Related Issues
• Gender Equality in Daily Life: Fictional Works Analysis
• The Gender Concept and Its Impact on Health and Wellness
• The US History, Markets, Geography, and Gender Politics
• Gender Inequality Among Women in Canada
• The Gender-Based Marketing and Its Negative Sides
• Importance of Gender Reveal Ultrasound
• The Gender Pay Gap Problem: Why Women Earn Less
• Society’s Conception of Gender Roles in Media
• Health Care Disparities: Race and Gender
• Issues Associated With Gender and Incarceration
• The Gender Influence on the Language of Communication
• Gender Stereotypes in Academic and Family Settings
• Gender Stereotype in Advertisement
• What Will Happen When AI Picks Up Social Biases About Gender?
• Gender Stereotypes Have Changed by Eagly et al.
• Housing Discrimination Across Race, Gender, and Felony History
• Racial and Gender Macroaggression in the White College Campus
• Aspects of Society in Relation to Gender and Sex
• Gender Differences in Development of Schizophrenia
• Economic Inequality Between Genders
• Race and Gender in 17th-18th Century American Colonies
• Gender Roles in the Buddhist Culture
• Historical Review of Gender Inequality in the USA
• Disability: Social Origin and the Role of Aging, Gender, and Race
• Ethics: Discourses of Love and Gender
• Toxic Masculinity and Gender Equality in the US
• Telephone Culture and Role of Gender Differences
• What About Gender Is Most Interesting to Sociologists?
• Social Work Assignment: Gender, Money, and the Charity Organization Society
• Issues of Female Gender in Modern World
• Gender Roles in Advertisements
• Discussion of Race and Gender Identity
• Ethnicity, Race, and Gender as Social Constructs
• Gender in Workplace and Induction Case Study
• Gender Ideology in the 1930s by Alice Kessler-Harris
• Women in Business and Gender Diversity Policy
• Gender and Sexual Scripts in the American Culture
• Gender Identity Evolution and Its Results
• Gender Disparity in Citations in High-Impact Journal Articles
• Social Constructs of Race and Gender
• Data, Technology, Gender, and Society
• Gender Roles in Trifles Play by Susan Glaspell
• Gil’s Idea of the Paradoxical Body and Gender Constitution and Concerning Black Identity
• The Labels Adolescents Use to Describe Their Gender Identity
• Discussion of the Gender Wage Gap
• Discussion of Sex, Gender, and Culture
• Fair Treatment of Both Genders and John Rawls’ Theory of Justice
• Intersection of Disability Justice, Race, and Gender
• Intersectionality of Race and Gender
• Gender Differences in the Dream Content of Children and Adolescents
• Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Citizenship
• Gender, Emotional Labor, Harm, and Safety
• Gender and Ethnic Diversity in Leadership
• Gender Equality: Do Women Have Equal Rights?
• The Inclusivity of Language: Gender Issues
• Gender Diversity: Impact on the Organizational Performance
• Gender Roles in Married at First Sight and Other Media Sources
• Intersectionality in Gender and Sexual Differences
• Gender Stereotypes and Their Role in Advertising
• Gender Education: Sociological Review
• The Gender-Neutral Conceptualization of Parenting
• Gender Quotas in Saudi Arabia: Unpacking the Political Conditions
• How Gender, Race, and Class Impact Criminality Levels
• Sex and Gender Equality in a Personal Worldview
• The Problem of Gender Stereotypes
• Gender Norms and Contemporary Culture
• Gender and Ethnic Diversity in Healthcare
• Gender Pay Gap in the Modern Society
• Expanding Reach: Addressing Gender Barriers in COVID-19 Vaccine Rollout
• Gender Dysphoria in Adolescents
• Gender, Power, Privilege, and Feminism in the USA
• Gender Impact on Societies Worldwide
• Occupational Gender Segregation and Its Causes
• Gender Equality as Smart Economics’ Policy Agenda
• Marketing and Interaction Through Social Media Platforms and Gender Inequalities
• Comparing Opposite Views on Gender: National Organization for Women vs: Concerned Women for America
• Discussion of Gender Bias in Research
• Social Construction of Gender. Sociology in Modules
• Gender Messages From Social Institutions: Family, School, and Mass Media
• Gender-Role Attitudes: Society Values & Standards
• Gender-Oriented Products: Branding and Marketing
• Gender and Communication in “Modern Family” by Lloyd
• Doing Genders: Social Constructs of Gender
• Vision of Gender Stratification in an Advertisement
• Relationship Between Gender and Death Anxiety
• Gender Differences in Early Development
• Implications of Current Gender Expectations
• Sexism & Gender Wage Gap: Deconstructing the Myths
• Racial and Gender Disparities Among Evicted Americans
• Gender Differences in Public Health
• Integration of Gender Equality in Organizational Management
• “Gender Gap in Academic Seminar Questions” by Pells
• Gender Representation in American Pop Culture
• Gender Inequality Articles by Beaumont vs. Eigenberg
• Age and Gender Discrimination in the Workplace
• Evolution, Not Revolution: Gender Law and Women Rights in Saudi Arabia
• Qualitative Research on the Gender Perception of E-Commerce
• Gender and Racial Socialization
• Gender Inequality in Ohio’s Education and Labor Market
• Gender Differences in the Treatment and Outcomes of Patients With ACSs
• The Effects of Gender on Child Obesity
• Gender Pay Gap: Making Change With Civil Disobedience
