essay about the environmental impacts of tourism

14 important environmental impacts of tourism + explanations + examples

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The environmental impacts of tourism have gained increasing attention in recent years.

With the rise in sustainable tourism and an increased number of initiatives for being environmentally friendly, tourists and stakeholders alike are now recognising the importance of environmental management in the tourism industry.

In this post, I will explain why the environmental impacts of tourism are an important consideration and what the commonly noted positive and negative environmental impacts of tourism are.

Why the environment is so important to tourism

Positive environmental impacts of tourism, water resources, land degradation , local resources , air pollution and noise , solid waste and littering , aesthetic pollution, construction activities and infrastructure development, deforestation and intensified or unsustainable use of land , marina development, coral reefs, anchoring and other marine activities , alteration of ecosystems by tourist activities , environmental impacts of tourism: conclusion, environmental impacts of tourism reading list.

The quality of the environment, both natural and man-made, is essential to tourism. However, tourism’s relationship with the environment is complex and many activities can have adverse environmental effects if careful tourism planning and management is not undertaken.

It is ironic really, that tourism often destroys the very things that it relies on!

Many of the negative environmental impacts that result from tourism are linked with the construction of general infrastructure such as roads and airports, and of tourism facilities, including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, golf courses and marinas. The negative impacts of tourism development can gradually destroy the environmental resources on which it depends.

It’s not ALL negative, however!

Tourism has the potential to create beneficial effects on the environment by contributing to environmental protection and conservation. It is a way to raise awareness of environmental values and it can serve as a tool to finance protection of natural areas and increase their economic importance.

In this article I have outlined exactly how we can both protect and destroy the environment through tourism. I have also created a new YouTube video on the environmental impacts of tourism, you can see this below. (by the way- you can help me to be able to keep content like this free for everyone to access by subscribing to my YouTube channel! And don’t forget to leave me a comment to say hi too!).

Although there are not as many (far from it!) positive environmental impacts of tourism as there are negative, it is important to note that tourism CAN help preserve the environment!

The most commonly noted positive environmental impact of tourism is raised awareness. Many destinations promote ecotourism and sustainable tourism and this can help to educate people about the environmental impacts of tourism. Destinations such as Costa Rica and The Gambia have fantastic ecotourism initiatives that promote environmentally-friendly activities and resources. There are also many national parks, game reserves and conservation areas around the world that help to promote positive environmental impacts of tourism.

Positive environmental impacts can also be induced through the NEED for the environment. Tourism can often not succeed without the environment due the fact that it relies on it (after all we can’t go on a beach holiday without a beach or go skiing without a mountain, can we?).

In many destinations they have organised operations for tasks such as cleaning the beach in order to keep the destination aesthetically pleasant and thus keep the tourists happy. Some destinations have taken this further and put restrictions in place for the number of tourists that can visit at one time.

Not too long ago the island of Borocay in the Philippines was closed to tourists to allow time for it to recover from the negative environmental impacts that had resulted from large-scale tourism in recent years. Whilst inconvenient for tourists who had planned to travel here, this is a positive example of tourism environmental management and we are beginning to see more examples such as this around the world.

Negative environmental impacts of tourism

Negative environmental impacts of tourism occur when the level of visitor use is greater than the environment’s ability to cope with this use.

Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats to many natural areas around the world. It can put enormous pressure on an area and lead to impacts such as: soil erosion , increased pollution, discharges into the sea, natural habitat loss, increased pressure on endangered species and heightened vulnerability to forest fires. It often puts a strain on water resources, and it can force local populations to compete for the use of critical resources.

I will explain each of these negative environmental impacts of tourism below.

Depletion of natural resources

Tourism development can put pressure on natural resources when it increases consumption in areas where resources are already scarce. Some of the most common noted examples include using up water resources, land degradation and the depletion of other local resources.

The tourism industry generally overuses water resources for hotels, swimming pools, golf courses and personal use of water by tourists. This can result in water shortages and degradation of water supplies, as well as generating a greater volume of waste water.

In drier regions, like the Mediterranean, the issue of water scarcity is of particular concern. Because of the hot climate and the tendency for tourists to consume more water when on holiday than they do at home, the amount used can run up to 440 litres a day. This is almost double what the inhabitants of an average Spanish city use. 

Golf course maintenance can also deplete fresh water resources.

In recent years golf tourism has increased in popularity and the number of golf courses has grown rapidly.

Golf courses require an enormous amount of water every day and this can result in water scarcity. Furthermore, golf resorts are more and more often situated in or near protected areas or areas where resources are limited, exacerbating their impacts.

An average golf course in a tropical country such as Thailand needs 1500kg of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides per year and uses as much water as 60,000 rural villagers.

Important land resources include fertile soil, forests , wetlands and wildlife. Unfortunately, tourism often contributes to the degradation of said resources. Increased construction of tourism facilities has increased the pressure on these resources and on scenic landscapes.

Animals are often displaced when their homes are destroyed or when they are disturbed by noise. This may result in increased animals deaths, for example road-kill deaths. It may also contribute to changes in behaviour.

Animals may become a nuisance, by entering areas that they wouldn’t (and shouldn’t) usually go into, such as people’s homes. It may also contribute towards aggressive behaviour when animals try to protect their young or savage for food that has become scarce as a result of tourism development.

Picturesque landscapes are often destroyed by tourism. Whilst many destinations nowadays have limits and restrictions on what development can occur and in what style, many do not impose any such rules. High rise hotels and buildings which are not in character with the surrounding architecture or landscape contribute to a lack of atheistic appeal.

Forests often suffer negative impacts of tourism in the form of deforestation caused by fuel wood collection and land clearing. For example, one trekking tourist in Nepal can use four to five kilograms of wood a day!

There are also many cases of erosion, whereby tourists may trek the same path or ski the same slope so frequently that it erodes the natural landscape. Sites such as Machu Pichu have been forced to introduce restrictions on tourist numbers to limit the damage caused.

Tourism can create great pressure on local resources like energy, food, and other raw materials that may already be in short supply. Greater extraction and transport of these resources exacerbates the physical impacts associated with their exploitation.

Because of the seasonal character of the industry, many destinations have ten times more inhabitants in the high season as in the low season.

A high demand is placed upon these resources to meet the high expectations tourists often have (proper heating, hot water, etc.). This can put significant pressure on the local resources and infrastructure, often resulting in the local people going without in order to feed the tourism industry.

Tourism can cause the same forms of pollution as any other industry: Air emissions; noise pollution; solid waste and littering; sewage; oil and chemicals. The tourism industry also contributes to forms of architectural/visual pollution.

Transport by air, road, and rail is continuously increasing in response to the rising number of tourists and their greater mobility. In fact, tourism accounts for more than 60% of all air travel.

One study estimated that a single transatlantic return flight emits almost half the CO2 emissions produced by all other sources (lighting, heating, car use, etc.) consumed by an average person yearly- that’s a pretty shocking statistic!

I remember asking my class to calculate their carbon footprint one lesson only to be very embarrassed that my emissions were A LOT higher than theirs due to the amount of flights I took each year compared to them. Point proven I guess….

Anyway, air pollution from tourist transportation has impacts on a global level, especially from CO2 emissions related to transportation energy use. This can contribute to severe local air pollution . It also contributes towards climate change.

Fortunately, technological advancements in aviation are seeing more environmentally friendly aircraft and fuels being used worldwide, although the problem is far from being cured. If you really want to help save the environment, the answer is to seek alternative methods of transportation and avoid flying.

You can also look at ways to offset your carbon footprint .

Noise pollution can also be a concern.

Noise pollution from aircraft, cars, buses, (+ snowmobiles and jet skis etc etc) can cause annoyance, stress, and even hearing loss for humans. It also causes distress to wildlife and can cause animals to alter their natural activity patterns. Having taught at a university near London Heathrow for several years, this was always a topic of interest to my students and made a popular choice of dissertation topic .

In areas with high concentrations of tourist activities and appealing natural attractions, waste disposal is a serious problem, contributing significantly to the environmental impacts of tourism.

Improper waste disposal can be a major despoiler of the natural environment. Rivers, scenic areas, and roadsides are areas that are commonly found littered with waste, ranging from plastic bottles to sewage.

Cruise tourism in the Caribbean, for example, is a major contributor to this negative environmental impact of tourism. Cruise ships are estimated to produce more than 70,000 tons of waste each year. 

The Wider Caribbean Region, stretching from Florida to French Guiana, receives 63,000 port calls from ships each year, and they generate 82,000 tons of rubbish. About 77% of all ship waste comes from cruise vessels. On average, passengers on a cruise ship each account for 3.5 kilograms of rubbish daily – compared with the 0.8 kilograms each generated by the less well-endowed folk on shore.

Whilst it is generally an unwritten rule that you do not throw rubbish into the sea, this is difficult to enforce in the open ocean . In the past cruise ships would simply dump their waste while out at sea. Nowadays, fortunately, this is less commonly the case, however I am sure that there are still exceptions.

Solid waste and littering can degrade the physical appearance of the water and shoreline and cause the death of marine animals. Just take a look at the image below. This is a picture taken of the insides of a dead bird. Bird often mistake floating plastic for fish and eat it. They can not digest plastic so once their stomachs become full they starve to death. This is all but one sad example of the environmental impacts of tourism.

Mountain areas also commonly suffer at the hands of the tourism industry. In mountain regions, trekking tourists generate a great deal of waste. Tourists on expedition frequently leave behind their rubbish, oxygen cylinders and even camping equipment. I have heard many stories of this and I also witnessed it first hand when I climbed Mount Kilimanjaro .

The construction of hotels, recreation and other facilities often leads to increased sewage pollution. 

Unfortunately, many destinations, particularly in the developing world, do not have strict law enrichments on sewage disposal. As a result, wastewater has polluted seas and lakes surrounding tourist attractions around the world. This damages the flora and fauna in the area and can cause serious damage to coral reefs.

Sewage pollution threatens the health of humans and animals.

I’ll never forget the time that I went on a school trip to climb Snowdonia in Wales. The water running down the streams was so clear and perfect that some of my friends had suggested we drink some. What’s purer than mountain fresh water right from the mountain, right?

A few minutes later we saw a huge pile of (human??) feaces in the water upstream!!

Often tourism fails to integrate its structures with the natural features and indigenous architecture of the destination. Large, dominating resorts of disparate design can look out of place in any natural environment and may clash with the indigenous structural design. 

A lack of land-use planning and building regulations in many destinations has facilitated sprawling developments along coastlines, valleys and scenic routes. The sprawl includes tourism facilities themselves and supporting infrastructure such as roads, employee housing, parking, service areas, and waste disposal. This can make a tourist destination less appealing and can contribute to a loss of appeal.

Physical impacts of tourism development

Whilst the tourism industry itself has a number of negative environmental impacts. There are also a number of physical impacts that arise from the development of the tourism industry. This includes the construction of buildings, marinas, roads etc.

The development of tourism facilities can involve sand mining, beach and sand dune erosion and loss of wildlife habitats.

The tourist often will not see these side effects of tourism development, but they can have devastating consequences for the surrounding environment. Animals may displaced from their habitats and the noise from construction may upset them.

I remember reading a while ago (although I can’t seem to find where now) that in order to develop the resort of Kotu in The Gambia, a huge section of the coastline was demolished in order to be able to use the sand for building purposes. This would inevitably have had severe consequences for the wildlife living in the area.

Construction of ski resort accommodation and facilities frequently requires clearing forested land.

Land may also be cleared to obtain materials used to build tourism sites, such as wood.

I’ll never forget the site when I flew over the Amazon Rainforest only to see huge areas of forest cleared. That was a sad reality to see.

Likewise, coastal wetlands are often drained due to lack of more suitable sites. Areas that would be home to a wide array of flora and fauna are turned into hotels, car parks and swimming pools.

The building of marinas and ports can also contribute to the negative environmental impacts of tourism.

Development of marinas and breakwaters can cause changes in currents and coastlines.

These changes can have vast impacts ranging from changes in temperatures to erosion spots to the wider ecosystem.

Coral reefs are especially fragile marine ecosystems. They suffer worldwide from reef-based tourism developments and from tourist activity.

Evidence suggests a variety of impacts to coral result from shoreline development. Increased sediments in the water can affect growth. Trampling by tourists can damage or even kill coral. Ship groundings can scrape the bottom of the sea bed and kill the coral. Pollution from sewage can have adverse effects.

All of these factors contribute to a decline and reduction in the size of coral reefs worldwide. This then has a wider impact on the global marine life and ecosystem, as many animals rely on the coral for as their habitat and food source.

Physical impacts from tourist activities

The last point worth mentioning when discussing the environmental impacts of tourism is the way in which physical impacts can occur as a result of tourist activities.

This includes tramping, anchoring, cruising and diving. The more this occurs, the more damage that is caused. Natural, this is worse in areas with mass tourism and overtourism .

Tourists using the same trail over and over again trample the vegetation and soil, eventually causing damage that can lead to loss of biodiversity and other impacts. 

Such damage can be even more extensive when visitors frequently stray off established trails. This is evidenced in Machu Pichu as well as other well known destinations and attractions, as I discussed earlier in this post.

 In marine areas many tourist activities occur in or around fragile ecosystems. 

Anchoring, scuba diving, yachting and cruising are some of the activities that can cause direct degradation of marine ecosystems such as coral reefs. As I said previously, this can have a significant knock on effect on the surrounding ecosystem.

Habitats can be degraded by tourism leisure activities.

For example, wildlife viewing can bring about stress for the animals and alter their natural behaviour when tourists come too close. 

As I have articulated throughout this post, there are a range of environmental impacts that result from tourism. Whilst some are good, the majority unfortunately are bad. The answer to many of these problems boils down to careful tourism planning and management and the adoption of sustainable tourism principles.

Did you find this article helpful? Take a look at my posts on the social impacts of tourism and the economic impacts of tourism too! Oh, and follow me on social media !

If you are studying the environmental impacts of tourism or if you are interested in learning more about the environmental impacts of tourism, I have compiled a short reading list for you below.

• The 3 types of travel and tourism organisations
• 150 types of tourism! The ultimate tourism glossary
• 50 fascinating facts about the travel and tourism industry

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Environmental Impacts of Tourism Research Paper

Introduction, the relevance of the problem, current situation, future outcomes, possible solutions, works cited.

The sphere of tourism is reliant on the environment of the sites in which the visitors are interested. Therefore, the preservation of these territories is crucial to preserving their profitability and public appeal. Nevertheless, the growing tourist industry has been examined by scholars and found to be extremely damaging to plants, animals, and people of the visited regions. Throughout history, popular tourist activities have been disturbing the wildlife and affecting communities that cannot resist the pressure from businesses. The idea that tourism helps countries and cities to improve their economy also weakens people’s arguments against increasing the sphere of traveling and sightseeing.

One can provide innumerable examples of tourist activities disturbing the environment. Some of these influences are local, while others often reach a global scale. Wilson and Verlis, for example, explore the southern Great Barrier Reef – a place where thousands of tourists travel every year to look at one of the world’s wonders (239). However, what these people leave behind them damages the reef – marine debris near this and similar attractions lead to the depletion of wildlife and destruction of coral reefs.

As a result, the source of fascination (and, thus, profit) disappears as more tourists enter the region. The problem of pollution is not confined to such landmarks as the described coral reef. The effects are similar – people who enter new territories often exhibit behavior that produces waste, pollutes the air and the water, and changes wildlife’s natural order. Companies do not prevent this behavior and even contribute to it by expanding the tourism industry and virtually rebuilding environments to suit their need for profit.

Looking at the issues and results of tourism, the question of nature preservation arises. It is vital to determine what changes in policy and people’s knowledge about the environment have to be introduced in order to stop the industry from destroying what is left from sites affected by tourism. Moreover, one should also examine how these improvements can be implemented to provide successful results. Stefănica and Butnaru explore the beliefs of modern tourists towards environmental preservation, noting that most of these people can and should be taught about the dangers of naïve and neglectful tourist behavior (595).

Nonetheless, they also find that individual actions are infective – companies that enforce new regulations and operate in the industry should also adopt systems to preserve nature. The problem of environmental destruction is directly and indirectly influenced by tourists and companies that promote the tourist industry. A variety of solutions that incorporate social responsibility and public awareness should be complemented with policy restrictions in order to save the environment and protect the planet from consequences that are dangerous to all people.

The issue of tourism being a source of environmental pollution and destruction is a topic that requires consideration right now. The industry of invasive tourism continues to grow – people are becoming more and more interested in traveling to the parts of nature that were previously untouched by humans or developed civilizations. This desire leads to multiple effects, most of which are detrimental to the environment and its inhabitants. Furthermore, as people discover new ways of traveling or exploring new areas, the industry requires additional resources to accommodate the growing rate of tourists. This ever increasing ability to engage new regions and communities in tourism further enhances the impact of destructive behaviors.

It is especially visible in the luxury segment of traveling where people are provided with extensive resources and are called to enjoy various activities which cause increased waste production or significant setting’s change. In this case, cruise tourism can be used as an example of a luxurious traveling vehicle being used without any with limited efforts of environmental sustainability (Lamers et al. 430). This and other ways of traveling do not contribute to wildlife preservation.

Another side of the problem is concerned with the businesses’ contemporary measures to save the environment while retaining the attractiveness of tourist sights. Some modern tools do not provide any actual protection to nature, becoming a way to promote specific areas instead. This issue is explored by Klein and Dodds who find that Blue Flag beach certification, although being introduced as a way to award sustainable beaches, does not operate as such (43).

As a contrast, the companies that compete for this certification perceive this project as a strategic step towards making their beaches more attractive to tourists. Thus, the problem of tourism affecting the environment is pressing – the industry grows while the modern ways of preservation are not working or being implemented efficiently.

Tourism had been popular among many communities for centuries since it is in line with people’s curiosity and desire to explore new territories and cultures. As Mowforth and Munt note, the western economic growth and prosperity resulted in these societies becoming interested in exploring new lands for profit (174).

In turn, the countries that were less fortunate in gaining independence or developing strong economics became the targets of tourism, especially if they also had a rich history and culture or nature. Another type of attraction that appeared with time is the territories that are not inhabited by humans or developed cultures. These range from areas with wildlife to regions with communities that are removed from the contemporary understanding of advanced civilizations.

The Eurocentric vision implored other countries to assimilate and mimic the dominant cultures at the risk of becoming entirely dependent on them. In regards to tourism, many communities have embraced the place of the tourism industry in their life and allowed businesses to affect their environments. The territories which did not have a governmental structure to protect or regulate the area were also utilized for industry expansion. Lamers et al. provide an example of Antarctica as a destination that became popular after the 1960s and was changed as a result of interventions (436). The emissions of greenhouse gasses increased greatly, endangering the climate of the region and significantly affecting its wildlife.

Moreover, water pollution also impacted the marine life forms of the area. Thus, the national governments had to develop the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) to limit tourism by introducing a ban on heavy marine fuel and other guidelines. Only such level of regulation was effective in limiting the effect of tourism on Antarctica, although this solution is only temporary.

Currently, all regions of the world are affected by tourism. The mentioned above example of Antarctica is one of many locations where people’s curiosity coupled with a disregard for environmental preservation has led to devastating results. Returning to the case of Wilson and Verlis, one may see that the marine pollution levels are extremely high in all oceans. The authors have recovered many samples of debris from beaches and waters in the Great Barrier Reef region, with more than four items being accumulated every day in some areas (Wilson and Verlis 241).

The most common type of waste was plastic – a material that cannot rot or disintegrate, thus becoming a permanent part of the environment. In fact, 68 to 92 percent of all debris was made out of plastic materials, thus putting animals and plants at risk of death or contamination (Wilson and Verlis 242). This example demonstrates how damaging the current tourism industry is to the environment.

Another place that is endangered by tourism is the Maldives. This region and other similar groups of small islands often become a destination for many tourist groups. Here, the problem of environmental destruction is closely tied to the territories’ reliance on tourism as an economic resource. Kapmeier and Gonçalves state that Small Island Developing States (SIDS) such as the Maldives are faced with an issue of finding a balance between the financial value of tourism and its environmental burden (175). The tropical paradise” of the Maldives constitutes a number of small islands with an extremely fragile ecosystem full of animals unique to the region.

