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One of the original purposes of schools in the United States was to prepare students to inherit democracy (Mann, An oration, delivered before the authorities of the City of Boston, July 4, 1842 . WB Fowle and N. Capen, 1842; Krutka, 2014 ). Given the trends in youth civic participation over the last few decades, civic education is not effectively working to support this goal. Research has shown effective civic education practices (e.g., participatory pedagogies, an open classroom climate, service learning), but little civic education follows these suggestions (Torney-Purta et al., Citizenship and education in twenty-eight countries: Civic knowledge and engagement at age fourteen . IEA Secretariat, 2001). Further, most teachers report not having sufficient time, preparation, or resources to teach civics effectively (Hahn, Challenges to civic education in the United States. In J. Torney-Purta, J. Schwille, & J. A. Amadeo (Eds.), Civic education across countries: Twenty-four national case studies from the IEA civic education project (pp. 583–607). IEA Secretariat, 1999). Social media could provide a way for teachers to deepen their teaching of civics by making it more accessible and more relevant, and by having students engage in civic participation in real time.

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• Civic education
• Social media
• Youth civic engagement

Civic education in the United States has a long history. American democracy relies on an informed, active, participatory citizenry, and the presumption has long been that young people learn how to engage in civic life in school. Horace Mann, in 1842, gave a speech about civic life in which he noted that most citizens did not know what was required of them and many were corrupt (Mann, 1842 ). He further spoke about the need for greater learning and teaching about civic matters and noted that while all governments require intelligence and morality in their rulers, in the United States, a country in which everyone is a ruler, all citizens must have intelligence and moral character (Mann, 1842 ). Mann also noted that citizens are not born with the requisite knowledge and morality to successfully participate in American democracy, but they are certainly capable of achieving it through education (Mann, 1842 ). While participation in civic life can be learned outside of the classroom, in the United States there has been a focus on teaching civics, primarily in social studies classes, since the 1890s (Hahn, 1999 ). John Dewey argued that schools were a microcosm of society, and a place where young people first learned how to interact in community; thus, it was the responsibility of the school to model democracy for those in it (Dewey, 1897 ), and schools continue to be seen as the primary and most appropriate setting in which young people learn what it is to be in community (Parker, 2003 ; Payne et al., 2020 ). Further, the general consensus in the United States continues to be that it is the school’s responsibility to prepare students to be active and informed democratic citizens (Elam & Rose, 1996 ).

Despite these long-held aspirational goals, civic education has not been recognized as a priority in the United States for decades. The relative value we place on civic education can be seen in the way that it is funded: per pupil in 2019, the United States spent $54 on STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) education, compared to $0.05 on civic education (U.S. Department of Education, 2019 ). Perhaps consequently, the amount of time students spend in history and social studies classes, where civics is most frequently taught, has been declining since the late 1990s (Hanson et al., 2018 ). In a recent survey which asked respondents how to improve American society, improving civic education was the only potential reform which was supported by the majority (Luntz, 2020 ). Recent political and world events have brought the shortcomings of civic education into sharp relief, and some work is now being done to improve civic education (Educating for American Democracy, 2021 ). However, while we know that young people use social media for civic engagement (CIRCLE, 2021a ), we have largely neglected how civic education can support youth civic participation via social media, in favor of more traditional approaches to civic education.

Youth Civic Engagement

Many, including scholars and teachers, have been and continue to be concerned by the apparent lack of interest among youth in civic activities (Educating for American Democracy, 2021 ; Putnam, 2000 ). For their part, youth, when asked how they would define a good citizen, most frequently respond with one quality, often obeying laws or voting (Sherrod, 2003 ). However, limiting an understanding of civic engagement to voting only leaves the possibility of misunderstanding the ways in which youth understand their civic roles in society and the ways in which they choose to exercise them.

For decades, researchers and others have been concerned about what they see as a declining participation in civic life from youth (Educating for American Democracy, 2021 ; Putnam, 1995 , 2000 ). Those concerned about this declining participation cite decreases in youth consumption of traditional or legacy news sources as well as a decline in traditional forms of civic engagement, such as belonging to a political party, writing letters to elected representatives or newspapers, and voting, as potential contributing factors (Bennett et al., 2012 ). More recently, the picture appears more nuanced. While youth are engaging with traditional forms of civic engagement and media less often, it could be that this is not a decline but rather a reorganization of youth civic engagement given new media and technology affordances which have changed the way in which youth understand and use both knowledge and action (Bennett et al., 2012 ). This hypothesis is supported by the recent uptick in youth voting (CIRCLE, 2021b ) and civic engagement via social media (CIRCLE, 2021a ). At the same time, however, civic education has not shifted to support the ways in which young people are engaging in the civic sphere (Bennett et al., 2012 ). Instead, civic education remains largely ineffective in preparing young people to participate in civic life (Educating for American Democracy, 2021 ).

Further, young people have been telling us for decades that there was a gap between their civic education and how they wanted to participate in civic life. In 1968, high school seniors who had taken one (or more, though very few respondents had taken more than one) civics course were more likely to be interested in politics, to be knowledgeable about government and its functions, to show more interest in accessing political information on their own and discussing that information with others, to have tolerance for others, and were more likely to feel politically efficacious (Langton & Jennings, 1968 ). However, the correlations between completion of civics courses in high school and any greater interest or aptitude for civic engagement were extremely weak for all measures (Langton & Jennings, 1968 ). In other words, by 1968, there was already a disconnect between civic education and civic participation.

Civic education was understudied in the United States from the late 1960s until the 1990s; then, as now, there was a heightened concern about youth civic preparation (Bennett et al., 2009 ). In the late 1990s, a large study of youth civic education found that nearly 80% of students reported that they had no intention of engaging in traditional political processes which were taught in schools, such as joining a political party or writing letters to the editor of newspapers (Torney-Purta et al., 2001 ). However, 59% of those students responded that they would fundraise for a cause and 44% reported that they would march for one (Torney-Purta et al., 2001 ). However, those methods of civic engagement favored by students were not discussed or supported in schools (Torney-Purta et al., 2001 ). The knowledge and skills required for these changing ways of participating in civic life had, in some ways, grown and changed from the models that had existed for decades, and civic education had not kept up with these changes.

This same pattern has continued to the present day. Despite calls for renewed attention to civic education from scholars and the public, a recent systematic review of civic education in the United States over the last decade showed that little has been done to understand or teach civic education differently than in previous decades (Fitzgerald et al., 2021 ). Although teachers and researchers alike have called for reconceptualizing civic education and consequently revisiting civic education pedagogies, particularly for students who are marginalized (Ginwright, 2010 ), these calls have largely gone unanswered (Fitzgerald et al., 2021 ). In both theory and practice, civic education remains focused on outdated approaches which minimize young people’s contributions to their communities (Payne et al., 2020 ), maintain inequitable access to civic learning (Atkins & Hart, 2003 ; Kirshner, 2015 ), and ignore calls to see civic participation more broadly to include ways in which young people are already engaged in civic life (Fitzgerald et al., 2021 ).

Current Practices in Civic Education

When civic education research resumed in the 1990s, it illuminated the qualities of schools and classrooms which promote the development of civic knowledge, skills, and action (Kahne & Middaugh, 2008 ). These studies, taken together, provide a broad picture of what civic education in the United States looks like, and more importantly, how content, pedagogical approaches, and classroom climate can make civic education more robust.

Classroom climate is a critical factor in the success of civic education (Campbell, 2005 ; Gibson & Levine, 2003 ; McIntosh et al., 2007 ; Pasek et al., 2008 ; Torney-Purta, 2002 ). Several studies have examined the impact of classroom climate on civic education. Classrooms were evaluated for how open (to what extent students were encouraged to express opinions and whether disagreeing opinions were respected) they were, and pedagogies were assessed as being traditional (based on lectures and textbooks) or not. Students were grouped into four categories: both , students who reported high levels of openness and traditional instruction; neither , students who reported low levels of openness and traditional instruction; interactive , students who only reported high levels of openness; and lecture , students who only reported high levels of traditional instruction (Torney-Purta & Wilkenfeld, 2009 ).