• Sexual Agency: The Gender Politics of Campus Sex
• Gender Effect on the Growth of Nursing as a Knowledge-Based Profession
• Oppressive Gender Norms and Roles
• Gender-Related Barriers to E-commerce Adoption in the UAE
• Intersectionality of Gender With Race, Culture, and Politics
• Representing Islam: Racial and Gender Identities
• Analyzing the Relationship Between Gender and Victimization
• Job Limitation and Gender Sensitivity
• Gender, Race, and Trade Unions
• Queer Representation of Gender and Sexual Non-Conformity
• Gender: Do People Choose Their Sexual Orientation?
• Gender Equality: Men as Daycare Professionals
• Gender and Sexual Labeling
• “Is Gender Equality the Silent Killer of Marriages?” Article Analysis
• “Development of Gender Labeling” by Etaugh
• Household Composition and Gender Differences
• Factors of the Gender Pay Gap
• ‘Sex Under Pressure: Jerks, Boorish Behavior, and Gender Hierarchy’ by S. A. Anderson
• Challenging Gender Norms: Personal Experience
• Gender Norms in Different Cultures
• Gender Issues in the Us Correctional System
• Gender Inequality in Modern Societies and Its Reasons
• Racial and Gender Issues in Modern Society
• Gender Identity in Athletics: “The Battle Over Title IX and Who Gets to Be a Woman in Sports”
• Hispanic Community: Alcohol & Substance Abuse Among the Female Gender Population
• Gender Stratification and Divorce Trends
• The Article About Gender Gap and Delinquency
• Autonomy in Harmonizing Gender Relations
• Gender, Sex, and Sexuality in the U.S.
• The Impact of Gender on Pay and Their Gap
• Sociological Issues About Social Class and Poverty, Race and Ethnicity, Gender
• Gender Is a Culturally Prescribed Role, Rather Than a Biological Sex
• Racial, Ethnic and Gender Categories in the U.S. Census
• “Gender and Education” by David, Ball, Davies, and Reay
• Childhood Gender Analysis: Factors Influencing Gender Perception
• Gender Dysphoria in Adolescents and Adults
• Gender Conflict in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston
• Primetime TV Shows and Gender Portrayals
• Impact of Gender and Sexuality on Advertisement
• Finding the Link Between Gender and Sexuality
• Gender in Perception of Barriers to E-commerce in UAE
• Gender as a Role, Cultural and Not Biological
• Gender and Cultural Factors in Risky Behavior Among Adolescents in the US and Asia
• Formation of Sexual Identity, Sexual Customs and Gender Bodies
• As Sociologists, is it Possible for us to Make Comparisons on the Basis of Gender?
• The Role of a Gender in the Media
• Influence of Gender and Race on Our Life Experiences
• Gender & Politics in Post- Modernist Society
• Gender Representation: Term Definition
• Identities, Gender & Sexuality: Linguistic Anthropology
• What Ideas About Gender & Sexuality Are Communicated by Contemporary Fashion Images?
• Gender Ideology in the U.S. and Japan
• Transnationalism Issues: Migration and Gender
• Gender Construction and Heterosexism
• Gender Socialization of Children
• The Issue of Gender Pay Discrimination in Canada
• Gender Differences in Depressive Symptoms
• Religious and Biological Approaches of Gender and Nature
• Gender Mainstreaming For Effective Development Of Our Company
• Interrelation of Gender and Contemporary Society: Madonna
• Communicative Features of Gender-Neutral Language
• The Problem of Gender Identity Disorder
• Leadership and Gender Relations Analysis
• Gender Symbols Usage in International Family-Oriented Marketing
• Gender Inequality in Democratic Welfare States
• Misconceptions of Gender and Migration Issues
• Gender, Race and Class in American Television
• Advertising and Gender Roles
• Development of Voting Rights of Religious, Socioeconomic Groups, Gender, and Racial Minorities
• Gender Question in O’Connor and Williams’ Novels
• Race and Gender: Dimensions of Power
• Gender as a Social Process: Theoretical Foundation
• Discrimination Against Racial and Gender Minorities
• Gender Differences in Financial Knowledge
• Value of Genders in Society: Agents of Socialization
• Gender Stereotyping in American Media
• Gender Norm Violation Study: Evaluating Impact on the Society
• Economic Benefits of Gender Equality in the European Union
• The Concept of Gender Socialization and Ageism
• Gender Studies. “A Cyborg Manifesto” by Haraway
• Gender Issues and the U.S. Constitutional Law: Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes et al.
• Race and Gender in Public Relations Field
• Chapter 12 of Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies by Gills & Jacobs
• Gender Pay Gap as a Serious Social Issue
• Gender Stereotypes of the US Women
• Gender Stereotypes: Data Presentation Strategy
• Data Analysis Proposal: Gender Stereotypes
• Gender Stereotypes: Research Question
• Issue of Gender Discrimination in Different Societies
• Gender Roles and Social Groups
• Narration and Gender: Hardy’s The Mayor of Casterbridge, Burney’s Evelina, Winterson’s Sexing the Cherry
• Gender Stereotypes in Family and Academic Settings
• Diversity and Society: Race, Ethnicity and Gender
• Gender Stereotypes and Employment’ Correlation
• Gender Identities Within the Farm Family
• Gender Differences in Mate Selection
• Gender Bias Issues: Types of Gender Bias in the Workplace and Their Impact on Productivity