The introduction of tourists after the 1970s changed the culture and the wildlife as well. First, more buildings started appearing on the islands to accommodate the arriving visitors. Thus, the construction began altering the landscape of the Maldives. As more and more tourists discovered the Maldives, the country was able to build additional hotels and introduce new methods of transportation such as seaplanes and boats (Kapmeier and Gonçalves 178). These developments, while stabilizing the growth of the local economy, also contributed to the islands’ pollution.

Similarly to the Great Barrier Reef, the waters of the Maldives have become filled with debris, and the country also suffers from increased waste generation. Kapmeier and Gonçalves estimate that the local population produces around 120 tons of waste every day, while each tourist generates an additional 3.5kg per day (180). This calculation implies that 1 million tourists can stay for eight days and add 33,600 tons of solid waste to the total number (Kapmeier and Gonçalves 180).

The additional amount of garbage is substantial leading to the country losing ways of garbage disposal that were effective before. As a result, locals leave waste outside or burn it, polluting the water, soil, and air with items that are often non-biodegradable.

Again, plastic constituted a large portion of all items examined by the scholars, but almost a half of all solid waste was food, and 90% of such products were discarded into the sea (Kapmeier and Gonçalves 181). Thus, it becomes clear that many resorts cannot handle the number of tourists that arrive each year. While the expansion of tourist zones leads to the creation of new housing and service opportunities, the majority of all visitors try to enter into popular areas, placing more pressure on historically and environmentally essential regions.

Although such types of waste as food and some plastics can be recycled, the actual situation shows that they are either burned or thrown into the ocean (Kapmeier and Gonçalves 182). Tourism does not assist countries in creating new paths for non-harmful disposal, and the islands face pressure to clear out the trash utilizing unethical methods.

The discussed above problem of cruise tourism is highlighted as one of the issues that are more tied to the mode of transportation rather than a particular destination point. Carić and Mackelworth argue that, during each cruise trip, the environment suffers outcomes of three types of pollution – transportation, docking, and activities on the board of the ship (350). First of all, people consume water and food during their stay on the vehicle, being usually more wasteful than they would be on land since resources have to be stored on the ship.

Second, the movement of the boat requires fuel, leading to air pollution with emission gasses and water pollution with oil spills and other products of the working engine. Finally, as the ship arrives at some territories, tourists may leave waste on land as well as disturb the soil, animals, or plants. Therefore, apart from targeting particular nations and regions, tourism introduces global risks through promoting transportation dangerous to the environment.

The current state of tourism and its continuous expansion may lead to a myriad of negative consequences. The pollution of water and air can significantly alter flora and fauna of the planet, causing the elimination of whole species. Furthermore, some animals adapt to humans’ presence and change their behavior and eating habits. Carić and Mackelworth find that the disposal of plastics into the ocean results in the death of sea turtles that get caught in debris (353).

Some mammals ingest granules of plastic and die from poisoning. This can also affect human health – if a person consumes an animal ingested with plastic, the former can succumb to intoxication as well. Thus, tourism can impact human health indirectly through animals in addition to exposing numbers of tourists to polluted air, food, and water.

The indigenous people living in or near popular traveling destinations also suffer from the outcomes of tourism. Their economy becomes dependent on the industry as it is happening in the Maldives. Otherwise, they are impacted by pollution and waste accumulating in the area. They are also more likely to introduce new habits into their cultural system under the influence of arriving individuals. As one can see, tourism does not have an exclusively positive effect on impoverished nations or those people who lack technological advancement. Tourism creates settings that are challenged by consumerism and unethical behavior of people who enter the region for a short period of time but leave a considerable imprint.

One separate action cannot solve the problem of unethical tourism since the industry is large and it attracts millions of people every year. Countries, companies, and individuals need to make a conscious effort to change their policies and beliefs in order to start lowering the impact of traveling on the environment. First of all, it should be remarked that the improvement of waste disposal is not an effective strategy by itself.

Kapmeier and Gonçalves argue that by introducing a new system of waste management, the Maldives and similar locations will make their area more appealing to tourists (172). As a result, such countries will only encounter the challenge of increasing waste accumulation and pressure from companies to accommodate more people. The authors suggest that legal policies curbing tourism demand may be a practical addition to better waste control.

The legal restrictions are difficult to discuss on the international level since many countries depend on tourism as a source of profit. States should base their ideologies on environmentally-friendly policies that will protect peoples and species without closing the borders to people. Perhaps, a limitation on tourist capacity and the decrease in luxury or wasteful practices is necessary to lower the pressure on the environment. Another option is the introduction and development of ecotourism – a set of mindful practices that are focused on the reduction of harm to nature.

Gavrilović and Maksimović discuss green innovations that may improve the influence of the tourism industry. They note that “greening” the sector requires efforts from businesses which should be motivated by maintaining their place and profitability by restoring and managing the environment to attract customers. The scholars highlight the adverse outcomes of pollution and point out that by damaging the ecosystems, the companies may lose their auditory and economic stability as well (Gavrilović and Maksimović 41). Environmental awareness can create a cycle that will be beneficial to customers, firms, and nature.

The role of individual understanding of tourism’s impact is also vital to preserving nature. Chiu et al. argue that ecotourism can become a popular way of traveling, especially if people understand its purpose (327). This approach is focused on enjoying natural resources and choosing activities that do not adversely impact the environment. For example, such people control their waste, engage in recycling and cleaning (trash sorting, use of organic materials), do not enter protected areas, and try not to interfere with local flora and fauna.

The problem with raising awareness and changing people’s behaviors may lie in the fact that modern tourism is more focused on luxury and experiences than on thinking about the future of these territories. The introduction of ecotourism should start with education about the harms of unethical behavior. Moreover, individuals should understand the ecotourism can make them feel content with themselves and make a good impression on others, further changing the system of tourism.

Each contributing factor, including tourist actions, governmental policies, and businesses operations can positively influence the state of ecotourism and benefit the environment. Stefănica and Butnaru offer a number of changes such as the use of transportation which produces less waste than others and an effort to lower energy and water consumption as well as waste production (600). Moreover, tourists and firms should participate in recycling and proper disposal, while preserving flora and fauna. Some may even contribute to the restoration of the environment – people can plant trees, use renewable energy sources, clean water, and collect waste. Finally, on the state level, nations should discuss the possibility of adding taxes for environmental protection that would be used for innovative ways of managing the tourism industry.

Tourism is an activity that allows people to see the world and learn about other cultures and the environment. However, tourists and involved companies often exhibit behavior that damages the planet and leads to its destruction. It is especially visible in regions where tourism is a part of the national economy – people, animals, and plants suffer from extensive use of resources and waste brought and left by visitors.

Countries dependent on other nations and corporate needs for profit cannot adequately deal with the abundance of incoming products that harm flora and fauna. Plastic and other materials pollute the soil and the ocean, causing the disappearance of whole species and changing the behaviors of animals. There exists no sole answer to the problem of unethical tourism. Instead, individuals, companies, and governments should cooperate to develop a set of green policies that will raise awareness and allow people to take action to preserve the planet’s environment.

Carić, Hrvoje, and Peter Mackelworth. “Cruise Tourism Environmental Impacts–The Perspective from the Adriatic Sea.” Ocean & Coastal Management , vol.102, 2014, pp. 350-363.

Chiu, Yen-Ting Helena, et al. “Environmentally Responsible Behavior in Ecotourism: Antecedents and Implications.” Tourism Management , vol. 40, 2014, pp. 321-329.

Gavrilović, Zvjezdana, and Mirjana Maksimović. “Green Innovations in the Tourism Sector.” Strategic Management , vol. 23, no. 1, 2018, pp. 36-42.

Kapmeier, Florian, and Paulo Gonçalves. “Wasted Paradise? Policies for Small Island States to Manage Tourism-Driven Growth While Controlling Waste Generation: The Case of the Maldives.” System Dynamics Review , vol. 34, no. 1-2, 2018, pp. 172-221.

Klein, Laura, and Rachel Dodds. “Blue Flag Beach Certification: An Environmental Management Tool or Tourism Promotional Tool?” Tourism Recreation Research , vol. 43, no. 1, 2018, pp. 39-51.

Lamers, Machiel, et al. “The Environmental Challenges of Cruise Tourism.” The Routledge Handbook of Tourism and Sustainability , edited by Daniel Scott et al., Routledge, 2015, pp. 430-439.

Mowforth, Martin, and Ian Munt. Tourism and Sustainability: Development, Globalisation and New Tourism in the Third World . 4th ed., Routledge, 2016.

Stefănica, Mirela, and Gina Ionela Butnaru. “Research on Tourists’ Perception of the Relationship Between Tourism and Environment.” Procedia Economics and Finance , vol. 20, 2015, pp. 595-600.

Wilson, Scott P., and Krista M. Verlis. “The Ugly Face of Tourism: Marine Debris Pollution Linked to Visitation in the Southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia.” Marine Pollution Bulletin , vol. 117, no. 1-2, 2017, pp. 239-246.

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IvyPanda. (2021, July 14). Environmental Impacts of Tourism. https://ivypanda.com/essays/environmental-impacts-of-tourism/

"Environmental Impacts of Tourism." IvyPanda , 14 July 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/environmental-impacts-of-tourism/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Environmental Impacts of Tourism'. 14 July.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Environmental Impacts of Tourism." July 14, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/environmental-impacts-of-tourism/.

1. IvyPanda . "Environmental Impacts of Tourism." July 14, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/environmental-impacts-of-tourism/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Environmental Impacts of Tourism." July 14, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/environmental-impacts-of-tourism/.

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• Published: 07 May 2018

The carbon footprint of global tourism

• Manfred Lenzen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0828-5288 1 ,
• Ya-Yen Sun 2 , 3 ,
• Futu Faturay   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5636-1794 1 , 4 ,
• Yuan-Peng Ting 2 ,
• Arne Geschke   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9193-5829 1 &
• Arunima Malik   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4630-9869 1 , 5  

Nature Climate Change volume  8 ,  pages 522–528 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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An Author Correction to this article was published on 23 May 2018

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Tourism contributes significantly to global gross domestic product, and is forecast to grow at an annual 4%, thus outpacing many other economic sectors. However, global carbon emissions related to tourism are currently not well quantified. Here, we quantify tourism-related global carbon flows between 160 countries, and their carbon footprints under origin and destination accounting perspectives. We find that, between 2009 and 2013, tourism’s global carbon footprint has increased from 3.9 to 4.5 GtCO 2 e, four times more than previously estimated, accounting for about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Transport, shopping and food are significant contributors. The majority of this footprint is exerted by and in high-income countries. The rapid increase in tourism demand is effectively outstripping the decarbonization of tourism-related technology. We project that, due to its high carbon intensity and continuing growth, tourism will constitute a growing part of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions.

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Change history

23 may 2018.

In the version of this Article originally published, in the penultimate paragraph of the section “Gas species and supply chains”, in the sentence “In this assessment, the contribution of air travel emissions amounts to 20% (0.9 GtCO2e) of tourism’s global carbon footprint...” the values should have read “12% (0.55 GtCO2e)”; this error has now been corrected, and Supplementary Table 9 has been amended to clarify this change.

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Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the Australian Research Council through its Discovery Projects DP0985522 and DP130101293, the National eResearch Collaboration Tools and Resources project (NeCTAR) through its Industrial Ecology Virtual Laboratory, and the Taiwan Ministry of Science and Technology (no. 105-2410-H-006-055-MY3). The authors thank S. Juraszek for expertly managing the Global IELab’s advanced computation requirements, and C. Jarabak for help with collecting data.

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ISA, School of Physics A28, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Manfred Lenzen, Futu Faturay, Arne Geschke & Arunima Malik

Department of Transportation & Communication Management Science, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan, Republic of China

Ya-Yen Sun & Yuan-Peng Ting

UQ Business School, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Fiscal Policy Agency, Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia

Futu Faturay

Sydney Business School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Arunima Malik

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Y.-Y.S. and M.L. conceived and designed the experiments. M.L., Y.-Y.S., F.F., Y.-P.T., A.G. and A.M. performed the experiments. F.F., Y.-P.T., M.L. and Y.-Y.S. analysed the data. Y.-P.T., A.G., Y.-Y.S. and M.L. contributed materials/analysis tools. M.L., Y.-Y.S. and A.M. wrote the paper.

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Correspondence to Arunima Malik .

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Lenzen, M., Sun, YY., Faturay, F. et al. The carbon footprint of global tourism. Nature Clim Change 8 , 522–528 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0141-x

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What Is Sustainable Tourism and Why Is It Important?

Sustainable management and socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental impacts are the four pillars of sustainable tourism

• Chapman University

• Harvard University Extension School
• Sustainable Fashion
• Art & Media

What Makes Tourism Sustainable?

The role of tourists, types of sustainable tourism.

Sustainable tourism considers its current and future economic, social, and environmental impacts by addressing the needs of its ecological surroundings and the local communities. This is achieved by protecting natural environments and wildlife when developing and managing tourism activities, providing only authentic experiences for tourists that don’t appropriate or misrepresent local heritage and culture, or creating direct socioeconomic benefits for local communities through training and employment.

As people begin to pay more attention to sustainability and the direct and indirect effects of their actions, travel destinations and organizations are following suit. For example, the New Zealand Tourism Sustainability Commitment is aiming to see every New Zealand tourism business committed to sustainability by 2025, while the island country of Palau has required visitors to sign an eco pledge upon entry since 2017.

Tourism industries are considered successfully sustainable when they can meet the needs of travelers while having a low impact on natural resources and generating long-term employment for locals. By creating positive experiences for local people, travelers, and the industry itself, properly managed sustainable tourism can meet the needs of the present without compromising the future.

What Is Sustainability?

At its core, sustainability focuses on balance — maintaining our environmental, social, and economic benefits without using up the resources that future generations will need to thrive. In the past, sustainability ideals tended to lean towards business, though more modern definitions of sustainability highlight finding ways to avoid depleting natural resources in order to keep an ecological balance and maintain the quality of environmental and human societies.

Since tourism impacts and is impacted by a wide range of different activities and industries, all sectors and stakeholders (tourists, governments, host communities, tourism businesses) need to collaborate on sustainable tourism in order for it to be successful.

The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) , which is the United Nations agency responsible for the promotion of sustainable tourism, and the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) , the global standard for sustainable travel and tourism, have similar opinions on what makes tourism sustainable. By their account, sustainable tourism should make the best use of environmental resources while helping to conserve natural heritage and biodiversity, respect the socio-culture of local host communities, and contribute to intercultural understanding. Economically, it should also ensure viable long-term operations that will provide benefits to all stakeholders, whether that includes stable employment to locals, social services, or contributions to poverty alleviation.

The GSTC has developed a series of criteria to create a common language about sustainable travel and tourism. These criteria are used to distinguish sustainable destinations and organizations, but can also help create sustainable policies for businesses and government agencies. Arranged in four pillars, the global baseline standards include sustainable management, socioeconomic impact, cultural impacts, and environmental impacts.

Travel Tip:

The GSTC is an excellent resource for travelers who want to find sustainably managed destinations and accommodations and learn how to become a more sustainable traveler in general.

Environment 

Protecting natural environments is the bedrock of sustainable tourism. Data released by the World Tourism Organization estimates that tourism-based CO2 emissions are forecast to increase 25% by 2030. In 2016, tourism transport-related emissions contributed to 5% of all man-made emissions, while transport-related emissions from long-haul international travel were expected to grow 45% by 2030.

The environmental ramifications of tourism don’t end with carbon emissions, either. Unsustainably managed tourism can create waste problems, lead to land loss or soil erosion, increase natural habitat loss, and put pressure on endangered species . More often than not, the resources in these places are already scarce, and sadly, the negative effects can contribute to the destruction of the very environment on which the industry depends.

Industries and destinations that want to be sustainable must do their part to conserve resources, reduce pollution, and conserve biodiversity and important ecosystems. In order to achieve this, proper resource management and management of waste and emissions is important. In Bali, for example, tourism consumes 65% of local water resources, while in Zanzibar, tourists use 15 times as much water per night as local residents.

Another factor to environmentally focused sustainable tourism comes in the form of purchasing: Does the tour operator, hotel, or restaurant favor locally sourced suppliers and products? How do they manage their food waste and dispose of goods? Something as simple as offering paper straws instead of plastic ones can make a huge dent in an organization’s harmful pollutant footprint.

Recently, there has been an uptick in companies that promote carbon offsetting . The idea behind carbon offsetting is to compensate for generated greenhouse gas emissions by canceling out emissions somewhere else. Much like the idea that reducing or reusing should be considered first before recycling , carbon offsetting shouldn’t be the primary goal. Sustainable tourism industries always work towards reducing emissions first and offset what they can’t.

Properly managed sustainable tourism also has the power to provide alternatives to need-based professions and behaviors like poaching . Often, and especially in underdeveloped countries, residents turn to environmentally harmful practices due to poverty and other social issues. At Periyar Tiger Reserve in India, for example, an unregulated increase in tourists made it more difficult to control poaching in the area. In response, an eco development program aimed at providing employment for locals turned 85 former poachers into reserve gamekeepers. Under supervision of the reserve’s management staff, the group of gamekeepers have developed a series of tourism packages and are now protecting land instead of exploiting it. They’ve found that jobs in responsible wildlife tourism are more rewarding and lucrative than illegal work.

Flying nonstop and spending more time in a single destination can help save CO2, since planes use more fuel the more times they take off.

Local Culture and Residents

One of the most important and overlooked aspects of sustainable tourism is contributing to protecting, preserving, and enhancing local sites and traditions. These include areas of historical, archaeological, or cultural significance, but also "intangible heritage," such as ceremonial dance or traditional art techniques.

In cases where a site is being used as a tourist attraction, it is important that the tourism doesn’t impede access to local residents. For example, some tourist organizations create local programs that offer residents the chance to visit tourism sites with cultural value in their own countries. A program called “Children in the Wilderness” run by Wilderness Safaris educates children in rural Africa about the importance of wildlife conservation and valuable leadership development tools. Vacations booked through travel site Responsible Travel contribute to the company’s “Trip for a Trip” program, which organizes day trips for disadvantaged youth who live near popular tourist destinations but have never had the opportunity to visit.

Sustainable tourism bodies work alongside communities to incorporate various local cultural expressions as part of a traveler’s experiences and ensure that they are appropriately represented. They collaborate with locals and seek their input on culturally appropriate interpretation of sites, and train guides to give visitors a valuable (and correct) impression of the site. The key is to inspire travelers to want to protect the area because they understand its significance.

Bhutan, a small landlocked country in South Asia, has enforced a system of all-inclusive tax for international visitors since 1997 ($200 per day in the off season and $250 per day in the high season). This way, the government is able to restrict the tourism market to local entrepreneurs exclusively and restrict tourism to specific regions, ensuring that the country’s most precious natural resources won’t be exploited.

Incorporating volunteer work into your vacation is an amazing way to learn more about the local culture and help contribute to your host community at the same time. You can also book a trip that is focused primarily on volunteer work through a locally run charity or non profit (just be sure that the job isn’t taking employment opportunities away from residents).

It's not difficult to make a business case for sustainable tourism, especially if one looks at a destination as a product. Think of protecting a destination, cultural landmark, or ecosystem as an investment. By keeping the environment healthy and the locals happy, sustainable tourism will maximize the efficiency of business resources. This is especially true in places where locals are more likely to voice their concerns if they feel like the industry is treating visitors better than residents.

Not only does reducing reliance on natural resources help save money in the long run, studies have shown that modern travelers are likely to participate in environmentally friendly tourism. In 2019, Booking.com found that 73% of travelers preferred an eco-sustainable hotel over a traditional one and 72% of travelers believed that people need to make sustainable travel choices for the sake of future generations.

Always be mindful of where your souvenirs are coming from and whether or not the money is going directly towards the local economy. For example, opt for handcrafted souvenirs made by local artisans.