Students who reported learning in open classrooms scored higher across all twelve measures used to assess civic knowledge, attitudes, responsibilities, and behaviors (Torney-Purta & Wilkenfeld, 2009 ). There were no measures on which students who only used traditional methods of learning scored higher than those who came from open classrooms, and those who neither had open classrooms nor traditional instruction represented approximately 25% of the sample (Torney-Purta & Wilkenfeld, 2009 ). Students were more likely to have greater civic knowledge if they attended schools which had a more open and democratic climate (Torney-Purta & Wilkenfeld, 2009 ). Conversely, students who were learning in classrooms which were less open or more teacher-centered felt less confident about understanding and analyzing political information and experienced less political efficacy compared to students who learned in more open classrooms (Syvertsen et al., 2007 ).

Some of these studies have also found that teaching civic knowledge and skills in contexts that are understandable to students and which speak to their own experiences is important (Gibson & Levine, 2003 ; Niemi & Junn, 2005 ; Pasek et al., 2008 ). The creation of a school culture which encourages students to question, debate, and practice civic engagement fosters students’ sense of belonging and connectedness, which in turn promotes civic participation (Chapman et al., 2021 ; Chapman & Miller, 2022 ).

Another key component of civic education is the content of instruction. For decades, research has shown that civic education includes very little variety in the topics which are taught (Educating for American Democracy, 2021 ; Hahn, 1999 ; Lopez et al., 2006 ). These topics were often limited to the U.S. Constitution, wars and military heroes, or the American form of government (Lopez et al., 2006 ). In contrast, only 11% of the students reported that civics classroom topics included discussion of contemporary problems or issues for the United States today (Lopez et al., 2006 ). While this type of content is undoubtedly important, the focus on these topics alone suggests a more traditional approach to civic education. Students who are more interested in a broader understanding of participation in civic life would be better supported if the civic education curriculum included the history and practice of other forms of civic engagement, such as protests, conservation efforts, or civil debate. Consequently, the topics and the manner of approaching them seem to best fit a smaller number of students, leaving the majority as lesser prepared citizens.

How civics is taught is as important as what is taught. A recent report on civic education pedagogies, “The Republic Is (Still) at Risk,” identified ten approaches which prepare students to be informed, engaged citizens (Levine & Kawashima-Ginsberg, 2017 ). Each of these pedagogies was participatory and focused on the intertwining of knowledge with practices which support civic engagement. These included student participation in school government, service learning, news media literacy, and simulations of democratic processes (Levine & Kawashima-Ginsberg, 2017 ). This report extended prior research which had found that participatory pedagogies, such as the use of classroom discussion or current events or other issues (Gibson & Levine, 2003 ; McDevitt et al., 2003 ; Parker, 2003 ; Syvertsen et al., 2007 ); discussion of contested topics has been shown to increase student interest in politics (Hess & Posselt, 2002 ; Hibbing & Theiss-Morse, 1996 ; Niemi & Junn, 2005 ; Syvertsen et al., 2007 ); and teaching civic knowledge and skills in contexts that are understandable to students and which speak to their own experiences (Gibson & Levine, 2003 ; Niemi & Junn, 2005 ; Pasek et al., 2008 ) were more effective at supporting students’ civic development.

Even though there is clear evidence that students learn more effectively and develop an interest in civic and political life if they have the chance to debate contested topics in an open and encouraging classroom (Hahn, 1999 ; Hanson et al., 2018 ; Niemi & Junn, 2005 ), few of the teachers or students reported the use of these pedagogical approaches in their classrooms or school (Hahn, 1999 ; Hanson et al., 2018 ). Although teachers’ intentions were to stress critical thinking with their students (Torney-Purta et al., 2001 ), they reported that their classes usually consisted of the transmission of facts to their students through lectures, textbooks, and worksheets or discussion (Education for American Democracy, 2021 ; Hanson et al., 2018 ; Torney-Purta et al., 2001 ). As a result, most civic education is focused on knowledge acquisition, limiting students’ opportunities to engage in civic activities or to see themselves as civic actors.

State Standards

However, much of civic education was not aligned with these best practices, and the gap between young people’s civic engagement and mainstream civic education persists. Forty-two states and Washington, D.C., require one course related to civic education prior to high school graduation, though courses which include civics topics count toward this requirement (Hanson et al., 2018 ). The standards for these courses vary, though most focus on classroom instruction, knowledge building, and discussion activities (Hanson et al., 2018 ). Some state requirements do include more participatory strategies: 26 states and Washington, D.C., mention simulations and 11 states mention service learning (Hanson et al., 2018 ). Despite its historical importance and the fact that schools are largely relied upon to provide civics education, the requirements to learn and succeed in civics seem thin and uneven. Further, though decades of research indicate that more participatory pedagogies and practical experience engaging in civic activities are critical for effective civic education, these are not the approaches which are prioritized in state standards.

Obstacles to Effective Civic Education

If we know what civic education approaches are effective, and how civic education can be improved, why has civic education not improved in the last several decades? There are a number of significant obstacles to effective civic education. Niemi and Chapman ( 1999 ) found that students who were good students in other school subjects were generally inclined to be attentive to several markers of civic engagement, including attention paid to the news, a sense of political efficacy in communicating with the government, a developed understanding of the functioning of the government, and general tolerance of the views of others. These findings indicated that students who were academically successful in other subjects were more likely to succeed in civic education courses, thus privileging students who do well in school to be the best prepared citizens (Bennett et al., 2009 ). An emphasis on academic success as a precursor for civic involvement and the findings of what topics are taught in civic education classrooms are problematic for three reasons. First, academically successful students are not equally and evenly dispersed throughout schools, with more academically successful students coming from schools with high socioeconomic demographics (Hahn, 1999 ; Niemi & Chapman, 1999 ). Secondly, academic success in civic education courses has not been shown to correlate to increased civic engagement or civic action; knowing information about how the government and political systems work does not necessarily mean that one will act upon that knowledge in civic life (Hart & Gullan, 2010 ).

Evidence of further disparity between students exists, as not only academically strong students but also those who come from higher socioeconomic environments are more likely to be successful in civic education courses (Torney-Purta & Barber, 2004 ; Niemi & Junn, 2005 ; Bennett et al., 2009 ). Students who came from homes with a lower socioeconomic status scored significantly below the mean on civic knowledge and skills measures (Torney-Purta & Barber, 2004 ). Civic education is also not equitably offered across races: White students score considerably higher on civic assessments than do Black or Latino students (Hanson et al., 2018 ). There is also a disparity at the school level: schools with the highest outcomes for civic skills development were those in high socioeconomic areas (Niemi & Junn, 2005 ). These gaps are growing: on scores on tests of civic knowledge, the difference between affluent and impoverished students, as well as the gap between White and Black students, have been increasing significantly in recent decades (Hanson et al., 2018 ). Importantly, when these gaps are eliminated, and marginalized students receive civic education which is participatory and student-centered, they thrive (Atwell et al., 2017 ; Levine & Kawashima-Ginsberg, 2017 ; Levinson, 2012 ).

A further obstacle to robust civic education is that teachers lack a variety of resources to support it. These included content-related resources: teachers reported that if they had better materials, civic education could be improved (Torney-Purta et al., 2001 ). Another resource which teachers lacked was time allocated to teaching civics, which made it difficult to make civic education a priority (Hahn, 1999 ; Hanson et al., 2018 ). Teachers felt that they were inadequately prepared to teach civics and needed more specific professional development to teach it; this need was amplified when teaching students with special needs or who were learning English (Educating for American Democracy, 2021 ). Similarly, some teachers feared the potential controversy of teaching about diversity. Finally, a number of teachers cited school policies or school climates which discouraged students from speaking out or having any power to be directly opposed to what they were trying to teach in civics (Hahn, 1999 ; Hanson et al., 2018 ). The variety in these obstacles provides a sense of how many factors are involved in providing impactful and long-lasting civic education to youth.

