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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Teenage Pregnancy

Introduction, general overviews, textbooks and chapters in textbooks, reference books, anthologies, philosophies, demographics and statistics, adolescent sexual and reproductive health, protective factors, risk factors, pregnancy prevention programs, the americas, asia and the pacific, related articles expand or collapse the "related articles" section about, about related articles close popup.

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Teenage Pregnancy by Andrew L. Cherry , Mary E. Dillon LAST REVIEWED: 26 October 2015 LAST MODIFIED: 26 October 2015 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199791231-0111

Since the 1950s, teenage pregnancy has attracted a great deal of concern and attention from religious leaders, the general public, policymakers, and social scientists, particularly in the United States and other developed countries. The continuing apprehension about teenage pregnancy is based on the profound impact that teenage pregnancy can have on the lives of the girls and their children. Demographic studies continue to report that in developed countries such as the United States, teenage pregnancy results in lower educational attainment, increased rates of poverty, and worse “life outcomes” for children of teenage mothers compared to children of young adult women. Teenage pregnancy is defined as occurring between thirteen and nineteen years of age. There are, however, girls as young as ten who are sexually active and occasionally become pregnant and give birth. The vast majority of teenage births in the United States occurs among girls between fifteen and nineteen years of age. When being inclusive of all girls who can become pregnant and give birth, the term used is adolescent pregnancy , which describes the emotional and biological developmental stage called adolescence. The concern over the age at which a young woman should give birth has existed throughout human history. In general, however, there are two divergent views used to explain teenage pregnancy. Some authors and researchers argue that labeling teen pregnancy as a public health problem has little to do with public health and more to do with it being socially, culturally, and economically unacceptable. The bibliographic citations selected for this article will be extensive. The objective is to cover the major issues related to teenage pregnancy and childbearing, and adolescent pregnancy and childbearing. Childbirth to teenage mothers in the United States peaked in the mid-1950s at approximately 100 births per 1,000 teenage girls. In 2010, the rate of live births to teenage mothers in the United States dropped to a low of 34 births per 1,000. This was the lowest rate of teenage births in the United States since 1946. In 2012, the live births to teenage mothers continued to decline to 29.4 per 1,000. This was a drop of 13.5 percent from 2010. In 2012, some 305,388 babies were born to girls between fifteen and nineteen years of age. Among girls fourteen and younger the rate of pregnancy is about 7 per 1,000. About half of these pregnancies (3 per 1,000) resulted in live births. In spite of this decline in teenage pregnancy over the years, approximately 820,000 (34 percent) of teenage girls in the United States become pregnant each year. What’s more, some 85 percent of these pregnancies are unintended. These pregnancies and births suggest that the story of teenage pregnancy is not in the numbers of teen pregnancies and births but in the story of what causes the increase and decrease in the numbers. With the objective in mind to better understand teenage pregnancy, a general overview is provided as a broad background on teenage pregnancy. Citations are grouped under related topics that explicate the complexity of critical forces affecting teenage pregnancy. Topics that provide a global view of the variations in perception of and response to teenage pregnancy will also be covered in this article.

Adolescent pregnancy is a complex issue with many reasons for concern. Teenage pregnancy is a natural human occurrence that is a poor fit with modern society. In many ways it has become a proxy in what could be called the cultural wars. On one philosophical side of the debate, political and religious leaders use cultural and moral norms to shape public opinion and promote public policy with the stated purpose of preventing teen pregnancy. To begin, Martin, et al. 2012 provides national vital statistics on teen pregnancy. Leishman and Moir 2007 provides a good overview of these broader issues. Demographic studies by organizations like the Alan Guttmacher Institute ( Alan Guttmacher Institute 2010 ) give a statistical description of teenage pregnancy in the United States. The number of teen pregnancies and the pregnancy outcomes are often used to support claims that teenage pregnancy is a serious social problem. The other side of this debate presented in publications by groups like the World Health Organization ( World Health Organization 2004 ) reflects the medical professionals, public health professionals, and academicians who make a case for viewing teenage sexuality and pregnancy in terms of human development, health, and psychological needs. These two divergent views of teen pregnancy are represented in the United States by groups such as Children’s Aid Society; Healthy Teen Network; Center for Population Options; Advocates for Youth; National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy; National Organization on Adolescent Pregnancy, Parenting, and Prevention; state-level adolescent pregnancy prevention organizations; and other organizations that include teen pregnancy within their scope of interest and services. Mollborn, et al. 2011 delineates other important aspects of teenage pregnancy (race, poverty, and religious influences) that help explain why teenage pregnancy is considered a problem in some circles. The association between teenage pregnancy and social disadvantage, however, is not just found in the United States. Harden, et al. 2009 reports on the impact of poverty on teenage pregnancy rates in the United Kingdom. This phenomenon is not isolated to the United States and Great Britain; it is global. Holgate, et al. 2006 and the authors of Cherry and Dillon 2014 provide a comprehensive overview of global teenage pregnancy. To round out this general overview, the article Jiang, et al. 2011 is a description of a pragmatic national effort to improve the sexual and reproductive health of all adolescents and young adults. The best sources for research are professional journals and monographs from national and international health and development organizations focused on specific countries, regions, and global teenage pregnancy variations and trends.

Alan Guttmacher Institute. U.S. Teenage Pregnancies, Births and Abortions: National and State Trends and Trends by Race and Ethnicity . New York: Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2010.

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This report describes trends in teenage pregnancy, childbearing, and abortion in the United States. The statistics reveal discernible variations in teen birth and abortions between states. There is also a wide variation in teen pregnancy between racial and ethnic groups. Since the slight increase in 2006 rates have continued to decline.

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Cherry, Andrew L. “Biological Determinants and Influences Affecting Adolescent Pregnancy.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 39–53. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

This chapter highlights the biological determinants that influence adolescent sexuality and pregnancy. While our genes influence individual sexual development and behavior, the question is how much. Integrated biopsychosocial models are more accurate and give a richer picture of the determinants of adolescent sexuality.

Cherry, Andrew, and Mary Dillon. International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-8026-7 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this edited volume, eight chapters deal with issues related to adolescent pregnancy, such as mental health; biological determinants; fatherhood; pregnancy among lesbian, gay, and bisexual teens; etc. Additionally, thirty-one chapters cover major variations in the way adolescent pregnancy is viewed from different countries around the world.

Harden, Angela, Ginny Brunton, Adam Fletcher, and Ann Oakley. “Teenage Pregnancy and Social Disadvantage: Systematic Review Integrating Controlled Trials and Qualitative Studies.” British Medical Journal 339 (2009): 1182–1185.

DOI: 10.1136/bmj.b4254 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a review of interventions addressing social disadvantages associated with adolescent pregnancy in the United Kingdom. Teenage pregnancy rates were 39 percent lower among teenagers receiving both early childhood intervention and youth development programs that address “dislike of school,” “poor material circumstances and unhappy childhood,” and “low expectations for the future.”

Holgate, Helen S., Roy Evans, and Francis K. O. Yuen. Teenage Pregnancy and Parenthood: Global Perspectives, Issues and Interventions . New York: Routledge, 2006.

Teenage pregnancy and parenting, especially at a young age, is typically viewed as personally and socially undesirable. Governments worldwide demonstrate concern about teenage pregnancy in their policies and programs. This book provides a broad range of international perspectives and cultural contexts, and looks at interventions and examples of best practices.

Jiang, Nan, Lloyd J. Kolbe, Dong-Chul Seo, Noy S. Kay, and Claire D. Brindis. “Health of Adolescents and Young Adults: Trends in Achieving the 21 Critical National Health Objectives by 2010.” Journal of Adolescent Health 49 (2011): 124–132.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.04.026 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a report on the 21 Critical National Health Objectives for Adolescents and Young Adults in the United States as described in Healthy People 2010 . Two of the twenty-one goals were reached, reduction in adolescents riding with a drunk driver, and reduced physical fighting. Progress varied by demographic variables.

Leishman, June, and James Moir. Pre-Teen and Teenage Pregnancy: A Twenty-First Century Reality . Keswick, UK: M&K Update, 2007.

This book is a good place to start. It provides a standard definition of adolescents. The premise is that the physical and emotional health of teenagers has always been a complex issue and continues to challenge modern societies. It offers insight into the social reality of sexually active adolescents.

Martin, J. A., B. E. Hamilton, S. J. Ventura, M. J. Osterman, E. C. Wilson, and T. J. Mathews. “National vital statistics reports.” National Vital Statistics Reports 61.1 (2012).

This brief report shows the latest available statistical on teenage pregnancy in the United States. The report shows that teenage pregnancy continued to fall for all groups. Nevertheless the disparity between the rate of live births is two times higher among non-Hispanic African American and Hispanic girls compared to non-Hispanic white girls.

Mollborn, Stefanie, Benjamin W. Domingue, and Jason D. Boardman. Racial, Socioeconomic, and Religious Influences on School-Level Teen Pregnancy Norms and Behaviors . Boulder: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, 2011.

This report provides a broad overview of the influence and role of schools on teenage pregnancy. The impact of the school’s social, economic, and racial composition on teenage pregnancy rates among students is examined. Focusing on “age norms,” the authors answer the question, How do norms explain school pregnancy rates?

World Health Organization. Adolescent Pregnancy: Issues in Adolescent Health and Development . Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2004.

This overview of global adolescent health, development, and pregnancy covers both developed and developing countries. Social indicators and statistics show the increase in teen pregnancy after World War II and the surprising decline in the 1990s. This occurred as social control by parents and family declined.

As of mid-year 2012, there were few books designed as textbooks to be used in college classes on teenage pregnancy. This lack of textbooks and chapters, however, does not mean that this topic is not addressed in academia. Research related to teenage pregnancy (not including demographic studies and comparisons) has been mainly limited to the medical, behavioral, and social sciences. An exception is the textbook Farber 2009 . Written for social workers and students in the helping professions, it covers the risk factors and prevention. There are other books that might be used as supplemental reading material: Goldstein 2011 has a medical orientation but it was not written to be a textbook. There are several chapters on teenage pregnancy written in textbooks, for example, Armstrong 2001 . Other chapters are included in volumes related to adolescent health. Wells 2006 would be useful as a supplemental text. It presents opposing viewpoints. Other volumes such as Cater and Coleman 2006 explore why teenage girls in Great Britain plan their pregnancies. Another publication, Romer 2003 , could stimulate class discussions about the perception of what is an integrated approach to reducing the risk of adolescent pregnancy. Two other books that could be used in a college class are Maynard 1996 , a classic that makes the case that teenage pregnancy is a problem that needs to be addressed, and Cocca 2006 , which provides a historical background.

Armstrong, Bruce. “Adolescent Pregnancy.” In Handbook of Social Work Practice with Vulnerable and Resilient Populations . Edited by Alex Gitterman, 305–341. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.

This chapter provides students in the helping professions with a more in-depth discussion of the experience of teenagers who become pregnant and parent their children. Examining vulnerability and resilience, the chapter makes the point that pregnancy and parenting during adolescence is a contentious public issue and has resulted in perplexing policy.

Cater, Suzanne, and Lester Coleman. “Planned” Teenage Pregnancy: Perspectives of Young Parents from Disadvantaged Backgrounds . Bristol, UK: Policy, 2006.

This is a study of the reasons teenage girls facing poverty and disadvantage in the United Kingdom plan their pregnancies. Interviews with the teens are used to suggest policy implications for reducing teen pregnancy and how “planning” is viewed by policymakers.

Cocca, Carolyn. Adolescent Sexuality: A Historical Handbook and Guide . Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006.

This is a set of five essays dealing with adolescent sexuality, which includes adolescent pregnancy. It also includes a broad survey of the history of perceptions of adolescent sexuality and chapters on rape, pregnancy, sex education, and pop culture.

Farber, Naomi. Adolescent Pregnancy: Policy and Prevention Services . 2d ed. New York: Springer, 2009.