Growth in the travel and tourism sectors alone has outpaced the overall global economy growth for nine years in a row. Prior to the pandemic, travel and tourism accounted for an $9.6 trillion contribution to the global GDP and 333 million jobs (or one in four new jobs around the world).

Sustainable travel dollars help support employees, who in turn pay taxes that contribute to their local economy. If those employees are not paid a fair wage or aren’t treated fairly, the traveler is unknowingly supporting damaging or unsustainable practices that do nothing to contribute to the future of the community. Similarly, if a hotel doesn’t take into account its ecological footprint, it may be building infrastructure on animal nesting grounds or contributing to excessive pollution. The same goes for attractions, since sustainably managed spots (like nature preserves) often put profits towards conservation and research.

Costa Rica was able to turn a severe deforestation crisis in the 1980s into a diversified tourism-based economy by designating 25.56% of land protected as either a national park, wildlife refuge, or reserve.

While traveling, think of how you would want your home country or home town to be treated by visitors.

Are You a Sustainable Traveler?

Sustainable travelers understand that their actions create an ecological and social footprint on the places they visit. Be mindful of the destinations , accommodations, and activities you choose, and choose destinations that are closer to home or extend your length of stay to save resources. Consider switching to more environmentally friendly modes of transportation such as bicycles, trains, or walking while on vacation. Look into supporting locally run tour operations or local family-owned businesses rather than large international chains. Don’t engage in activities that harm wildlife, such as elephant riding or tiger petting , and opt instead for a wildlife sanctuary (or better yet, attend a beach clean up or plan an hour or two of some volunteer work that interests you). Leave natural areas as you found them by taking out what you carry in, not littering, and respecting the local residents and their traditions.

Most of us travel to experience the world. New cultures, new traditions, new sights and smells and tastes are what makes traveling so rewarding. It is our responsibility as travelers to ensure that these destinations are protected not only for the sake of the communities who rely upon them, but for a future generation of travelers.

Sustainable tourism has many different layers, most of which oppose the more traditional forms of mass tourism that are more likely to lead to environmental damage, loss of culture, pollution, negative economic impacts, and overtourism.

Ecotourism highlights responsible travel to natural areas that focus on environmental conservation. A sustainable tourism body supports and contributes to biodiversity conservation by managing its own property responsibly and respecting or enhancing nearby natural protected areas (or areas of high biological value). Most of the time, this looks like a financial compensation to conservation management, but it can also include making sure that tours, attractions, and infrastructure don’t disturb natural ecosystems.

On the same page, wildlife interactions with free roaming wildlife should be non-invasive and managed responsibly to avoid negative impacts to the animals. As a traveler, prioritize visits to accredited rescue and rehabilitation centers that focus on treating, rehoming, or releasing animals back into the wild, such as the Jaguar Rescue Center in Costa Rica.

Soft Tourism

Soft tourism may highlight local experiences, local languages, or encourage longer time spent in individual areas. This is opposed to hard tourism featuring short duration of visits, travel without respecting culture, taking lots of selfies , and generally feeling a sense of superiority as a tourist.

Many World Heritage Sites, for example, pay special attention to protection, preservation, and sustainability by promoting soft tourism. Peru’s famed Machu Picchu was previously known as one of the world’s worst victims of overtourism , or a place of interest that has experienced negative effects (such as traffic or litter) from excessive numbers of tourists. The attraction has taken steps to control damages in recent years, requiring hikers to hire local guides on the Inca Trail, specifying dates and time on visitor tickets to negate overcrowding, and banning all single use plastics from the site.

Traveling during a destination’s shoulder season , the period between the peak and low seasons, typically combines good weather and low prices without the large crowds. This allows better opportunities to immerse yourself in a new place without contributing to overtourism, but also provides the local economy with income during a normally slow season.

Rural Tourism

Rural tourism applies to tourism that takes place in non-urbanized areas such as national parks, forests, nature reserves, and mountain areas. This can mean anything from camping and glamping to hiking and WOOFing. Rural tourism is a great way to practice sustainable tourism, since it usually requires less use of natural resources.

Community Tourism

Community-based tourism involves tourism where local residents invite travelers to visit their own communities. It sometimes includes overnight stays and often takes place in rural or underdeveloped countries. This type of tourism fosters connection and enables tourists to gain an in-depth knowledge of local habitats, wildlife, and traditional cultures — all while providing direct economic benefits to the host communities. Ecuador is a world leader in community tourism, offering unique accommodation options like the Sani Lodge run by the local Kichwa indigenous community, which offers responsible cultural experiences in the Ecuadorian Amazon rainforest.

" Transport-related CO 2  Emissions of the Tourism Sector – Modelling Results ." World Tourism Organization and International Transport Forum , 2019, doi:10.18111/9789284416660

" 45 Arrivals Every Second ." The World Counts.

Becken, Susanne. " Water Equity- Contrasting Tourism Water Use With That of the Local Community ." Water Resources and Industry , vol. 7-8, 2014, pp. 9-22, doi:10.1016/j.wri.2014.09.002

Kutty, Govindan M., and T.K. Raghavan Nair. " Periyar Tiger Reserve: Poachers Turned Gamekeepers ." Food and Agriculture Organization.

" GSTC Destination Criteria ." Global Sustainable Tourism Council.

Rinzin, Chhewang, et al. " Ecotourism as a Mechanism for Sustainable Development: the Case of Bhutan ." Environmental Sciences , vol. 4, no. 2, 2007, pp. 109-125, doi:10.1080/15693430701365420

" Booking.com Reveals Key Findings From Its 2019 Sustainable Travel Report ." Booking.com.

" Economic Impact Reports ." World Travel and Tourism Council .

• Regenerative Travel: What It Is and How It's Outperforming Sustainable Tourism
• How to Be a Sustainable Traveler: 18 Tips
• What Is Ecotourism? Definition, Examples, and Pros and Cons
• Some Advice on How to Travel More Intentionally
• 'The Last Tourist' Film Will Make You Approach Travel Differently
• Best of Green Awards 2021: Sustainable Travel
• Costa Rica’s Keys to Success as a Sustainable Tourism Pioneer
• What Is Community-Based Tourism? Definition and Popular Destinations
• What Is Overtourism and Why Is It Such a Big Problem?
• What Is Experiential Tourism?
• What Is Voluntourism? Does It Help or Harm Communities?
• Food Sovereignty: Definition, Principles, and Importance
• Best of Green Awards 2021: Eco Tech
• 10 Ways to Be an Eco-Conscious Tourist
• Travel + Leisure's Global Vision Awards Are a Win for the Planet
• Spain Starts a School for Shepherdesses

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Free Environmental Impacts of Tourism Essay Sample

The increased concerns regarding the environmental conservation particularly in the last few decades has resulted in a more intimate relationship between the tourism industry and the environment. In most developed, as well as developing countries, tourism has had several impacts on the environment in a number of ways (Bryant, 1997). For example, ecotourism has been known to significantly enhance the preservation of the natural beauty, as well as to raise the awareness of the environmental challenges particularly in the developing countries, such as Brazil. In other cases, Tourism is not only a major foreign exchange earner, but is also a major source of funds that are used in the environmental preservation, as well as the improvement of the local living conditions in an attempt to attract more tourists. Additionally, it is strongly believed that it has encouraged the preservation of a number of endangered species which, otherwise, would have become extinct.

Critics, however, argue that tourism has negative impacts on the environment. For example, they cite some of the challenges that come with eco-tourism, such as disturbance of the natural habitat, increased pollution and increased poaching. It is also argued that as more hotels and other infrastructural facilities are being built to cater for the needs of the tourists, the environment may be adversely affected. It is however worth noting that in both the developed and developing countries, tourism is being widely seen as an economic savior for both the region as and the countries in which it is practiced, and this is particularly with regards to its numerous environmental and economic benefits. This paper focuses on the environmental impacts of tourism, particularly with regards to the notion that tourism is the main economic lifeline for many towns and countries across the world.

Tourism and Environmental Conservation

According to Pigram (1999), there is a number of Ways through which tourism has contributed to the environmental conservation in several countries. For example, with regards to the financial contributions from the tourism industry, there are both direct and indirect financial benefits of tourism to the environmental conservation. Direct financial contributions of tourism to the conservation of the sensitive habitats include the revenues that are often obtained from the park entrance fees, as well as other related sources. In most countries, such as Brazil, these funds are often used to pay for the management and the protection of various environmentally sensitive localities in the country. There are also special conservation levies, such as park operation fees that are usually collected from the tourist operators or the tourists themselves to help in the conservation activities (Croall, 1995).

On the other hand, the indirect financial contribution of tourism to the environmental conservation processes include the huge sums of money that are usually collected, but are not linked to particular conservation areas or parks. Some of these revenues come in the form of income taxes on tourism facilities, such as recreational equipment, licensing of tourism-related activities, such as sport, fishing and hunting. Tourism has been known to significantly enhance the preservation of natural beauty, as well as raise the awareness of the environmental challenges, particularly in the developing countries, such as Latin America. Generally, tourism is not only a major foreign exchange earner, but is also a major source of funds that are used in the environmental preservation, as well as the improvement of the local living conditions in an attempt to attract more tourists. In both the developed and developing countries, tourism has significantly encouraged the preservation of a number of endangered species, which, otherwise, would have become extinct, and this also increases the number of revenues collected from the visitors who come to see such species.

All these funds are often employed in the environmental conservation programs and park maintenance, and this enables the governments of the particular countries and regions to effectively manage their natural resources. For example, in 1999, the Republic of Seychelles introduced a system of tax, which targeted tourists and travelers that entered the country. The tax was primarily meant to be used in the environmental conservation and preservation, as well as the improvement of the tourism facilities in the country. In the United States, a tax was introduced in Western Virginia on all the tourists participating in rafting, and part of the fees collected was meant to be used in the clean up of the rivers. Generally, tourism forms a major part of the monetary reserve, source of job opportunities, as well as a contributor of the GDP for several developed and developing countries.

Another way in which tourism has affected the environment is the fact that tourism has in most cases resulted in improved environmental planning and management. The proper management, the tourism facilities and resources, such as hotels, and sources of tourist attractions like rivers, forests and wildlife can significantly result in the increased benefits to the environment. This, however, demands, careful planning based on a comprehensive analysis of the environmental resources of a particular area. Through the implementation of proper planning, the environmentalists can effectively make choices regarding the conflicting uses of environmental resources. For example, the gradual damage to the environment can be prevented through the proper planning. The tourism industry is also increasingly using various clean production technologies in the operation of various tourism facilities, such as hotels. Some of these cleaner techniques include the use of non-polluting building materials and energy sources, such as photovoltaic cells. All these work towards reducing the negative impacts of tourism industry on the environment.

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Environmental Awareness

The tourism industry has a great potential to enhance public awareness of the environment, as well as the appreciation of the various environmental problems. This is particularly because tourism often brings people closer to the environment and nature, and it results in environmentally-conscious activities that help preserve the environment. The sustainability of the tourism industry demands the incorporation of the practices and principles that are in line with sustainable consumption. Additionally, tourism activities often play a major role in the provision of critical environmental information particularly among the tourists. In this regard, the tourists may be made aware of the environmental consequences of their actions.

With regards to environmental preservation and protection, tourism contributes to the protection, restoration and conservation of the biodiversity in a number of ways. For example, the tourist attraction sites can be identified and developed into the wildlife and national parks. For example, various agencies in Hawaii have developed new regulations that are aimed at preserving the native species in the Hawaiian rain forests. Because of such efforts, Hawaii has developed to become one of the most recognized international centers for scientific research on various ecological systems. The primary motivation that led to this achievement is the need to preserve the tourism industry in the island. With regards to wildlife preservation, many countries particularly in Africa, South Pacific, Asia, Australia and South America have developed various wildlife protection and preservation efforts to help the survival of the endangered species and protect biodiversity.

Without these efforts, many of the plant and animal species would have been threatened with extinction. Some of the preservation efforts that have been put in place in these countries include enacting legislations to protect the endangered species, as well as establishing of the reserves where the conservation measures can effectively be put in place. Consequently, as a result of such measures, many of the endangered species are now beginning to thrive again in several countries. In this regards, tourism is a major economic lifeline for many regions and countries across the world. A good example is the successful conservation of mountain Gorillas in the great lakes region of Africa, particularly in Rwanda, Congo and Uganda. Although, the mountain Gorillas remain to be one of the most endangered species in the world, their conservation has provided the countries with tourism-related revenues, and this has further led to close cooperation with regards to the protection of their habitat. On the other hand, tourism funds that have been realized as a result of such conservation projects have significantly contributed to the development of such areas, both at the local and at the national and regional levels.

Tourism as a Source of Alternative Employment and Development

Tourism is an important provider of alternative development, and this may consequently have the significant impacts on the environment. For example, in the UK, thousands of tourists continue to visit the vine yards in the rural areas, and this has proven to be a significant source of revenue and market for the rural farmers. In other places, however, some of the beneficiaries of the employment opportunities created by tourism may abandon their previous environmentally unfriendly practices, such as hunting, poaching and illegal lodging of timber (Wanhill, 1997). In some places, it has been observed that the level of environmentally unfair practices, such as slash and burn agriculture have significantly reduced, as a result of the alternative source of livelihood brought about by tourism. As more people begin to realize the benefits of conservation, private reserves may be created, and this will further help in the protection of the wildlife. For example, the conservation of the Orangutan is a major source of alternative employment in Indonesia. In fact, it has resulted in the promotion of a sustainable source of income for the locals, thus reducing the other environmental degrading economic activities, such as timber exploitation and poaching activities in the region.

On the other hand, Morrison and Selman,(1991), argue that the regulatory measures, such as controlling the number of tourism related activities in the conservation areas can significantly help reduce the negative impacts of tourism on the on the environment, as well as enhance the maintenance of the conservation sites. Additionally limits can be put in place after a careful analysis of the sustainable tourist capacity of a particular conservation area. This strategy ensures that the tourist visitors have minimized impact on the ecosystem as much as possible.

Negative Impacts of Tourism on the Environment

There are, however, a lot of negative impacts of tourism that have been witnessed in many parts of the world.  For example, some of the challenges that come with tourism activities include the disturbance of the natural habitat, poaching activities and increased pollution (Mathieson and Wall, 1992). Additionally, as more hotels and tourist resorts are being built to cater for the needs of the tourists, the environment may be adversely affected in a number of ways. The issue of solid waste disposal is a growing environmental challenge, particularly in areas where there are massive tourist resort operations. In other countries, huge heaps of garbage is a common site in many tourist cottages and this is not only environmentally degrading, but is unsightly as well. Additionally, the wastes may include biodegradable waste products in the tourist prone sites. According to Cater (1995), there have also been cases of some tourist resorts disposing their sewage wastes in environmentally unfriendly ways. These often have serious environmental implications as well as health consequences. For example, untreated sewage may enhance the growth of many aquatic plants and this significantly impacts on the aquatic life on such areas. In some cases, however, the ground water may be contaminated.

Another serious environmental challenge related to tourism is the destruction of coral reefs particularly by the divers who sometimes may deliberately remove the coral fauna as pa art of their souvenirs (Stabler, 1997). As earlier has been noted, most of these negative impacts of tourism can be effectively mitigated through regulatory measures, such as controlling the number of tourism related activities in the conservation areas can  help the conservationists to reduce the negative impacts of tourism on the on the environment. Such measures also enhance the maintenance of the conservation sites. In most cases, when the limits can be put in place after a comprehensive analysis of the sustainable tourist capacity of a particular conservation area, they are significantly effective (Cohen, 1998). All these strategies will help ensure that the tourism industry has minimized impact on the ecosystem as much as possible.

In conclusion, the relationship between the environment and tourism is relatively complex and tourism is linked to a number of activities that can directly or indirectly affect the environment in a number of ways. In both the developed and developing countries, tourism has often been regarded as an economic savior for both the region as and the countries in which  it is practiced and this is particularly with regard to its numerous environmental and economic benefits, such as source of revenue, as well as its contributions to the conservation of the natural beauty.

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Tourism is one of the world's fastest growing industries and an important source of foreign exchange and employment, while being closely linked to the social, economic, and environmental well-being of many countries, especially developing countries. Maritime or ocean-related tourism, as well as coastal tourism, are for example vital sectors of the economy in small island developing States (SIDS) and coastal least developed countries (LDCs) (see also: The Potential of the Blue Economy report as well as the Community of Ocean Action on sustainable blue economy).

The World Tourism Organization defines sustainable tourism as “tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities".

Based on General assembly resolution 70/193, 2017 was declared as the  International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development.

In the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development SDG target 8.9, aims to “by 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products”. The importance of sustainable tourism is also highlighted in SDG target 12.b. which aims to “develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products”.

Tourism is also identified as one of the tools to “by 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island developing States and least developed countries” as comprised in SDG target 14.7.

In the Rio+20 outcome document The Future We want, sustainable tourism is defined by paragraph 130 as a significant contributor “to the three dimensions of sustainable development” thanks to its close linkages to other sectors and its ability to create decent jobs and generate trade opportunities. Therefore, Member States recognize “the need to support sustainable tourism activities and relevant capacity-building that promote environmental awareness, conserve and protect the environment, respect wildlife, flora, biodiversity, ecosystems and cultural diversity, and improve the welfare and livelihoods of local communities by supporting their local economies and the human and natural environment as a whole. ” In paragraph 130, Member States also “call for enhanced support for sustainable tourism activities and relevant capacity-building in developing countries in order to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development”.

In paragraph 131, Member States “encourage the promotion of investment in sustainable tourism, including eco-tourism and cultural tourism, which may include creating small- and medium-sized enterprises and facilitating access to finance, including through microcredit initiatives for the poor, indigenous peoples and local communities in areas with high eco-tourism potential”. In this regard, Member States also “underline the importance of establishing, where necessary, appropriate guidelines and regulations in accordance with national priorities and legislation for promoting and supporting sustainable tourism”.

In 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg called for the promotion of sustainable tourism development, including non-consumptive and eco-tourism, in Chapter IV, paragraph 43 of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.

At the Johannesburg Summit, the launch of the “Sustainable Tourism – Eliminating Poverty (ST-EP) initiative was announced. The initiative was inaugurated by the World Tourism Organization, in collaboration with UNCTAD, in order to develop sustainable tourism as a force for poverty alleviation.

The UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) last reviewed the issue of sustainable tourism in 2001, when it was acting as the Preparatory Committee for the Johannesburg Summit.

The importance of sustainable tourism was also mentioned in Agenda 21.

For more information and documents on this topic,  please visit this link

UNWTO Annual Report 2015

2015 was a landmark year for the global community. In September, the 70th Session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a universal agenda for planet and people. Among the 17 SDGs and 169 associated targets, tourism is explicitly featured in Goa...

UNWTO Annual Report 2016

In December 2015, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2017 as the International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development. This is a unique opportunity to devote a year to activities that promote the transformational power of tourism to help us reach a better future. This important cele...

Emerging Issues for Small Island Developing States

The 2012 UNEP Foresight Process on Emerging Global Environmental Issues primarily identified emerging environmental issues and possible solutions on a global scale and perspective. In 2013, UNEP carried out a similar exercise to identify priority emerging environmental issues that are of concern to ...

Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

This Agenda is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen universal peace in larger freedom, We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for su...

Towards Measuring the Economic Value of Wildlife Watching Tourism in Africa

Set against the backdrop of the ongoing poaching crisis driven by a dramatic increase in the illicit trade in wildlife products, this briefing paper intends to support the ongoing efforts of African governments and the broader international community in the fight against poaching. Specifically, this...

Status and Trends of Caribbean Coral Reefs: 1970-2012

Previous Caribbean assessments lumped data together into a single database regardless of geographic location, reef environment, depth, oceanographic conditions, etc. Data from shallow lagoons and back reef environments were combined with data from deep fore-reef environments and atolls. Geographic c...

15 Years of the UNWTO World Tourism Network on Child Protection: A Compilation of Good Practices

Although it is widely recognized that tourism is not the cause of child exploitation, it can aggravate the problem when parts of its infrastructure, such as transport networks and accommodation facilities, are exploited by child abusers for nefarious ends. Additionally, many other factors that contr...