At the school level, many teachers felt the effects of school climate on civic education, noting that it was more difficult to teach about democracy and participation in civic life when the school culture was primarily concerned about order and quiet behavior (Hahn, 1999 ). It is important to note that schools and classrooms which had less democratic environments also used fewer interactive instructional methods and that these schools and classrooms were often in urban areas and served students from lower socioeconomic levels (Hahn, 1999 ). The result was that the civic education of students in higher socioeconomic groups was considerably different than the civic education of students in lower socioeconomic groups, a finding which has been seen across studies for decades (Atkins & Hart, 2003 ; Fitzgerald et al., 2021 ; Hahn, 1999 ; Kahne & Middaugh, 2008 ; Kirshner, 2015 ; Levinson, 2012 ).

Creating More Inclusive and Participatory Civic Education

Like many other aspects of learning, civic education in the United States is seen as preparatory for one’s life in the future, not a place to receive support and guidance in the ways in which one is already engaged in life (Chapman & Greenhow, 2021 ; Payne et al., 2020 ). Although schools are seen both as the site of civic education and as the first experience of community young people have outside of the family, young people are not seen as civic actors. Rather, civic education is built around the idea that students should participate in civic life when they are older. This is harmful in a few ways. First, it fails to recognize that students, as members of both their school and larger communities, are already able to engage in many aspects of civic life (Chapman & Greenhow, 2021 ). Further, young people do choose to participate in civic life, but often in ways which are not recognized (Castro & Knowles, 2017 ; Knight & Watson, 2014 ; Payne et al., 2020 ). Because these methods of civic participation are not recognized, they are often unsupported in schools (Chapman & Greenhow, 2021 ). Finally, this approach to civic education, which ignores the experiences and capabilities of children in favor of centering adults as experts who can pass on knowledge, reflects the “banking” model of education described by Freire ( 1972 ), where children will receive what they need to become citizens from adults who know the world better (Payne et al., 2020 ). As Freire argued for education more broadly, this approach to civic education not only discounts all that young people bring to the civic sphere, it also reinforces traditional power structures by passing along what is already operative rather than encouraging new ways of seeing or structuring the world. Consequently, this approach to civic education maintains oppressive societal structures (Chapman & Greenhow, 2021 ). The impact of this conceptual approach to civic education further marginalizes young people, particularly those who are already vulnerable.

Further, civic education which centers on knowledge transmission from adults to young people for the latter’s future use often presents a one-dimensional lens to civic participation (Stepick et al., 2008 ; Suárez-Orozco et al., 2015 ; Watts & Flanagan, 2007 ). The ways in which those who are marginalized engage in the civic sphere may be different than those who are more privileged or affluent (Watts & Flanagan, 2007 ). Measures of civic learning indicate gaps by race: white students perform better on civic assessments than do Latino or Black students (Hanson et al., 2018 ). While the intersection of these issues has not yet been fully studied, there is a “civic engagement gap” (Levinson, 2012 ). At the same time, research has shown that diversity in civic education has positive impacts for all young people, especially those who are marginalized, including supporting later civic engagement (Diemer & Li, 2011 ; Ginwright, 2010 ; Lerner, 2004 ). Although factors outside of school also impact the civic engagement of the marginalized and vulnerable (Sánchez-Jankowski, 2002 ), schools have the ability to be agents of change in this regard (Hanson et al., 2018 ). It is appropriate and timely, then, to seek alternatives to adult-centered civic education which often does not include the ways in which young people or those who are marginalized engage in the civic sphere.

The Imperative for New Approaches to Civic Education

Taking these findings together, there is a picture of what civic education should look like in the United States. First, civic education in schools is important, in part because in the United States we expect civic education to occur in schools and in part because students who know the most about politics and government are those students who have taken courses in government or civics (Patrick & Hoge, 1991 ; Niemi & Junn, 2005 ). However, academic success has not proven to be an indicator of future civic engagement (Hart & Gullan, 2010 ). How students are taught and the way in which the school or classroom climate functions contributes to or detracts from a student’s learning about democracy and civic action (Hahn, 1999 ). Further, schools’ reliance on traditional approaches for the teaching of civics seems to limit the ability of schools to prepare all students to be capable, informed, and active citizens (Bennett et al., 2009 ).

All of this supports the conclusions that civic knowledge without the ability to use or practice that knowledge does not lead to civic action, and the way in which schools are teaching civics does not match what students need in order to become active citizens (Bennett et al., 2009 ; Hart & Gullan, 2010 ). Thus, if the primary objective of civic education is to prepare students to be active and informed citizens, there must be additional or other ways of teaching civic knowledge and skills. What components are then necessary to better promote the potential civic success of the majority of students? Research has presented some evidence here, too. The more successful civic education practices include students helping to create discussion agendas, student participation in deliberations, and a variety of experiences in community involvement (Gibson & Levine, 2003 ; Kahne & Middaugh, 2008 ; Niemi & Chapman, 1999 ; Torney-Purta et al., 1999 ; Torney-Purta et al., 2001 ).

Learning how a bill becomes a law and how the Articles of Confederation led to the Constitution are necessary topics to learn, but education which ends there does not equip students with either the breadth of knowledge or the variety of skills required to function in a twenty-first-century democracy. Civic engagement literature questions whether students should learn about civic engagement in school in the ways that they are actually participating in society; in other words, students should be learning and practicing civic roles in school settings in the ways in which they will use those skills out in the world as adults (Bennett et al., 2012 ; Chapman et al., 2021 ; Chapman & Miller, 2022 ; Haste, 2010 ). However, many young people today, who are engaged by co-created and co-curated knowledge and more personal connections to issues and activism, may see social media as a way to interact with the world in civics education courses (Bennett et al., 2009 ; Chapman & Marich, 2021 ).

Given that social media has changed the ways in which people access and interact with information and the ways in which they choose to act upon that information, and that some of the ways in which young people can and do participate in political processes and issues occur on and through social media, we must be attentive to what is known about the use of social media in education. Moreover, social media may have certain characteristics and affordances that seem particularly synergistic with the kinds of actualizing citizenship activities we want youth to develop, such as the ability to search for and evaluate sources of information, an awareness of contentious topics and current events and the ability to discuss them, and exposure to a variety of ways to participate in civic life. In the next chapter, we explore further the relevant prior research on social media in education.

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Chapman, A.L. (2023). Introduction: Reclaiming Civic Education. In: Social Media for Civic Education. Palgrave Studies in Educational Media. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10865-5_1

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Case Studies

One way to learn (or to hone) advanced civic skills is to read a concise, true story about a difficult choice that confronted a group and then discuss what you would do if you faced similar problems. You can simulate being the original group and make a hypothetical decision together, or you can simply reflect on the story.

Many such cases are linked from pages on this site. This is a list of all the cases in one place.