This textbook is primarily written for social workers and others in the helping professions who provide services to adolescents and teenagers. It covers the risk factors, child-family outcomes, and prevention. It addresses public policy and practice issues related to adolescent sexual health risks and the variation in teen pregnancy rates. Originally published in 2003.

Goldstein, Mark A. “Adolescent Pregnancy.” In The MassGeneral Hospital for Children: Adolescent Medicine Handbook . Edited by Mark A. Goldstein, 111–113. New York: Springer, 2011.

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6845-6_15 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a medical-oriented description of teenage pregnancy focusing on predictors. Listed causes are: early pubertal development, sexual abuse, poverty, lack of a nurturing family, substance abuse, low expectations or career goals, and poor school performance. “Just say no” and “virginity pledges” may decrease the likelihood of using contraception.

Maynard, Rebecca A., ed. Kids Having Kids: Economic Costs and Social Consequences of Teen Pregnancy . Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1996.

During the early 1990s, four hundred thousand US girls under the age of eighteen gave birth. This was twice the rate of other developed countries. Estimated economic and social costs of teenage childbearing are presented and contrasted with the strengths and weaknesses of specific policies and programs to prevent teen pregnancy and childbirth.

Romer, Daniel. Reducing Adolescent Risk: Toward an Integrated Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2003.

This is a good source on the topic of adolescent risk-taking behaviors (such as unprotected sex resulting in teen pregnancy). Understanding the role that adolescent risk taking often plays in sexual behavior is important for understanding unplanned teen pregnancy. This volume provides prevention and programming resources.

Wells, Ken R., ed. Teenage Sexuality: Opposing Viewpoints . Farmington Hills, MI: Greenhaven, 2006.

This is the latest in an opposing viewpoint series that can be useful supplemental material in some educational settings. It approaches teenage pregnancy by providing expert opinions in a pro versus con format.

The following reference material covers many issues that mark teenage pregnancy as an important issue in modern society. The debate is over whether teenage pregnancy is a serious health problem that requires intervention and prevention programming or whether it is a constructed crisis perpetuated by a conservative segment of society trying to enforce moral standards in an effort to save the greater society. The more pragmatic, less moralistic assessments tend to equate teenage pregnancy with adolescent sexual and reproductive health. What is evident from the literature is that on an individual level, adolescent pregnancy can and does change the trajectory of the teen mother and her child’s future. Rayes 2010 does a good job showing how trends influence public policy that results from concern over teenage pregnancy. The edited book by Card and Benner 2008 is a good source of descriptions of model programs to improve adolescent sexual health. Vinovskis’s work ( Vinovskis 1988 ) began early to make the case that teenage pregnancy was inappropriately being characterized as a problem. It helps put the policy issue in perspective. Fraser 2004 portrays teen pregnancy in an ecological context. This is a view that does not blame the teenager for her pregnancy. Arai 2009 takes a similar position in explaining teenage pregnancy in Great Britain. Early negative life events have been studied by Felitti and Anda ( Felitti and Anda 2010 ); they discuss these effects on adolescent pregnancy and the on long-term psychosocial outcomes and fetal death. Lancaster and Hamburg 2008 is similar with a biosocial emphasis. Finally, Laser and Nicotera 2010 employs these ideas for practitioners who work with adolescents. Cherry, et al. 2009 shows that although the physical risk associated with biological immaturity is ever present when young girls become pregnant, this risk (supported by research worldwide) for the most part has been shown to be caused by the social context in which the girls live. What is clear in the literature is that assumptions and perspectives can either increase risk or modulate the risk associated with an adolescent pregnancy.

Arai, Lisa. Teenage Pregnancy: The Making and Unmaking of a Problem . Bristol, UK: Policy, 2009.

This book presents the findings of a longitudinal study of adolescent health that focuses on teenage pregnancy. The author identifies strategies to reduce teenage pregnancy, reframes teen pregnancy as a social exclusion issue rather than a moral issue, and promotes increasing the participation of teen mothers in education and employment.

Card, Josefina J., and Tabitha A. Benner, eds. Model Programs for Adolescent Sexual Health: Evidence-Based HIV, STI, and Pregnancy Prevention Interventions . New York: Springer, 2008.

This volume provides a directory of model programs for adolescent sexual health. Programs described are among the most promising and empirically tested sexual education and prevention programs in the United States. Programs included were selected for their demonstrated positive impact.

Cherry, Andrew L., Lisa Byers, and Mary E. Dillon. “A Global Perspective on Teen Pregnancy.” In Maternal and Child Health: Global Challenges, Programs, and Policies . Edited by John Ehiri, 375–397. New York: Springer, 2009.

DOI: 10.1007/b106524 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This chapter presents a global view of teenage pregnancy comparing developed and developing counties in terms of attitudes, perspectives, and approaches employed to deal with teen pregnancy. The primary conclusions: the more educational, occupational, and economic opportunity available to teenage girls, the more likely they are to postpone pregnancy and childbirth.

Felitti, Vincent J., and Robert F. Anda. “The Relationship of Adverse Childhood Experiences to Adult Medical Disease, Psychiatric Disorders and Sexual Behavior: Implications for Healthcare.” In The Impact of Early Life Trauma on Health and Disease: The Hidden Epidemic . Edited by Ruth A. Lanius, Eric Vermetten, and Clare Pain, 77–87. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511777042 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Early negative life events are increasingly recognized as having serious and long-lasting effects. Emotional traumas during childhood impact neural and biological systems required for labile stability, general well-being, biomedical disorders, social function, and psychopathology. The effects of adolescent pregnancy on long-term psychosocial outcomes and fetal death are discussed.

Fraser, Mark W., ed. Risk and Resilience in Childhood: An Ecological Perspective . 2d ed. Washington, DC: NASW, 2004.

Each chapter deals with a different issue. Based on the ecological and multisystemic perspective, protective factors and risk factors for teenage pregnancy, school failure, and other childhood behaviors (i.e., disorders in childhood, drug use, and delinquency) are examined using an ethnocultural perspective.

Lancaster, Jane B., and Beatrix A. Hamburg. School-Age Pregnancy & Parenthood: Biosocial Dimensions . New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction, 2008.

In this biosocial perspective of teenage pregnancy both the biological substratum and the social environment are proposed as essential codeterminants of behavior. Culturally defined responses to the basic needs of pregnant and parenting girls is presented to explain the medical and social response and the challenge of teen pregnancy and childbearing.

Laser, Julie Anne, and Nicole Nicotera. Working with Adolescents: A Guide for Practitioners . Social Work Practice with Children and Families Series. New York: Guilford, 2010.

The authors take the position that teenage pregnancy is one of several adolescent problem behaviors. An ecological perspective is used to explain and address specific challenges faced by adolescents. The theoretical framework is followed by a section on the adolescent in context. It concludes with clinical interventions for problematic adolescent behaviors.

Rayes, Gilberto de la. Nonmarital Childbearing: Trends, Reasons and Policy . New York: Nova Science, 2010.

In 2006, 38.5 percent of all US births were among single mothers (single teenage girls and young women). Birth without marriage is viewed as a serious problem among social conservatives. Research cited suggests that children who grow up with only one biological parent often experience worse lifetime outcomes than peers.

Vinovskis, Maris A. An “Epidemic” of Adolescent Pregnancy? Some Historical and Policy Considerations . New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

This book is a historical review of adolescent sexuality and pregnancy starting in colonial times. It includes background on the origins of federal programs and policies that produced unexpected outcomes that were frequently not in line with expectations. This book also includes perspectives on the role of the adolescent father.

The following reference matter covers some of the most important issues related to teenage pregnancy. Foremost, as Patton, et al. 2010 and Hagen, et al. 2012 , make the point; teenage pregnancy is a health issue that fundamentally affects the sexual and reproductive health of the girl who is pregnant. Yet, Jewell 2000 and others believe that teenage pregnancy is a social problem. It is also a public health concern and a concern for those specializing in family planning. Prevention is another area that is supported by both professionals and the public. The definition of prevention, however, may be very different. As such, sexual education, the centerpiece of any prevention program, is hotly debated in many countries, particularly in the United States. In part, it is because the question is framed as an effort to prevent teen pregnancy. This is unfortunate. In many cases, the consequences of the prevention efforts often result in increases in sexually transmitted disease, pregnancy, and abortions. Approaching the task of providing sexual education from a justice perspective is different. The reason for providing accurate age-graded sexual information from a justice perspective, as Catania and Dolcini 2012 and Secor-Turnera, et al. 2011 suggest, is that it is an inalienable right of all people, especially adolescents and in particular teenagers, to have accurate information about their sexual and reproductive health. Even so, as Kaye, et al. 2009 and Collins, et al. 2011 explain, this does not exclude the influence of family, parents, or the religious community. Parents and peers are very influential on adolescent sexual behavior. Religion can be significant in delaying sexual initiation but is also associated with a failure to use a condom at first sexual intercourse.

Catania, Joseph A., and M. Margaret Dolcini. “A Social-Ecological Perspective on Vulnerable Youth: Toward an Understanding of Sexual Development among Urban African American Adolescents.” Research in Human Development 9 (2012): 1–8.

DOI: 10.1080/15427609.2012.654428 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A social-ecological framework is used to explore the complex factors influencing adolescent sexual development among urban African American youth living in low-income neighborhoods. Using a multistage qualitative investigation, the researchers offer new data on the sexual development of urban African American adolescents.

Collins, Rebecca L., Steven C. Martino, Marc N. Elliott, and Angela Miu. “Relationships between Adolescent Sexual Outcomes and Exposure to Sex in Media: Robustness to Propensity-Based Analysis.” Developmental Psychology 47 (2011): 585–591.

DOI: 10.1037/a0022563 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The effect of exposure to sex in the media on adolescent initiation of sexual intercourse is still an open question. This article reviews research that has been conducted and finds a weak association between media exposure and sexual initiation. The authors suggest that youth exposure to sexual content be reduced.

Hagen, Janet W., Alice H. Skenandore, Beverly M. Scow, Jennifer G. Schanen, and Frieda Hugo Clary. “Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention in a Rural Native American Community.” Journal of Family Social Work 15 (2012): 19–33.

DOI: 10.1080/10522158.2012.640926 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Native American girls have a higher rate of teen pregnancy than the US national average. A five-year study of eighth graders who were taught the Discovery Dating curriculum resulted in fewer pregnancies and higher use of condoms than eighth graders in the control group.

Jewell, David. “Teenage Pregnancy: Whose Problem Is It?” Family Practice 17 (2000): 522–528.

DOI: 10.1093/fampra/17.6.522 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This qualitative study of thirty-four teenage mothers from the United Kingdom examines teenage mothers’ attitudes about sexual health, contraception, and pregnancy. Teens from less affluent families reported more problems accessing contraceptive services and dissatisfaction with sexual education in schools. Abortion was also less acceptable to the socially disadvantaged girls.

Kaye, Kelleen, Kristin Anderson Moore, Elizabeth C. Hair, Alena M. Hadley, Randal D. Day, and Dennis K. Orthner. “Parent Marital Quality and the Parent–Adolescent Relationship: Effects on Sexual Activity among Adolescents and Youth.” Marriage and Family Review 45 (2009): 270–288.

DOI: 10.1080/01494920902733641 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Teenagers growing up outside of an intact family are likely to engage in risky sexual behaviors. This study looks at characteristics within married-parent families to identify sources that influence adolescent sexual activity. Marital relationship, the youth–parent relationship, and the interaction of the two are identified and discussed.

Patton, George C., Russell M. Viner, Le Cu Linh, et al. “Mapping a Global Agenda for Adolescent Health.” Journal of Adolescent Health 47 (2010): 427–432.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.019 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Positive changes are taking place in health care in many developing countries that will benefit adolescents. This paper reports on a 2009 London meeting related to strategic data needed to monitor future global initiatives in adolescent health. Developing a core set of global adolescent health indicators would facilitate this process.