Natural Resources Forum: Special Issue Tourism

The journal considers papers on all topics relevant to sustainable development. In addition, it dedicates series, issues and special sections to specific themes that are relevant to the current discussions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)....

Thailand: Supporting Sustainable Development in Thailand: A Geographic Clusters Approach

Market forces and government policies, including the Tenth National Development Plan (2007-2012), are moving Thailand toward a more geographically specialized economy. There is a growing consensus that Thailand’s comparative and competitive advantages lie in amenity services that have high reliance...

Road Map on Building a Green Economy for Sustainable Development in Carriacou and Petite Martinique, Grenada

This publication is the product of an international study led by the Division for Sustainable Development (DSD) of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) in cooperation with the Ministry of Carriacou and Petite Martinique Affairs and the Ministry of Environment, Foreig...

Natural Resources Forum, a United Nations Sustainable Development Journal (NRF)

  Natural Resources Forum, a United Nations Sustainable Development Journal, seeks to address gaps in current knowledge and stimulate relevant policy discussions, leading to the implementation of the sustainable development agenda and the achievement of the Sustainable...

UN Ocean Conference 2025

Our Ocean, Our Future, Our Responsibility “The ocean is fundamental to life on our planet and to our future. The ocean is an important source of the planet’s biodiversity and plays a vital role in the climate system and water cycle. The ocean provides a range of ecosystem services, supplies us with

UN Ocean Conference 2022

The UN Ocean Conference 2022, co-hosted by the Governments of Kenya and Portugal, came at a critical time as the world was strengthening its efforts to mobilize, create and drive solutions to realize the 17 Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.

58th Session of the Commission for Social Development – CSocD58

22nd general assembly of the united nations world tourism organization, world tourism day 2017 official celebration.

This year’s World Tourism Day, held on 27 September, will be focused on Sustainable Tourism – a Tool for Development. Celebrated in line with the 2017 International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development, the Day will be dedicated to exploring the contribution of tourism to the Sustainable Deve

World Tourism Day 2016 Official Celebration

Accessible Tourism for all is about the creation of environments that can cater for the needs of all of us, whether we are traveling or staying at home. May that be due to a disability, even temporary, families with small children, or the ageing population, at some point in our lives, sooner or late

4th Global Summit on City Tourism

The World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) and the Regional Council for Tourism of Marrakesh with support of the Government of Morroco are organizing the 4th Global Summit on City Tourism in Marrakesh, Morroco (9-10 December 2015). International experts in city tourism, representatives of city DMOs, of

2nd Euro-Asian Mountain Resorts Conference

The World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) and Ulsan Metropolitan City with support of the Government of the Republic of Korea are organizing the 2nd Euro-Asian Mountain Resorts Conference, in Ulsan, Republic of Korea (14 - 16 October 2015). Under the title “Paving the Way for a Bright Future for Mounta

21st General Assembly of the United Nations World Tourism Organization

Unwto regional conference enhancing brand africa - fostering tourism development.

Tourism is one of the Africa’s most promising sectors in terms of development, and represents a major opportunity to foster inclusive development, increase the region’s participation in the global economy and generate revenues for investment in other activities, including environmental preservation.

• January 2017 International Year of Tourism In the context of the universal 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the International Year aims to support a change in policies, business practices and consumer behavior towards a more sustainable tourism sector that can contribute to the SDGs.
• January 2015 Targets 8.9, 12 b,14.7 The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development commits Member States, through Sustainable Development Goal Target 8.9 to “devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products”. The importance of sustainable tourism, as a driver for jobs creation and the promotion of local culture and products, is also highlighted in Sustainable Development Goal target 12.b. Tourism is also identified as one of the tools to “increase [by 2030] the economic benefits to Small Island developing States and least developed countries”, through Sustainable Development Goals Target 14.7.
• January 2012 Future We Want (Para 130-131) Sustainable tourism is defined as a significant contributor “to the three dimensions of sustainable development” thanks to its close linkages to other sectors and its ability to create decent jobs and generate trade opportunities. Therefore, Member States recognize “the need to support sustainable tourism activities and relevant capacity-building that promote environmental awareness, conserve and protect the environment, respect wildlife, flora, biodiversity, ecosystems and cultural diversity, and improve the welfare and livelihoods of local communities” as well as to “encourage the promotion of investment in sustainable tourism, including eco-tourism and cultural tourism, which may include creating small and medium sized enterprises and facilitating access to finance, including through microcredit initiatives for the poor, indigenous peoples and local communities in areas with high eco-tourism potential”.
• January 2009 Roadmap for Recovery UNWTO announced in March 2009 the elaboration of a Roadmap for Recovery to be finalized by UNWTO’s General Assembly, based on seven action points. The Roadmap includes a set of 15 recommendations based on three interlocking action areas: resilience, stimulus, green economy aimed at supporting the tourism sector and the global economy.
• January 2008 Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria The Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria represent the minimum requirements any tourism business should observe in order to ensure preservation and respect of the natural and cultural resources and make sure at the same time that tourism potential as tool for poverty alleviation is enforced. The Criteria are 41 and distributed into four different categories: 1) sustainability management, 2) social and economic 3) cultural 4) environmental.
• January 2003 1st Int. Conf. on Climate Change and Tourism The conference was organized in order to gather tourism authorities, organizations, businesses and scientists to discuss on the impact that climate change can have on the tourist sector. The event took place from 9 till 11 April 2003 in Djerba, Tunisia.
• January 2003 WTO becomes a UN specialized body By Resolution 453 (XV), the Assembly agreed on the transformation of the WTO into a United Nations specialized body. Such transformation was later ratified by the United Nations General Assembly with the adoption of Resolution A/RES/58/232.
• January 2002 World Ecotourism Summit Held in May 2002, in Quebec City, Canada, the Summit represented the most important event in the framework of the International Year of Ecosystem. The Summit identified as main themes: ecotourism policy and planning, regulation of ecotourism, product development, marketing and promotion of ecotourism and monitoring costs and benefits of ecotourism.
• January 1985 Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code At the World Tourism Organization Sixth Assembly held in Sofia in 1985, the Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code were adopted, setting out the rights and duties of tourists and host populations and formulating policies and action for implementation by states and the tourist industry.
• January 1982 Acapulco Document Adopted in 1982, the Acapulco Document acknowledges the new dimension and role of tourism as a positive instrument towards the improvement of the quality of life for all peoples, as well as a significant force for peace and international understanding. The Acapulco Document also urges Member States to elaborate their policies, plans and programmes on tourism, in accordance with their national priorities and within the framework of the programme of work of the World Tourism Organization.

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What's the problem with overtourism?

With visitor numbers around the world increasing towards pre-pandemic levels, the issue of overtourism is once again rearing its head.

When locals in the charming Austrian lakeside village of Hallstatt staged a blockade of the main access tunnel, brandishing placards asking visitors to ‘think of the children’, it highlighted what can happen when places start to feel overrun by tourists. Hallstatt has just 800 residents but has opened its doors to around 10,000 visitors a day — a population increase of over 1,000%. And it’s just one of a growing number of places where residents are up in arms at the influx of travellers.

The term ‘overtourism’ is relatively new, having been coined over a decade ago to highlight the spiralling numbers of visitors taking a toll on cities, landmarks and landscapes. As tourist numbers worldwide return towards pre-pandemic levels, the debate around what constitutes ‘too many’ visitors continues. While many destinations, reliant on the income that tourism brings, are still keen for arrivals, a handful of major cities and sites are now imposing bans, fines, taxes and time-slot systems, and, in some cases, even launching campaigns of discouragement in a bid to curb tourist numbers.

What is overtourism?

In essence, overtourism is too many people in one place at any given time. While there isn’t a definitive figure stipulating the number of visitors allowed, an accumulation of economic, social and environmental factors determine if and how numbers are creeping up.

There are the wide-reaching effects, such as climate change. Coral reefs, like the Great Barrier Reef and Maya Bay, Thailand, made famous by the Leonardo DiCaprio film, The Beach , are being degraded from visitors snorkelling, diving and touching the corals, as well as tour boats anchoring in the waters. And 2030 transport-related carbon emissions from tourism are expected to grow 25% from 2016 levels, representing an increase from 5% to 5.3% of all man-made emissions, according to the United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO). More localised issues are affecting locals, too. Renters are being evicted by landlords in favour of turning properties into holiday lets, and house prices are escalating as a result. As visitors and rental properties outnumber local residents, communities are being lost. And, skyrocketing prices, excessive queues, crowded beaches, exorbitant noise levels, damage at historical sites and the ramifications to nature as people overwhelm or stray from official paths are also reasons the positives of tourism can have a negative impact.

Conversely, ‘undertourism’ is a term applied to less-frequented destinations, particularly in the aftermath of the pandemic. The economic, social and environmental benefits of tourism aren't always passed on to those with plenty of capacity and, while tourist boards are always keen for visitors to visit their lesser-known attractions, it’s a more sustainable and rewarding experience for both residents and visitors.

What’s the main problem with it?

Overcrowding is an issue for both locals and tourists. It can ruin the experience of sightseeing for those trapped in long queues, unable to visit museums, galleries and sites without advance booking, incurring escalating costs for basics like food, drink and hotels, and faced with the inability to experience the wonder of a place in relative solitude. The absence of any real regulations has seen places take it upon themselves to try and establish some form of crowd control, meaning no cohesion and no real solution.

Justin Francis, co-founder and CEO of Responsible Travel, a tour operator that focuses on more sustainable travel, says “Social media has concentrated tourism in hotspots and exacerbated the problem, and tourist numbers globally are increasing while destinations have a finite capacity. Until local people are properly consulted about what they want and don’t want from tourism, we’ll see more protests.”

A French start up, Murmuration, which monitors the environmental impact of tourism by using satellite data, states that 80% of travellers visit just 10% of the world's tourism destinations, meaning bigger crowds in fewer spots. And, the UNWTO predicts that by 2030, the number of worldwide tourists, which peaked at 1.5 billion in 2019, will reach 1.8 billion,   likely leading to greater pressure on already popular spots and more objection from locals.

Who has been protesting?

Of the 800 residents in the UNESCO-listed village of Hallstatt, around 100 turned out in August to show their displeasure and to push for a cap on daily visitors and a curfew on tour coach arrivals.

Elsewhere, residents in Venice fought long and hard for a ban on cruise ships, with protest flags often draped from windows. In 2021, large cruise ships over 25,000 tonnes were banned from using the main Giudecca Canal, leaving only smaller passenger ferries and freight vessels able to dock.

In France, the Marseille Provence Cruise Club introduced a flow management system for cruise line passengers in 2020, easing congestion around the popular Notre-Dame-de-la-Garde Basilica. A Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA) spokesperson said, “Coaches are limited to four per ship during the morning or afternoon at the Basilica to ensure a good visitor experience and safety for residents and local businesses. This is a voluntary arrangement respected by cruise lines.”

While in Orkney, Scotland, residents have been up in arms at the number of cruise ships docking on its shores. At the beginning of 2023, the local council confirmed that 214 cruise ship calls were scheduled for the year, bringing around £15 million in revenue to the islands. Following backlash from locals, the council has since proposed a plan to restrict the number of ships on any day.

What steps are being taken?  

City taxes have become increasingly popular, with Barcelona increasing its nightly levy in April 2023 — which was originally introduced in 2012 and varies depending on the type of accommodation — and Venice expects to charge day-trippers a €5 fee from 2024.

In Amsterdam this summer, the city council voted to ban cruise ships, while the mayor, Femke Halsema, commissioned a campaign of discouragement, asking young British men who planned to have a 'vacation from morals’ to stay away. In Rome, sitting at popular sites, such as the Trevi Fountain and the Spanish Steps, has been restricted by the authorities.

And in Kenya’s Maasai Mara, meanwhile, the Narok County governor has introduced on-the-spot fines for off-roading. He also plans to double nightly park fees in peak season.

What are the forecasts for global tourism?  

During the Covid pandemic, tourism was one of the hardest-hit industries — according to UNWTO, international tourist arrivals dropped 72% in 2020. However, traveller numbers have since been rapidly increasing, with double the number of people venturing abroad in the first three months of 2023 than in the same period in 2022. And, according to the World Travel Tourism Council, the tourism sector is expected to reach £7.5 trillion this year, 95% of its pre-pandemic levels.

While the tourism industry is forecast to represent 11.6% of the global economy by 2033, it’s also predicted that an increasing number of people will show more interest in travelling more sustainably. In a 2022 survey by Booking.com, 64% of the people asked said they would be prepared to stay away from busy tourist sites to avoid adding to congestion.

Are there any solutions?  

There are ways to better manage tourism by promoting more off-season travel, limiting numbers where possible and having greater regulation within the industry. Encouraging more sustainable travel and finding solutions to reduce friction between residents and tourists could also have positive impacts. Promoting alternative, less-visited spots to redirect travellers may also offer some benefits.

Harold Goodwin, emeritus professor at Manchester Metropolitan University, says, “Overtourism is a function of visitor volumes, but also of conflicting behaviours, crowding in inappropriate places and privacy. Social anthropologists talk about frontstage and backstage spaces. Tourists are rarely welcome in backstage spaces. To manage crowds, it’s first necessary to analyse and determine the causes of them.

Francis adds: “However, we must be careful not to just recreate the same problems elsewhere. The most important thing is to form a clear strategy, in consultation with local people about what a place wants or needs from tourism.”

As it stands, overtourism is a seasonal issue for a small number of destinations. While there is no one-size-fits-all solution, a range of measures are clearly an option depending on the scale of the problem. For the majority of the world, tourism remains a force for good with many benefits beyond simple economic growth.

Related Topics

• OVERTOURISM
• SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

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Impact of tourism development upon environmental sustainability: a suggested framework for sustainable ecotourism

Qadar bakhsh baloch.

1 Abasyn University, Peshawar, Pakistan

Syed Naseeb Shah

Nadeem iqbal.

2 Air University School of Management, Air University, Islamabad, Pakistan

Muhammad Sheeraz

3 Department of Commerce, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

Muhammad Asadullah

4 IBA, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan

Sourath Mahar

5 University of Sialkot, Sialkot, Pakistan

Asia Umar Khan

6 Islamia College University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan

Associated Data

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available on request.

The empirical research investigated the relationship between tourism development and environmental suitability to propose a framework for sustainable ecotourism. The framework suggested a balance between business and environmental interests in maintaining an ecological system with the moderating help of government support and policy interventions. The study population encompasses tourism stakeholders, including tourists, representatives from local communities, members of civil administration, hoteliers, and tour operators serving the areas. A total of 650 questionnaires were distributed to respondents, along with a brief description of key study variables to develop a better understanding. After verifying the instrument’s reliability and validity, data analysis was conducted via hierarchical regression. The study findings revealed that a substantial number of people perceive socio-economic benefits, including employment and business openings, infrastructure development from tourism development, and growth. However, the state of the natural and environmental capital was found to be gradually degrading. Alongside the social environment, social vulnerability is reported due to the overutilization of land, intrusion from external cultures, and pollution in air and water due to traffic congestion, accumulation of solid waste, sewage, and carbon emissions. The study suggested a model framework for the development of sustained ecotourism, including supportive government policy interventions to ensure effective conservation of environmental and natural resources without compromising the economic viability and social well-beings of the locals. Furthermore, the variables and the constructs researched can be replicated to other destinations to seek valuable inputs for sustainable destination management elsewhere.

Introduction

Tourism is a vibrant force that stimulates travel to explore nature, adventures, wonders, and societies, discover cultures, meet people, interact with values, and experience new traditions and events. Tourism development attracts tourists to a particular destination to develop and sustain a tourism industry. Moreover, environmental sustainability is the future-based conscious effort aimed at conserving socio-cultural heritage and preserving natural resources to protect environmental ecosystems through supporting people’s health and economic well-being. Environment sustainability can be reflected in clean and green natural landscaping, thriving biodiversity, virgin sea beaches, long stretches of desert steppes, socio-cultural values, and archeological heritage that epitomize tourists’ degree of motivation and willingness of the local community to welcome the visitors. In this context, tourism growth and environmental sustainability are considered interdependent constructs; therefore, the increase in tourism development and tourists’ arrivals directly affects the quality of sustained and green tourism (Azam et al. 2018 ; Hassan et al.  2020 ; Sun et al. 2021 ).

According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), tourism is one of the fastest-growing industries, contributing more than 10% to the global GDP (UNWTO 2017; Mikayilov et al. 2019 ). Twenty-five million international tourists in 1950 grew to 166 million in 1970, reaching 1.442 billion in 2018 and projected to be 1.8 billion by 2030. Mobilizing such a substantial human tourist’s mass is most likely to trickle environmental pollution along with its positive effects on employment, wealth creation, and the economy. The local pollution at tourist destinations may include air emissions, noise, solid waste, littering, sewage, oil and chemicals, architectural/visual pollution, heating, car use, and many more. In addition, an uncontrolled, overcrowded, and ill-planned tourist population has substantial adverse effects on the quality of the environment. It results in the over-consumption of natural resources, degradation of service quality, and an exponential increase in wastage and pollution. Furthermore, tourism arrivals beyond capacity bring problems rather than a blessing, such as leaving behind soil erosion, attrition of natural resources, accumulation of waste and air pollution, and endangering biodiversity, decomposition of socio-cultural habitats, and virginity of land and sea (Kostić et al. 2016 ; Shaheen et al. 2019 ; Andlib and Salcedo-Castro  2021 ).

Tourism growth and environmental pollution have been witnessed around the globe in different regions. The ASEAN countries referred to as heaven for air pollution, climate change, and global warming are experiencing economic tourism and pollution (Azam et al. 2018 ; Guzel and Okumus 2020 ). In China, more than fifty-eight major Chinese tourism destinations are inviting immediate policy measures to mitigate air pollution and improve environmental sustainability (Zhang et al. 2020 ). Similarly, Singapore, being a top-visited country, is facing negative ecological footprints and calling for a trade-off between tourism development and environmental sustainability (Khoi et al. 2021 ). The prior studies established that international tourism and the tourism-led growth surge tourists’ arrival, energy consumption, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, and air pollution resultantly cause climate change (Aslan et al. 2021 ). South Asian countries, more specifically Sri Lanka and Pakistan, are on the verge of tourism growth and environmental pollution compared to other countries (Chishti et al. 2020 ; Tiwari et al. 2021 ).

Pakistan is acknowledged in the tourism world because of its magnificent mountains with the densest concentration of high peaks in the world, scenic beauty of Neelum Valley, Murree, Chitral, and swat Valleys’, Kaghan, Naran, Hunza, Gilgit Baltistan (Baloch 2007 ), sacred shrines of Sikhism, archeological sites of the Gandhara and Indus Valley civilizations such as Mohenjo-Daro, Taxila including pre-Islamic Kalasha community (Baloch and Rehman 2015 ). In addition, Pakistan’s hospitable and multicultural society offers rich traditions, customs, and festivals for the tourists to explore, commemorate, cherish, and enjoy. Pakistan’s geographical and socio-cultural environment represents its resource and an opportunity (Baloch and Rehman 2015 ); therefore, Pakistan is looking to capitalize on it as a promising source of the foreign reserve to compensate for its mounting trade deficit (Baloch et al. 2020 ).

Tourism expansion has been established as a very deleterious ecological cost vis-à-vis the socio-economic benefits it passes to the host communities (Pulido-Fernández et al. 2019 ; Simo-Kengne 2022 ). In this context, the research is motivated to investigate the relationships between Pakistan’s tourism development activities and environmental sustainability. Drawing from the arguments of Pulido-Fernández et al. ( 2019 ) and Simo-Kengne ( 2022 ), it is feared that Pakistan’s ongoing determination to tourism development is likely to cause environmental degradation in two ways. Firstly, the tourism infrastructure developmental process would consume natural resources in the form of air and water pollution, loss of nature, and biodiversity. Secondly, the proliferation of tourism-related energy-consuming activities harms the environment by adding CO 2  emissions (Andlib and Saceldo-Castro 2021 ; Chien et al. 2021a ). Therefore, to tape this tourism-rich potential without compromising the sustainability of the natural and socio-cultural environment in the area, there is a dire need to develop Pakistan’s tourism areas into environment-friendly destinations.