• Preventative Care Depending on Age and Gender
• Gender Differences in Managerial Behavior
• Gender Equity and Social Justice in Schoolchildren
• Gender-Based Social Responsibilities and Structure
• Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Children
• Community Health Status: Development, Gender, Genetics
• Gender Stereotypes in Family: Research Methods
• Male Gender Role in the Chinese Workplace
• Homonationalism and Gender Identity in Catholicism
• Global Sense: Female Leadership and Gender Equity
• Gender-Based Discrimination during Surgical Training
• Gender Inequality as an International Issue
• Gender Equality and Women’s Rights
• Gender Stereotyping in Athletic Management
• Gender Roles in “Herland” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman
• Emotion Perception and Gender Factor in Stress
• Gender Stereotypes Formation in Children
• Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
• Sexism and Gender: Culture and Conflict Reflection
• Pauli Murray’s Advocacy for Civil and Gender Rights
• Gender Stereotypes’ Effects Career and Mental Health
• Gender, Race and Sexuality Issues in Society
• Gender Mainstreaming of European Union Institutions
• Gender in Fiction and Sociological Literature
• Gender Stereotyping among Children
• Women’s Views on Long-Existing Gender Stereotypes
• Racial Gender Inequality in the United States
• Promotion and Gender: Scenario Analysis
• Women’s Stereotypes of Gender Roles Distribution
• Gender Stereotypes in Women’s Opinion Study
• The Gender Differences Concept
• Gender in Arab Politics, State and Business
• Age and Gender in Childhood Obesity Prevention
• Gender Stereotypes and Misunderstanding
• Gender Stereotyping Experiment: The Level of Gender Stereotyping in Society
• Gender Changes in the Film “Far from Heaven” by Todd Haynes
• Gender Inequality in India and Iran Politics
• Do Child Toys Restrict Criteria for Gender?
• Gender Studies: Same-Sex Marriage
• Gender Bias in the Workplace Environment
• Female Gender Bias in College
• Role of Gender in Cartoons and Commercials
• Gender in the 21st Century: Fighting Dangerous Stereotypes
• The Role of Gender in Interactions via Social Media
• Articles on Gender, its Development, and Cultural Aspects
• Theoretical Foundation of Gender as a Culturally-Prescribed Role
• Gender Studies: Feminism Varieties
• Understanding Human Rights: Labor Rights in a Globalizing World and Gender Rights
• Gender Identity: Promotion of Equality for Sexual Orientation
• Debate on Gender and Sex Inequalities
• Global Inequality: Gender, Racial and Ethnic Inequality
• Gender Studies: Same Sex Marriages
• Are Females the Only Gender Discriminated Against?
• Are Gender Roles and Relationships More Equal in Modern Family Life?
• What Are Examples of Gender Issues?
• What Are the Main Issues of Gender Equality?
• What Are Examples of Gender Inequality?
• Are Gender Roles Damaging Society?
• Why Does Gender Stratification Exist?
• How Has the Representation of Gender Changed in Coca-Cola Adverts From the 1940s to the Present Day?
• How Gender Roles Has Changed Over the Last Centuries?
• How Can We Solve Gender Problems?
• How Is Gender a Development Issue?
• What Are the Issues and Concerns of Gender in Terms of Education?
• How Does Your Race, Religion, Nationality, Gender, Culture and Family Define You?
• What Are the Emerging Issues and Challenges Concerning Gender?
• What Are the Gender Issues in the Philippines?
• How Does Graham Greene Explore Gender Representation in Brighton Rock?
• What Is the Difference Between Sex and Gender?
• Does Men’s Fashion Reflect Changes in Male Gender Roles?
• Does Mulan Overthrow Oppressive Gender Norms?
• Is Gender Diversity Good for Business?
• What Does Gender Representation Mean?
• Did the First World War Represent an Irrevocable Crisis of Gender in the UK?
• How Is Gender Represented in Advertisements?
• What Are the Stages of Gender Transition?
• Can Additional Training Help Close the ADHD Gender Gap?
• Are Gender Stereotypes Perpetuated in Children’s Magazines?
• Are Gender Roles Defined by Society or by Genetics?
• What Are the Three Gender Identities?
• What Is Gender Identity and Why Is It Important?
• How Does Bullying Affect People Based on Gender or Race?
• Women’s Rights in Conflict Zones
• The Role of Women in STEM Fields
• Prevalence of Violence against Women in the US
• Strategies for Equality in Leadership and Politics
• How Can Women Achieve Work-Life Balance?
• Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development
• Gender-Related Factors Influencing Women’s Earnings
• Healthcare Access, Quality, and Reproductive Rights of Women
• Gender Stereotypes’ Impact on Women’s Opportunities
• The Overlapping Identities and Challenges of Diverse Women.
• Intersectionality and Experiences of Gender
• The Struggle for Equality and LGBTQ+ Rights
• Comparison of Gender-Specific Challenges and Stigmas
• Strategies for the Elimination of Gender Wage Gap
• How Access to Healthcare Relates to Reproductive Justice
• Why Are Women Underrepresented in Positions of Power?
• Toxic Masculinity and its Harmful Effects on Men and Society
• Gender Disparities and Promotion of Inclusivity in Schools
• The Influence of Culture and Media on Gender Roles and Socialization
• Gender Discrimination, Harassment, and Bias in the Workplace