Secor-Turnera, Molly, Renee E. Sieving, Marla E. Eisenberg, and Carol Skay. “Associations between Sexually Experienced Adolescents’ Sources of Information about Sex and Sexual Risk Outcomes.” Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and Learning 11 (2011): 489–500.

DOI: 10.1080/14681811.2011.601137 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This secondary analysis reports on informal sources about sexual risk among a group ( N = 22,828) of sexually experienced teenagers aged thirteen to twenty. Friends and siblings were most often the source of information about sex. When accurate sexual information comes from friends and siblings, it reduces teenage sexual risk.

The citations presented in this section are for the most part literature reviews. Nevertheless, in several of these articles ( Coles, et al. 1997 and Jolly, et al. 2007 ), the authors and researchers provide information from the teenagers themselves that informs and provides insight into the reasons and circumstances associated with teenage sexual behavior. Teenage fathers are also introduced under this topic with the literature review Lohan, et al. 2010 . Although little attention has been paid to teenage fathers, they play a major role, whether involved with the mother and child or absent from that relationship. More research is needed to increase our understanding of how professionals and society can support the teenage father’s effort to become a responsible father, husband, and adult. School-based health clinics are another important program type. Strunk 2008 is a good source of descriptions of these model programs. Putting in perspective the need for adolescent pregnancy health services Sells and Blum 1996 shows that adolescent morbidity and mortality has declined since 1979 by 13 percent. Other conditions that are often overlooked are the effect of child abuse and child sexual abuse on the life trajectory of adolescent girls, delineated by Francisco, et al. 2008 , and the influence of the neighborhood context, explored by Lupton and Kneale 2010 , particularly, as Buhi and Goodson 2007 points out, in relationship to early pregnancy.

Buhi, Eric R., and Patricia Goodson. “Predictors of Adolescent Sexual Behavior and Intention: A Theory-Guided Systematic Review.” Journal of Adolescent Health 40 (2007): 4–21.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.09.027 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This systematic literature review was conducted to answer the question, “Why do adolescents initiate sexual activity at early ages?” Three conditions were identified that help explain the behavior: intention, perceived norms , and time home alone . Based on the literature, these variables were good predictors of adolescent initiation of sexual behavior.

Coles, Robert, Robert E Coles, Daniel A Coles, and Michael H. Coles. The Youngest Parents: Teenage Pregnancy as It Shapes Lives . New York: W. W. Norton, 1997.

The voices of teenage girls and boys who were soon to be parents are presented in an effort to challenge preconceived ideas about teenagers who become pregnant and parents. Their stories are unique and reveal much to respect.

Francisco, Melissa A., Kasey Hicks, Julianne Powell, Kristin Styles, Jessica L. Tabor, and Linda J. Hulton. “The Effect of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Adolescent Pregnancy: An Integrative Research Review.” Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing 13 (2008): 237–248.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6155.2008.00160.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In 2008, during a brief period of time when adolescent pregnancies in the United States increased, there were renewed calls for research related to identifying risk factors involved in adolescent pregnancy. Based on a meta-analysis, the authors determined the existence and strength of the relationship between child sexual abuse and adolescent pregnancy.

Jolly, Kim, Josie A. Weiss, and Patricia Liehr. “Understanding Adolescent Voice as a Guide for Nursing Practice and Research.” Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing 30.1–2 (2007): 3–13.

DOI: 10.1080/01460860701366518 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article focuses on adolescent attitudes about contraception and adolescent depression, taking into consideration the ethnocultural context. Giving voice to adolescents by listening to their stories is proposed as a way of improving health care provided to teenagers and as a basis for further research.

Lohan, Maria, Sharon Cruise, Peter O’Halloran, Fiona Alderdice, and Abbey Hyde. “Adolescent Men’s Attitudes in Relation to Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes: A Systematic Review of the Literature from 1980–2009.” Journal of Adolescent Health 47 (2010): 327–345.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.05.005 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A review of the professional literature exposed a long-standing gender bias in academic and policy research on adolescent pregnancy, which has resulted in the lack of research on the perspectives of the adolescent male. This article sums up the literature related to adolescent boys and their attitude toward pregnancy and parenting.

Lupton, Ruth, and Dylan Kneale. Are There Neighbourhood Effects on Teenage Parenthood in the UK, and Does It Matter for Policy? A Review of Theory and Evidence . London School of Economics and Political Science CASE 141. London: Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, 2010.

This paper is a review of the evidence for considering “neighborhood effects” in relationship to teenage pregnancy. This review identifies three explanations for teen pregnancy (opportunity costs, differential values, and social networks). Although neighborhoods may influence the rate of teen pregnancy, the authors conclude that statistical evidence is mixed.

Sells, C. Wayne, and Robert W. Blum. “Morbidity and Mortality among US Adolescents: An Overview of Data and Trends.” American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 513–519.

DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.86.4.513 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is an analysis of data about adolescent morbidity and mortality in the United States (1979–1994). Since the 1980s mortality declined 13 percent among fifteen- to twenty-four-year-olds. Messages related to the benefits of contraceptives and the prevention of sexually transmitted disease have had a positive impact on the rate of unwanted teen pregnancies and childbearing.

Strunk, Julie A. “The Effect of School-Based Health Clinics on Teenage Pregnancy and Parenting Outcomes: An Integrated Literature Review.” The Journal of School Nursing 24 (2008): 13–20.

DOI: 10.1177/10598405080240010301 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This review of the literature offers substantial research findings that suggest many of the problems associated with teenage pregnancy and parenting could be lessened if school-based programs offer counseling, health care, health education, and classes on childhood development.

There are no journals that are exclusively dedicated to teenage pregnancy issues; however, there are a number of journals focused on adolescent issues, such as the Journal of Adolescence , Journal of Adolescent Health , Journal of Research on Adolescence , and International Family Planning Perspectives , which tend to publish articles on teenage and adolescent pregnancy and childbirth. Pediatrics and the American Journal of Public Health have a propensity to cover many of the issues related to teenage pregnancy. The journals listed here such as the Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry and the International Journal of Epidemiology are examples of professional publications that emphasize medical, psychological, or sociological perspectives. Of course, other journals similar to Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care will publish articles related to teen pregnancy depending on their area of clinical, medical, or social service interest.

American Journal of Public Health .

This journal focuses on research methods and program evaluation related to public health. In an effort to improve public health research, the journal publishes articles related to public health policy, best practices, and education. Epidemiologists, a broad range of social scientists, and medical and helping professionals access this journal.

International Family Planning Perspectives . 1995–2008.

This journal published studies conducted in the United States and other developed countries in the world. Articles published cover contraceptive practice; fertility levels, trends, and determinants; adolescent pregnancy; abortion; public policies and legal issues affecting childbearing; and other critical issues related broadly to family planning practice.

International Journal of Epidemiology .

This international journal publishes studies about epidemiological advances and new developments and changes in the global population. Articles and studies related to teenage pregnancy typically focus on effects of prevention programming, health services, and medical care.

Journal of Adolescence .

This is an international, multidisciplinary, broad-based journal that is concerned with the nature of adolescent development (i.e., emphasis is on personality, social, and emotional functioning). It publishes empirical studies, clinical studies, and literature reviews. A broad field of professionals specializing in services to adolescents read and publish in this journal.

Journal of Adolescent Health .

This is a multidisciplinary scientific journal. It publishes research in the field of adolescent medicine and health. Articles typically cover biological, behavioral, public health, and policy issues. Professionals involved in adolescent health access this journal. This is the official publication of the Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine.

Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care .

The journal emphasis reproductive and sexual health nationally and internationally. The articles are related to clinical care, service delivery, training, and education in the field of contraception and reproductive/sexual health.

Journal of Research on Adolescence .

This journal is research oriented. It presents methodological and theoretical articles using methods that include multivariate, longitudinal, etc. Studies include ethnographic, experimental, cross-national, and studies of gender, ethnic, and racial diversity.

Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry .

The Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry is the leading journal that focuses exclusively on the psychiatric research and treatment of the child and adolescent. The journal is committed to the advancement of research on pediatric mental health and promoting the mental health of adolescents and their families.

Pediatrics .

This journal addresses the broad needs of the whole child: that is, physiologic, mental, emotional, and social structures. It provides a platform for articles of interest to pediatricians, general medical professionals, and helping professionals.

There are basically two major views and explanations for teenage pregnancy and these views are at odds. One is that teenage pregnancy is a serious problem that requires prevention and intervention. The other is the view articulated by Upadhya and Ellen 2011 that teen pregnancy is an issue of social disparities. Johnson 2014 discusses the association between adolescent pregnancy and poverty. Banerjee, et al. 2009 argues that it is a socially inflicted health hazard. Rich-Edwards 2002 and Lawlor and Shaw 2002 made a similar point that teen pregnancy is not a public health crisis in the United States. Nonetheless, Chambers, et al. 2001 identifies sex, culture, and service needs to reduce the socially inflicted harm. A good example of the problems perspective is explained by Holgate 2012 . As a problem, teenage pregnancy is viewed as something to control and manage. As a health issue, safety is paramount, closely followed by adolescent developmental issues. Regardless of one’s explanation, Calvin, et al. 2009 discusses the rights of teen parents to be involved in decision-making that impacts their family and child or children. Of course, in Linders and Bogard 2014 and Duncan, et al. 2010 there is a real conflict over teenage parenthood. Even so, the reality is that teenage girls, especially young girls who become pregnant, are at risk of physical complications due to the immaturity of their bodies. This is especially problematic among child brides. Becoming pregnant at too young an age comes with many physical risks and problems. Given the social context, even older teens can face daunting-odds when attempting to parent their child or children. The challenge for professionals is to respect the human rights of the adolescent and support her or his physical and emotional needs as a teenager lunging toward adulthood. To improve the outcomes of adolescent pregnancy Montgomery, et al. 2014 addresses the issue through legislation. Macleod 2014 suggests the issues can be better understood and addressed as a feminist issue.

Banerjee, Bratati, G. K. Pandey, Debashis Dutt, Bhaswati Sengupta, Maitrayei Mondal, and Sila Deb. “Teenage Pregnancy: A Socially Inflicted Health Hazard.” Indian Journal of Community Medicine 34 (2009): 227–231.

DOI: 10.4103/0970-0218.55289 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Early marriages are considered a threat to the physical and emotional health of young girls. It is a major concern in rural India. Three steps instituted to enhance family welfare programs improved efforts to prevent pregnancy complications and perinatal outcomes.

Calvin, John, Manouchka Colon, and Kacey Houston. “Decision-Making Rights of Teen Parents.” Michigan Child Welfare Law Journal 12 (2009): 29–42.

The legal right of teenage parents to make autonomous decisions about their children’s care continues to be a concern. The debate over parental rights of minors is in sharp contrast to the limited rights of minors in other areas of the law.

Chambers, Ruth, Gill Wakely, and Steph Chambers. Tackling Teenage Pregnancy: Sex, Culture and Needs . Abingdon, UK: Radcliffe Medical, 2001.

This is an account of Britain dealing with the highest rate of teen pregnancy in Europe. The debate over how to respond to the high rates of teen pregnancy and minimize the risk of social exclusion is delineated. It outlines basic principles that improve services and reduce pregnancy and childbearing.

Duncan, Simon, Rosalind Edwards, and Claire Alexandrer, eds. Teenage Parenthood: What’s the Problem? London: Tufnell, 2010.

This is an examination of why policymakers and the media claim that teenage parenthood ruins a girl’s life and that of her children. It also addresses assertions that teenage pregnancy threatens the wider social and moral fabric of society. Research increasingly shows teenage parenthood does not have to be harmful.

Holgate, Helen. “Young Mothers Speak.” International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 17 (2012): 1–10.