• A Quandary in Queens “A Quandary in Queens” is a case study by Elinor Pierce, the Research Director at the Pluralism Project. It focuses on the dilemma of a young lawyer and community organizer, Aminta Kilawan-Narine. For many in Aminta’s Indo-Caribbean Hindu community, offerings to the sacred waters of Jamaica Bay are central to religious belief and practice; however, this is in variance … Continue reading →
• Building a Party with Activists: The Case of the Uruguayan FA Building a Party with Activists: The Case of the Uruguayan FA by Verónica Pérez Bentancur, Fernando Rosenblatt and Rafael Piñeiro Rodriguez is a “case study is about the Frente Amplio (Broad Front, FA) in Uruguay, which began in 1971 as a coalition of 12 political groups that aimed to unify the political left and channel the political … Continue reading →
• Feeling Exposed in Online Class: Safety in the Virtual Civics Classroom Feeling Exposed in an Online Class is a case study from Justice in Schools. According to the summary: A civics teacher at a vocational school (MBO) in the Netherlands finds herself in an uncomfortable situation when a parent interrupts her lesson, furious at what she views as “indoctrination.” The teacher brings the problem to her … Continue reading →
• Grade Inflation and Teaching: The Private School Marketplace “Grade Inflation and Teaching: What Should Teachers do in a World of Entitlement?” by Meira Levinson and Ilana Finefter from Justice in Schools is a case that poses classic questions about a problem of collective action and values. From the summary: In a world of increasingly competitive college admissions, more and more one grade may … Continue reading →
• Picking Battles: a case about guns in schools “Picking Battles” is a case from Justice in Schools. According to the summary: Florida high school social studies teacher Caitlin Crosby grapples with her school’s consideration of arming one of its popular, ex-military teachers. Ms. Crosby is opposed to the idea of arming teachers at her school and considers voicing her concerns at an upcoming … Continue reading →
• Public Service–Spirited Media Takes on the Memory Wars “Public Service–Spirited Media Takes on the Memory Wars” by Peter Pomerantsev is a case “about how you can challenge bitter, cross-partisan divides in a society where disputes over history are weaponized by political forces, and where opposing groups live in separate media realities. The study follows a group of journalists and scholars in Ukraine who … Continue reading →
• Seeing Green “Seeing Green,” a Justice in Schools case by Allison M. Stevens “explores the challenges of teaching about climate change in a community where a large portion of the residents work in the petroleum industry. Should science teachers accommodate local concerns about the dangers of demonizing the very industry their town’s economy relies on? Or teach climate … Continue reading →
• Taking the Action Out of Civics? “Taking the Action out of Civics?” is a case study from the Justice in Schools initiative. The case examines the debate over a form of project-based civics education called Action Civics, in which students research a topic of their choosing and then take action to create change. In this case study, a parent’s crusade to … Continue reading →
• The “Christmas Tree Crisis” at Sea-Tac Airport The management of Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (Sea-Tac) decided to remove plastic holiday trees “after a rabbi asked to have an 8-foot-tall menorah displayed next to the largest tree in the international arrival hall.” The removal of the trees became a national media controversy. The leaders of the airport were obliged to respond, to decide whether … Continue reading →
• The American Enterprise Institute’s Near-Death Experience “The American Enterprise Institute’s Near-Death Experience,” an SNF Agora Case Study by Steven Teles and Jessica A. Gover, focuses on issues of strategy and management in a conservative think tank. From the abstract: When poor management leaves a high-profile conservative think tank in near ruins, should the board declare bankruptcy and try to regroup? Or … Continue reading →
• The Center for Popular Democracy’s Education Justice Campaign “The Center for Popular Democracy’s Education Justice Campaign” is a case study by Dmitri Holtzman, Ben Kirshner, and Tafadzwa Tivaringe. It “explores dilemmas that arise for a network aiming to build a multigenerational movement for education justice, particularly through the story of the Center for Popular Democracy (CPD) and the evolution of its Education Justice … Continue reading →
• The ISAIAH Trash Referendum The ISAIAH Trash Referendum by Peter Levine and Liz McKenna is a case study “about an organization in Minnesota called ISAIAH, a faith-based organization that works to expand the power and influence of people who have often been overlooked, especially poor people and people of color. “This case examines what happened when, to support a new mayor … Continue reading →
• The Montgomery Bus Boycott The Montgomery Bus Boycott by Peter Levine is a case study about “a classic example of a social movement episode that accomplished its immediate goals despite severe obstacles. It catapulted the 26-year-old Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. into international prominence and launched similar episodes in many American cities across the South and then also the … Continue reading →
• Vote16USA’s Campaign to Lower the Voting Age in San Francisco This SNF Agora case study by Scott Warren and Brandon Klugman “explores challenges that emerged for a coalition of high school–aged activists involved in the Vote16SF campaign, a movement to lower the voting age in San Francisco. This activist group, led by young people, sought to balance the passion and idealism of its convictions with the … Continue reading →

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Civic education across countries: twenty-four national case studies from the IEA civic education project

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From time to time, both political scientists and education researchers articulate that the civic competences of the Hungarian youth should be developed. The phenomena, which should be tackled in this way are varied: lack of basic civic knowledge, low political interest, low level of political participation, relatively high rejection of democracy, and openness to radicalism are among the most frequently mentioned. Based on this, civic education may seem a universal therapy. Since a good deal of empirical research from mature democracies has shown the positive effects of civic education, it should be indeed kept on the list of potential solutions. However, those scholars, policymakers, and practitioners who would like to achieve change, should go beyond this superficial tip and ask the key questions of civic education. Who is a responsible citizen and how can civic education prepare students for this role? The paper does not seek to provide exclusive answers to these questions. It aim...

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Abstract: Civic, or Citizenship, Education, continues to draw interest among policy makers and those in the field of education, be they practitioners, parents or young ‘future’ citizens. The value of civic education cannot be underestimated. Its currency in a climate of change and social and cultural diversity sustains an ongoing discussion, often charged with complex and controversial challenges. This article aims to draw from the rich debate the significant potential for civic/citizenship education with the suggestion to look to the intercultural phenomenon, more closely, when considering school curricula; as a means to addressing some of the necessary competences to supplement potential knowledge and life skills gained to create democratic, empathetic and active citizens.

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Reforming Civic Education: Three Case Studies

According to research summarized in our 2013 report “ All Together Now: Collaboration and Innovation for Youth Engagement ,” young people who take a well-designed and well-taught high school civics course—one that encourages thoughtful discussion and the development of civic skills—are more knowledgeable and more likely to engage as citizens in the future.

Unfortunately, civic education in the U.S. still leaves much to be desired. In the last few years, several states have taken up civic education policy reforms. These reforms exemplify diverse approaches to improving civics instruction and the challenges faced by state officials in passing and implementing effective reforms.

Recently, CIRCLE did case studies of three such states:

• In Florida, the Justice Sandra Day O’Connor Civics Education Act passed in 2010, mandating  a high-stakes standardized test in civics .
• In Hawaii, a required  “Participation in Democracy” course places a strong emphasis on experiential education : the requirement was passed in 2006 and an effort to repeal it was defeated.
• In Tennessee, recent legislation mandates  project-based civics assessments  at the middle and high school levels.

Today, we release a  short fact sheet  that describes each bill or proposal in detail, including the advantages and drawbacks identified by both proponents and detractors. We also release a  longer paper  that includes interviews with prominent stakeholders in each state and takes an initial look at the process behind each proposal and some of the issues faced by the educators tasked with implementing them. Both products were made possible through the support of the S.D. Bechtel, Jr. Foundation.

While Florida, Tennessee, and Hawaii are using different approaches to try to improve civic education, there are important commonalities that advocates and policymakers in other states would be wise to consider. In all three cases—though to varying degrees—the combination of grassroots activism and high-level support from current or former legislators was key to achieving the desired outcome. All three states are also now tackling implementation challenges such as a lack of funding, scarce professional development, and weak communication between state and local authorities.

International Comparative Studies in Education: Descriptions of Selected Large-Scale Assessments and Case Studies (1995)

Chapter: civics education study, civics education study.

Purpose IEA conducted a Civic Education Survey in 1971 as part of a Six-subject Survey of student achievement (science, reading comprehension, literature, French as a foreign language, English as a foreign language, and civics education). Ten IEA member countries participated in the civics education portion. Extensive regression analysis was conducted, with a fairly consistent finding that stress on rote learning and on patriotic ritual within the classroom tended to be negatively related to civics education outcomes, while the opportunity to express an opinion in class had a positive relationship. The socioeconomic status of the family and the type of school (academic or vocational) were controlled statistically in the regression analysis, and these findings were extremely similar across nine Western industrialized countries with different educational and political contexts.

Since 1971, many changes have taken place in schools and political systems, which raise new issues and intensify concern for old ones. Needs and opportunities for a second civics education study are:

Moves toward democratization around the world

Increasing immigration/emigration and resurgent authoritarianism and racism

Alienation among youth and the growth of what has been called “unconventional participation”

Recognition of the implicit or hidden curriculum

Wariness concerning discussions of civics and political

Women's increasing role in politics

Prominent environmental issues

Powerful mass media

In addition, there have been advances in the social sciences, educational measurement, and the methodologies and models used by IEA that provide a background for a second study.

Many differences exist around the world in the content and process of civics education. In societies undergoing rapid social and political change and democratization attempts are being made to prepare young people for a political and economic order that does not yet exist. Civics education differs from many other school subjects in the relative lack of consensus even within societies with long democratic traditions about the knowledge and attitude base, but even more in countries where individuals are wary of pleas for national unity and of courses with titles such as civics or political education. Cross-national research has a vital role in providing the research base for policy makers, those who design curricula, those who prepare teachers, and the general public.