Against the backdrop of a widening level of trade deficit, Pakistan’s rich tourism potential is being perceived as an immediate alternative for earning revenue to compensate for the current account gap. However, the developing large-scale tourism industry is considered a threat to deforestation, and air and water pollution, endangering biodiversity trading on resilient ecological credentials. The research study attempts to find an all-inclusive and comprehensive answer to the socio-ecological environmental concerns of tourism development and growth. Therefore, the research investigates the relationship between tourism development and its environmental sustainability to suggest a model framework for the development and growth of Sustainable Ecotourism in Pakistan along with its most visited destinations.

Literature review

Tourism development and growth.

Tourism is considered a force of sound as it benefits travelers and communities in urban and suburban areas. Tourism development is the process of forming and sustaining a business for a particular or mix of segments of tourists’ as per their motivation in a particular area or at a specific destination. Primarily, tourism development refers to the all-encompassing process of planning, pursuing, and executing strategies to establish, develop, promote, and encourage tourism in a particular area or destination (Mandić et al. 2018 ; Ratnasari et al. 2020 ). A tourism destination may serve as a single motivation for a group of tourists or a mix of purposes, i.e., natural tourism, socio-cultural or religious tourism, adventure or business tourism, or a combination of two or more. Andlib and Salcedo-Castro ( 2021 ), drawing from an analysis approach, contended that tourism destinations in Pakistan offer a mix of promising and negative consequences concerning their socio-economic and environmental impressions on the host community. The promising socio-economic impacts for the local community are perceived in the form of employment and business opportunities, improved standard of living, and infrastructural development in the area. The adverse environmental outcomes include overcrowding, traffic congestion, air and noise pollution, environmental degradation, and encroachment of landscaping for the local community and the tourists. An extensive review of the literature exercise suggests the following benefits that the local community and the tourists accrue from the tour are as follows:

• Generate revenue and monetary support for people and the community through local arts and culture commercialization.
• Improve local resource infrastructure and quality of life, including employment generation and access to improved civic facilities.
• Help to create awareness and understanding of different ethnic cultures, social values, and traditions, connecting them and preserving cultures.
• Rehabilitate and conserve socio-cultural and historical heritage, including archeological and natural sites.
• Establishment of natural parks, protracted areas, and scenic beauty spots.
• Conservation of nature, biodiversity, and endangered species with control over animal poaching.
• Improved water and air quality through afforestation, littering control, land and soil conservation, and recycling of used water and waste.

Tourism and hospitality business incorporates various business activities such as travel and transportation through the air or other modes of travel, lodging, messing, restaurants, and tourism destinations (Szpilko 2017 ; Bakhriddinovna and Qizi 2020 ). A tourist’s tourism experience is aimed at leisure, experiencing adventure, learning the culture or history of a particular area or ethnic entity, traveling for business or health, education, or religious purposes. The chain of activities adds value to the Tourism experience. Every activity contributes toward economic stimulation, job creation, revenue generation, and tourism development encompassing infrastructure for all activities involved in the tourism process. Tourism growth expresses the number of arrivals and the time of their stay/trips over a period of time. Tourism growth is measured through the interplay between tourists’ arrivals, tourism receipts, and travel time duration (Song et al. 2010 ; Arifin et al. 2019 ). The following factors drive the degree and level of tourism development and growth:

• Environmental factors include scenic beauty, green spaces, snowy mountains, towering peaks, good climate and weather, the interconnectivity of destination, quality of infrastructure, etc.
• Socio-economic factors: the distinctiveness of community, uniqueness of culture and social values, hospitality and adaptability, accessibility, accommodation, facilities and amenities, cost-effectiveness, price index, and enabling business environment.
• Historical, cultural, and religious factors include historical and cultural heritage, religious sites, and cultural values and experiences.

The tourism development process and its different dynamics revolve around the nature of tourism planned for a particular destination or area, which can be specified as ecotourism, sustainable tourism, green tourism or regenerative tourism, etc. Ecotourism is “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education” (Cheia, 2013 ; TIES, 2015). According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), ecotourism involves “ Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past, and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples ”. Moreover, Blangy and Wood ( 1993 ) defined it as “ responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people ” (p. 32). The concept of ecotourism is grounded upon a well-defined set of principles including “environmental conservation and education, cultural preservation and experience, and economic benefits” (Cobbinah 2015 ; De Grosbois and Fennell 2021 ).

Ecotourism minimizes tourism’s impact on the tourism resources of a specific destination, including lessening physical, social, interactive, and psychosomatic impacts. Ecotourism is also about demonstrating a positive and responsible attitude from the tourists and hosts toward protecting and preserving all components of the environmental ecosystem. Ecotourism reflects a purpose-oriented mindset, responsible for creating and delivering value for the destination with a high degree of kindliness for local environmental, political, or social issues. Ecotourism generally differs from mass tourism because of its following features (Liang et al. 2018 ; Ding and Cao 2019 ; Confente and Scarpi 2021 ):

• Conscientious behavior focuses on the low impact on the environment.
• Sensitivity and warmth for local cultures, values, and biodiversity.
• Supporting the sustenance of efforts for the conservation of local resources.
• Sharing and delivering tourism benefits to the local communities.
• Local participation as a tourism stakeholder in the decision-making process.
• Educating the tourist and locals about the sensitivity and care of the environment because tourism without proper arrangement can endanger the ecosystems and indigenous cultures and lead to significant ecological degradation.

Sustainability aims to recognize all impacts of tourism, minimize the adverse impacts, and maximize the encouraging ones. Sustainable tourism involves sustainable practices to maintain viable support for the ecology of the tourism environment in and around the destination. Sustainable tourism is natural resource-based tourism that resembles ecotourism and focuses on creating travel openings with marginal impact and encouraging learning about nature having a low impact, conservation, and valuable consideration for the local community’s well-being (Fennell 2001 & 2020 ; Butowski 2021 ). On the other hand, ecotourism inspires tourists to learn and care about the environment and effectively participate in the conservation of nature and cultural activities. Therefore, ecotourism is inclusive of sustainable tourism, whereas the focus of sustainable tourism includes the following responsibilities:

• Caring, protecting, and conserving the environment, natural capital, biodiversity, and wildlife.
• Delivering socio-economic welfare for the people living in and around tourists' destinations.
• Identifying, rehabilitating, conserving, and promoting cultural and historical heritage for visitors learning experiences.
• Bringing tourists and local groups together for shared benefits.
• Creating wide-ranging and reachable opportunities for tourists.

Environment and sustainability of ecosystem

The term “environment” is all-inclusive of all the natural, organic living, inorganic, and non-natural things. The environment also denotes the interface among all breathing species with the natural resources and other constituents of the environment. Humans’ activities are mainly responsible for environmental damage as people and nations have contemplated modifying the environment to suit their expediencies. Deforestation, overpopulation, exhaustion of natural capital, and accumulation of solid waste and sewage are the major human activities that result in polluted air and water, acid rain, amplified carbon dioxide levels, depletion of the ozone, climate change, global warming, extermination of species, etc. A clean, green, and hygienic fit environment has clean air, clean water, clean energy, and moderate temperature for the healthy living of humans, animals, and biodiversity as nature is destined for them by their creatures. Maintaining and sustaining a clean environment is indispensable for human and biodiversity existence, fostering growth and development for conducting business and creating wealth. The environment can be sustained through conservation, preservation, and appropriate management to provide clean air, water, and food safe from toxic contamination, waste, and sewage disposal, saving endangered species and land conservation.

The globalization process, known for building socio-economic partnerships across countries, is also charged with encouraging environmental degradation through the over-consumption of natural resources and energy consumption, deforestation, land erosion, and weakening (Adebayo and Kirikkaleli 2021 ; Sun et al. 2021 ). Chien et al. ( 2021b ), while studying the causality of environmental degradation in Pakistan, empirically confirmed the existence of a significant connection between CO 2  emissions and GDP growth, renewable energy, technological innovation, and globalization. However, Chien et al. ( 2021a ) suggested using solar energy as a source of economic intervention to control CO 2  emissions and improve environmental quality in China. The danger of air pollution is hard to escape as microscopic air pollutants pierce through the human respiratory and cardiovascular system, injuring the lungs, heart, and brain. Ill-planned and uncontrolled human activities negatively affect ecosystems, causing climate change, ocean acidification, melting glaciers, habitation loss, eutrophication, air pollution, contaminants, and extinction of endangered species ( Albrich et al. 2020 ) .

Humans have a more significant effect on their physical environment in numerous ways, such as pollution, contamination, overpopulation, deforestation, burning fossil fuels and driving to soil erosion, polluting air and water quality, climate change, etc. UNO Agenda for 2030 “Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals” (SDGs) mirrors the common premise that a healthy environment and human health are interlaced as integral to the satisfaction of fundamental human rights, i.e., right to life, well-being, food, water and sanitation, quality of life and biodiversity to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages (SDG3)—which includes air quality that is dependent upon terrestrial ecosystems (SDG15), oceans (SDG14), cities (SDG11), water, cleanliness, and hygiene (SDG6) (Swain 2018 ; Opoku 2019 ; Scharlemann et al. 2020 ). The UNEP stated that 58% of diarrhea cases in developing economies is due to the non-provision of clean water and inadequate sanitation facilities resulting in 3.5 million deaths globally (Desai 2016 ; Ekins and Gupta 2019 ).

Climate change overwhelmingly alters ecosystems’ ability to moderate life-threatening happenings, such as maintaining water quality, regulating water flows, unbalancing the temporal weather and maintaining glaciers, displacing or extinction biodiversity, wildfire, and drought (Zhu et al. 2019 ; Marengo et al. 2021 ). Research studies advocate that exposure to natural environments is correlated with mental health, and proximity to green space is associated with lowering stress and minimizing depression and anxiety (Noordzij et al. 2020 ; Slater et al. 2020 ; Callaghan et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, the Ecosystem is affected by pollution, over-exploitation of natural resources, climate change, invasive and displacing species, etc. Hence, providing clean air and water, hygienic places, and green spaces enriches the quality of life: condensed mortality, healthier value-added productivity, and is vital to maintaining mental health. On the other hand, climate change aggravates environment-related health hazards through adverse deviations to terrestrial ecology, oceans, biodiversity, and access to fresh and clean water.

Tourism development denotes all activities linked with creating and processing facilities providing services for the tourists on and around a destination. Infrastructure development is vital for developing a tourism destination to advance tourists’ living conditions and preserve natural and cultural heritage by constructing new tourist facilities, the destinations administrative and supporting echelons, including community living, etc. Development for tourism infrastructure and land use often burdens natural capital through over-consumption, leading to soil erosion, augmented pollution, loss of natural habitats, and endangered species. Development of tourism infrastructure and construction work has profound implications on environmental degradation, reduction in green spaces, deforestation, solid waste and sewage, overutilization of air and water, emission of CO 2 and other gases contributing to air and water pollution, climate change, loss and displacement of biodiversity, and the degradation of ecosystems. These negative consequences of tourism development result in many problems for the tourists and the indigenous people in the foreseeable future (Azam et al. 2018 ; Hoang et al. 2020 ).

A report published by UNEP titled “Infrastructure for climate action” has suggested governments introduce sustainable infrastructure as the prevailing one is responsible for causing 79% of all greenhouse gas emissions in struggling climate change, alleviation, and adaptation efforts. Sustainable infrastructure signifies that structures’ planning, construction, and functioning do not weaken the social, economic, and ecological systems (UNEP 2021 ; Krampe 2021 ). Sustainable infrastructure is the only solution that ensures societies, nature, and the environment flourish together. Therefore, Sustainable Ecotourism supports adapting pro-environment and nature-based climate change strategies that help resilient biodiversity and ecosystem to impact climate change. The proposed strategy is to focus on the conservation and restoration of ecosystems to combat climate hazards, fluctuating rainfalls, soil erosion, temperature variations, floods, and extreme wind storms (Niedziółka 2014 ; Setini 2021 )

Pakistan’s tourism infrastructure suffered a colossal amount of damage during the earthquake of October 8, 2005, which left widespread demolition and destruction to its human, economic assets, and infrastructure networks, especially in Kashmir and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's tourism areas. The tourism-related infrastructure, including hotels, destination facilities of social service delivery and commerce, water channels, and communications networks, were either drained or virtually destroyed. The destruction in the aftermath of the earthquake was further added by the war against terror in tourism-hit areas, resulting in the redundancy of tourists and tourism facilities for a long time (Akbar et al. 2017 ; Zakaria and Ahmed 2019 ). The tourism revival activities during the post-earth quack, post-terrorism scenario, and COVID-19 period called for various entrepreneurial activities, including the construction of infrastructure, hotels, road networks, community living, etc. Development and reconstruction of the livelihood and hospitality infrastructure through entrepreneurship were undertaken intensively through a public-private partnership from national and international findings (Qamar and Baloch 2017 ; Sadiq 2021 ; Dogar et al. 2021 ).

The revival and reinvigoration of infrastructure in tourism areas were backed up by extensive deforestation, use of local green land, rebuilding of the road network, displacement of biodiversity, and overtaxing the consumption of water and other natural resources. The deforestation, extensive use of green land, and over-consumption of water and other natural resources have depleted the tourism value of the area on the one hand and degraded the environment on the other. However, it was the focused rehabilitation activities of earthquake and Pakistan’s Government’s socio-environment conservation strategy of the Billion Trees plantation program in the province, including dominating tourism areas. The afforestation and loss of green tops are being reclaimed through these efforts, and the tourism environment is soon expected to regenerate (Qamar and Baloch 2017 ; Rauf et al. 2019 ; Siddiqui and Siddiqui 2019 ).

Government support and policy interventions

Tourism generates wide-ranging benefits for the economy, community, and people. Tourism contributes to the economy through revenue generation and shares responsibility with the Government to alleviate poverty alleviation, create opportunities for job placements, protect environments, and conserve natural ecosystems and biodiversity. It is assumed that if the tourism industry is left to its own, it will most likely prefer its business interests over environments or biodiversity. Governments, custodians of the life and well-being of their subjects, are directly responsible for providing a clean environment, nature, and Ecosystem. Therefore, national and local governments are responsible for preparing and implementing tourism development plans and enforcing values and standards for tourism development in conformity with the prerequisites of environmental sustainability. Through institutional governance, governments help tourism development by providing financial and budgetary support, regulatory framework, land, physical resources, infrastructure, etc. Provision and facilitation for Sustainability of Ecotourism and conservation of environment and biodiversity are dependent upon Government-supported interventions as follows:

• The regulatory framework for setting up tourism-related entrepreneurship and quality standards can support ecotourism and prevent environmental degradation on any account.
• Provision of budgetary support for ecosystem conservation and regeneration of bio-diversity-related projects.
• Plan, rehabilitate if needed, promote conservation and protection of socio-cultural, historic, antique, and natural endowments in coordination with other public and private agencies, and deal with the defaulters, if any.
• Promoting and undertaking afforestation alongside land conservation and discouraging deforestation, soil erosion, accumulation of solid waste, littering, and any direct or indirect loss or threat to biodiversity.
• Setting restrictions for over-tourism beyond capacity and quality standards for transportation, restaurants, hotels, food and drinking water, etc.
• Placing enforcement mechanism necessary to ensure application of the regulatory framework and quality standards applicable along with all activities inclusive to the Ecotourism value chain.

Theoretical support and hypothesis development

According to the social disruption theory, rapidly expanding societies usually experience a period of widespread crisis and a loss of their conventional routines and attitudes. The crisis impacts people whose mental health, worldviews, behavioral patterns, and social networks may all be impacted (Çalişkan and Özer 2021 ). According to the social disruption theory, fast community change brought on by population growth will result in a variety of social issues that are signs of a generally disorganized community (Smith et al. 2001 ). Because some types of tourism communities experience rapid expansion accompanied by intensive development and rapid social change over a relatively short period of time, they seem to be great settings for studying various postulations of the social disruption theory.

Place change and social disruption theory are closely connected. According to this assumption, when a community undergoes fast expansion, it tends to experience a generalized crisis that might culminate in several social issues as changes spread throughout the community and among individuals (Rasoolimanesh et al. 2019 ). Place change can result from fundamental community restructuring due to economic development, new class divides, and migration of both long-term and temporary people (Nelson 2001 ). Social unrest, though, is not enduring. Instead, it is transitory; societies gradually adjust to these changes (Deery et al.  2012 ).

The standard of living may initially deteriorate, but due to the adaptability of people and communities, they will gradually reinvigorate and strengthen themselves accordingly. Furthermore, the social disruption proposition reinforces one of the challenges in analyzing the effects of tourism, particularly in emerging nations, since it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the effects of tourism and the overall ongoing development (Park and Stokowski 2009 ) (Fig. ​ (Fig.1 1 ).

• Tourism development and growth significantly affect natural environment resources.
• Tourism development and growth significantly affect environmental pollution.
• Tourism development and growth significantly affect the physical ecosystem of the environment.
• Tourism development and growth significantly affect the socio-cultural environment.
• Tourism development and growth significantly affect the economic environment of people and the community.
• Government policy and support significantly moderate the relationship between tourism development and growth and the environmental factors.

Conceptual framework

Methodology

The study aimed to investigate the association of tourism development and its impact on environmental factors. Therefore, a survey method was employed to collect data by including all the relevant people in the locality. The study is based on stakeholders’ opinions from Pakistan’s most visited tourist areas, including Murree, Swat, Chitral, Naran, Kaghan, Neelum Valley, Malam Jabba, Ayubia, and Nathia Gali. A total of 650 stakeholders were contacted from the above-mentioned tourist destinations through survey. The distribution of the sample is mentioned in Table ​ Table1 1 .

Sample configuration

Field survey—2021

Using quantitative techniques, hierarchical linear regression analysis was employed to investigate the possible relationships between tourism growth and various dimensions of environmental sustainability. The results below reveal that tourism development translates into environmental deterioration, and the relationship between tourism and environmental sustainability is bidirectional.

Tourism growth and development were measured through a five-item scale. The environment was measured through 16 items combined scale with sub-dimensions; depletion of Natural Resources=3 items, Polluting Environment=3 items, Physical Effects on Ecosystem=4 items, Socio-Cultural Degradation=3 items, and Economic Environment=3-items. Similarly, our moderating variable, Government Interventions and Support, was measured using a 5-item scale. Table ​ Table2 2 below presents the details of the instruments.

Instrument reliability

Analysis and results

Data were analyzed using SPSS Version 26. It includes correlation, linear regression, and stepwise hierarchal regression analysis.

Table ​ Table3 3 above shows that our Tourism Growth and Development has significant and positive relationship with Polluting Environment ( r = 0.20**), Physical Effects on Ecosystem ( r = 0.19**), Depletion of Natural Resource ( r = 0.24**), Socio-Cultural Degradation ( r = 0.18**). However, Tourism Growth and Development has positive relationship with Economic Environment ( r = 0.29**) and Government Interventions and Support ( r = 0.13**).

Correlation matrix

* p  < 0.05; ** p  < 0.01

Results of linear regression analysis at Table ​ Table4 4 above depict that tourism growth and development predicts 4.1% variance in Depletion of Natural Resources ( β = 0.20, p <0.01), 3.9% variance in pollution ( β = 0.19, p <0.01), 6% variance in Physical Effects on Ecosystem ( β = 0.24, p <0.01), 3.6% variance in Socio-Cultural Degradation ( β = 0.18, p <0.01), and 8.8% variance in Economic Environment ( β = 0.29, p <0.01).

Regression analysis for H1–H5

** p  < 0.01

The study analyzes the applied two-step hierarchal regression. In the first step, Tourism Growth and Government Interventions were treated as independent variables, and their significant impact was measured. In the second step, the interaction term Tourism and Growth× Government Interventions was added, and its impact was measured. The results suggest that Government Interventions and Support moderate the relationship between Tourism Growth and the Environmental variables (Table ​ (Table5 5 ).