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This overview is written from a problems perspective . The author compares problems associated with teen pregnancy from different countries worldwide to illustrate broad variation in causes and problems. The author concludes that many factors are involved in teen pregnancy and many strategies are needed to reduce teen pregnancy rates.

Johnson, Clara L. “ Adolescent Pregnancy and Poverty: Implications for Social Policy .” The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare 1.1 (2014): 17.

This open access article presents research comparing wed and unwed teenage girls. The author concludes that the rate of poverty is the about the same. Both groups were very similar in terms of birth at a young age, incomplete education, low income level, psychological and developmental issues, and social dependency.

Lawlor, Debbie A., and Mary Shaw. “Too Much Too Young? Teenage Pregnancy Is Not a Public Health Problem.” International Journal of Epidemiology 31 (2002): 552–553.

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The concern over the age at which a young woman should give birth has existed throughout human history. The authors argue that labeling teen pregnancy as a public health problem has little to do with public health and more to do with it being socially, culturally, and economically unacceptable.

Linders, Annulla, and Cynthia Bogard. “Teenage Pregnancy as a Social Problem: A Comparison of Sweden and the United States.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 147–157. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

Adolescent pregnancy in the United States is treated as an urgent social problem. Scholars, politicians, interest groups, and media have contributed to this view. In sharp contrast, teenage pregnancy in Sweden is not considered a problem in its own right. The differences are explained and discussed.

Macleod, Catriona. “Adolescent Pregnancy: A Feminist Issue.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 129–145. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

This chapter critically examines teen pregnancy from a feminist perspective. The author examines the power relations implicit in the technologies of representation and the technologies of intervention that cohere around the pregnant and parenting teenager.

Montgomery, Tiffany M., Lori Folken, and Melody A. Seitz. “Addressing Adolescent Pregnancy with Legislation.” Nursing for Women’s Health 18.4 (2014): 277–283.

DOI: 10.1111/1751-486X.12133 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article is helpful in better understanding legislation that addresses adolescent pregnancy. The focus is on legislation related to prevention and education about adolescent pregnancy. Prevention legislation that affects health care clinics, schools, and adolescent-friendly community-based organizations is highlighted. Legislative efforts are viewed as helping address the issue on a macro level.

Rich-Edwards, Janet. “Teen Pregnancy Is Not a Public Health Crisis in the United States: It Is Time We Made It One.” International Journal of Epidemiology 31 (2002): 555–556.

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The perception of opportunity is postulated as a major factor involved in adolescent pregnancy. The author submits that it is not simply poverty that increases teenage pregnancy it is low levels of optimism about their future among impoverished girls. Adolescent girls with expectations and perceived opportunity do not give birth.

Upadhya, Krishna K., and Jonathan M. Ellen. “Social Disadvantage as a Risk for First Pregnancy among Adolescent Females in the United States.” Journal of Adolescent Health 49 (2011): 538–541.

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This study examines the underlying determinants of teenage pregnancy that are associated with social disparities that are different for older teens than younger teens. Authors make the case that prevention programs targeting social risk could be improved by addressing developmental stages related to sexuality.

To understand the extent of sexuality among teenagers is to begin to understand teenage pregnancy. Adding ethnic, economic, and global demographics into the calculus helps explain the complexity of what is referred to as teen pregnancy. As well, when teenage fertility is examined over time, in the United States and among the rest of the developed nations, it is clear that teenage pregnancy has been on the decline since the mid-1990s. A good example of the history of the numbers is Smith, et al. 1996 , which looks at trends in the United States from 1960 to 1992, and Abma, et al. 2010 and Ventura, et al. 2011 , which compile data from the National Survey of Family Growth (1991–2008). Dallas 2011 focuses on an area where little research has been conducted, the response by families to the pregnancy of an adolescent. Then again, as Kaufmann, et al. 1998 shows, the decline in teen pregnancy rates is the real story. The conditions that tend to increase and reduce teen pregnancy are more understandable when cross-national social differences are studied. This type of investigation can also benefit from comparing ethnic and racial groups within countries. It is also evident that many of the educational and economic problems identified and faced by pregnant and parenting teens have little or nothing to do with the pregnancy and everything to do with social sanctions and disapproval.

Abma, J. C., G. M. Martinez, and C. E. Copen. “Teenagers in the United States: Sexual Activity, Contraceptive Use, and Childbearing, National Survey of Family Growth 2006–2008.” Vital and Health Statistics 23 (2010): 1–47.

Estimates on the sexual behavior of boys and girls fifteen to nineteen years old regarding sexual activity, contraceptive use, and births are presented from the 1988, 1995, and 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. Additional data are reported from two National Survey of Adolescent Males (1988 and 1995).

Dallas, Constance M. Redefining Family for Low-Income, Unmarried African American Adolescent Parents . In Virginia Henderson International Nursing Library’s Online Repository , 2011.

The response by families to the pregnancy of an adolescent is an area where little research has been conducted. In this study the challenges faced by families of unmarried pregnant and parenting girls are studied in light of culture influences and family systems.

Kaufmann, Rachel B., Alison M. Spitz, Lilo T. Strauss, et al. “The Decline in US Teen Pregnancy Rates, 1990–1995.” Pediatrics 102 (1998): 1141–1147.

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While teen pregnancies between 1985 and 1990 increased approximately 9 percent, starting in 1991 the rate began to decline. Between 1991 and 1995 teen pregnancies fell about 13 percent to 83.6 per 1,000 births. The conditions and statistics of a decline in pregnancies and abortions are also presented.

Smith, Herbert L., S. Philip Morgan, and Tanya Koropeckyj-Cox. “A Decomposition of Trends in the Nonmarital Fertility Ratios of Blacks and Whites in the United States, 1960–1992.” Demography 33 (1996): 141–151.

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Demographic factors believed to increase childbirth among non-married African American and white females in the United States is the subject of this monograph. The rate of the increase in childbearing for all women and teenagers over thirty years (1960–1992) is examined.

Ventura, Stephanie J., Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, T. J. Mathews, Brady E. Hamilton, Paul D. Sutton, and Joyce C. Abma. “Adolescent Pregnancy and Childbirth: United States, 1991–2008.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Surveillance Summaries 60 (2011): 105–108.

Long-term adverse consequences for adolescent mothers and their children are often associated with poorer outcomes than for children of mothers in their early twenties. Fragile family structure, limited long-term resources, and poor social supports rather than age are contributors to poor outcomes. An estimated 82 percent of pregnancies in 2001 among adolescents were unintended.

The decreasing age of menarche (the first period) has influenced fertility rates. In current models used to explain teen pregnancy, as Aruda, et al. 2010 suggests, the earlier in age that girls experience a pregnancy the higher the adolescent fertility rates. Additionally, most of the medical problems that are linked with nulliparous adolescent pregnancy ( Hueston, et al. 2008 and Zeck, et al. 2008 ) are associated with the lack of health care or inadequate health care for this group of girls. This is especially problematic because studies also show that teen girls in large number fail to access prenatal care or start prenatal care late into their pregnancy even when prenatal care is readily available. This often results in subsequent physical complications for the mother and her child. This lack of health care for pregnant teens is a global concern; Wamala 2009 provides a global view of maternal and child health. Bearinger, et al. 2007 examines global efforts related to sexual and reproductive health patterns, prevention, and potential of adolescents. An important issue, postpartum depression, is discussed by Kleiber 2014 . Outcomes among adolescent girls enrolled in care programs are described by Haeri, et al. 2009 . As a point of reference, Usta, et al. 2008 compares obstetric outcome of teenage pregnancies with adult pregnancies. Another area that is often overlooked teen moms and their leisure experiences. An overview is provided by Clark and Anderson 2014 . An international perspective is provided by Kunaviktikul 1987 , which describes health care for pregnant teens in Thailand. Teenage girls who do not access prenatal care in a timely way are less likely to follow through with postpartum care. Furthermore, these teen moms (typically younger) are less likely to follow through with healthy baby clinics. Subsequently, these teenage mothers are at an elevated risk of a repeat pregnancy. Cortez, et al. 2014 addresses the challenges for adolescent sexual and reproductive health within the context of universal health coverage. To round out this section, Baltag and Chandra-Mouli 2014 describes the needs of adolescents as outlined in the WHO Global Reproductive Health Strategy; and Tahrir 2014 discusses strategies to sustain advances in global adolescent sexual and reproductive health through organizational capacity building.

Aruda, Mary M., Kathleen Waddicor, Liesl Frese, Joanna C. M. Cole, and Pamela Burke. “Early Pregnancy in Adolescents: Diagnosis, Assessment, Options Counseling, and Referral.” Journal of Pediatric Health Care 24 (2010): 4–13.

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Pregnant teens often present at medical facilities with physical complaints not necessarily related to pregnancy. Diagnosis assessment and referral are critical for prenatal, postnatal, and positive outcomes for the teen mother and her child.

Baltag, Valentina, and Venkatraman Chandra-Mouli. “Adolescent Pregnancy: Sexual and Reproductive Health.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 55–78. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

In many parts of the world the sexual and reproductive health needs of adolescents are either poorly understood or not fully appreciated. This chapter discusses the sexual and reproductive health needs of adolescents as outlined in the WHO Global Reproductive Health Strategy.

Bearinger, Linda H., Renee E. Sieving, Jane Ferguson, and Vinit Sharma. “Global Perspectives on the Sexual and Reproductive Health of Adolescents: Patterns, Prevention, and Potential.” Lancet 369 (2007): 1220–1231.

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Global data are used to show the importance of investment in programs that are shown to be effective prevention and treatment interventions for reducing the risk to adolescents that threaten their reproductive and sexual health. Strategies based on the adolescent’s developmental stage and social contexts are emphasized.

Clark, Brianna S., and Denise M. Anderson. “Not Yet a Woman, Not Yet a Mom: The Leisure Experiences of Pregnant Adolescents.” Journal of Leisure Research 46 (2014): 509–524.

This article examines an issue that is often overlooked, the leisure experience of a teen mother from her point of view. The findings suggest that adolescents make the effort to change their leisure behavior towards behaviors that help the unborn child. They also tend to develop new forms of child-centered leisure activities.

Cortez, Rafael, Meaghen Quinlan-Davidson, and Seemeen Saadat. Challenges for Adolescents’ Sexual and Reproductive Health within the Context of Universal Health Coverage . No. 91292. The World Bank, 2014.

This report about young people (ten to twenty-four years of age) from around the world describes the tremendous challenges they face in their efforts to access sexual and reproductive health care. Inadequate health information and services, and inequitable gender norms, contribute to a lack of knowledge about sexuality and basic human rights.

Haeri, Sina, Isabelle Guichard, and Stephanie Saddlemire. “Maternal Characteristics and Outcomes Associated with Late Enrollment for Care in Teenage Pregnancies.” Southern Medical Journal 102 (2009): 265–268.

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Adolescent pregnancy is associated with adverse maternal and fetal outcomes including premature and low-weight births, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and anemia. Third trimester enrollment for prenatal care among adolescents is particularly associated with higher rates of adverse perinatal outcomes. Improved prenatal care and early enrollment is proposed to improve birth outcomes.

Hueston, William J., Mark E. Geesey, and Vanessa Diaz. “Prenatal Care Initiation among Pregnant Teens in the United States: An Analysis over 25 Years.” Journal of Adolescent Health 42 (2008): 243–248.

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This twenty-five-year-long longitudinal study highlights changes in patterns of adolescent pregnancy. The reduction in pregnancies among adolescents, particularly high-risk adolescents, and differences in the use of abortion are examined to identify characteristics that contributed to these changing patterns.

Kleiber, Blair Vinson. “Postpartum Depression among Adolescent Mothers: Examining and Treating Low-Income Adolescents with Symptoms of Postpartum Depression.” PhD diss., University of Colorado at Boulder, 2014.

Because both depression and teenage pregnancy emerge during adolescence the author examines conditions correlated with adolescent postpartum depression among low-income adolescent mothers. Perceived stress and anxiety severity were the best predictors of adolescent postpartum depression symptom severity.