Organization and Management An international coordinating center will be designated through competitive bidding for Phase II to begin operations in mid-1996. Until then, Phase I and planning for Phase II will take place through ad hoc planning groups as part of a special project involving IEA headquarters.

Participants

Six-subject Survey - civics education: Finland, Germany (Federal Republic), Iran, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, and the United States. (1971)

Civics Education Study: There is high interest in a civics education study in countries of Central and Eastern Europe and Asia, and in countries that belong to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (1994-2000)

Six-subject Survey - civics: The aims of the research were to identify those factors accounting for differences between countries, between schools, and between students. The technique used was a cross-sectional survey at three different levels, which described education as it was at the time of testing and not as it might be. Probability samples of schools and students within schools were drawn for each level within each country.

Civics Education Study:

Phase I: In some countries, structured interviews will be conducted with small samples of students.

Phase II: The survey of knowledge, attitudes, and participation or behavior will be conducted with nationally representative samples.

Procedures and Summary of Content

Six-subject Survey - civics: Three international populations were identified: Population I included all students in full-time schooling aged 10:0-10:11 years; Population II included all students in fulltime schooling aged 14:0-14:11 years; and Population IV encompassed all students in the terminal year of full-time secondary education programs that were either pre-university programs or programs of the same length. A Population III was designed for national data collection and analysis only. Tests were developed to yield a total “cognitive” score. There were survey scales to measure attitudinal outcomes as well as perceptions about “how society works.”

Phase I. Each participating country will prepare a case study of its civics education, including reviews of previous empirical and policy studies, interviews, and analysis of curricula, to gather:

information about the political, educational, social, and economic context with special attention to major recent changes or reforms, including some social indicators

conceptions of and definitions related to civics education, including both official statements such as national curricula or assessment standards, and other major points of view

information about content and methods of civics education as it is practiced, centered on intended and like unintended learning outcomes of civics education and how it is envisioned that these outcomes will be achieved by students

a perspective concerning other factors influencing the civics education process and its outcomes, such as educational policy more generally, school organization, media, parental, and family characteristics

Among the sources to be used are:

analysis of curriculum and policy documents in areas such as national and world history, civics, social studies, moral education, literature, as well as participation opportunities provided to students in and out of schools

interviews (individually or in focus groups) with policy makers, leaders in professional organizations such as teachers unions and experts in teacher training

in some countries structured interviews with small samples of students either individually, in focus groups, or using computer networks

review of existing studies conducted within the country of civics education, moral education, youth and adult attitudes, and political socialization

The national case studies will be conducted around a common framework prepared by an international committee. Each participating country will make a proposal to this international committee with respect to the types of material they intend to collect for the self-study and how it will be analyzed. The international committee will make suggestions about this material and nominate out-of-country experts to examine the resulting data and self-study report in order to give advice to the national team. The national team will retain responsibility for the report itself, and the external panel will prepare a report documenting its own views. The case studies and commentaries will be prepared for publication, and will also produce guidance for Phase II of the study, with respect to topics to be considered, aspects of formal and informal education to be surveyed, outcomes, and predictors.

Phase II. The second phase will be a survey of knowledge, attitudes, and participation or behavior in nationally representative samples. It will be designed around issues and processes and programs currently in place and questions of high interest and relevance in participating countries. A conceptual framework for Phase II will emerge from the Phase I case studies.

Data Collection and Analyses

Under development as part of Phase II planning.

Publications

Civics Education Study Phase I: National case study profiles of nations and systems will be assembled in a publication; curriculum analysis, multi-media analysis (e.g. interactive interviews with students, videos) may be included.

Civics Education Study Phase II: Large-scale survey design, methodology, sampling; questionnaires; and multi-media reports will be produced.

Funding In Phase I The National Center for Education Statistics will contribute a modest amount of funding for the international costs; most of the funding for international costs is expected to come from outside the United States.

Information Sources

International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) Secretariat c/o SVO

Sweelinckplein 14

2517 GK The Hague THE NETHERLANDS

31-70-346-96-79

31-70-360-99-51

e-mail: [email protected]

Judith Torney-Purta, Ph.D., International Project Coordinator of Phase I and Planning Committee Chair

Professor of Human Development

Benjamin Building 3304, University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

electronic mail: [email protected]

Gordon M. Ambach, Liaison to IEA

Council of Chief State School Officers

One Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20001-1431

e-mail: [email protected]

Ambach, Gordon M.

1994 Civics Education project. Memo to William Loxley, IEA headquarters. March 21.

International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement

1993 Activities, Institutions, and People: Iea Guidebook 1993-1994. IEA, The Hague, The Netherlands.

Torney-Purta, Judith V.

1993 Civic Education:Need and Opportunities for a Second IEA Study. Paper prepared at the request of the IEA Headquarters for presentation at the IEA General Assembly. Madrid. September.

1994 Needed Cross National Research on the Role of Civic Education in Democratization. Paper prepared for consultation session. April. American Educational Research Association.

1994 IEA-Civics Education Study design. Presentations to Board on International Comparative Studies in Education. February and May.

Torney, J.V., A.N. Oppenheim, and R.F. Farnen

1976 Civic Education in Ten Countries: An Empirical Study. International Studies in Evaluation Volume 6. Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Torney-Purta, J., and J. Schwille

1986 Civic values learned in school: Policy and practice in industrialized countries. Comparative Education Review. 30:30-49

NOTE: This study summary was reviewed and edited by William Loxley at the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement in The Hague on June 9, 1994, and by Judith Torney-Purta and Gordon Ambach in Washington, D.C. on October 3, 1994.

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In recent years, the subspecialty of neuropalliative care has emerged with the goal of improving the quality of life of patients suffering from neurological disease, though gaps remain in neuropalliative care education and training. E-learning has been described as a way to deliver interactive and facilitated lower-cost learning to address global gaps in medical care. We describe here the development of a novel, international, hybrid, and asynchronous curriculum with both self-paced modules and class-based lectures on neuropalliative care topics designed for the neurologist interested in palliative care, the palliative care physician interested in caring for neurological patients, and any other physician or advanced care providers interested in neuropalliative care.

The course consisted of 12 modules, one per every four weeks, beginning July 2022. Each module is based on a case and relevant topics. Course content was divided into three streams (Neurology Basics, Palliative Care Basics, and Neuropalliative Care Essentials) of which two were optional and one was mandatory, and consisted of classroom sessions, webinars, and an in-person skills session. Evaluation of learners consisted of multiple choice questions and written assignments for each module. Evaluation of the course was based on semi-structured qualitative interviews conducted with both educator and learner, the latter of which will be published separately. Audio files were transcribed and underwent thematic analysis. For the discussion of the results, Khan’s e-learning framework was used.

Ten of the 12 participating educators were interviewed. Of the educators, three identified as mid-career and seven as senior faculty, ranging from six to 33 years of experience. Nine of ten reported an academic affiliation and all reported association with a teaching hospital. Themes identified from the educators’ evaluations were: bridging the global gap, getting everybody on board, defining the educational scope, investing extensive hours of voluntary time and resources, benefiting within and beyond the curriculum, understanding the learner’s experience, creating a community of shared learning, adapting future teaching and learning strategies, and envisioning long term sustainability.

Conclusions

The first year of a novel, international, hybrid, and asynchronous neuropalliative care curriculum has been completed, and its educators have described both successes and avenues for improvement. Further research is planned to assess this curriculum from the learner perspective.

Peer Review reports

Though international humanitarian organizations consider palliative care an international public health priority [ 1 ], there is a large unmet global need for palliative care that is projected to grow wider in the coming years [ 2 ]. While models of palliative care originally focused on patients with cancer, the subspecialty of neuropalliative care developed to meet the unique needs of patients and caregivers suffering from neurological disease [ 3 ], as these patients uniquely face high symptom burden, functional decline, significant care giver needs, prognostic uncertainty, and complex decision making throughout the disease course [ 4 ]. Evidence has shown that implementation of palliative care improves patient and caregiver outcomes [ 3 ], as neuropalliative care strives to alleviate common sources of patient suffering by focusing on clear and compassionate communication, physical and spiritual symptoms support, caregiver support, and advance care planning [ 3 ].