Moderation analysis

* p  < 0.05;** p  < 0.01

The study has reported unique findings regarding tourism and its environmental impacts. We found that tourism growth and development generate economic activity on the one hand. However, it has specific adverse environmental and socio-cultural outcomes on the other hand as well. Our study revealed that tourism growth and development predict a 4.1% variance in Depletion of Natural Resources ( β = 0.202*, p <0.01). This suggests that due to the expansion of tourism in the country, natural resources are continuously depleted to meet the needs of tourists. Studies also supported our findings and suggested that revival and reinvigoration of infrastructure in tourism areas were backed up by extensive deforestation, use of local green land, rebuilding of the road network, displacement of biodiversity, and overtaxing the consumption of water and other natural resources (Qamar and Baloch 2017 ; Sadiq 2021 ; Dogar et al. 2021 ). The prior studies are consistent with our hypothesis that “tourism development and growth significantly affect natural environment resources.”

We further found that tourism growth and development predict a 3.9% variance in pollution ( β = 0.198*, p <0.01), suggesting that tourism expansion may pollute the natural environment. Furthermore, recent national statistics depict that major human activities at local tourism destinations such as Kalam, Sawat, Muree, and Northern Areas have accumulated solid waste and sewage, resulting in polluted air and water. Further, research also suggests that the overflow of tourists to tourist destinations may adversely affect the environment due to human activities (Noordzij et al. 2020 ; Slater et al. 2020 ; Andlib and Salcedo-Castro  2021 ; Callaghan et al. 2021 ). Thus, it is safe to argue that the growth of tourism has a particularly detrimental effect on the environment. These findings also support our hypothesis, “Tourism development and growth significantly contribute to environmental pollution.”

The results reported that tourism growth and development predict a 6% variance in Physical Effects on the Ecosystem ( β = 0.245*, p <0.01). Studies have reported that deforestation and alteration in species’ natural environment for tourism facilities construction may adversely affect environmental health (Kuvan, 2010 ; Azam et al. 2018 ; Hoang et al. 2020 ; Andlib and Salcedo-Castro  2021 ). During post-terrorism and post-Covid-19 times in Pakistan, millions of local tourists moved to popular tourist destinations that required new infrastructure to accommodate these tourists. Consequently, colossal deforestation and other detrimental human activities have negatively affected ecosystem. These findings also support our hypothesis that tourism development and growth significantly affect the physical ecosystem of the environment.

The study reported a total of 3.6% variance in socio-cultural degradation ( β = 0.189*, p <0.01) due to tourism growth and development. These findings suggest that tourism’s growth and development may lead the inhabitants to imitate the foreign tourists regarding their living standards, which may endanger their traditional culture. Thus, our hypothesis that “tourism development and growth significantly affect the socio-cultural environment” is confirmed.

Further, it was found that tourism growth and development predict an 8.8% variance in the economic environment ( β = 0.297*, p <0.01). It is established from the literature that tourism growth and development generate economic activity in the country. Development projects such as the construction of infrastructure, hotels, and road networks generate economic activity to facilitate international and indigenous tourists, positively affecting the community’s living standard (Baloch et al. 2020 ). Thus, our hypothesis, “tourism development and growth significantly affect economic environment of people and community,” is confirmed.

Due to tourism growth and development, our study reported a 1.8% variance in Government Support and Interventions ( β = .133*, p <0.01). However, more recently, the Government of Pakistan has devised specific interventions that may help curb the adverse impacts of detrimental environmental factors. For example, developmental schemes such as the Billion Trees Plantation drive and Road-Infrastructure Network Development under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor initiative may prove moderators to curb the negative impacts of tourism growth on the environment (Qamar and Baloch 2017 ; Rauf et al. 2019 ; Siddiqui and Siddiqui 2019 ). Therefore, the hypothesis, Government policy and support, significantly moderates the relationship between tourism development and growth with the environment is confirmed based on these findings.

Suggested model for ecotourism framework

Through its detailed review of existing literature, prevailing tourism policies, and empirical inputs from the stakeholders’ perspectives, the study has identified a wide range of obstacles limiting the development and growth of ecotourism in Pakistan. The study suggests National Tourism Management authorities carefully invest in ecotourism destination’s planning and development in coordination with the environment development agency. The suggested model for ecotourism framework is initially meant for the tourism destinations specifically designated for ecotourism. However, selected points can also be extended to the quality management parameters set for the National Parks, Conservation and Protracted Areas, Museums, National or International event sites, etc. The national tourism authorities are to lay particular emphasis in their forthcoming National Tourism Policy on the development and promotion of Sustainable Ecotourism having, with focus on the following key areas:

• Identify and classify four to five ecotourism destinations, including ecotourism-centered activities of value chains for priority development, which are administratively possible within budgetary constraints. However, the development plan shall consider the integral benefits of other developmental schemes such as the Billion Trees Plantation drive, Road-Infrastructure Network Development under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor initiative, International Union for Conservation of Nature (ICUN) programs in the area.
• While staying within the alignment of UN Millennium Development Goals (MDG) calling for ‘environmental sustainability’ and the development vision of each designated destination, the Tourists Management System shall take into cognizance of issues like managing capacity of the place, quality parameters for the conservation of the environment, and allowable activities thereof.
• Identify degenerated destinations of religious, socio-cultural, or historical significance for their rehabilitation under the Regenerated tourism program.
• i. To deflect the tourist pressure upon these destinations, the potential tourists from nearby cities and metropolitan areas be provided with nearby alternative destinations for leisure tourism as stay-tourism sites.
• ii. To prevent the environment from air pollution, the traffic load on the destination be curtailed through an effective traffic management strategy, provision of off-destination parking for combustion engine vehicles, and encouraging electric driven or hybrid vehicles for nearby parking.
• iii. Provision of clean drinking water through public infiltration plants, public toilets, solid waste carriers, and recycling of sewage and used water is recommended in the most visited areas of the destination.
• iv. Signposting at appropriate places, giving social messages encouraging to maintain cleanliness, avoid littering, ensure nature conservation, and humility toward biodiversity.
• Develop all-inclusive, comprehensive execution plans to expedite the investments for the sustainable ecotourism, encouraging public–private cooperation, community involvement, and infrastructure mapping guaranteeing environmental conservation and safeguards.
• Develop and place on the ground an all-inclusive program of capacity building for sustainable ecotourism, regenerative and green tourism services.
• Develop and launch Pakistan tourism profile and Sustaining Ecotourism obligatory framework “to promote tourism on the one hand and nurture conscious ecological behavior among the potential tourists of the area”.
• In order to fetch local ownership for the ecotourism center developments, all efforts shall be made to share the socio-economic benefits integral to the development scheme with the local population for community development.
• As part of the destination management planning, identify complementary value chains and livelihood activities that could be developed as part of the overall ecotourism destination package.
• i. Setting new quality standards facilitating the promotion of ecotourism and environmental sustainability through acts of various bodies operating in the Ecotourism value chain, such as:
• Revision of Private hotels Management Act (1976) and Tourists Operators Act (1976) alongside introduction and promulgation of a new “Tourism Destination Management Act” incorporating new quality standards as of today.
• Promulgating laws to make all new construction/development projects responsible from any agency in the area, incorporating quality standards needed for environmental sustainability, and promoting ecotourism.
• Set measures for the preservation of the local biodiversity and preservation of endangered species, including seeking support from internationally active environment conservation agencies, declaring local hunting illegal, introducing licensing programs for hunting of certain selected animals/ birds on the payment of a handsome amount to be used for the welfare of the local community.
• Create awareness programs against deforestation, land conservation, and biodiversity, and maintain cleanliness, inculcating a culture of respecting and enjoying nature instead of spoiling it.

Conclusion, implications, and limitations of the study

The study premise was based on the contention that sustenance of ecotourism focuses on the economic viability of the business interests alongside the conservation and preservation of natural ecosystems, including ethical fairness to the socio-cultural environment of the host community. Ecotourism is a phenomenon that contributes to environmental sustainability through well-planned and careful destination management capable of balancing conflicting interests of business growth and environmental sustainability. Tourism-environment paradox suggests that the sustainability and survival of both are dependent upon the flourishing mode of each other. Quality of environment and sustainability of bio-ecosystem stimulates tourists’ arrivals and over-tourism beyond capacity with irresponsible behavior from tourists negatively influencing the environment and harming the ecosystem of nature. Ecotourism is not inevitably sustainable unless it is economically sustainable and environmentally maintainable besides being socio-culturally acceptable. Socio-culturally intolerable ecotourism means the activity which does not benefit locals and their socio-cultural values. Hence, the study concludes that ecotourism has to positively interplay between economy, environment, and culture without compromising one over others. The pursuit of sustainable ecotourism is not an end in meeting the little comforts of the business interests but rather a means to end the sustainability issues created due to ill-conceived tourism development and unmanageable growth.

Practical implications

Drawing from the findings and conclusions of the research, the study extends the following practical implications for effectively managing the process of tourism development and environmental sustainability in line with the dictates of the philosophy behind ecotourism:

• Paradoxically tourism necessitates ecological capitals as primary ingredients for the creation of tourism experiences on the one hand. However, it is also contingent upon the conservation and preservation of ecological integrity on the other. The study suggests that unbalancing this “resource paradox” results in the harshness and tenacity of adversarial climate change, natural calamities, environmental pollution, and endangered biodiversity.
• The research findings and the suggested framework for ecotourism imply that sustainable ecotourism principles-based planning is mandatory for destination management to assure effective trade-off between the business interests’ sustainability of the environmental ecosystem.
• Tourism development and growth shall be steered through ecotourism principles as its sustainable model offers enduring social, environmental and economic, ecological integrity, and social and cultural benefits for the local community. Therefore, ecotourism is a recipe for preventing environmental degradation and guarantees sustainability of ecosystems nature and its biodiversity. Hence, ecotourism shall stand central priority focus for strategic management to nurture quality experiences from sustainable tourism.
• To revive back the sustainability of the environment, in the areas where over-tourism has degraded the environment, schemes for regenerated tourism shall be immediately launched to mitigate the negative footprints on the sustainability of destinations, including reinforcing protracted conservation sites, biodiversity, and recouping endangered species, afforestation drives, recycling of water and solid waste, refurnishing of landscaping, preservation, and rehabilitation of cultural heritage and refurbishing of depleted infrastructure accordingly. Furthermore, to regenerate and sustain the tourism infrastructure of the destinations experiencing over-tourism, capacity building measures like capacity, recycling of water and solid waste, preventive measures to control air and water pollution, traffic control management, and spread of entertainment facilities shall be the focus of the regeneration plans.
• The study implies that government authorities and policymakers have a special role in placing their moderating intervention in terms of policy guidelines, regulatory framework, and budgetary support, provision of inter-organizational synergy in planning and implementation of ecotourism strategies, protection of environmental resource base and conservation of natural and biological ecosystem, sustenance of socio-cultural value of local community over and above their economic and social well-being/quality life for the long run.
• The study also implies that public and private policymakers lay down threshold criteria for responsible travel and tourism standards for destination management and its related supply chain. The laid criterion would facilitate management in nurturing “responsible behavior” to plan, protect, conserve, preserve, and sustain natural and cultural resources and responsible socio-economic development without compromising the sustainability of the environment and long-term well-being of the hoist community. The deep-seated adherence to social responsibility protocols by the tourism supply chain network can significantly increase the capacity of tourism destinations and improve the conscious awareness of green consumers along the tourism supply chain. Furthermore, the consciously responsible behavior among stakeholders and legislatures can strike a needed balance between the business interests and environments in favor of sustainability of socio-cultural, economic, and natural capital.
• The study elucidates that responsible behavior necessitates purpose-built eco-friendly infrastructure and policy parameters to support the sustainability of environments across destinations. The strategic planning aligned with the sustainability-focused objectives dictates the need for artistic, innovative, and talented people and quality intuitions in harnessing quality tourism services and responsible tourism behavior. Furthermore, the study encourages community involvement in the developmental process, enactment of structural policies, preservation of socio-cultural heritage, and conservation of natural biodiversity as it would foster emotional bondage between the people of the host community and the tourism undertakings. Therefore, community and value chain managers shall collaborate to maximize the perceived benefits of responsible tourism while developing cultural exchanges and planning opportunities for leisure and tourism.
• Regulatory measures help offset negative impacts; for instance, controls on the number of tourist activities and movement of visitors within protected areas can limit impacts on the ecosystem and help maintain the integrity and vitality of the site. Limits should be established after an in-depth analysis of the maximum sustainable visitor capacity. Furthermore, the variables and the constructs researched can be replicated to other destinations to seek valuable inputs for sustainable destination management elsewhere.

Study limitation

Besides the functional, practical applications, the study has some limitations. Besides having integral disadvantages of cross-sectional research, the respondents selected for the study were visitors on peak days with the highest tourist arrivals, thereby having experiences of a higher degree of environmental pollution and natural disorder. Furthermore, the research is limited to stakeholders’ perspectives instead of any scientifically generated data or mathematical or econometric model.

Author contribution

QBB: conceptualization, methodology, writing—original draft. SNS: data curation and supervision. NI: visualization, editing, proofreading. MS: review and editing. MA: review and editing. SM: editing, data curation. AUK: review and editing.

Data availability

Declarations.

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. We also declare that we do not have human participants, data, or tissue.

We do not have any person’s data in any form.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Qadar Bakhsh Baloch, Email: moc.liamg@bqhcolabrd .

Syed Naseeb Shah, Email: moc.liamtoh@hahs_beesan .

Nadeem Iqbal, Email: moc.oohay@1labqimeedanrd .

Muhammad Sheeraz, Email: [email protected] .

Muhammad Asadullah, Email: moc.liamg@apmdasa .

Sourath Mahar, Email: moc.oohay@mhtaros .

Asia Umar Khan, Email: kp.ude.pci@ramu-aisa .

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A holistic approach for tourism carrying capacity estimation in sensitive ecological areas

• Open access
• Published: 11 April 2024

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• Georgia Skiniti 1 ,
• Maria Lilli 2 ,
• Nikolaos Skarakis 1 ,
• Stavroula Tournaki 1 ,
• Nikolaos Nikolaidis 2 &
• Theocharis Tsoutsos   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6411-2736 1  

Mediterranean ecosystems are in the spotlight of tourism activities, with the local populations trying to make the most of them, while in parallel, the stress signs, such as habitat and biodiversity degradation, increased pollution, or beach erosion, have begun to emerge. Furthermore, this combination of exotic and delicate qualities accompanied by excessive tourist flows leads to the imperative need for sustainable tourism development studies in these areas. In the current study, aiming to develop a new holistic framework for assessing Carrying Capacity in sensitive coastal ecosystems, a combined methodology was created and tested in Balos Lagoon, a Natura 2000 area in Western Crete. The method encompasses calculating different Carrying Capacity indicators, environmental quality measurements, visitors’ perceptions identification, and finally, a multicriteria analysis to capture the stakeholders’ and local community’s viewpoints. The combined methodologies identified vital issues, including overcrowding—Effective Carrying Capacity is exceeded by 1000 people per day during the peak season—tar residue pollution, microplastics, insufficient road infrastructure and excessive car numbers exceeding capacity. Stakeholder involvement was pivotal, prioritizing twelve proposed actions to address those issues. Notably, “frequent beach clean-ups,” targeting visual impacts, emerged as the most critical action, while parking reallocation and setting a maximum daily ferry limit were also highly ranked, promising solutions to alleviate overcrowding issues. The paper offers valuable insights for future research, emphasizing the need for continuous environmental monitoring, implementation of high-priority measures, and economic valuation of natural capital. Ultimately, this research contributes to the literature by presenting a pioneering methodology for holistic assessment and sustainable tourism development in Mediterranean sensitive coastal ecosystems.

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1 Introduction

Mediterranean regions’ relief has unique morphological characteristics that collectively form a plethora of special places of scenic beauty, which most of the time host sensitive ecosystems of rich biodiversity. Hence, those ecosystems are in the spotlight of tourism activities, with the local populations trying to make the most of them, while in parallel, stress signs have emerged (ISMAR-CNR, 2018 ). Furthermore, this combination of exotic and delicate qualities and excessive touristic flows leads to the imperative need for sustainable tourism development studies in these areas (UNWTO).

The predominant issues emerging from excessive tourism in coastal eco-sensitive zones are mainly addressed by the grave concerns of habitat degradation and destruction, which negatively affect delicate ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves, and sand dunes. It is also highlighted that the alarming levels of beach and marine pollution attributed to inadequate waste management and unchecked tourist influx further endanger marine life and ecosystem health. Additionally, there are implications on the socio-economic factor, including water scarcity due to increased demands, cultural identity erosion from inauthentic experiences, and infrastructure strain affecting local communities. Hence, gaining a holistic comprehension of the diverse array of issues presented by the surplus of coastal tourism underscores the importance of promoting sustainable approaches that harmonize economic advancement with the preservation of the environment (Mejjad et al., 2022 ).

Over the years, several studies have explored sustainable tourism in coastal regions, shedding light on diverse aspects crucial to the interaction between the three pillars of sustainability (nature, society, and economy-tourism). Research conducted in Emilia-Romagna, Italy, analyzes the interplay between geomorphological evolution, carrying capacity, and the perceptions of users and explores how the evolving coastal landscape affects the region's capacity to support tourism while considering visitors’ perceptions of these changes (Rodella et al., 2017 ). Moving to Asinara Island, where a dual approach encompassing carrying capacity assessments and web-based evaluations has been recently implemented. This combination optimizes the management of two distinct pocket beaches, aligning tourism activities with the ecological sensitivities inherent to the island (Corbau et al., 2019 ). Shifting to the Costa Brava in Spain, older research has focused on public perceptions of beach quality based on users' profiles, providing insights for tailored beach management strategies (Roca et al., 2009 ). Another study conducted in Baisha Beach, Taiwan, offers a deep understanding regarding management priorities and carrying capacity for maintaining a delicate balance between tourism and nature (Chen and Teng 2016 ). Collectively, these papers underscore the nature of sustainable coastal tourism, encompassing geomorphology, social considerations, ecological evaluations, public perceptions, and management strategies.

The phenomenon of over-tourism (Vagena, 2021 ) was effectively described by the European Parliament in 2018 as the condition under which tourism, in a specific place and time, exceeds its multilevel capacity threshold (physical, ecological, social, economic, psychological, or/and political). It could also be expressed as a dependent variable on unstable parameters, such as the touristic destination’s number of visitors, seasonality, or carrying capacity.

Overtourism and seasonal characteristics, in conjunction with the current crises concerning energy, biodiversity, water, food, and health (Searchinger et al., 2018 ), have an accumulative negative impact on tourism destinations, making the realization of sustainable development actions inevitable (Lange, 2015 ). Thus, environmental impact assessments and planning processes are essential to define an area’s Carrying Capacity (CC) (Cifuentes, 1992 ) to build the foundations for sustainable tourist growth.

The aim of studying the CC of sensitive coastal ecosystems (Jurado et al., 2012 ; Lange, 2015 ) is to determine the maximum number of individuals, species, or activities an ecosystem can support without experiencing significant degradation. Much more than a balance concept or a number inherent to the area examined, CC is a dynamic, multidimensional management concept, and estimating it enables policymakers to determine the maximum number of individuals or activities that can be developed without causing permanent damage to the ecosystem (Cifuentes, 1992 ). Ultimately, it provides valuable information to develop management plans that aim to protect the ecosystem and promote its healthy function in the long run (Paskova et al., 2021 ).

The CC assessment in sensitive coastal regions has already been studied through various research and methodologies. As mentioned in a recent and extensive literature review (Ajuhari et al., 2023 ) of over 80 studies and their methods used for assessing CC in tourism and recreation destinations, there is yet progress to be made for a systematic or even standardized approach to CC assessment.

The main contributions of this study are:

The emphasis on stakeholder engagement in CC assessment is essential to ensure that CC assessments reflect local perspectives, values, and knowledge.