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• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 569 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/gender-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . 2021. "569 Gender Essay Topics & Research Topics on Gender." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/gender-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Gender were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 22, 2024 .

84 Gender Issues Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best gender issues topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on gender issues, ❓ essay questions about gender and sexuality.

• Gender Issues: Femininity and Masculinity Depiction of the Portuguese visitors to Benin by artist in the 16th century clearly emphasizes on that exclusion of women and the embrace of masculinity.
• Gender Issues: Education and Feminism These experiences in many times strongly affects the individual’s understanding, reasoning, action about the particular issue in contention In this work two issues of great influence and relevance to our societies are discussed.
• Gender Issues in the New Testament However, such attempts in the church are met with resistance and even use of the Bible verses to disapprove of women’s role in the leadership. The modern church needs to be progressive and allow women […]
• Gender Issue in Choosing and Hiring Candidates in the Healthcare Organization The issue of gender may therefore be a good consideration in hiring candidates to fill certain vacancies in the healthcare organizations.
• Issues Surrounding Gender Inequality in the Workplace The main objective of the constructionist point of view is that it is aimed at uncovering how the individuals and the groups tend to participate in the creation of their perceptions of gender and women […]
• Gender Issues in Eastern Religions Coontz discusses these issues from the context of economic status of the American women and their limited role in society at the time.
• Gender-Based Violence in India: Issues and Solutions According to the pioneers of the campaign, every person can embrace the best practices in order to deal with gender-based violence.
• The Issue of Transgender in Sporting Activities Transgender women’s increased body strength and mass make it unfair for them to compete with cisgender women in the same sporting categories. The IOC sets the recommended testosterone level for transgender women to participate in […]
• Gender Inequality as a Global Issue This essay will examine some of the causes that affect the gap in the treatment of men and women, and its ramifications, particularly regarding developing countries.
• Comparing Liberation Discourses: Women’s and Gay/Lesbian Movements in the US and Latin America One of the major similarities between the liberation of women and gay/lesbian movements was the desire to change people’s mindsets.
• The Issue of Gender Inequality Reflection Unfortunately, in the opinion of many, inequality in their treatment is even more pronounced, forming a third group from such persons in addition to binary people and positioning them at the end of the list.
• Issues of Sex and Gender in Society Today: Equal Pay Over time, laws in the form of the Equal Rights Act of 1963, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Discrimination in Hiring Act of 1967 came into being.
• Crimes and Victimization: Gender Issues Generally, a common way to perceive the dynamic between men and women in the context of crime and deviance underestimates women’s capacity to be self-sufficient and expects to see the predator-prey relationships between the genders.
• The Issue of Gender Inequality After Covid-19 To date, the role of women in society has increased many times over, both in the economic, social, and political spheres of public life.
• American Movies: Racial and Gender Issues Peel corrects for the Obama era and takes the situation to the point of absurdity – Rose’s parents and their friends, elderly rich whites, go out of their way to show their openness. The film’s […]
• Gender Gap Issues: Case Study This area of the analysis will draw on experiences related to the use of the transformative leadership style in promoting reform in the education sector and the role that educational leadership plays in influencing its […]
• Gender Issues in the Law and Order Arena This is therefore an analysis of the gender issues that affect the service providers and especially of the female gender during their duty of service in the law and order arena by critically looking at […]
• Supporting Female Victims of Domestic Violence and Abuse: NGO Establishment The presence of such a model continues to transform lives and make it easier for more women to support and provide basic education to their children.
• Gender Issue in Büchner’s Woyzeck One of the reasons supporting this claim is the choice and use of characters in this play. The author uses a male to be the main character in the play.
• Gender and Racial Issues as Portrayed by P. Mcintosh and S. Farough Despite acknowledging the fact that the white males also experience some of the things that the others do, he blames society for failing to eradicate the default existence of racial and gender superiority.
• Gender Issues in International Relations So the practices and protection of human rights depend largely upon the type of political system in place and the willingness of the people to support that political system.
• Employee Issues: Gender Discrimination, Sexual Harassment, Discrimination Sexual harassment is not always sexual in nature for instance, in a case where a man assaults women based purely on the woman’s gender.
• Women in Developing Countries: Globalization, Liberalization, and Gender Equality Owing to issues of gender, the voices of women in developing countries are never heard when it comes to the creation of trade agreements and policies or in their negotiations.
• Gender Issues of Equality and Representation in the K-12 Education System This paper examines the gender issues of equality and representation in the K-12 education system and gives out the major findings based on the observed trends from the structured study of literature in the area.
• Women Labour: Gender Inequality Issues Sexual category or gender is an ingredient of the wider socio-cultural framework that encompasses the societal attributes and opportunities connected with individual male and female and the conduit between women and men and girls and […]
• Sexuality and Gender Issues: One and the Same? People and media often state that sex and gender are the same issues and that a person can be identified as either male or female.
• Institutions and Gender Discrimination Issues In addition, parents buy clothes and toys that reflect gender issues in society and this contributes to the development of gendered stereotypes.
• Sociology Issues: Language, Culture and Gender Sociology is, understandably enough, rendered as a study of society, i.e, the analysis of the links between the members of a society, the roles and functions of these members, and the relationships between them.
• Diversity Organizations and Gender Issues in the US A lot has changed with regard to the status of women in the United States in the recent past. In the past, GLBT people had no say in society and in other parts of the […]