There is, however, no uniformly agreed-upon optimal international model of palliative care for patients living with neurological disease [ 5 ]. A roadmap was published in 2018 as a framework for palliative care development in resource limited countries [ 6 ]. Possible proposed models include integrative (a neurologist with a specialist palliative care provider), disease specific interdisciplinary clinics, community-based palliative care services, and/or a specialized neuropalliative care provider [ 7 ], though as of 2020, there were only 63 neurologists who had active board certification in Hospice and Palliative Medicine (N. Kramer, personal communication, March 22, 2021).

Often cited barriers for integrating neuropalliative care into practice include education gaps of not only clinicians, including neurologists, palliative care providers, and primary care providers, but also patients and communities [ 3 ]. An ideal skillset for a neuropalliative clinician includes effective communication skills, navigating complex patient centered decision-making, managing end-of-life symptoms, and providing treatment options and anticipatory guidance [ 5 ]. Various curricula have been developed to disseminate core palliative skills, with online education being particularly helpful in providing lower-cost education, addressing global gaps in available resources that often primarily affect low-to-middle income countries.

E-Learning has been described as an innovative approach for delivering a learner-centered, interactive, and facilitated learning environment to anyone, anyplace, anytime, by utilizing the attributes and resources of various digital technologies along with other forms of learning materials suited for open and distributed learning environments. However, success in an e-learning system involves a systematic process of planning, designing, evaluating, and implementing online learning environments where learning is actively fostered and supported [ 8 ]. These initiatives range from smartphone application-based or online curricula [ 9 ] to Youtube videos [ 10 ]. In US-based online curricula in both primary palliative care [ 11 ] and neurological subspecialty [ 12 ], participants self-reported positive increase in knowledge and competence. Earlier studies on e-learning curriculum toolkit development in neuropalliative care focused on specific diseases [ 13 ]. Further creative approaches are needed to meet the need for palliative care expertise globally, and no prior online curricula has focused on neuropalliative education specifically.

We describe here the development of a novel, international, hybrid, and asynchronous curriculum with both self-paced modules and class-based lectures on neuropalliative topics. The course was targeted at physicians and advanced practice providers: neurologists interested in palliative care, palliative care physicians interested in learning unique aspects of care for patients with neurological disease, and any other clinician or advanced practice providers wishing to learn about the intersection of neurology and palliative care. We discuss the structure of this curriculum and explore the educators’ experiences. Since work on palliative care curricula is chronically underfunded, this paper provides some “lessons learned” to help with the general organization of e-learning.

The overall objectives of the E-learning program

The overarching objectives for this year-long course were to:

Bridge educational gaps by:

teaching palliative care basics to neurologists and other non-palliative providers.

teaching neurology basics to palliative care providers and other non-neurologists.

Provide a comprehensive neuropalliative skill set that will enhance all participants’ clinical approach to people living with serious neurological conditions.

Create a repository of multimodal resources (e.g. webinars, readings, interactive sessions) for use during and after the course.

Bring together interdisciplinary professionals in neurology, palliative care, and neuropalliative care in a shared environment to foster collaboration and networking across disciplines.

Methods and curriculum description

The course consisted of 12 modules, one per every four weeks over a twelve month period, beginning July 2022. Course participants from a variety of professional backgrounds were invited to participate, including neurologists, neurosurgeons, palliative care providers, geriatricians, physiatrists, internists, intensivists, pediatricians, and advanced practice providers. The course offering was listed in Indian neurology and palliative care websites and communication groups, as well as the International Neuropalliative Care Society website. Thirty-nine clinicians and one advanced practice provider registered for the course. Course content was divided into three streams: Neurology Basics, Palliative Care Basics, and Neuropalliative Care Essentials. Learners were encouraged to explore the first two streams to fill foundational gaps based on their training background and practice specialty, and all were expected to participate in the neuropalliative stream. Topics and objectives for each stream can be found in Table  1 and supplemental Table 1 respectively. Each module was built around an exemplary case. Traditional, bottom-up neurological education, from basic science through clinical skills and then on to diseases, is unworkable for non-neurologists [ 14 ] and likely contributes to “ neurophobia” [ 15 ]. This course used a phenomenological approach to enable learners to fill neuropalliative care knowledge and skill gaps using clinical context and relevance. These strategies included pre-recorded webinars and readings, group and individual assignments, monthly flipped classroom interactive sessions, and summative assessments including multiple choice questions and reflective exercises. The flipped classroom consisted of a case presentation and additional materials to supplement the webinar content, with open discussion from learners and educators. Learners were asked to complete a post-course evaluation, the results and analysis of which will be published separately. Learners were expected to spend an average of 2–3 h per week on course work. In order to pass the course, learners were required to attend 80% of flipped classroom sessions, complete 80% of Neuropalliative Care Essentials webinars, receive an 80% pass rate on multiple choice questions, and submit written assignments for each module. Learners were also expected to attend an 8-hour in-person session focused on developing neuropalliative communication skills, with additional opportunity for networking across disciplines.

Evaluation of the E-learning program from the educators’ perspective

To evaluate the e-learning program, a two-stage evaluation strategy based on semi-structured qualitative interviews was proposed to explore the experiences of educators and learners. In this paper, we report on educator experiences.

A semi-structured interview guide was developed by the research team. The interview guide consisted of four main questions: (1) How was your personal experience in developing this online course? What went well? What were the biggest challenges that had to be overcome? (2) Do you think this online course is a good model for the development of palliative care among healthcare professionals, and why? (3) What parts of the course did you find particularly useful? And where do you think the course could be improved? (4) And finally, what is your personal opinion of this online course? Any wishes for the future? The interviews were conducted in English with a recognition that this was not the native language of all educators.

Twelve experts involved in the curriculum’s development were identified and invited via email to participate in the study. The invitation included a statement, the interview questions, the purpose of data collection, and an informed consent statement. An appointment was then made for the interview. Interviews were conducted by two researchers using online videoconferencing. Introductory interviews were conducted prior to audio and video recording.

Ethical approval

Interviews were conducted as a component of program evaluation. Participation in the evaluation process was voluntary. Verbal and written consent to record and use the data for research purposes was obtained from all participants before the video recording began.

Data analysis

The audio files were transcribed verbatim and prepared for thematic analysis using Excel. First, the researchers familiarized themselves with the verbatim transcripts. Second, codes were identified by highlighting units of meaning in the text and labeling them to describe their content. Third, patterns between codes were identified, and codes were grouped together to identify themes. The themes were reviewed by splitting, combining, discarding, or recreating themes to make them more useful and accurate. Finally, the final list of themes was transferred to Miro Board to formulate the final list of themes. The formulation was done by a research group that discussed what was meant by each theme and how it contributed to the understanding of the data.

Data synthesis

For the discussion of the results, Khan’s e-learning framework with eight dimensions was applied to this work [ 8 ]: institutional, management, technological, pedagogical, ethical, interface design, resource support, and evaluation, described further in results section.

Of 12 educators, 10 agreed to participate in the evaluation. These included six from palliative care and four from neurology/neuropalliative care backgrounds. One was a nonclinical researcher. Four were from the USA, five were from India, and one was from Europe. Of the educators, three identified as mid-career and seven as senior faculty, ranging from 6 to 33 years of experience. Nine of ten reported an academic affiliation and all reported association with a teaching hospital.

The themes identified were as follows: (1) Bridging the global gap; (2) Getting everybody on board; (3) Defining the educational scope; (4) Investing extensive hours of voluntary time and resources; (5) Benefiting within and beyond the curriculum; (6) Understanding the learner’s experience; (7) Creating a community of shared learning; (8) Adapting future teaching and learning strategies; and (9) Envisioning long term sustainability.

Bridging the global gap

Educators agreed there is a need for education and training in neuropalliative care, though they noted worldwide there are few palliative care courses or the courses are limited to specific health systems or diseases. Educators noted online education and training help to disseminate information to a larger community, as there will be a greater demand for palliative care course, and felt this course needs to continue being offered internationally in the future.