The importance of ongoing monitoring and adaptive management in CC assessment to account for changing conditions and emerging threats.

The survey methodology through questionnaires and interviews is traditionally used to identify the local community’s perceptions of tourism development. A study conducted by the University of Kashmir, India (Wani et al., 2022 ), makes an essential contribution by focusing on the perspectives of indigenous communities, whose attitudes and perceptions are critical for developing sustainable tourism practices that respect and preserve local values and traditions and ensure that tourism’s benefits are distributed equitably. The study's findings indicate that local communities have a mixed perception of tourism development, which can cause plenty of impacts (positive and negative) on the local economy, culture, and environment. It also emphasizes the importance of community involvement and participation in tourism development to ensure that tourism practices align with local culture and values. One limitation and a critical factor in such studies is the representative sample size.

A more quantitative approach is the estimation of the EcoTourism carrying capacity (ETCC), Physical (PCC), Real (RCC), and Effective Carrying Capacity (ECC) (Sobhani et al., 2022 ). The nature of this method has constraints as it does not consider qualitative factors, such as cultural values and perceptions. Visitors' behavior, infrastructure development, and natural resource availability all limit the CC of ecotourism in these protected areas. The study emphasizes the importance of efficient management approaches to control the number and behavior of visitors while minimizing the negative environmental impacts of tourism. Also, the importance of balancing the economic benefits of tourism with the conservation of natural and cultural resources was emphasized.

In another research, a new tourism carrying capacity index (TCCI) was created to measure the capacity of tourism activities in coastal areas of Mediterranean islands. The TCCI was developed by considering several factors, including environmental quality, socio-economic factors, and the number of tourists (Leka et al., 2022 ). One of the study's significant contributions is its comprehensive approach to measuring the TCCI by considering multiple factors that affect the CC of tourism activities and a complete framework to measure it. Similarly, system dynamics modeling is another standard methodology used in the field of CC identification, usually preferred to capture the dynamic relationships among various factors and simulate the impacts of different management strategies (Olumide et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). Due to the lack of qualitative inquiry, the last two methodologies usually export similar findings. At the same time, it is vital to comprehend that emphasis on quantitative methods may overlook the role of qualitative factors, such as cultural values and perceptions, when shaping the relationship between environmental pollution and coastal tourism.

In the current study, aiming to develop a new holistic framework for assessing CC in sensitive coastal ecosystems, a combined methodology—of all the abovementioned approaches—was created and tested. The method encompasses the calculation of PCC, RCC, and ECC, a multicriteria analysis to capture the stakeholders and the local community’s perception, and finally, environmental quality measurements. The carrying capacity estimation methods enable us to quantify the maximum visitor load the beach can sustain while considering various limiting factors. The multicriteria decision analysis engages diverse stakeholder perspectives to prioritize sustainable management actions, ensuring that cocreation and cooperation are achieved in the decision-making procedures, and the physicochemical analyses shed light on the environmental quality, plastic pollution, and potential anthropogenic threats in the ecosystem. By combining these methodologies, the study addresses the immediate challenges facing Balos Beach, also fosters a comprehensive approach that informs effective management strategies, policy formulation, and conservation efforts for the long-term well-being of such unique coastal environments.

2 Methodology

This study sought to design and perform a holistic approach that would investigate all three sustainability components, i.e., environment, society, and economy, of a single site, proposing a three-level methodology for calculating its CC:

Estimation of the physical, real, and effective CC (Nilsen, 2010 ),

Obtaining the stakeholders’ views (Turker et al., 2016 ) and

Quantification of the ecosystem’s quality (Naeem et al., 1999 ).

The methodology is tested in one key region, which was purposefully selected to answer in five characteristics: (a) insular, (b) coastal, (c) sensitive, (d) economic pole, and (e) tourist attraction.

The three-scaled methodology was constructed to achieve the maximum insight into the ecosystem’s current condition and propose tailor-made solutions for sustainable development. Concretely, all possible issues and weaknesses were recorded through CC calculation and environmental quality measurements, each of which actions were proposed to address them. The actions were the result of:

Carrying Capacity calculation (CC), analytically described in Section i

Biological measurements (BM), analytically described in Sect. 0 and

TripAdvisor analysis (TA): To quantify and evaluate the given issues of the area (intensity, seasonality), data were gathered from the 120 users’ reviews found on Balos’ TripAdvisor page for the period June 2020 to October 2021 (which are the total reviews of 2020–2021). The comments were then analyzed via statistical analysis of frequencies to extract the most highly mentioned issues over the two years (Skiniti et al., 2022 ).

This integrated approach helps to promote social and environmental sustainability and to ensure that decisions are effective over the long term.

Calculating the physical, real, and effective CC, understanding the stakeholders' views, and quantifying the ecosystem's biological quality help ensure that decisions are inclusive, transparent, and based on sound scientific data. By considering all three CCs of the ecosystem, the perspectives and interests of different stakeholders, and the current state of the environment, informed decisions that consider a range of crucial factors can be made. This comprehensive approach ensures that decisions are made with a complete understanding of the state of the ecosystem, the potential impacts of human activities, and the needs and interests of different stakeholders.

Each methodology is presented in detail, beginning with how all CCs are calculated, then the scientific method used to determine tourist demand, and finally, the chosen methods’ goals. The third section presents the multicriteria method PROMETHEE, which was deemed more appropriate for investigating the perspectives of local stakeholders.

2.1 The study area

The study area selected was Balos Lagoon, located in Crete, Greece, 17 km northwest of Kissamos. The lagoon is formed by an uncovered, narrow strand of land between the Gramvousa Cape and the peninsula of Tigani. The area is declared protected under the institutional framework of N2K (code GR4340001) and Corine biotopes, owing to its ecological, social, cultural, and aesthetic value (FILOTIS—Database for the Natural Environment of Greece) covering 31,08 km 2 of land (Natura 2000-Standard Data Form).

Balos Lagoon is known for its unique geomorphological features, i.e., the plethora of sand dunes and the rocky and calcareous landscapes featuring steep slopes and rugged, sea-inaccessible coastlines alongside the enriched ecosystems of Posidonia in the sea. Vegetation is predominantly phryganic, led by shrubby perennials like Sarcopoterium spinosum , Coridothymus capitatus , and Callicotome villosa .

The area harbors endemic plants, rare reptiles, invertebrates, and migratory birds. Species like Centaurea pumilio are rare IUCN-listed and protected under the Greek law, Filago aegaea ssp. aristata , Cynara cornigera , Silene fabaria —restricted species, or endangered birds like Gyps fulvus and Gypaetus barbatus , as well as monk seals, add to its ecological value (Natura 2000-Standard Data Form).

The definition of the study area started with a more detailed and accurate survey of the area of Balos and reached up to the level of the Municipality of Kissamos (Fig.  1 ). In several cases, the influence of the lagoon is highlighted at the level of the Regional Unit, as it is not only a place of unique natural heritage but also one of the most significant points of tourist interest on a global scale. Thus, some parts of the holistic approach, such as the biological measurements and the tourist demand, were held on a strictly local level, Balos’ lagoon. In contrast, the multicriteria method was held on a regional level, as stakeholders in the whole region of Crete are affected by this critical Natura area.

Levels of the Balos Lagoon Study Area

2.2 The holistic methodology

2.2.1 estimation of the physical, real, and effective carrying capacity.

CC is defined as “the maximum number, density or biomass of a population that a specific area can sustainably support” (Cifuentes, 1992 ; Hartvigsen, 2022 ; UNWTO, 1981 ). To preserve and develop a sensitive ecosystem feasibly, the CC definition can provide an approach to analogize the area’s current state with the optimum ‘one.

Calculating physical, real, and effective carrying capacities (Suwarno et al., 2018 ) in sensitive coastal ecosystems is crucial in understanding these ecosystems’ limits, actual state, and sustainable use.

The CC of a sensitive coastal tourist destination is determined by factors such as the availability of natural resources, the ability of the ecosystem to absorb waste and recover from disturbances, and the impact of tourism activities on the local community and culture. For example, suppose the number of tourists exceeds the CC of the area. In that case, it can result in the overuse of resources, increased pollution, and degradation of the natural and cultural heritage of the area. On the other hand, poor visitation could severely lessen development opportunities and benefits for stakeholders (Mihalic, 2020 ). Consequently, if the CC is appropriately managed, tourism can contribute to the conservation of the ecosystem, the promotion of sustainable economic growth, and the preservation of local culture and heritage.

Thus, determining the CC of a sensitive coastal touristic destination is essential for making informed decisions about the development and management of tourism activities. By balancing the needs and interests of different stakeholders and considering the impact of tourism on the ecosystem and the local community, decision-makers can ensure that tourism activities are sustainable and that the long-term health and integrity of the ecosystem are protected.

It is often done using mathematical models and simulations, which take into consideration the available data on resource availability, climate, terrain, biotic factors, and human activities. However, it is worth mentioning that CC is a dynamic concept that can change over time due to environmental and human activities.

Physical carrying capacity (PCC) is given by the following equation (Suwarno et al., 2018 ):

\({\rm A}\) : the available space for use ( \({m}^{2}\) ),

\(D=\frac{V}{{A}_{p}}\) : users’ density as the area required per user to move freely (person/ \({m}^{2}\) ),

\({R}_{f}\) : rotation factor (number of visits/day): The ratio of the open period to the average duration of a single visit. This number expresses the daily number of visits possible for a user.

Real carrying capacity (RCC)is described as (Suwarno et al., 2018 ):

\({C}_{f}\) : corrective factor (rainfall days, days with strong winds, cold days, and heatwave days), expressing the negative impact on tourist activity and is calculated by:

\({M}_{1}\) : limiting magnitude of the variable.

\({M}_{t}\) : total magnitude of the variable.

Then Effective Carrying Capacity (ECC) (Suwarno et al., 2018 ):

Management Capacity (MC) is an index number based on the number of tourism employees and the budget for the conservation and protection of the site. The current number of employees was estimated by observations in the field survey and information by the local authorities, as well as assumptions made based on the literature review. The existing workforce is distributed in the cafeterias, parking areas, toilets, the guardhouse, lifeguards, and the ships that operate the services.

Estimating the ideal number of workers needed on the site was based on the baseline scenario, the legal guidelines for lifeguarding, and the adequate number of shifts.

\(amc\) : The current number of employees for the maintenance of the site,

\(imc\) : The ideal number of employees for the sustainable development of tourism at the site.

2.2.2 Multicriteria method for key stakeholders

The definition of stakeholders' views in decision-making procedures for protecting sensitive coastal ecosystems is essential for ensuring that decisions are inclusive, transparent, and effective. By considering the perspectives and interests of different stakeholders, including local communities, government agencies, and businesses, decision-makers can build trust, promote innovative solutions, and promote social and environmental sustainability. Including stakeholders in the decision-making process helps ensure that decisions are accountable and meet the needs of both the ecosystem and the people who depend on it.

In the following figure, the steps of the multicriteria method are described in detail, from the problem description to the final stage of the analysis’s results with the ranking of sustainable tourism policy measures (Fig.  2 ).

Description of the multi-criteria method for the evaluation of sustainable tourism development policies (Farmaki et al., 2018 )

The multicriteria method (Online Annex C) PROMETHEE (Farmaki et al., 2018 ; Stamatakis et al., 2016 ; Tsoutsos et al., 2009 ) studies the views of all stakeholders involved (by filling out the questionnaire of Online Annex B, developed for this study) (Table  1 ) in the management of the ecosystem (Natura 2000). This method hierarchies a set of n alternatives \({a}_{i} (i = 1, 2, . . ., n)\) based on \(k\) criteria \({g}_{j} (j = 1, 2, . . ., k)\) . The evaluation \({g}_{j}({a}_{i})\) of each alternative \({a}_{i}\) for every criterion \({g}_{j}\) should be maximized or minimized, depending on the criterion (Argyriou et al., 2022 ).

The initial hierarchy is obtained via the PROMETHEE I method for partial ranking, followed by the PROMETHEE II method for the automatic complete ranking of the alternatives produced by the program after the partial ranking. Subsequently, the Geometrical Analysis for Interactive Aid (GAIA) tool can be utilized to present the examined actions concerning all criteria. The fifth and final step involves a sensitivity analysis of the weights assigned to different actions, which is applied to assess the robustness of the complete ranking.

Net flows (phi) in PROMETHEE are calculated for each alternative by considering both positive and negative flows. These flows represent the degree to which an alternative outranks or is outranked by other alternatives for each criterion. The positive flow (phi+) measures the preference an alternative has over others, while the negative flow (phi−) quantifies how much an alternative is outranked by others. The net flow for an alternative is the difference between its positive and negative flows.

A higher net flow value suggests that the alternative has a more substantial overall advantage over others. In comparison, a lower or negative net flow value indicates a weaker position relative to other options.

Twelve measures were selected to be evaluated by eight criteria (Tables 2 and 3 ). As shown in the following table, actions were the result of 3 methods used to address the issues in the area (CC: Carrying Capacity calculation, BM: Biological Measurements, and TA: TripAdvisor analysis, alongside an extensive literature study which provided the actual actions, a.k.a. the measures used in other similar case studies to solve such issues in the past. For example, Carrying Capacity calculation identified issues related to the overcrowded beach, which, according to the literature, are addressed via the definition of a maximum number of visitors or ferries per day or a more organized implementation of an admission fee, actions 8, 9 and 11 suggested in the current study.

Generally, Table  2 includes each measure selected to address one or more issues identified, as well as the method from which each issue was identified, while the 7th and last column of the table, the reference used to find the appropriate solution for each problem, appears.

The criteria selection needed to be related to the issues tracked in the area and the actions proposed to address them. At the same time, they were based on the three pillars of sustainability and an extensive literature review of similar studies (Chen and Bau 2016 ; Pesce et al., 2018 ). Firstly, the inclusion of "Energy saving" (C1) and "Pollution" (C2) is justified by the imperative to minimize the environmental footprint and pollution from tourism-related activities, waste, and transportation emissions.

The following criteria are emphasised in the social sector: "Safety" (C3) is an important parameter, as a safe environment fosters positive experiences and encourages repeat visits, ultimately contributing to the long-term sustainability of the tourism industry. At the same time, “Visitors’ satisfaction" (C4) and "Residents’ satisfaction" (C5) are pertinent criteria, reflecting a balanced approach that acknowledges that tourism development should not only enhance visitor experiences but also respect the quality of life and cultural integrity of the host community.

Furthermore, the “Job opportunities” (C6) criterion recognise tourism's potential for local employment, fostering economic stability and reducing unemployment. At the same time, " Tourist flows" (C7) ensure sustainable visitor levels, preventing overcrowding, resource strain, and environmental degradation, and "Tourist income" (C8) evaluates how tourism revenue can boost local economies, supporting businesses and infrastructure development for long-term resilience.

While the selected criteria are well-considered and collectively encompass ecological, social, and economic dimensions, local stakeholders, experts, and community members need to be engaged in the decision-making process to ensure the relevance of those criteria. Additionally, ongoing monitoring and evaluation can refine and adjust the criteria as the region's dynamics evolve, providing a robust framework for sustainable tourism development.

The questionnaire was distributed via email, including guidelines to fill it, to a contact list of 30 stakeholders related to the survey’s target group (Table  1 ), which was then reached by phone calls to provide further information on the questionnaire. Finally, 15 valid questionnaires were collected for further analysis. However, this number is limited for statistically solid analysis; it is estimated as satisfactory following global research practice in the multicriteria analysis since the selected group of respondents was very well targeted (Dean, 2022 ).

2.2.3 Physicochemical analyses in Balos Lagoon

The quantification of the ecosystem's biological quality is vital to designing a conservation plan, which will be followed by extensive monitoring and evaluation procedures to upgrade this plan, target its flows, and adjust and improve conservation strategies in response to changes in the ecosystem.

In Balos Lagoon, ten samplings were carried out (June–October 2021 and May–September 2022) (Lilli et al., 2022 ), from which 60 samples in total were analysed. The sample was planned in two cross sections (A and B) (Fig.  3 ) in the lagoon's most heavily touristic location. Two "composite" samples (from each cross-section) of saltwater (hereinafter referred to as Aw & Bw respectively), sediment (hereafter referred to as Ai & Bi respectively), and beach (sand) (hereafter referred to as As & Bs respectively) were taken in each sampling.

Sampling design. Cross sections (Α and Β) were used for sand, sediment, and seawater sampling

To gather samples of sand and sediment, a 40cm x 40cm frame was placed into the substrate of each transect, and 500 g of the material was collected from the frame for all analyses except microplastics. In the case of microplastics, all of the sand or sediment from the frame was retrieved and sorted through 2 mm and 53 mm sieves after being placed in a metal container with water. Seawater samples were analyzed for nitrate, sulfate, phosphate, ammonia ions, and total organic carbon (TOC) in the laboratory using spectrophotometry (HACH—DR 2800) and the thermocatalytic oxidation method (multi N/C® 2100S Analyzer, AnalyticJena). The total metal concentration (B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Ba, Hg, Pb) of the samples (Online Annex D) was determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS, 7500cx, Agilent Technologies). Microbiological testing was performed by cultivating seawater samples or leachates (sand-sediment) in particular nutrients at 37οC for E. Coli ( Hicrome E. Coli Agar ), Enterococci ( Slanetz & Bartley Medium, Membrane Enterococcus Agar ), and total coliforms ( Membrane Lauryl Sulfate Broth & Agar ). Total petroleum hydrbons (TPH) were detected using gas chromatography (GC-FID, Shimatzu) of pentane extracts of the samples, and microplastics were manually separated by hand; each subcategory was counted and weighed. Finally, 50 L of seawater was collected using sieves for microplastics, which is consistent with international literature (Karkanorachaki et al., 2018 ).

3.1 Carrying capacity estimation

(a) PCC Estimation

The assessment of the available area visitors can occupy at Balos Beach was performed with the assistance of maps provided by the Hellenic Cadastral Survey using the "area measurement with polygon definition graphics" tool.

The areas where bathers can be present both in standing and lying positions, i.e., sandy and with a minimum slope (at low altitude from sea level) (Elliniko Ktimatologio). The marked boundaries of the continuous surface can be found in Online Annex A.

To estimate the space occupied by a single bather, the dimensions of a sunbed were measured as \(1.90 {\text{m}}\times \mathrm{0,60}\) m. and an extension of one meter was added in both directions in each dimension, making it possible to move freely between them. (≈ 4.7 m 2 /bather).

The rotation factor is defined as the ratio of the time the site is open to the public, i.e., 24 h, to the average length of a visitor's stay at the beach, taking into account the time needed to get there and return to the starting point (place of stay). The average time for all visitors was extracted from a tourist survey conducted between September 13–23, 2023. However, 51% of visitors arrive by boat, which is not available 24 h per day, and due to the difficulty of accessing Balos at night, the time that the beach is open to the public was considered 12 h.

\({R}_{f}\approx 2.08\) and finally,

(b) RCC Estimation

The RCC of Balos Beach was estimated considering the following limiting factors on PCC.

\({C}_{f1}\) : rainfall days.

\({C}_{f2}\) : days with solid winds above 5 Beaufort or 29 km/h.

\({C}_{f3}\) : cold days, where the temperature was less than or equal to 10 °C

\({C}_{f4}\) : heatwave days, where the temperature exceeds 35 °C \({C}_{f5}\) : days of 'low season, from 1 November to 28 February.

The meteorological data were obtained from the nearest station of the National Observatory of Athens, located in Falassarna, covering a period from 1 January 2011 to 31 October 2021. The number of off-season days was estimated as \(119\) . The limiting factors are illustrated in Online Annex D. Considering that the limitation factors vary, as shown in the Online Online Annex, the RCC for different scenarios occur where each factor is separately minimized, while the values of the total available area for bathers, the area required per user, the rotation factor and the number off-season days ( \({{\varvec{C}}}_{{\varvec{f}}5}\) ) served as a baseline scenario. This led to an average minimum RCC. The exact process was followed for an average maximum value (Table  4 ).