Kunaviktikul, Chairat. “ Outcome of Adolescent Pregnancy .” Chiang Mai Medical Journal 26 (1987): 87–97.

A yearlong study (1 January to 31 December 1985) of adolescent pregnancy at the obstetrical unit of Chiang Mai Hospital School in Thailand; some 4.84 percent or 5,336 were adolescent deliveries. Findings show that adolescents experienced more problems related to pregnancy and childbearing than women who were twenty years old or older.

Tahrir, Esther. “Sustaining Advances in Global Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health through Organizational Capacity Building.” In 142nd APHA (American Public Health Association) Annual Meeting and Exposition (15 November–19 November 2014) . APHA, 2014.

Building organizational capacity to improve adolescent sexual and reproductive health is an effective way to initiate and sustain advances in adolescent sexual and reproductive health globally. The role of a youth perspective and of participation in adolescent sexual and reproductive health program development and decision-making is emphasized.

Usta, Ihab M., Dani Zoorob, Antoine Abu-Musa, Georges Naassan, and Anwar H. Nassar. “Obstetric Outcome of Teenage Pregnancies Compared with Adult Pregnancies.” Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 87 (2008): 178–183.

DOI: 10.1080/00016340701803282 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this study from Beirut, adolescent girls more often delivered preterm when compared to older women. Adolescent girls were more likely to experience anemia and pre-eclampsia. Nulliparous girls went into labor quicker than adolescents giving birth to their second child. Overall, teens had comparable maternal and perinatal morbidity.

Wamala, Sarah. “The Impact of Globalization on Maternal and Child Health.” In Maternal & Child Health: Global Challenges, Programs, and Policies . Edited by J. Ehiri, 135–150. Washington, DC: Springer, 2009.

This edited book for the most part addresses issues related to adult maternal and child health care. Several chapters (such as chapter eight) deal with health issues related to all women, including teenage pregnancy. Almost half of all births worldwide are among teens.

Zeck, Willibald, Wolfgang Walcher, Karl Tamussino, and Uwe Lang. “Adolescent Primiparas: Changes in Obstetrical Risk between 1983–1987 and 1999–2005.” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 34 (2008): 195–198.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1447-0756.2007.00688.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors make the argument that adolescent pregnancy is more of a public health and social issue than it is a medical problem. Even so, socioeconomic issues have to be considered when planning and implementing programs to reduce the risks associated with teenage pregnancy.

One of the theoretical perspectives that inform practitioners in their efforts to prevent risky adolescent sexual behavior and pregnancy is the concept of resiliency. East, et al. 2006 identifies the risk and protective factors that differentiate girls who experience an early pregnancy and girls who delay their first pregnancy. This is the type of information that can contribute to the development of policy and services that support a girl’s decision to delay pregnancy and childbirth. Among the protective factors are parents and family. Parents, as Commendador 2010 , explains can be very important in shaping teenage sexual behavior, that is, if the teenager has a parent or surrogate parent who is a positive role model. Tang, et al. 2014 explores protective factors associated with intergenerational parenting. In the public mind, however, teenage pregnancy is a threat to the young mother’s health and has tremendous social costs. Dallas 2009 suggests that the often overlooked factor of whether health care professionals interact or fail to interact in a positive way with adolescent fathers is important in providing care to the adolescent mother. This is related to the review of factors associated with prenatal and postpartum care and health in Sagili, et al. 2012 . The results of this line of research, described by Vesely, et al. 2004 , have clearly shown that in the majority of countries, the outcomes of teenage pregnancy are less positive than the outcomes among young women. Finally, Lyra and Medrado 2014 addresses the positive role that adolescent fatherhood can play if supported. There are educational and health programs for both female and male adolescents that have been shown to increase adolescents’ assets and protective factors.

Commendador, Kathleen A. “Parental Influences on Adolescent Decision Making and Contraceptive Use.” Pediatric Nursing 36 (2010): 147–156.

The numbers of teenage pregnancies began to decline in the 1990s. Even so, the high rate of teenage pregnancy in the United States continues to generate public concern. Partly, this is because the public views adolescent pregnancy as a threat to the young mother’s health and as having serious social costs.

Dallas, Constance M. “Interactions between Adolescent Fathers and Health Care Professionals during Pregnancy, Labor, and Early Postpartum.” Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing 38 (2009): 290–299.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.2009.01022.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a view of how professionals in the health care community interact or fail to interact in a positive way with adolescent fathers. Based on interviews with families of adolescent fathers, the experiences of adolescent fathers during prenatal and postpartum care are examined.

East, Patricia L., Siek Toon Khoo, and Barbara T. Reyes. “Risk and Protective Factors Predictive of Adolescent Pregnancy: A Longitudinal, Prospective Study.” Applied Developmental Science 10 (2006): 188–199.

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This longitudinal study identifies protective factors that reduce the likelihood of pregnancy among at-risk girls. A group of Latina and African American girls between the ages of thirteen and nineteen participated in the study. Strict parenting and low childbearing intentions during early adolescence reduced teenage pregnancy in this study.

Lyra, Jorge, and Benedito Medrado. “Pregnancy, Marriage, and Fatherhood in Adolescents: A Critical Review of the Literature.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 103–128. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

There has been very little published on adolescent fathers. This chapter gives an overview of what is available. Given the desire and potential of adolescent parents, the authors advocate for policies and programs that provide a role for teen fathers.

Sagili, Haritha, N. Pramya, Karthiga Prabhu, Mariano Mascarenhas, and P. Reddi Rani. “Are Teenage Pregnancies at High Risk? A Comparison Study in a Developing Country.” Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics 285 (2012): 573–577.

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This is a comparison between obstetric and perinatal outcome among teen and non-teen pregnancies. Some of the obstetric risks identified in this study supported previous findings while others refuted several long held beliefs about the risks in teenage pregnancy. Early and adequate antenatal care and delivery should improve outcomes.

Tang, Sandra, Pamela E. Davis-Kean, Meichu Chen, and Holly R. Sexton. “Adolescent Pregnancy’s Intergenerational Effects: Does an Adolescent Mother’s Education Have Consequences for Her Children’s Achievement?” Journal of Research on Adolescence (2014).

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Using the adolescent mother’s level of educational attainment, the authors found that their children did not do as well on reading and math measures through the eighth grade when compared to children born to mothers who were not teen moms.

Vesely, Sara K., Vicki H. Wyatt, Roy F. Oman, et al. “The Potential Protective Effects of Youth Assets from Adolescent Sexual Risk Behaviors.” Journal of Adolescent Health 34 (2004): 356–365.

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In this article, five sexual risk behaviors were examined. Non-Parental Adult Role Models, Peer Role Models, Use of Time (Religion), and Future Aspirations reduced the risk of sexual initiation. Peer Role Model and Family Communication increased the use of birth control methods by sexually active youth. Examines the relationship among individual youth assets and adolescent sexual risk behaviors.

Those who view teenage pregnancy as a problem can provide a plethora of research that compares the teen mom to her peers and peers of her children. Studies such as Miller, et al. 2010 highlight the risk of teen pregnancy associated with intimate partner violence, while Chen, et al. 2008 identifies potential links between teenage pregnancy and neonatal and post neonatal mortality. Some of the differences are that the children of teen mothers are more likely to experience poorer health, emotional, and educational outcomes—outcomes that are strongly correlated with poverty, a lack of effective sexual education, experience with domestic violence, and childhood sexual assault. One group at risk of adolescent pregnancy, described by McCoy 2015 , are former foster youth with histories of sexual abuse. And, as Barnet, et al. 2008 shows, risk of a second teen birth adds to these risk factors, depression among teenage mothers. Sipsma, et al. 2010 adds another dimension of risk, a view of the adolescent father. These and other antecedents have been identified and are proposed by Kirby 2002 to be associated with adolescent sexual initiation, the use of contraception, and pregnancy. These and other risk factors result in increased risky sexual behavior and teenage pregnancy. These outcomes have been found in virtually all developed countries and can be observed in varying degrees in the majority of countries worldwide.

Barnet, Beth, Jiexin Liu, and Margo DeVoe. “Double Jeopardy: Depressive Symptoms and Rapid Subsequent Pregnancy in Adolescent Mothers.” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 162 (2008): 246–252.

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This study examined the proposal that depression puts teenage moms at risk for a second pregnancy. Some 269 teenagers, mostly low-income African American girls, participated in the study. Girls who scored high on depression experienced more subsequent pregnancies than girls with lower depression scores.

Chen, Xi-Kuan, Shi Wu Wen, Nathalie Fleming, Qiuying Yang, and Mark C. Walker. “Increased Risks of Neonatal and Post Neonatal Mortality Associated with Teenage Pregnancy Had Different Explanations.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 61 (2008): 688–694.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2007.08.009 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study identifies potential links between teenage pregnancy and neonatal and post neonatal mortality. It is a retrospective cohort study of 4,037,009 nulliparous pregnant girls and women under twenty-five years of age in the United States. Risk associated with neonatal death was for the most part caused by preterm births.

Kirby, Douglas. “Antecedents of Adolescent Initiation of Sex, Contraceptive Use, and Pregnancy.” American Journal of Health Behavior 26 (2002): 473–485.

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The antecedents thought to be associated with adolescent sexual initiation, use of contraceptive, and pregnancy were examined in this study. Antecedents such as adolescent demographics, their partners, peers, families, schools, and communities were among one hundred possible antecedents examined.

McCoy, Jazmine J. “Maternal Perceptions and Pregnancy Experiences of Former Foster Youth with Histories of Sexual Abuse.” PhD diss., Alliant International University, 2015.

This study describes the pregnancy experiences and maternal perceptions of six former foster youth (African American and biracial) teenage mothers with histories of sexual abuse. The purpose was to describe their pregnancy experiences and social support.

Miller, Elizabeth, Michele R. Decker, Anita Raj, Elizabeth Reed, Danelle Marable, and Jay G. Silverman. “Intimate Partner Violence and Health Care-Seeking Patterns among Female Users of Urban Adolescent Clinics.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 14 (2010): 910–917.

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This study looked at the prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) and health care–seeking patterns found among female patients at several adolescent clinics. Recent IPV was found to be prevalent among the girls. Poor health status and lack of medical treatment was significantly higher for girls who experienced IPV.

Sipsma, Heather, Katie Brooks Biello, Heather Cole-Lewis, and Trace Kershaw. “Like Father, Like Son: The Intergenerational Cycle of Adolescent Fatherhood.” American Journal of Public Health 100 (2010): 517–524.

DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2009.177600 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study identified an intergenerational cycle of adolescent fatherhood. The participants were adolescent fathers nineteen years old or younger when their first child was born. Findings reveal that an intergenerational cycle of adolescent fatherhood is a contributing factor to the high rate of adolescent pregnancy in the United States.

Pregnancy prevention programs that have promoted abstinence have been shown to be ineffective. Sexual education starting early in primary school that provides age-appropriate and accurate information on sexuality and sexual behavior provides adolescents and teenagers options when making decisions about sexual behavior. A better term than “preventing teen pregnancy” would be “reduce the causes of teenage pregnancy.” Applying the least harm approach to reducing injury, parents are viewed as a viable resource. Examples of national policy for building state capacity to provide pregnancy prevention programs, as described by Rolleri, et al. 2008 , have been shown to be effective in delaying teenage pregnancy at the macro level. More at the micro level, Lederman, et al. 2008 reports on intervention programs designed to reduce risks at the individual level. On other issues related to pregnancy prevention programming, Daguerre and Nativel 2006 explains why it is in the common interest for the state to support programming for adolescent sexual and health care. One of the major impediments to a more pragmatic approach to pregnancy prevention programming, documented in Irvine 2002 , is the “battle” over sex education in the United States. Kohler, et al. 2008 looks at another strong influence and compares Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education on the age of sexual initiation. Mollborn and Sennott 2014 suggests a unique approach to understanding what norms shape the messages that teens hear about teenage pregnancy. Repeat pregnancies, which need programming to reduce the rate, are described by Crittenden, et al. 2009 , which explores mental health issues; Omar, et al. 2008 examines the impact of comprehensive young parent programming, and Milne and Glasier 2008 describes medical programming. Teenagers are a known at-risk population. Teenage pregnancy is a known risk. It is a situation that should not be ignored or given less attention than other threats to sexual and reproductive health.