• Trans-Bathroom Debacle as a Gender Issue in Law One of the issues on the LGBT movement’s agenda is the problem of the definition of “biological sex” and the “bathroom bills”.
• Gender Equality Issues in the Workplace Environment Hence, the gathering of information to validate the allegations is central to the resolution of the gender issue in the case study.
• Gender Equality: Plan to Address the Issue The vice president of administration and finance should use a powerful plan to address the issues affecting the institution. To begin with, I will use a powerful plan to address the issues affecting different female […]
• Gender Issues and Sexuality: Social Perspective and Distinction It is rather interesting to note that society today has such a well-established preconception regarding genders that when presented with alternatives to such established norms the result has been subject to confusion, disdain, at times […]
• Pressing Issues in Femininity: Gender and Racism When speaking of the current issues in femininity, women are not reduced to their roles of housewives to the extent to which they used to be.
• Gender and Bullying Issues in Nursing A lack of tolerance for workplace harassment and bullying is likely to lead to the deterioration of the situation and further misunderstanding and tension in an organization.
• Race, Gender, and Sexuality Issues in Sports On balance, it is possible to note that the world of sports can be characterized by such features as white and masculine dominance.
• Hormone Therapy: Human Sexuality and Gender Issues For as long as we have reasons to suspect the opposite, I suggest prior evaluation as a necessary element of hormone therapy access.
• Gender and Leadership Issues in Education The specified step will require the use of a different leadership strategy; particularly, the adoption of the transformative approach that will help alter the behavioral patterns of the learners should be suggested.
• Gender Issues in the School Environment Studies show that the school does not convene the needs of a child in the way that is expected because of the narrower understanding of the terms masculinity and femininity.
• Japanese Geisha and Gender Identity Issues The paper notes that geisha women/girls pamper male egos and thus play a role in upholding the status quo where the male gender is perceived as stronger than the female gender.
• Gender, Race and Class Issues in Education Learning process functions in a dynamic but systematic process that is greatly influenced by the main objective, sub objectives, and the environment in which learners are subjected to in the process of knowledge acquisition.
• Racial and Gender Issues in the USA Only the events of the first half of the 20th century were able to change this image; however, it still exists, and unconsciously some people adhere to the ideas of the past.
• Gender, Age and Racial Inequality Issues Despite a significant progress of developed European countries in that sphere, the childcare in the U.S.is considered more of a woman matter, thus a mother ends up having two jobs: first, the one where she […]
• Gender Equality and Globalization’ Issues Since the world policies adopt a new progressive direction, the idea of gender equality enters the category of the ultimate Millennium development goals.
• Gender Issues in the Movie “The Accused” by J. Kaplan Diffusion of responsibility could be used to explain his action in that Kurt’s action was as a result of the negative influence by his male counterparts who shouted to him that he holds Sarah down, […]
• Gender Equity Issues in Work Practices The best way to proceed with the gathering of information is to arrange for individual discussions with members of the leadership team to discuss the allegations and core issues and values involved.
• Social Issues: Gender Segregation The Code recognizes the “inherent dignity and worth of every person and to provide for equal rights and opportunities without discrimination”.
• Gender Discrimination in the Workplace: Resolving Glass Ceiling Issue The enactment of this proposed policy will not only address the issue of women discrimination in organisations, but also in the top management positions. The implementation of this proposed government policy will require all the […]
• Addressing Issues of Gender and Sexuality Men have dominated issues of leadership and this has lead to wide gender gap between men and women in the society.
• Gender Issue and the Feminist Movement Nevertheless, the peculiarities of the relations between heterosexual parents and the division of their roles in families can influence greatly the child’s perception of the gender roles in the future.
• Gender Issues and the Term “Queer” In the case where performativity is linked to the discourses ability to produce the named then power assumes the role of discourse in the performative domain.
• Gender Issues and Post-Colonialist Mood in Supernova Dewi, however, does not interpret the given statement as the fact that knowledge is the source of power and power is the source of knowledge. The depth and palette of emotions that a single phrase […]
• Inequality as a Gender Issue in the Workplace However, at the turn of the 20th century there was a rapid wave of social change that began to recognize and appreciate the role of a woman as an equal contributor to society, therefore, women […]
• Addressing Gender-based Issues at the Work Place In order to successfully supervise across the gender divide in the work place, the supervisors in any organization should put the gender disparities into consideration.
• Gender Issues and Feminist Movement There are much irony and repetition in Brady’s essay the author tries to resemble the style of a small child speaking about his wife and a family to compare his cognition and considerations with the […]
• Analysis of Gender Issues in the Media The message in the advertisement simply showed that women are able to control men by using their bodies in a certain way.
• Why Is Gender an Important Issue?
• What Are Gender Issues in Education?
• What Are Some Gender Issues in the Workplace?
• How Does Gender Role Affect Society?
• What Causes Gender Roles to Change?
• Why Are Gender Roles So Important?
• What Causes Gender Roles in Society?
• When Did Gender Become an Issue?
• What Is the Connection of Gender Issues With the Past and Present?
• How Are Culture and Gender Issues Related to Education?
• How Media Presents Gender and Gender Issues?
• How Post War Countries Continue to Face Gender Issues?
• How Does Gender Affect Public Relations Income?
• What Are the Gender Issues in Online Gaming?
• What Makes a Gender Identity?
• When Was Gender Created?
• How Does Gender Affect Health?
• What Is Called Gender Bias?
• What Is Gender Sensitivity?
• What Factors Affects Gender Identity?
• Why Is Gender Important in Society?
• What Are the Benefits of Gender?
• Why Does Gender Balance Matter?
• How Can We Reduce Gender Discrimination?
• What Is the Role of Gender in Socialization?
• What Is the Role of Gender Stereotyping?
• What Are the Triple Roles of Gender?
• Feminism Questions
• Gender Equality Questions
• Women’s Rights Titles
• Bisexual Essay Titles
• Gender Inequality Research Topics
• Bullying Research Topics
• Civil Rights Movement Questions
• Dress Code Ideas
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IvyPanda . "84 Gender Issues Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/gender-issues-essay-topics/.