Getting everybody on board

Educators noted currently there is little research about palliative care education online and found developing and implementing an online course is a navigation of a complex landscape of policies and requirements which may be specific to institutions, healthcare systems, or countries. Additionally, when tailoring a course to meet the goals of an international community, they emphasized local guidelines, cultural norms and systems of medical practice to consider, and a big challenge to get such varied communities on board. For example, one educator noted that in India, views on patient autonomy may be different than the West, which is pertinent for the clinician teaching palliative care to understand.

“India… is a collectivist society… we as a culture have willingly surrendered a good portion of… our personal autonomy to our families. The golden rule is you treat me like you would like to be treated… But the platinum rule is that you treat me the way I would like to be treated.” (009).

Defining the educational scope

Educators noted that neuropalliative care is an innovative specialty-based model of palliative care, and found that though the entire project was ambitious, it was helpful to consider and develop basic knowledge and skills needed to deliver neuropalliative care.

“I think the stream that brought it all together, these key neuropalliative issues, you know, are really incredibly important to the goal of this course to really focus on specific elements of palliative care for neurological patients.” (003). “So first we talked about who this course is for? Is it for neurologists? Is it for palliative care specialists? Is it appropriate for both? And is it aimed at non-physicians? So we thought about the audience and the medium: should it be in person or virtual? Should it be a combination? These were the first steps.” (005).

One theme noted by educators was the challenge to focus this course on the specific elements of palliative care for people with neurological problems. The course needed to provide relevant education for both palliative care providers and neurologists, and emphasis was placed on complex decision making. To meet the learners’ expectations and make the course engaging, they noted course content needed to be adapted to answer local questions. For example, changes in content were made to make it appropriate for India:

“I think if I did my best, I would miss the mark, and I would miss the mark in many ways, because there are nuances in the discussion of advance care planning in India and other countries, there are nuances in policy, there are nuances in the care that is provided and available. So I think having a course that’s really practical and real-world will be helpful for providers. You know, it’s helpful to have people who are on the ground and really know these systems.” (002).

Investing extensive hours of voluntary time and resource

“ This is the most extensive course I have ever tried to create! ” (005).

Educators acknowledged the discussion began during the [Covid-19] pandemic and the contemplation period took more time than expected. Coordination of a large planning group was complex and meticulous. It took numerous long phone calls to understand how online learning works and several months to discuss the curriculum content.

“ So we brought these players together for different groups of people and found a common time. I think that was one of the biggest challenges in working together and creating something where everyone could come together. It was difficult, but the result was very positive because everyone was willing to put in the time that was required. ” (007).

Despite being pro-bono work, educators admired how many people volunteered to create this program and its content, bringing various resources together to provide a rich and interactive curriculum.

Benefiting within and beyond the curriculum

Educators described benefiting beyond the curriculum itself as being a part of the curriculum designers and learning from international colleagues.

“It’s a journey for me… because this is a first for me. I wasn’t earlier part of any other course module or development techniques.” (001).

Educators reflected that putting the curricula itself together allowed them to learn not only about neuropalliative care, but about what topics may be important to local practice.

“I’m 63, that’s not an age at which I’m going to go do a fellowship now… the best way to learn is to teach”. (006)

Understanding the learner’s experience

Educators noted understanding the audience is vital; the learners were all busy clinicians, and self-paced learning meant that not everyone came prepared. Educators reflected on this lack of engagement and suggested a more rigorous selection process for learners is needed for future offerings of the course. They believed as the goal of a curriculum is for learners to learn, learner engagement and retention of information is imperative. Educators reflected that learner feedback of the course is vital to course evaluation.

“Something that the group noticed was that the palliative care folks were much more engaged than the neurologists. So we really wanted to understand why that was and what we could improve for the neurologists to make it more interesting for them and make them feel like they could really benefit from this course.” (005).

Educators reflected that currently how this course impacted learner clinical practice is unknown. Though available feedback can be used to modify the course, reasons for learner attrition is also difficult to ascertain. Educators felt that for future iterations of the course, soliciting feedback from learners at the beginning and middle of the course may aid in these evaluation gaps.

Creating a community of shared learning

One theme that was reported by educators was that online learning is about building a community, so conversations between course participants are essential. One aim was to make this course a place for networking.

“You might want to divide the participants into small groups to do small projects together. That way they get to know a few others and have a chance to share ideas and set a goal. I also think that the monthly sessions at via zoom should be much more interactive so that the course participants have a lot more say. I think that would be a space for growth.” (004).

Educators reflected that content needs to become more concise to allow for synchronous online activities, regular check-ins about personal practice, and discussions about what was learned. Educators felt that small group assignments improve cross-country collaboration, and allowing time for discussion can foster teaching among learners, as practitioners may know more about the community and its needs than some educators.

Adapting future teaching and learning strategies

Educators identified that there is room for growth; questions abound for what teaching strategies need to be changed next course offering. Currently, the focus is on webinars. Educators felt the content could be consolidated by having some essential knowledge acquisition through self-directed learning and currently the course is very theoretical. They thought it may benefit from more practical cases specific to the clinician’s area of expertise, such as with inclusion of patient and family voices or with more skill development sessions. The bulk of the curriculum focused on current knowledge.

“Put them in break-out rooms, you know, and discuss face to face. That will enhance our learning. And then give them cases, break them up into groups of five, and show them how they could do it. Those kinds of discussions would show what they have learned over the last month. So we need to incorporate more of these skill-based sessions.” (007).

In terms of performance assessment, educators felt the MCQs should be replaced at least in part by practical tasks.

Envisioning long term sustainability

Educators noted in the first year, the goal was to create all the content and get the pilot course started. For subsequent iterations, educators posed questions to consider including: What happens next time? How can awareness be spread about the course? How can more participants attend the live sessions? A course is only helpful if learners complete the course. Would conferring a degree instead of a certificate improve participation? From the educator side, more comfort with the online curriculum is needed:

“I have some people who are known as educators, but they had a very hard time transitioning to online content and asynchronous content and building a community. If you’re not used to watching YouTube, you may have a hard time engaging with it.” (008).

The demand for palliative care for people with neurological disease and their caregivers is rising globally. Palliative care education and curricular development is central to improving access to high quality palliative care. Targeted initiatives to improve healthcare workers competencies in symptom control, communication, advance care planning are needed. Integrating palliative care into public health systems is important for the sustainability of palliative care around the world. The resources for planning and creating educational activities ‘ rest on the shoulders of champions ’ [ 16 ]; however the lack of explicit funding for creation and maintenance of such educational activities, such as e-learning programs, is a well-known barrier.

For the e-learning program described here, the educators’ evaluations indicate that the program is consistent with the mission of the International Neuropalliative Care Society (INPCS) to build an international neuropalliative care community. This course not only addresses common topics relevant to caring for patients with serious neurological conditions and their caregivers, but it also highlights the importance of multidisciplinary practice and integrative care and provides enhanced opportunities for interprofessional collaboration and education. All these components have been highlighted as priorities in the field of neuropalliative care [ 5 ].

There are some lessons to be learned from the educators’ evaluation of the e-learning program relevant to individuals designing a curriculum in a newly defined field, such as neuropalliative care. Khan’s E-Learning Framework with eight dimensions has been applied to this work: institutional, management, technological, pedagogical, ethical, interface design, resource support, and evaluation. All dimensions work to foster analysis and evaluation of every aspect of the e-learning design process [ 8 ]. This evaluation identified four main learning points, which are discussed below.

Allow spaces to learn from learners. Khan’s E-Learning Framework supports educators’ experiences that managing people, content, and the e-learning environment is time-consuming and largely a voluntary task that requires getting everyone on board. While curriculum developers may feel compelled to provide as much information as possible, socioeconomically and culturally familiar content may be more relevant to learners. Planning events in which learners can learn from each other through discussion and networking can also increase the amount of actionable information shared. Mindfulness of nurturing learning cultures whilst building global learning platforms cannot be overlooked [ 17 ]. A recent study proposed four dimensions that can be factors of convergence or divergence for learners: management of time and learning activities, management of the learning space, management of interpersonal relations, and style of communication [ 18 ]. Most importantly, online learning networks foster community growth [ 19 , 20 ] which benefits any new field. Neuropalliative care is a newly defined field with limited availability of evidence-based information. Available evidence is collected from certain populations, socioeconomic and cultural contexts, and therefore, entails little social and cultural diversity. Getting everyone on board means also adding learners’ voices to the curriculum via enabling spaces for exchange, reflection and obtaining new insights from learners [ 21 ].