Crittenden, Colleen P., Neil W. Boris, Janet C. Rice, Catherine A. Taylor, and David L. Olds. “The Role of Mental Health Factors, Behavioral Factors, and Past Experiences in the Prediction of Rapid Repeat Pregnancy in Adolescence.” Journal of Adolescent Health 44 (2009): 25–32.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.06.003 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study examined salient factors thought to be predictors of rapid repeat pregnancy among urban adolescent girls ( N  = 354)—twelve to nineteen years of age. The findings suggest that adolescent sexual behavior and individual mental health issues related to aggression should be addressed in preventing adolescent repeat pregnancy.

Daguerre, Anne, and Corinne Nativel. When Children Become Parents: Welfare State Responses to Teenage Pregnancy . Bristol, UK: Policy, 2006.

Becoming a teen parent puts one at a considerable disadvantage. It is associated with lower educational attainment and less income over time. This book delineated welfare state services to sexual active teenagers. Countries described are: Denmark, France, United Kingdom, United States, Italy, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Russia, and the province of Quebec.

Irvine, Janice M. Talk about Sex: The Battles over Sex Education in the United States . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

This is a retrospective study on the sexual education debate. Based on a long history of regulating all talk about sex, antagonists have paralyzed sexual education in US public schools. Even in the face of national public support for sexual education, sex education is framed as dangerous and immoral.

Kohler, Pamela K., Lisa E. Manhart, and William E. Lafferty. “Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education and the Initiation of Sexual Activity and Teen Pregnancy.” Journal of Adolescent Health 42 (2008): 344–351.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.026 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The effectiveness of sexual education in the United States continues to be questioned despite research supporting it. In part, the authors of this article suggest that questions about the contribution of sexual education to teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease (STD) persist because there are few epidemiologic evaluations of sexual education.

Lederman, Regina P., Wenyaw Chan, and Cynthia Roberts-Gray. “Parent-Adolescent Relationship Education (PARE): Program Delivery to Reduce Risks for Adolescent Pregnancy and STDs.” Behavioral Medicine 33 (2008): 137–144.

DOI: 10.3200/BMED.33.4.137-144 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The participants in this study were parent-adolescent dyads ( n  = 192) involved in an after-school prevention education program at several southeastern middle schools in Texas. The participants were in either an Interactive Program (IP) where resistance skills were practiced or in a treatment as usual group. Significant differences are discussed.

Milne, Dona, and Anna Glasier. “Preventing Repeat Pregnancy in Adolescents.” Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology 20 (2008): 442–446.

DOI: 10.1097/GCO.0b013e3283086708 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Girls who become pregnant are at a high risk for a repeat pregnancy. Preventing repeated pregnancies is one of the goals of virtually all pregnancy prevention programs. A number of interventions that could be useful in preventing a repeat pregnancy are examined in this article.

Mollborn, Stefanie, and Christie Sennott. “Bundles of Norms about Teen Sex and Pregnancy.” Qualitative Health Research (2014): 1049732314557086.

Using the concept of “norm bundles,” the authors suggest that norm bundles can be used as a succinct measure of related norms that shape the messages teens hear. The authors suggest that the norm bundles concept is relevant to teen pregnancy prevention and policy development.

Omar, Hatim A., A. Fowler, and Karen K. McClanahan. “Significant Reduction of Repeat Teen Pregnancy in a Comprehensive Young Parent Program.” Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 21 (2008): 283–287.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jpag.2007.08.003 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A comprehensive program designed to reduce repeat teenage pregnancy is described. The results were encouraging. Among participants, there was a significant reduction in repeat teen pregnancy over several years.

Rolleri, Lori A., Mary Martha Wilson, Patricia A. Paluzzi, and Valerie J. Sedivy. “Building Capacity of State Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Coalitions to Implement Science-Based Approaches.” American Journal of Community Psychology 41 (2008): 225–234.

DOI: 10.1007/s10464-008-9177-9 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Science-based approaches to pregnancy prevention in adolescent reproductive health stand the best chance of reducing unwanted teenage pregnancies and improving adolescent reproductive health. This article explores effective ways for disseminating research to practitioners that will result in more effective pregnancy prevention programs.

Adolescent abortion is extremely controversial in the United States, as Ely and Dulmus 2008 shows, in part because abortion for all females is controversial. Although legal under federal law, individual state laws have been written and passed that restrict or reduce access to abortion for both adolescents and adult women. In relationship to teenage pregnancy a number of laws require parental involvement and consent before a minor female can receive an abortion. Such laws have resulted in what Tomal 2001 finds is an increase in unwanted childbirth and illegal abortions. A description of a group of girls who requested an abortion is found in Coleman 2006 . Moreover, Donohue, et al. 2009 finds that childbearing declined 20 percent with legal abortion, and Coles, et al. 2010 shows that unintended teen births increase when abortion is restricted. Restricting contraceptive options and abortion in the United States as a strategy to reduce teen pregnancy and childbearing has had the opposite effect. In comparison to countries like France, described by Boonstra 2000 , the United States has some of the most restrictive laws on abortion among developed countries; yet, the United States has among the highest rates of teenage pregnancy, childbearing, and abortion in the developed world. How these laws create circumstances that result in greater risk for the adolescents whom we are trying to protect from risk, educates us. The effect of laws and policies targeting abortion highlight the complexity of teenage pregnancy and childbearing and the possibility for greatly reducing the harm experienced by the teenage mother and her child or children. Yet, Klick and Stratmann 2008 argues that laws requiring parental involvement and consent reduce risky adolescent sexual behavior.

Boonstra, Heather. “Promoting Contraceptive Use and Choice: France’s Approach to Teen Pregnancy and Abortion.” The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 3.3 (June 2000).

This article describes the French policy in 2000 that enabled nurses to offer emergency contraception in public high schools. Although reported in newspapers (for example the New York Times ) that the emergency contraception policy “unleashed a flurry” in France, this article suggests that the policy had strong public support.

Coleman, Priscilla K. “Resolution of Unwanted Pregnancy during Adolescence through Abortion Versus Childbirth: Individual and Family Predictors and Psychological Consequences.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 35 (2006): 903–911.

DOI: 10.1007/s10964-006-9094-x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study examined various demographic, educational, family, and psychological variables that were involved in adolescent abortion. Of seventeen variables only two (risk-taking and the desire to leave home) explained desire to terminate their pregnancy. These teens were more inclined to seek counseling, have problems sleeping, and used marijuana more frequently.

Coles, Mandy S., Kevin K. Makino, Nancy L. Stanwood, Ann Dozier, and Jonathan D. Klein. “How Are Restrictive Abortion Statutes Associated with Unintended Teen Birth?” Journal of Adolescent Health 47 (2010): 160–167.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.01.003 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a study of the impact of mandatory waiting statutes on the unintended births among teenage girls receiving Medicaid. Restrictions in Medicaid accounted for higher rates of unwanted births among African American teens. Among girls identified as white, parent involvement laws increased unwanted births.

Donohue, John J., III, Grogger, Jeffrey, and Steven D. Levitt. “The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Teen Childbearing.” American Law and Economic Review 11 (2009): 24–46.

DOI: 10.1093/aler/ahp006 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

There have been many explanations for the 20 percent decline in teenage childbearing between 1991 and 2002. The authors in this article use birth certificates as data and concluded that legalized abortion for females who became teenagers in the 1990s was one of the reasons for the decline in teenage childbearing.

Ely, Gretchen E., and Catherine N. Dulmus. “A Psychosocial Profile of Adolescent Pregnancy Termination Patients.” Social Work in Health Care 46 (2008): 69–83.

DOI: 10.1300/J010v46n03_04 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study of adolescents who requested an abortion investigated the psychosocial problems of a sample of 120 adolescent girls who requested an abortion from a family planning clinic in the southeastern United States. Scores on the Multidimensional Adolescent Assessment Scale suggest that overall the adolescents were stable and healthy.

Klick, Jonathan, and Thomas Stratmann. “Abortion Access and Risky Sex among Teens: Parental Involvement Laws and Sexually Transmitted Diseases.” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 24 (2008): 2–21.

DOI: 10.1093/jleo/ewm041 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This examination of teenage pregnancy from a legal perspective attempts to explain the impact of parental-involvement laws, which require a parent’s permission before a minor person can request a legal abortion. Based on the decline in gonorrhea rates, the authors concluded that the law did reduce risky sexual behavior.

Tomal, Annette. “The Effect of Religious Membership on Teen Abortion Rates.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 30 (2001): 103–116.

DOI: 10.1023/A:1005229022799 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Religious membership has a restraining effect on teenage abortion rates. Where religiosity is strong the abortion rate is influenced both directly by antiabortion sentiment and indirectly by parental-involvement laws. These laws are enacted in states where there are large numbers of religious residents in the state.

Global Perspective

Teenage pregnancy is not a stagnant condition, nor is it the same issue worldwide. Knowledge of global issues and responses to teenage pregnancy can be extremely instructive. Cherry, et al. 2001 is a first effort to organize profiles of representative countries from different regions around the world and their response to teenage pregnancy. It is a cross-sectional view of countries worldwide that allows for a contextual comparison. Shared knowledge gained from an international perspective provides insight and direction. Catalano, et al. 2012 makes a case that prevention science in adolescent health has developed effective programs that should be implemented worldwide. Inadequate nutrition among girls in some of the developing and many of the least developed nations is a significant problem and is explored as a global gender issue by Wallace, et al. 2006 . In some cultures girls are still not as valued as boys. Haley, et al. 2004 provides an example of efforts to work with stigmatized adolescent girls who have a history of pregnancy. On other global issues, Lawlor and Shaw 2004 points to the sensationalizing of teen pregnancy as the cause of the “global crisis,” while Call, et al. 2002 lays out a practical plan for reaching a goal of global adolescent health and well-being in this century. All aspects of children’s sexual and reproductive health related to physical and emotional development can be effectively managed. Additionally, social trends have been identified and their impact isolated. Growing poverty and income disparities, government instability, changing health care systems, and excluding adolescents from social systems because of pregnancy threatens the future health of adolescents and their children. The inevitable conclusion is that in the 21st century we will need to find strategies and programs to reduce the risk of adolescent sexual experimentation and behavior.

Call, Kathleen T., Aylin A. Riedel, Karen Hein, Vonnie McLoyd, Anne Petersen, and Michele Kipke. “Adolescent Health and Well-Being in the Twenty-First Century: A Global Perspective.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 12 (2002): 69–98.

DOI: 10.1111/1532-7795.00025 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article points out a number of societal trends such as growing poverty and income disparities, government instability, the changing health care system, alienating rather than integrating adolescents into society, and so on, that threaten the future health of adolescents and society as a whole. The impact in the 21st century is discussed.

Catalano, Richard F., Abigail A. Fagan, Loretta E. Gavin, et al. “Worldwide Application of Prevention Science in Adolescent Health.” Lancet 379 (2012): 1653–1664.

DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60238-4 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article describes the principles of prevention science and the role it can play in improving adolescent health. The authors describe effective preventive interventions, challenges, and possible solutions when implementing prevention policy and programming. The authors recommend preventive intervention to reduce the burden of adolescent mortality and morbidity worldwide.

Cherry, Andrew L., Mary E. Dillon, and Douglas Rugh, eds. Teenage Pregnancy: A Global View . Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.