Ultimately, the RCC of Balos Beach is \(RCC=\mathrm{2,695}-\mathrm{3,039}\left[\frac{visitors}{day}\right]\)

(c) ECC Estimation

The workforce of 78 people/day is distributed in the cafeterias, parking areas, toilets, the guardhouse, lifeguards, and the ships that operate the services.

The assumptions for the estimation of the ideal number of workers needed on the site are as follows:

- An extra person should be employed in the refreshment rooms, parking areas, toilets, and guard posts so that two shifts are easily carried out during the day.

- There should be five lifeguards (General Secretariat of Safety-Navigation, 2010 ), each supervising a 600 m radius of the beach in 2 shifts per day. The calculation made using the maps of the Hellenic Cadastral Survey (Online Annex A, Fig. 6) showed that the coastline is 1408 m.

- The number of people employed on board may remain unchanged (Tables 5 , 6 ).

The \(amc\) and \(imc\) numbers are summarized below:

Thus, the manpower capacity, FM, is calculated as \(FM = \frac{78}{87}\times 100\%\) and the ECC of Balos Beach is estimated as:

The exact process for estimating RCC was followed here. FM was considered, ranging from 90% to an optimum 95%, corresponding to the ideal number of employees for all posts, apart from lifeguards. This is due to the fact that the presence of 5 lifeguards requires an equal number of lifeguard chairs, which is thought to be a heavy human intervention. Hence, in Table  7 , the range of all the above-head calculations appears.

The tourist flows during the peak season (August) for 2017–2021 (Skiniti et al., 2022 ) have exceeded Balos’s ECC by approximately 1,000 people.

3.2 Results of the multicriteria decision analysis

The responses of each stakeholder group provided the necessary information to create the average evaluation matrix for each group and calculate the average assigned weights (Table  7 ). The detailed results of the evaluation matrices and an example of the weight calculations per sector are presented in Online Annex E.

The above data were imported into the PROMETHEE program, from which the overall results were obtained. From the partial ranking presented in Table  8 , the hierarchy of the actions proposed for the sustainable development of Balos Lagoon per stakeholder group involved in the survey is presented. It is concluded that for local government, priority is given to actions related to regular beach cleaning and road improvements, while oil booms and implementation of an entrance fee are of minor importance. For the economic and tourism sectors, priority is given to actions concerning regular beach cleaning and oil booms. At the same time, information signs and an online pre-booked ticket system seem insignificant. For NGOs and local communities, regular beach clean-ups and oil booms are the most important, with the last two measures relating to implementation and online booking of tickets coming last. For regional and national governance, setting maximum numbers of people and boats are key actions, while road improvement and information signs are not considered priorities. For academic and research bodies, actions on parking reform and access to the electric bus are prioritized, while oil booms and ticketing appear to be less critical.

It is observed that in the overall "complete" ranking of measures in descending order, the main priority is the action related to the regular cleaning of the beach (Phi = 0.379), while the action associated with the online pre-booked tickets comes last (Phi = − 0.332) (Table  9 ).

Figure  4 shows the profile of the actions in relation to the three categories of criteria (environment—green, economy -red, and society-blue), where according to the stakeholders' responses, measure A2—Regular beach clean-ups seem to be the most balanced among the three pillars of sustainability, but with an emphasis on the society. This does not seem to be the case for action 9—The definition of a maximum number of boats arriving per day, which, while important from the environmental aspect, does not seem to be satisfying concerning society and even more so to the economy.

Profile of each action, where green refers to the environment, red refers to the economy, and blue refers to the social category

In the same diagram, the hierarchy described in the upper table is also shown, with the most essential measure being A2 on the left side, while the last is on the right side. It is interesting to observe that measures of high priority can be of low satisfaction for one or more sustainability pillars, for example, the second measure, about the Parking lot reallocation outside of the NATURA, or the one about the definition of a maximum number of ferries/days seem to have no significant effect on the economy.

Reading the same figure with emphasis on the vertical axis, it is possible to observe that measures may have a positive effect on one sector and a negative on another. More specifically, A3: Transport by electric bus till the beginning of the pathway to the beach is an environmentally friendly and effective measure, but for society, it is certainly not a priority, leaning to the negative part of the diagram below the horizontal axis.

3.3 Results of physicochemical analyses

Physicochemical analyses of the samples taken in the ten samplings are presented in Online Appendix. The samples’ physicochemical characterization (Table  10 ) showed that the values are typical of a coastline (Lilli et al., 2022 ), and there are no significant differences between the A and B cross-sections. There are also no significant differences between the sand and sediment samples. For all samples taken in the various samplings, As, Cd, Cs, Hg, and U were tested below the detection limit. Co, Pb, Ni, Cr, Ti, Zn, and Sn concentrations showed shallow values or were below the detection limit for all samples as well. No total petroleum hydrbons were detected in the samples; however, tar pellets were observed in some water and sand samples, resulting in increased TOC amounts in these samples (Table  10 ).

The density of plastic fragments and pellets determined in the ten samplings is demonstrated in Table  11 . The results showed that microplastics of > 2 mm and > 53 m size were discovered in an average of 19 n/m 2 of sand samples, while microplastics of the same size have been identified in sediment samples at a rate of 5 n/m 2 and 8 n/m 2 , and in seawater samples at a rate of 0.002 n/m 2 and 0.007 n/m 2 , respectively. Findings that are consistent with the literature, and especially with samplings in Greek beaches of the Aegean, where there have been revealed microplastics (2–4 mm) densities in the top 3cm of the subsurface ranging between 10 and 602 items/m 2 (Kaberi et al., 2013 ; Karkanorachaki et al., 2018 ).

Higher values of Escherichia coli (> 500cu/100 g) were observed in the sand samples of the B cross-section and enterococci (> 2500cu/100 g) of the A cross-section compared to the other samplings in July 2021. More elevated values of total coliforms in the water, sand, and sediment samples and Escherichia coli in the water sample of transect B were observed in August 2021 compared to the other samplings. Higher values of enterococci in water and sediment samples, and Escherichia coli in sediment samples were observed in July 2022 compared to other samplings. More elevated values of enterococci in the samples of the sand as well as of the sediment of the A cross-section were observed in September 2022, about the rest of the samplings. It is worth noting that, according to the legislation for water quality (European (European Union, 2006 ) and Greek (Ministry of Interior—Finance—the Environment and Energy—Health, 2009 ) legislation), the seawater of the Balos lagoon can be characterized as "excellent" quality, since the values of enterococci and Escherichia coli were below 100 and 250 cu/ml respectively, in all samplings (Fig.  5 ). It is imperative to remain cognizant that during the peak of the tourist season, concentrations of Escherichia coli and enterococci reach their zenith, approaching regulatory thresholds. Consequently, tourism activities over successive years engender apprehension regarding the potential to surpass these established thresholds by such microbial indicators.

Temporal variability, in seawater, sand, and sediment samples, of total coliforms (( a ), ( d ), ( g )) Escherichia coli (( b ), ( e ), ( h )) and enterococci (( c ), ( f ), ( i ))

The most crucial indicator is the presence of tremendous quantities of tar balls or residues on all the samples that originated from both human-caused and natural oil leaks in the ocean environment. Marine tar residues are formed by the transformation of liquid petroleum under specific conditions like weathering, sedimentation, and other processes (Warnock et al., 2015 ). This issue is essential not only from the environmental perspective but from the social as well, as it is mentioned by visitors and stakeholders as a crucial issue faced in the field that needs to be addressed.

Throughout the tourist seasons of 2021 and 2022, extensive monitoring was conducted to assess the environmental quality of the Balos Lagoon, with the aim of identifying critical indicators that require attention to promote sustainable development in the area. However, further research is imperative to determine the root cause of tar residue in the lagoon and to devise effective remedies for this pressing issue.

Also, it is of particular importance that the area has extensive Poseidonia meadows, which are a priority habitat with code 1120*, an endemic species at risk from climate change and other anthropogenic threats.

4 Discussion and recommendations

Traditional Carrying Capacity assessments typically focus on one dimension, such as Physical carrying capacity (PCC), often neglecting the integration of environmental data or a multicriteria approach. Additionally, single-factor environmental studies are also usual, focusing solely on water quality or biodiversity indices, while sustainable tourism frameworks, although valuable, often lack the specificity needed to address over-tourism in sensitive coastal ecosystems, mainly investigating stakeholders’ views.

Against this background, the proposed methodology stands out for its innovation, offering a more comprehensive and dynamic assessment that combines capacity calculations with a protocol for environmental measurements, followed by a multicriteria decision-making framework that engages stakeholders from multiple sectors. This holistic approach directly targets the issue of over-tourism, providing adaptability and a participatory character, making it a cutting-edge solution for sustainable coastal tourism management.

Firstly, by calculating the ECC through a series of mathematical functions that associate its determinants, we found that 2888 people/day is the case study’s upper visitation threshold. Meanwhile, it is derived from the existing data that during the peak season, up to 3200 people per day are accepted on the site (Skiniti et al., 2022 ) (1st issue, Table  12 ), exceeding by far its CC. Our findings align with those of other coastal areas, such as Cala dei Ponzesi and Cala Giordano in Asinara (Corbau et al., 2019 ), where at first sight, the ECC (175 and 34 visitors per day, respectively) seem to exceed, proportional to the beaches’ respective surfaces (916 m 2 and 180 m 2 ), compared to what we propose for Balos Beach, but this can be attributed to fact that Balos Lagoon is not as accessible as these beaches. Additionally, the coastline of Lido di Comacchio in the northern Adriatic Sea, 16 km long, revealed an ECC of approximately 25 thousand visitors per day (Rodella et al., 2017 ), fully compatible with what we would suggest.

Having identified this first significant issue, from a sustainable spatial management point of view, it was necessary to integrate into the methodology three other factors: society, economy, and environment. Therefore, to cover the environmental aspect, biological measurements were collected both in the waters of Balos and in the sediment and sand, from which it appears that most indicators are compatible with those of coastlines, with the main problem being the existence of large quantities of tar balls or tar residues in all three sampling points and secondarily the presence of microplastics (but not in alarming quantities) (Issues 2 and 3, Table  12 ).

Furthermore, to integrate the social dimension into the study, an analysis of the reviews and ratings on the TripAdvisor platform of Balos from June 2020 to October 2021 was carried out, which brought to light issues 4–8, Table  12 .

The above complications are interdependent in various ways. For instance, overloaded boats, alongside the number of cars exceeding the parking area’s CC, are a combination that leads to an overcrowded beach, which quickly affects the amount of litter or microplastics at the beach.

One or more measures were proposed to address each of the abovementioned issues. Then, these twelve actions were hierarchised by the stakeholders (local authorities, tourism factors and financial investors, non-governmental organizations, academia and regional–national government) via a multicriteria analysis. The most crucial action for the sustainable tourism development of the area was the “most frequent beach clean-ups” which addressed not only environmental degradation but aesthetics as well. Following, the parking lot reallocation and the definition of a maximum number of ferries per day are also high in the ranking as two promising measures to solve the problem of overcrowding spaces (beach, boats, and parking) and, consequently, all of its derivatives. A major part of this study’s innovation is this multicriteria method, which has highly safe results; as for all the different stakeholder groups with different interests, at least the high priority in preference measures were similar.

Νotably, further initiatives, such as the online pre-booked tickets or the operation of an observatory, have received lower rankings from stakeholders and local authorities than actions already in progress. The lower prioritization of novel sustainable tourism measures by stakeholders and local authorities can be attributed to factors such as a preference for proven, less risky actions, a lack of awareness about the long-term benefits of their implementation, and external pressures for immediate economic results. Dealing with this situation requires proactive efforts, including raising awareness to illustrate the value of innovative approaches through data and case studies and involving stakeholders in the decision-making process. These steps are essential to shift perceptions, mitigate risk aversion, and foster a more comprehensive and sustainable approach to tourism development.

Several gaps can be covered in future studies, such as:

Continuous environmental monitoring. Continuous measurements and data are needed for the physicochemical evaluation to be more accurate.

The mathematical models and combined methodology should be proven in action. The measures highest in the stakeholders’ ranking list should be implemented to test their positive trajectory and social consensus.

Visitors’ demand. It is essential to identify the target group, in this case, for a touristic coastal area, which will be determined through an extended survey targeting Balos’s visitors.

Willingness-to-pay. The economic valuation of the benefits gained from the natural capital should be incorporated into the future management plan of Balos. In this way, the long-term development and conservation of the ecosystem can be ensured.

Upgraded local specialisation. Local characteristics such as species risks, climate change impact, cultural traditions, and social characteristics need to be added.

Enhanced accuracy in the analysis. Additional responses from targeted stakeholders in the multicriteria method could also give more accurate results, even though the plethora of answers is valid according to the literature (Dean, 2022 ).

5 Conclusions

In conclusion, this study has introduced an innovative holistic methodology for assessing the Carrying Capacity and addressing the sustainability challenges of sensitive coastal ecosystems tested in Balos Lagoon. The findings emphasize the urgent need for sustainable tourism management in the area, particularly given the discrepancy between the current visitation levels and the calculated upper visitation threshold.

Our study underscores the importance of stakeholder involvement in decision-making and prioritizing actions that address environmental concerns. It is worth noting that while newly proposed measures received lower rankings, this may be attributed to risk aversion and a lack of awareness, emphasizing the need for proactive stakeholder education and communication.

This paper contributes significantly to the existing literature by presenting a novel methodology that combines multiple approaches for assessing sustainable tourism development in sensitive coastal ecosystems. The proposed framework serves as a valuable reference for similar case studies in the future, offering a structured approach to analyze complex issues and engage stakeholders effectively. Moreover, future studies should focus on continuous environmental monitoring, testing the practical implementation of high-priority measures, understanding visitor demand and willingness to pay, and incorporating economic valuations to ensure such natural assets’ long-term conservation and development. Overall, this research provides a foundation for fostering sustainability in Mediterranean ecosystems and beyond, safeguarding their ecological integrity while enhancing the quality of tourism experiences for both visitors and local communities.

Data availability

Data will be made available on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

• Carrying capacity

Effective carrying capacity

EcoTourism carrying capacity

Geographic information systems

Physical carrying capacity

Real carrying capacity

Tourism carrying capacity index

Total organic carbon

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This publication was supported by the European Commission under the INTERREG V-A Greece-Cyprus 2014–2020 programme, within the framework of the project CROSS-COASTAL-NET initiative, Development of a Cross-Border Network for the Promotion of Sustainable Coastal Tourism ", Project MIS code: 5050612. The sole responsibility for the content of this paper lies with the authors. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.

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Skiniti, G., Lilli, M., Skarakis, N. et al. A holistic approach for tourism carrying capacity estimation in sensitive ecological areas. Environ Dev Sustain (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04805-0

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Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts

2023 outstanding papers published in the environmental science journals of the royal society of chemistry.

a Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China

b Carnegie Mellon University Department of Chemistry, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

c Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

d Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, UK

e Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Portugal

f Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA

g Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA

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• This article is part of the themed collection: Outstanding Papers 2023 – Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts

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Z. Cai, N. Donahue, G. Gagnon, K. C. Jones, C. Manaia, E. Sunderland and P. J. Vikesland, Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts , 2024, Advance Article , DOI: 10.1039/D4EM90011A

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EDITORIAL article

This article is part of the research topic.

Women in Biogeochemical Dynamics Research: 2022

Editorial Frontiers in Environmental Science "Women in Biogeochemical Dynamics Research" Provisionally Accepted

• 1 Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, France
• 2 Institute of Marine Sciences, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Spain

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

At present, less than 30% of researchers worldwide are women. Long-standing biases and gender stereotypes are discouraging girls and women away from science-related fields, and STEM research in particular. Science and gender equality are, however, essential to ensure sustainable development as highlighted by UNESCO. In order to change traditional mindsets, gender equality must be promoted, stereotypes defeated, and girls and women should be encouraged to pursue STEM careers.Therefore, we are proud to offer this platform in Frontiers in Environmental Science to promote the work of women scientists. To be considered for this collection, the first, last, or corresponding author should be a researcher who identifies as a woman The papers presented here highlight the diversity of research performed across the entire breadth of Biogeochemical Dynamics research and the advances in theory, experiment, and methodology with applications to compelling problems. Contributions to this journal showcase the breadth and depth of investigations aimed at understanding and mitigating human impacts on our planet.One significant study by Chua and Fulweiler (2023) highlights the importance of hightemporal-resolution gas concentration measurements in capturing the rapid response of sediments to low-oxygen conditions. This research sheds light on the dynamic nature of sedimentary processes and underscores the necessity of precise monitoring techniques in studying environmental phenomena.In another investigation, Forsyth et al. (2023) delve into the bioconcentration and translocation of rare earth elements in plants from legacy mine sites in Portugal. Their findings not only contribute to our understanding of plant-metal interactions but also have implications for environmental management strategies in areas affected by mining activities.Meanwhile, Ismail and Al-Shehhi (2023) offer a comprehensive review of biogeochemical models' applications in various marine environments. By synthesizing existing knowledge, the authors provide valuable insights into the role of these models in elucidating complex biogeochemical processes and guiding sustainable marine resource management practices. Lavergne et al. (2024) draw attention to the importance of conserving microorganisms in terrestrial ecosystems, focusing on soil microbial diversity in Chile and the Antarctic Peninsula. Their work underscores the need for heightened awareness and proactive conservation efforts to safeguard these essential components of ecosystem functioning.In a study with implications for land management practices, Rissanen et al. (2023) investigate the vegetation impacts on methane emissions from boreal forestry-drained peatlands. Their findings highlight the role of moss cover in modulating emissions and emphasize the importance of considering vegetation dynamics in peatland management strategies.Addressing the pervasive issue of plastic pollution in marine environments, Romera-Castillo et al. ( 2022) quantify the leaching of dissolved organic matter from aged plastic and its impact on microbial activity. This research underscores the urgent need to mitigate plastic pollution and its cascading effects on marine ecosystems. Furthermore, Santos et al. (2022) employ leaf wax biomarkers to reconstruct environmental conditions in a high-mountain lake area in western Iberia. Their work illustrates the utility of biomarker analysis in paleoenvironmental reconstructions and contributes to our understanding of past environmental changes. Sun et al. (2023) investigate the release of inorganic mercury and subsequent methylmercury production in boreal peatlands due to ground warming. Their findings underscore the complex interactions between climate change and mercury cycling in peatland ecosystems, highlighting the need for integrated approaches to mitigate mercury pollution.Lastly, Vila-Costa et al. (2023) data represent a significant step forward in unraveling the intricate interactions between pelagic marine bacteria and organic pollutants. By conducting comprehensive field studies in the tropical Pacific and subtropical Atlantic Oceans, the researchers provide invaluable insights into the responses of these bacteria to various pollutants.Collectively, these studies exemplify the diverse and interdisciplinary nature of research featured by women in Environmental Science. By advancing our understanding of environmental processes and informing evidence-based management strategies, these contributions play a crucial role in addressing the myriad challenges facing our planet. As we navigate the complexities of the Anthropocene, women scientists are at the forefront of fostering dialogue and innovation to promote environmental sustainability and stewardship. In the realm of biogeochemical dynamics research, women scientists have long been making significant contributions, yet their achievements and perspectives are sometimes overlooked or underrepresented. As we strive for inclusivity and diversity in the scientific community, it's imperative to shine a spotlight on the invaluable work of women researchers in this field. It's essential to amplify their voices, recognize their contributions, and support their career advancement. By fostering an inclusive and supportive environment that values diversity, we can harness the full potential of women scientists and unlock new insights into the complex dynamics of our planet's biogeochemical cycles. In conclusion, women scientists are driving innovation, discovery, and progress in biogeochemical dynamics research. Their expertise, leadership, and dedication are indispensable assets in tackling the environmental challenges of the 21st century. Let us continue to celebrate and uplift the contributions of women in science, paving the way for a more equitable and sustainable future.

Keywords: women in STEM, environmental science, Biogeochemical Dynamics Research, Gender Equality, Diversity in Science

Received: 09 Apr 2024; Accepted: 11 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Cosio, Bravo and Sebastian. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Mx. Claudia Cosio, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France

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