Plan your e-learning as if there will not be a second time . The evaluation for e-learning and assessment of learners’ experiences was of concern, which is closely related to the pedagogical and ethical dimensions of e-learning programs. Educators clearly pointed out the monotony in teaching and assessment strategies, as well as the need for changes related to improving the collective learning experience, incorporating patient and caregiver voices, and providing workshops to improve practical skills. Although educators are well aware of the importance of such improvements, the enormous amount of volunteer work involved raises the question of whether educators would be motivated enough to work a second time, adding to concerns of long-term sustainability of such e-learning programs. At this time, similar to the seeds that grew this current project, the field of neuropalliative care relies on practitioners dedicated to the field to continue providing volunteer time to advance the field’s missions, including engaging new communities nationally and internationally [ 3 ]. As communities and professional organizations further realize the importance of neuropalliative care in holistically supporting patients with serious neurological disease, it is our hope that educational initiatives like this one continue to flourish.

Focus on learner progress, support, and professional gains throughout the process. The institutional dimension addresses administrative, academic affairs, and learner services issues related to e-learning. Different organizations may have different requirements, which can cause delays and interruptions in the process. In the current project, the different requirements were successfully brought together. The dimension of resource support of e-learning to promote meaningful learning was discussed by educators. As learners invest many hours in participating in e-learning programs, the return on investment must be clear. Successful self-directed learning requires commitment and guidance, and therefore, in order to provide the best care for people with neurological conditions, healthcare providers motivated to improve their knowledge and skills must be provided with sufficient learning time, financial support, and professional development. The E-learning module structure was chosen for this current endeavor to balance the motivation of learners with practical availability of time in a clinician’s work schedule for optional learning, though educators felt that certain key clinical skills of the palliative care toolkit such as communication skills are better practiced by live faculty-led sessions. Further work evaluating the learner’s perspectives is needed to elucidate the ideal balance of asynchronous modules vs. live sessions for neuropalliative skills, though the asynchronous module option, touted by this project’s educators as well as in prior literature [ 11 ], appears to remain the most practical way to deliver education to a busy and geographically diverse audience.

In terms of e-learning programs, the first step is to help learners determine their motivation for taking the course through screening. Recently novel approaches to predict learners’ success have been proposed [ 22 , 23 ]. Secondly, regular hands-on assignments and assessments can help motivate and focus learners. Finally, there is the question of whether a certificate is sufficient motivation or whether the course should lead to a degree that can be used to achieve subspecialization in neuropalliative care. An exploration of learners’ feedback from this educational endeavor will be published separately.

Be aware of your blind spots. The interface design, online support, and technology infrastructure were not discussed by educators involved, which suggests a knowledge gap in this area, and confirms the perception that online teaching needs new kinds of educators [ 24 ]. User friendliness and questions regarding learning infrastructure are important factors that enhance learners’ experience. Professional companies with better understanding of how e-learning functions should be involved from the beginning. In terms of evaluation, it has been indicated that the capability of monitoring and storing user traffic is useful to understand a learner’s behavior, proficiency, accumulated knowledge and learning curve [ 25 ], which can be considered for future iterations of this course.

Success factors in e-learning implementation effectiveness have been related to technology, learner, instructor, content, and institution support [ 26 ]. We describe here the educators’ reflections of designing and implementing an international e-learning program in neuropalliative care, highlighting their perceived successes such as bridging gaps in education, building international communities, themselves learning from experts outside the curriculum, as well as avenues for improvement such as in integrating technology [ 22 ] and questioning sustainability. Furthermore, analysis of learner evaluations will provide further insights to help understand how this e-learning program is perceived and its educational benefits from the learners’ perspective.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study. Copies of interview transcripts are available upon request from the first author.

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Acknowledgements

To the faculty members of this project, who are key stakeholders, participants, and visionaries of this project.

The authors have no funding sources to declare.

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Authors and affiliations.

University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA

College of nursing, University of Rhode Island, Rhode Island, USA

Susan DeSanto-Madeya

Westchester Medical Center, Valhalla, NY, USA

Mara Lugassy

Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Jessica Besbris

Institute of Palliative Care, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria

Sarah Bublitz

Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA

Neha M. Kramer

P. D. Hinduja National Hospital, Mumbai, India

Roop Gursahani

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA

Estella Kim

Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

John Y. Rhee

Department of Ethnology, Institute of Cultural Studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia

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Contributions

JBu, EK conducted participant interviews. JBu, SDSM, ML, PP analyzed and interpreted the interview transcripts JBu, SDSM, ML, JBe, NK, WL, PP as a major contributor in writing the manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Bu, J., DeSanto-Madeya, S., Lugassy, M. et al. “So we brought these players together”: a qualitative study of educators’ experiences to analyze the challenges of creating an e-learning program for neuropalliative care. BMC Med Educ 24 , 524 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05437-8

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Received : 03 December 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05437-8

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Blog The Education Hub

https://educationhub.blog.gov.uk/2024/04/29/when-is-results-day-2024-gcses-a-levels-t-levels-and-vtqs/

When is results day 2024? GCSEs, A levels, T Levels and VTQs

In August, pupils in England will find out their results for GCSEs, A levels, T Levels and VTQ (vocational technical qualifications) exams.  

Ahead of results day, schools, colleges and assessment centres should contact pupils directly to tell them how and when to collect them. They’ll also be able to answer any questions you have ahead of the day.  

Here’s what you need to know about exam results this year.

When is GCSE and Level 1/2 VTQ results day 2024?  

GCSE  results day is on Thursday 22 August.  

Results for Level 1, Level 1/2 and Level 2  VTQs  will also be available on or before this date.  

Normally, pupils will be able to go to their school or college and collect their results in person where they can get advice from their teachers.  

Alternatively, schools will send results to pupils in the post or by email.  

When is A level, T Level and Level 3 VTQs results days 2024?  

AS level, A level and  T Level  results day is on Thursday 15 August.  

Results for VTQs at Level 3 taken alongside or instead of A levels, such as BTECs, will be released to pupils on or before Thursday 15 August.  

Results can be emailed or sent in the post, but it’s a good idea to go into school or college to receive your results so you can get support from teachers and career advisers to discuss your options, especially if your results might affect your plans for September.  

If you’re applying to university via UCAS, you can track your  application online .  

How have exams been graded since the pandemic?  

Between 2019 and 2022, we saw a significant increase in the number of entries receiving top grades, due to disruption caused by the pandemic.  

Last year saw a return to pre-pandemic grading arrangements, and overall national results were similar to those of 2019. Ofqual have confirmed that they are continuing with normal grading this year.  

This is key to making sure exam qualifications are trusted – it means that universities and employers understand the performance of candidates, have confidence in their qualifications, and can use them to help them progress into the right opportunities.   

What should I do if I’m disappointed with my results?  

Your school or college and your teachers will support you if don’t get the results you hoped for or if your plans change based on the results you get.  

Remember, there are many different exciting options to take after school and college.  

If don’t get the GCSE results you were expecting, you can find out more about your options here .  

And if you’re worried about not getting the results you need for your university course, you can find out more about your options here .  

If you need help or advice around your exam results or next steps, you can call  the National Careers Service  helpline to chat to a careers adviser on 0800 100 900.  

If you’re feeling stressed or anxious about exams and you’re aged 18 or younger, you can also call Childline for free on 0800 1111 or  chat online  to get support.  

Ofqual has also created this practical guide for students on coping with exam pressure which offers advice and support on coping with exam anxiety and stress.

You may also be interested in:

• GCSE results day: What to do if you didn’t get the grades you were expecting
• A Level and T Level results day: What to do if you don’t get the grades you need for your university course
• Exam results: 5 tips for parents and carers on supporting your child with results day

Tags: A level results , A Level results day , A levels , GCSE results , GCSE results day , gcses , results day , T Level results day , VTQs , when is results day

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