Teenage pregnancy is a worldwide phenomenon. This book explores fifteen countries in different regions of the world to provide a history of teenage pregnancy and how it is viewed both socially and politically in each of the countries. It addresses the question of how different cultures deal with teenage pregnancy.

Haley, Nancy, E. Roy, P. Leclerc, J.-F. Boudreau, and J.-F. Boivin. “Characteristics of Adolescent Street Youth with a History of Pregnancy.” Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 17 (2004): 313–320.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jpag.2004.06.006 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors of this article ask the question: What is the best approach for providing health care for adolescent street girls with a history of pregnancy? Considering histories of sexual abuse and early-age drug injection, there is a critical need to address these issues when providing health services to this group of teen girls.

Lawlor, Debbie A., and Mary Shaw. “Teenage Pregnancy Rates: High Compared with Where and When?” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 97 (2004): 121–123.

DOI: 10.1258/jrsm.97.3.121 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Discusses when teenage pregnancy (among health concerns like cancer, cardiovascular disease, and mental health) was designated a problem requiring targeted interventions; in the case of teenage pregnancy, the reason for political and policy action in large part was because of the media sensationalizing pregnancy among adolescents. The authors explain their reasoning.

Wallace, J. M., J. S. Luther, J. S. Milne, et al. “Nutritional Modulation of Adolescent Pregnancy Outcome: A Review.” Placenta 27 (2006): 61–68.

DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2005.12.002 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article presents data from research in veterinary science to make the point that there are biological reasons for the risks of miscarriage, prematurity, and low birth weight among adolescent girls who become pregnant. The assumptions are based on studies of young female sheep and the effects of early pregnancy.

Rates and programs related to teenage pregnancy from countries around the world are compared to teenage pregnancy in the United States. Not because the United States is an example of how to cope with teenage pregnancy but because the United States is an example of how to develop social policies and programs that often increase teenage pregnancy and the ancillary problems typically associated with a socially constructed problem. Compared to Canada and European countries, the United States has more in common with developing countries in terms of the rate of teenage pregnancy, childbirth, and abortion. In the United States, the response to teen pregnancy varies across states. On a continuum, the states employ programs that vary from programs based on conservative religious models to programs based on public health models. This conceptualization and approach for measuring the response to teen pregnancy allows for the grouping of interventions by the level of conservatism. This knowledge is useful for improving program planning and advocacy. This continuum also is evident among Central and South American countries. de Almeida and Aquino 2009 examines the patterns of pregnancy in Brazil with international trends. The authors make the case that the influence of tradition and religion is still instrumental in shaping teen sexual behavior in the Americas. Much like other developing countries that are evolving from a rural-based economy into urban economic centers, many countries in Central and South America are facing similar challenges faced by policymakers in developed countries. One of the consequences of a lack of adolescent sexual and reproductive health services can be psychological distress, and suicidal behavior. Wilson-Mitchell 2014 explores these behaviors among a group of adolescent Jamaicans. The impact of adolescent mortality during pregnancy is explained by Conde-Agudelo, et al. 2005 as a clash between tradition and modernization. This struggle is played out with all its nuances in how these countries respond to the increase in the rate of teen pregnancy or to the increase in moral outrage by ambitious politicians, conservatives, and religious leaders in their effort to impose a policy of obscurantism related to sexual information and sexual education. Even so, the rate of teenage pregnancy fell in the 1990s. Santelli, et al. 2007 tries to explain the decade-long decline in teenage pregnancy as resulting from abstinence and improved contraceptive use. Santelli and Melnikas 2010 covers “a teen’s fertility in transition.” Issues vary from country to country. Al-Sahab, et al. 2012 describes the characteristics of teen moms in Canada, while Saewyc, et al. 2008 and Saewyc 2014 provide a view of teen pregnancy among gay, lesbian, and bisexual students in British Columbia, Canada. In Mexico, the issues are very basic. Atienzo, et al. 2009 reports on a study there of parent-adolescent communication as a way to reduce unwanted sexual behavior. Perez-Brena, et al. 2015 describes coparenting (mothers and daughters) in Mexico. The quality of the relationship and the adjustment in the relationship are described. Gogna, et al. 2008 describes issues of service and health care needs that are a major focus in Argentina.

Al-Sahab, Ban, Marina Heifetz, Hala Tamim, Yvonne Bohr, and Jennifer Connolly. “Prevalence and Characteristics of Teen Motherhood in Canada.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 16 (2012): 228–234.

DOI: 10.1007/s10995-011-0750-8 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study identified the prevalence and characteristics of adolescent mothers in Canadian provinces and territories. The data revealed that teen mothers compared to older mothers were more likely to have low socioeconomic status, be nonimmigrants, have no partner, reside in the Western Prairies, and have been physically or sexually abused.

de Almeida, Maria da Conceição Chagas, and Estela M. L. Aquino. “The Role of Education Level in the Intergenerational Pattern of Adolescent Pregnancy in Brazil.” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 35 (2009): 139–146.

DOI: 10.1363/3513909 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The findings reported from Brazil are similar to findings from other countries regarding the cause of intergenerational adolescent pregnancy and the effect of educational opportunity. This supports the assumption that while a daughter of a teenage mother is more likely to be a teen mother herself, educational opportunity reduces the chance of early childbearing.

Atienzo, Erika E., Dilys M. Walker, Lourdes Campero, Héctor Lamadrid-Figueroa, and Juan Pablo Gutiérrez. “Parent-Adolescent Communication About Sex in Morelos, Mexico: Does It Impact Sexual Behaviour?” European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 14 (2009): 111–119.

DOI: 10.1080/13625180802691848 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The level of communication between adolescents and their parents about sexual matters has been shown to affect teenage sexual behavior in the United States. This study replicates the protective effect of parent and child communication in Mexico. Improving communication between family members on sexual matters was found to contribute to safer sex practices.

Conde-Agudelo, Agustin, José M. Belizán, and Cristina Lammers. “Maternal-Perinatal Morbidity and Mortality Associated with Adolescent Pregnancy in Latin America: Cross-Sectional Study.” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 192 (2005): 342–349.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.10.593 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study looked at risk associated with adolescent pregnancy in Latin America (Montevideo, Uruguay). Among the findings based on a perinatal information system was that adolescent girls as opposed to young women twenty-five years of age or older were at higher risk of specific adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Gogna, Mónica, Georgina Binstock, Silvia Fernández, Inés Ibarlucía, and Nina Zamberlin. “Adolescent Pregnancy in Argentina: Evidence-Based Recommendations for Public Policies.” Reproductive Health Matters 16 (2008): 192–201.

DOI: 10.1016/S0968-8080(08)31358-5 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study describes characteristics of pregnant and parenting teens in Argentina and their service and health care needs. Improving sexual education to address safer sex and issues related to power relationships was recommended. Best practices endorsed are information and access to contraceptive options and antenatal, postpartum, and postabortion care.

Perez-Brena, Norma J., Kimberly A. Updegraff, Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor, Laudan Jahromi, and Ami Guimond. “Coparenting Profiles in the Context of Mexican-Origin Teen Pregnancy: Links to Mother–Daughter Relationship Quality and Adjustment.” Family Process 54.2 (2015): 263–279.

DOI: 10.1111/famp.12115 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study looks at the multifaceted nature of the relationship between the teen mother and her mother in terms of coparenting of the teen mother’s child. There were three profiles of mother–adolescent coparenting identified. They were “communication, involvement, and conflict.” Implications for these coparenting styles are discussed.

Saewyc, Elizabeth M. “Adolescent Pregnancy among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Teens.” In International Handbook of Adolescent Pregnancy: Medical, Psychosocial, and Public Health Responses . By Andrew Cherry and Mary Dillon, 159–169. New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2014.

This chapter focuses on a rarely explored issue, teen pregnancy among lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB) youth. A growing body of evidence suggests that not only do some LGB adolescents become pregnant or get someone pregnant, they are actually at higher risk for pregnancy involvement than their heterosexual peers.

Saewyc, Elizabeth M., Colleen S. Poon, Yuko Homma, and Carol L. Skay. “Stigma Management? The Links between Enacted Stigma and Teen Pregnancy Trends among Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Students in British Columbia.” Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality 17 (2008): 123–139.

This study focuses on the context in which LGBT adolescent sexuality develops. LGBT youth in Canada and the United States have documented health disparities that have been linked to “enacted stigma.” Trends in teen pregnancy and related sexual behaviors related to stigma are discussed.

Santelli, John S., Laura Duberstein Lindberg, Lawrence B. Finer, and Susheela Singh. “Explaining Recent Declines in Adolescent Pregnancy in the United States: The Contribution of Abstinence and Improved Contraceptive Use.” American Journal of Public Health 97 (2007): 150–156.

DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.089169 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study is another effort to explain the decline in teen pregnancy rates in the United States. Declining sexual activity and improved contraceptive use were used to determine if they explained part of the decline in teen pregnancy rates. The authors attributed 86 percent of the decline to improved contraception.

Santelli, John S., and Andrea J. Melnikas. “Teen Fertility in Transition: Recent and Historic Trends in the United States.” Annual Review of Public Health 31 (2010): 371–383.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090830 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

To explain the decline and then short period of increased teen pregnancy rates (2006–2007), the authors examined historical changes in sexuality, social forces, and public policies that may have influenced teenage fertility. Public policies related to HIV prevention and sexuality education may have also played a role in fertility rates.

Wilson-Mitchell, Karline. “Factors Associated with Adolescent Pregnancy, Psychological Distress, and Suicidal Behavior in Jamaica: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health 59.5 (2014): 552.

DOI: 10.1111/jmwh.12248 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The purpose of the Jamaican Global School-Based Health Survey (2010) was to develop a sociodemographic profile of pregnant Jamaican adolescents and explore the personal experiences of these teens. The survey covered maternal mortality, premature newborns, low birth weight, and low and poor utilization of antenatal health care.

Health targets that have profoundly affected teen pregnancy in a positive way are based on the World Health Organization’s strategies for Europe in 2001 and global strategies articulated in 2004. European countries, particularly those in the European Union, as Moore 2000 and Avery and Lazdane 2008 explain, tend to follow best practices in program development rather than develop programs outlined by Ferguson, et al. 2008 and Selman 2003 that are designed to impose moral, traditional, or religious values on a vulnerable segment of society. Heath care and women’s rights are codified and each country seeking to become a member of the EU is required to sign a treaty and enforce women’s rights. This is extremely important to the sexual and reproductive health of adolescent girls. In one study, Zapata, et al. 2011 reported that pregnancy rates were greater than 70 percent among girls who became sexually active at twelve years old or younger. Examples of programs that have been developed in EU member countries are described by Fronteira, et al. 2009 and Teva, et al. 2009 , which are often compared on effectiveness to US teen sexual behavior programs and outcomes.

Avery, Lisa, and Gunta Lazdane. “What Do We Know about Sexual and Reproductive Health of Adolescents in Europe?” European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 13 (2008): 58–70.

DOI: 10.1080/13625180701617621 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Adolescent sexual and reproductive health is viewed as essential for sustainable development in both developed and developing countries. New reproductive health programs and policies have been developed based on the World Health Organization’s strategies for Europe in 2001 and globally in 2004. Regardless, adolescents still receive poor reproductive health care.

Ferguson, Rebecca M., Ine Vanwesenbeeck, and Trudie Knijn. “A Matter of Facts . . . and More: An Exploratory Analysis of the Content of Sexuality Education in the Netherlands.” Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and Learning 8 (2008): 93–106.

DOI: 10.1080/14681810701811878 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors compare sexual education in the Netherlands, which has one of the lowest rates of teen pregnancy and one of the highest of contraceptive use among adolescents with sexual education in the United States. A content analysis of sexuality education materials in the Netherlands and the United States is discussed.