Experiences with Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Employment Discrimination in the USA: Analyzing EEOC Discrimination Charge Narratives

• Published: 19 June 2024

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• Amanda K. Baumle   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5120-7162 1 ,
• Steven Boutcher 2 &
• M. V. Lee Badgett 2  

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Introduction

In this article, we engage in the first content analysis of charge data filed with the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) alleging employment discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) discrimination. Although the U.S. Supreme Court has classified SOGI discrimination as prohibited sex discrimination, little is known about the discriminatory experiences contained in formal charges or how allegations of sexual orientation discrimination compare to those of gender identity.

We draw upon charge data from 2012 to 2016 including both a quantitative administrative dataset of 8487 charges and a novel dataset derived from content analysis of 1628 charge narratives to present percentages and chi-square statistics for the issues alleged and bases of discrimination in sexual orientation and gender identity charges.

Our findings demonstrate that individuals in the USA file formal grievances based on many of the same discriminatory experiences for sexual orientation as for gender identity, emphasizing their commonalities as sex-based discrimination. There are, however, notable differences, with sexual orientation charges containing more allegations of sexual harassment and relationship-based discrimination and gender identity charges alleging more gender stereotype claims.

Our findings suggest that sexual orientation discrimination is both individual and relational, focusing in part on discrimination surrounding a person’s partner or potential partners. In contrast, gender identity discrimination is predominantly directed toward the individual, often involving a rejection of that individual’s very identity.

Policy Implications

Our findings have important policy implications for those processing and adjudicating SOGI discrimination charges, as well as employers’ efforts to reduce and redress discrimination in their workplaces through workplace policies.

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LGBT Employment Nondiscrimination: Debating Sexuality and Citizenship

Intersecting inequalities in access to justice for trans and non-binary sex workers in canada, lgbt employment rights in an evolving legal landscape: the impact of the supreme court’s decision in bostock v. clayton county, georgia, data availability.

Data were obtained through an Inter-Personnel Agreement with the EEOC. Due to the confidentiality of data, we do not have permission to deposit the data or to make them publicly available.

Code Availability

Code was custom generated, and some codes involve confidential EEOC information connected to the administrative files.

The Second and Seventh Circuits affirmed that Title VII covers discrimination based on sexual orientation, whereas the remaining circuits ruled against this interpretation. For gender identity, four circuits (the First, Sixth, Ninth, and Eleventh) ruled that gender identity is sex discrimination and the Seventh and Tenth ruled it is not.

Based on our discussions with the EEOC, it appears that some investigators, field offices, or FEPAs use hard copy files more than the notes section, but we are unable to access the hard copy files.

Badgett, M. V. L. (2001). Money, myths, and change: The economic lives of lesbians and gay men . University of Chicago Press.

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Baumle, A.K., Boutcher, S. & Badgett, M.V.L. Experiences with Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Employment Discrimination in the USA: Analyzing EEOC Discrimination Charge Narratives. Sex Res Soc Policy (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-024-00991-8

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June 24, 2024

Ipas research uncovers reproductive health challenges for Bolivia’s LGBTQ+ community

In most places in the world, people who identify as LGBTQ+ face high levels of stigma and discrimination when seeking reproductive health care—and Bolivia is no exception, according to research by Ipas and partners.

Ipas Bolivia supported three recent studies that uncovered serious issues in reproductive health care for Bolivia’s LGBTQ+ community, including discrimination, legal problems and other barriers. Common themes include verbal abuse, service denial, and fear of disclosing one’s identity. All three reports show that barriers to reproductive health services are rooted in systemic bias and inadequate provider training, prompting calls for targeted legal reforms.

“ These three studies expose alarming reproductive health-care challenges faced by Bolivia’s LGBTQ+ community,” says Dr. Malena Morales, director of Ipas Bolivia. “We can see systemic issues that need urgent attention so that everyone, regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity, can access their reproductive rights safely and without discrimination.”

Without bodily autonomy, health care falls short

Comprehensive sexual and reproductive health services are an important part of health care for any individual. For those capable of becoming pregnant—including women, trans men, and nonbinary people—access to comprehensive pregnancy, family planning and abortion care is essential.

The link between LGBTQ+ rights and access to sexual and reproductive health care is undeniable, as both are deeply connected to bodily autonomy over intimate decisions. Both LGBTQ+ rights and abortion rights are continually subject to scrutiny, criticism, restriction, and stigma across the globe. This can make it more difficult for people who identify as LGBTQ+ to access sexual and reproductive health care and can even discourage them from seeking it altogether .

What needs to be done

These studies provide clear recommendations to improve sexual and reproductive health care for Bolivia’s LGBTQ+ community:

• Train health providers : Health-care workers need better training to understand and meet the needs of LGBTQ+ individuals.
• Reform policy : Laws and policies should explicitly protect the reproductive rights of all individuals, including trans men and non-binary people, ensuring safe and legal abortion access.
• Raise public awareness : Educational campaigns are crucial to combat cultural prejudices and misinformation about LGBTQ+ identities and health needs.

Ipas Bolivia is already working to make these recommendations a reality. So far the team has supported local LGBTQ+ organizations with seven meetings and workshops to ensure they know how and when people can access a legal abortion in Bolivia—and to discuss next steps for taking action on the recommendations from this research. Through these events, they also provided education on national abortion regulations and on the WHO guidelines on abortion care , which for the first time include not just women but anyone who can become pregnant.

“With this first initiative to address the recommendations from this research, we’re aiming to raise awareness of sexual and reproductive rights among the LGBTQ+ community—arming people with the knowledge they need to make their own informed decisions about their bodies and health,” Morales says.

Report findings in detail

‘unequal before the law’.

Ipas Bolivia provided technical support to the Ombudsman’s Office of Bolivia in the creation of a report titled “Unequal Before the Law” that details a nationwide virtual survey of people with diverse sexual orientations and gender identities. The survey reveals high levels of violence, stigma and discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals, despite existing legal protections.

In the survey, 50% of trans men reported pregnancies from sexual violence. Other groups affected by sexual violence and resulting unwanted pregnancy include non-binary individuals (16%) and other gender-nonconforming people (12%). The report also shows that individuals with diverse gender identities have lower access to legal abortion than cisgender people.

With supporters including the Association for Social Development and Cultural Promotion Libertad GLBT, UN Women, Sweden, Hivos Latin America, and the European Union, the report calls for legal and policy reforms to ensure equality and protection for LGBTQ+ individuals.

‘Perceptions of contraception, legal abortion and care for people of diverse sexual and gender identities who can get pregnant’

Ipas Bolivia provided a grant for the Association for Social Development and Cultural Promotion of LGBT Freedom (in Spanish: ADESPROC Libertad GLBT) to research contraception and abortion among LGBTQ+ people in the regions of La Paz, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz. The research contrasts Bolivia’s restrictive abortion laws and low contraceptive use with advancements in reproductive rights across Latin America happening in countries like Mexico and Argentina.

Through interviews with 157 LGBTQ+ individuals, the study identified four main barriers to sexual and reproductive health care, including abortion: discrimination in health facilities, lack of sensitivity among health personnel, insufficient knowledge among both those seeking and those providing services, and fear of stigmatization. Over 81% of interviewees said they would seek abortions for reasons not allowed by current laws, highlighting the need for legal reform.

To address these issues, the study recommends training health providers for sensitivity, advocating for inclusive policies, increasing access to contraception, and supporting legal abortion for those who experience sexual violence.

‘Speaking bodies’

Ipas Bolivia provided funding and technical support to the organization Manodiversa to produce “ Speaking Bodies ,” a study led by trans and non-binary researchers. They analyzed the social and legal barriers and discrimination faced by trans men and non-binary people in Bolivia regarding sexual and reproductive rights and abortion access. With 54 participants, the qualitative study highlights severe discrimination in health care, where stigma and microaggressions from health personnel deter individuals from seeking necessary services.

The study reveals that Bolivia’s abortion laws still lack specific protections for trans men and non-binary individuals who can become pregnant, blocking access to safe and legal abortion for many of them. In fact, 41% of participants capable of becoming pregnant had undergone abortions with unsafe methods. The research underscores the urgent need for inclusive reproductive health policies and practices to protect and support trans and non-binary individuals.

From invisible to indispensable

Our global research with partners shows that LGBTQ+ youth are being left out of comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) that addresses their specific needs and experiences. LGBTQ+ youth from across eight countries offer practical solutions to help make CSE programs truly inclusive.

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4. Gender, family, reproductive issues and the 2024 election

Table of contents.

• Voters’ views about race and society, the impact of the legacy of slavery
• Most voters, but not all, view the nation’s diversity as a strength
• How should the country handle undocumented immigrants currently in the U.S.?
• Attitudes toward hearing other languages in public places
• Biden and Trump supporters’ views about discussing America’s historical successes, failures
• How does the U.S. compare with other countries?
• Views of women’s progress
• How much of a priority should marriage and children be?
• Abortion, IVF access and birth control
• Views of gender identity
• Voters’ attitudes toward use of gender-neutral pronouns
• Societal impact of more social acceptance of lesbian, gay, bisexual people
• Religion and government policy
• How much influence should the Bible have on the nation’s laws, if any?
• Views on the federal government’s role in promoting Christian values
• Most voters say it is not necessary to believe in God to be moral
• Is the justice system too tough on criminals, or not tough enough?
• Policing and law enforcement
• How Trump, Biden supporters view gun rights and ownership
• Views on the increasing number of guns in the U.S.
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Biden and Trump voters differ sharply over the state of women’s progress in the U.S., as well as over whether society should prioritize marriage and children.

Yet majorities of both candidates’ supporters say that the gains women have made in society have not come at the expense of men.

Nearly two years after the Supreme Court overturned the Roe v. Wade decision that guaranteed a right to abortion, the issue continues to divide the two coalitions: Biden supporters overwhelmingly say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, while a narrower majority of Trump backers say it should not.

But the two groups generally share the view that birth control and access to in vitro fertilization (IVF) should be widely available. Majorities of both Biden and Trump supporters view the broad availability of birth control as a good thing and say the same about access to IVF.

Supporters of Joe Biden and Donald Trump have mirror-image views on whether women face obstacles to getting ahead in society that men do not.

• About three-quarters of Biden supporters (73%) say there are still significant obstacles making it harder for women than men to get ahead. About a quarter (26%) say these obstacles are now largely gone.
• In contrast, seven-in-ten Trump supporters say the obstacles that once made it harder for women than men to get ahead are now largely gone. About three-in-ten (29%) say women still face significant obstacles.

There were also wide gaps in these opinions during the 2016 and 2020 presidential campaigns .

Differences between Biden and Trump voters are much more modest when it comes to views of whether women’s gains have come at the expense of men. Sizable majorities of both Biden (90%) and Trump supporters (74%) reject this idea.

Among both Biden supporters and Trump supporters, men are more likely than women to say the obstacles that once made it harder for women than men to get ahead are now largely gone.

Among Trump supporters, 83% of men say this, compared with 55% of women.

Almost four-in-ten men who back Biden (37%) say women’s obstacles to progress are now largely gone. Just 16% of women who back Biden say the same.

While most voters across age groups and genders say that gains women have made have not come at the expense of men, a third of men who support Trump do think women’s gains have cost men. This share increases to 40% among men under age 50 who support Trump. About 20% of women or fewer – regardless of age or which candidate they support – say that women’s gains come at the expense of men.

Roughly four-in-ten registered voters (39%) say society is better off if people make marriage and having children a priority, while a majority (59%) say society is just as well off if people have priorities other than family and children.

• Trump supporters (59%) are much more likely than Biden supporters (19%) to say that it is better if people prioritize marriage and children.

There are modest differences between men and women in whether focusing on marriage and children makes society better.

• About six-in-ten men who support Trump (63%) say this, compared with 54% of Trump-supporting women. There is a similar gender gap among Biden supporters (22% of men vs. 16% of women).

Black voters who support Biden (29%) are more likely than White (17%) and Hispanic (16%) Biden supporters to say an emphasis on marriage and family makes society better off. Two-in-ten Asian voters who back Biden say this.

Marriage and children

Three-quarters of registered voters say they are comfortable with women not taking their husbands’ last names when they get married. Just a quarter are uncomfortable with this.

However, Trump supporters (37%) are much more likely than Biden supporters (13%) to express discomfort with married women not taking their husbands’ last names.

And men who support Trump (44%) are more likely than women who support him (29%) to say they are uncomfortable with the practice of women not taking their husbands’ last names.

Related: About 8 in 10 women in opposite-sex marriages say they took their husband’s last name

The nation’s fertility rate, which has been declining for years, is now at its lowest point in more than a century, according to a recent study by the Centers for Disease Control. About four-in-ten voters (43%) say it is neither good nor bad for society that people are having fewer children; 35% view this trend negatively, while 22% say it is good for society.

Biden supporters have mixed views of the fact that people are having fewer children. Half say this is neither good nor bad, 27% view this as good for society, and 23% say it is bad.

Trump supporters – especially men who back Trump – view this trend more negatively.

• Nearly half of Trump supporters (47%), including a 56% majority of men who support Trump, say it is bad for society that people are having fewer children. Roughly four-in-ten women who support Trump (37%) see this trend as a bad thing.

Abortion deeply divides supporters of Biden and Trump. About nine-in-ten Biden supporters (88%) say abortion should be legal in most (46%) or all (42%) cases. Just 11% of Biden supporters say abortion should be illegal in all or most cases.

Conversely, about six-in-ten Trump supporters (61%) say abortion should be illegal in all (11%) or most (50%) cases. A significant minority of Trump supporters say abortion should be legal in most or all cases (38%).

Related: Broad Public Support for Legal Abortion Persists 2 Years After Dobbs

Age, gender differences among Trump supporters – but not Biden supporters – on abortion

About half of Trump supporters ages 18 to 34 (51%) say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, a substantially higher share than among older Trump supporters (35% of those 35 and older).

Among Biden supporters, nearly nine-in-ten across all age groups say abortion should be legal in all or most cases.

Both women and men who back Trump are more likely to say abortion should be illegal than to say it should be legal. However, more women who support Trump (41%) say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, compared with 34% of men who support Trump.

There is no difference in these views between women and men who support Biden.

By contrast, 73% of all voters – including majorities of Biden (83%) and Trump supporters (64%) – say access to in vitro fertilization (IVF) is a good thing.

Related: Americans overwhelmingly say access to IVF is a good thing

Voters overwhelmingly express positive views of birth control, condoms and other forms of contraception being widely available in the United States. Nearly eight-in-ten (79%) say this is very or somewhat good for society, 13% view it as neither good nor bad, and 7% say it is bad.

• 93% of Biden supporters and 66% of Trump supporters say it’s good for society that birth control is widely available.
• Men who support Trump (61%) are less likely than women who back the former president (73%) to say that birth control being widely available is good for society. There is no meaningful gender gap on this question among Biden supporters.

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