Fronteira, Ines, Miguel Oliveira da Silva, Vit Unzeitig, Helle Karro, and Marleen Temmerman. “Sexual and Reproductive Health of Adolescents in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Estonia and Portugal.” Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 14 (2009): 215–220.

DOI: 10.1080/13625180902894524 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study examined the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents in four countries in the European Union. Differences between countries indicate that common measurement tools and targets are needed to inform policymakers and service providers about the effectiveness of programs designed to reduce teenage pregnancy and STDs.

Moore, Mary Lou. “Adolescent Pregnancy Rates in Three European Countries: Lessons to Be Learned?” Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing 29 (2000): 355–362.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.2000.tb02057.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This comparison between the Netherlands, France, and Germany and the United States examines factors associated with higher teen pregnancy and abortion rates in the United States. Factors that differentiated the countries were differences in perspective related to sexual education, the rights and responsibilities of adolescents, access to contraceptives, and mass media campaigns.

Selman, Peter. “Scapegoating and Moral Panics: Teenage Pregnancy in Britain and the United States.” In Families and the State: Changing Relationships . Edited by Sarah Cunningham-Burley and Lynn Jamieson, 159–186. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

DOI: 10.1057/9780230522831 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study highlights differences between the rates of teen pregnancy in Britain and the United States and in other mainland European countries. One difference was that in both countries teenage mothers were subjected to hostility from the media and politicians as symbolic of declining morality and the collapse of the traditional family.

Teva, Inmaculada, M. Paz Bermúdez, G. Buela-Casal. “Characteristics of Sexual Behavior in Spanish Adolescents.” Spanish Journal of Psychology 12 (2009): 471–484.

DOI: 10.1017/S1138741600001852 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study describes adolescent sexual behavior in Spain. Among the findings, boys and girls differed regarding sexual partners. Some 63 percent of males compared to 90.5 percent of females had a steady sexual partner. The average number of sexual partners over the last twelve months was slightly higher for boys than girls.

Zapata, Lauren B., Dmitry M. Kissin, Cheryl L. Robbins, et al. “Multi-City Assessment of Lifetime Pregnancy Involvement among Street Youth, Ukraine.” Journal of Urban Health 88 (2011): 779–792.

DOI: 10.1007/s11524-011-9596-z Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The prevalence of risk factors associated with pregnancy among street youth was studied in the Ukraine. Findings reported a significantly elevated pregnancy rate of greater than 70 percent among girls who were initiated into sexual activity at twelve years old or younger, girls who reported lifetime anal sex, and survival sex.

Africa faces some of the most daunting public health problems in the world. Jewkes, et al. 2009 makes the point that to meet the Millennium Development Goals African countries need to reduce teenage pregnancy. This will be difficult in some countries where traditional Muslim religious practices have great sway. In mid-continent African countries like Cameroon, health workers are faced with, as Kongnyuy, et al. 2008 explains, the task of improving fetal outcomes. It is not a question of what works but how to encourage teens to utilize services. Nigeria has a population that is about half Muslim and half Christian with small numbers of Nigerians who adhere to traditional African religions. Okonofua, et al. 2009 studies the problem of unsafe abortions in Africa that result from the unwillingness to address the abortion issue in the face of religious resistance. In another example, Turkey, as described by Canbaz, et al. 2005 , is a nation that has joined the European Union and is working to meet the EU health standards affecting adolescent pregnancy. In this religious context, African nations struggle with some of the most serious public health challenges in the world. Clark, et al. 2006 makes the point that HIV/AIDS has changed the structure of the family in large swaths across Africa. Another important issue in many African countries, reported by Roudi-Fahimi and Monem 2010 , is that for many adolescent girls, the risks of unintended pregnancy they face are often within marriage. Their sexual and reproductive health is threatened because they are child brides. Becoming pregnant before the adolescent is physically mature enough to give birth, vaginal mutilation, and other risks are far too common in many African countries where the political leaders, religious leaders, health professionals, and the public fail to act responsibly in providing for teenage reproductive and sexuality health. To better understand sexual behavior in this region, Plummer, et al. 2004 explains how accurate data help in the design of services to reduce sexually transmitted disease. Toska 2015 explores the pathway between age-disparate sexual relationships, condom use, and adolescent pregnancy in South Africa’. Finally, Macleod and Tracey 2010 delineate efforts in South Africa over ten years to improve the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents in the African context.

Canbaz, Sevgi, Ahmet T. Sunter, Cetin E. Cetinoglu, and Yildiz Peksen. “Obstetric Outcomes of Adolescent Pregnancies in Turkey.” Advances in Therapy 22 (2005): 636–641.

DOI: 10.1007/BF02849957 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study examined obstetric outcomes among adolescents in Samsun, Turkey. Findings show that cesarean sections were about 55 percent. Some 12 percent gave birth to low birth weight infants. Preterm births made up 9.5 percent of deliveries, while 1.7 percent of infants were stillborn. No children were born with congenital deformity.

Clark, Shelley, Judith Bruce, and Annie Dude. “Protecting Young Women from HIV/AIDS: The Case against Child and Adolescent Marriage.” International Family Planning Perspectives 32 (2006): 79–88.

DOI: 10.1363/3207906 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In developed countries the majority of teenage sexual activity is between nonmarried adolescents. In developing countries the majority of teenage sexual activity is among married adolescent girls. The many HIV/AIDS risks faced by these girls, because of their youth and lack of power in the relationship, are described.

Jewkes, Rachel, Robert Morrell, and Nicola Christofides. “Empowering Teenagers to Prevent Pregnancy: Lessons from South Africa.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 11 (2009): 675–688.

DOI: 10.1080/13691050902846452 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

To meet the Millennium Development Goals, every nation will need to reduce its rate of teenage pregnancy. South Africa has struggled with a high rate of teen pregnancy but has reduced the rate substantially since the late 1980s. The programming and interventions that proved effective are discussed.

Kongnyuy, Eugene J., Philip N. Nana, Nelson Fomulu, Shey C. Wiysonge, Luc Kouam, and Anderson S. Doh. “Adverse Perinatal Outcomes of Adolescent Pregnancies in Cameroon.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 12 (2008): 149–154.

DOI: 10.1007/s10995-007-0235-y Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study from Cameroon identifies adverse fetal outcomes associated with adolescent pregnancies. The findings are similar to the findings from other countries. Adolescent pregnancies are associated with both adverse fetal and maternal outcomes in Cameroon. Improving compliance with prenatal care could significantly reduce adverse outcomes in Cameroon.

Macleod, Catriona I., and Tiffany Tracey. “A Decade Later: Follow-Up Review of South African Research on the Consequences of and Contributory Factors in Teen-Aged Pregnancy.” South African Journal of Psychology 40 (2010): 18–31.

DOI: 10.1177/008124631004000103 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article examines research conducted in South Africa on the consequences and factors contributing to teenage pregnancy over ten years. The authors reported that there was an improvement in the data available as a result of several representative national and local surveys. Changes in theoretical issues are also discussed.

Okonofua, Friday E., Afolabi Hammed, Emily Nzeribe, et al. “Perceptions of Policymakers in Nigeria toward Unsafe Abortion and Maternal Mortality.” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 35 (2009): 194–202.

DOI: 10.1363/3519409 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Nigeria like many other developing countries restricts abortion except to save the mother’s life. One consequence of this restrictive law in Nigeria is a high rate of unsafe abortions resulting in death and injury. A survey revealed that policymakers were guided by moral and religious forces not evidence-based approaches.

Plummer, M. L., D. A. Ross, D. Wight, et al. “‘A Bit More Truthful’: The Validity of Adolescent Sexual Behaviour Data Collected in Rural Northern Tanzania Using Five Methods.” Sexually Transmitted Infections 80 (2004): ii49–ii56.

DOI: 10.1136/sti.2004.011924 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a discussion of an effort to check the validity of self-reported sexual behavior data from African adolescents living in rural Tanzania. Participant observation was reported as the most successful approach for gathering and understanding the complexity and the extent of sexually transmitted infection.

Roudi-Fahimi, Farzaneh, and Ahmed Abdul Monem. Unintended Pregnancies in the Middle East and North Africa . Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau, 2010.

In this report, circumstances and context of unintended pregnancies occurring in the Middle East and North Africa are described. An important finding, unintended pregnancies jeopardize the health of many girls and women who have little or no access to contraception or control over their own pregnancies.

Toska, Elona, Lucie D. Cluver, Mark Boyes, Marija Pantelic, and Caroline Kuo. “‘From “Sugar Daddies” to “Sugar Babies”: Exploring a Pathway between Age-Disparate Sexual Relationships, Condom Use, and Adolescent Pregnancy in South Africa’.” Sexual Health (2015).

DOI: 10.1071/sh14089 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study identified factors in South Africa which were associated with adolescent pregnancy, in particular the pathway of risk when there is an age-disparate sexual relationships (having ever had a sexual partner more than five years older).

The Asian and Pacific region is primarily influenced by two different cultures. One culture is Western European, which is best represented by Australia and New Zealand. The more influential culture is Asian. Keep in mind, however, that there is a great deal of variation in culture and tradition within the broader assemblage of countries with Asian-based cultures. Lee, et al. 1997 and Wang, et al. 2007 provide a view of girls in Asian-based cultures who become pregnant. Abortion plays an important role in sexual health services in these cultures. In Vietnam, for example, wars, communist rule and the transition to a capitalistic economy have created numerous challenges for adolescents who become pregnant. Wolf, et al. 2010 outlines the history, culture, and politics of the struggle over abortion services in Vietnam. Japan is very different from the majority of other countries in the region with Asian-based cultures. Nagamatsu, et al. 2008 shows that issues related to teenage pregnancy in Japan are very different. Another country that is unique in the region is India. As Raj, et al. 2009 reports, knowledge about child marriage and its effect on fertility-control outcomes is viewed as essential to dealing with teen pregnancy. Typically, public opinion about sexual education evolves over time. Rawat 2014 provides a good example of a debate over providing basic sex education to students in India. In Australia and New Zealand, as described by Skinner, et al. 2008 , the response to teen pregnancy is more European than that in the United Kingdom or the United States. In the rest of the region, the issues are about contraception availability, delaying sexual initiation, and delaying the first birth. Serquina-Ramiro 2005 discusses the concern over unmarried Filipino adolescents and sexual coercion in adolescent intimate relationships. Finally, looking at this area of the world more broadly, Gubhaju 2002 provides an overview of the challenges to provide adequate adolescent sexual and reproductive health in the Asia and Pacific region.

Graham, Maxine. “Enabling Tertiary Education for Teen Mothers: Organisational Insights.” PhD diss., Auckland University of Technology, 2014.

This model of tertiary education symbolically represents the key themes of “self-attributes” of the teen mother, “stigma,” and “support.” Identification of these factors is used to enable teen mothers (all of whom were of Māori ethnicity) through the transition to tertiary education (New Zealand’s term for education at universities and/or polytechnic level). Gaining a university polytechnic education is closely linked to income and general well-being.

Gubhaju, Bhakta B. “Adolescent Reproductive Health in Asia.” Paper presented at the 2002 IUSSP Regional Population Conference, South-East Asia’s Population in a Changing Asian Context, Bangkok, Thailand, 10–13 June 2002.

This paper delineates reasons for concern about the state of adolescent sexual and reproductive health and reports on programs adopted at the International Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo in 1994. Promoting responsible sexual and reproductive behavior among adolescents was endorsed.

Koranne, Prachi Sauarbh, and Aparna R. Wahane. “Pregnancy in Adolescence: Is It Really a Concern?” Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 13 (2014): 7659–7668.

DOI: 10.14260/jemds/2014/2952 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This is a report on a cross-sectional institution-based study undertaken at a government medical college, Akola in central India, from January 2011 to December 2013. The magnitude of teenage pregnancy, especially among very young and physically immature girls, is presented. Risks and complications faced by these young mothers are described.

Lee, Meng-Chih, Tsung-Hsueh Lu, and Ming-Chih Chou. “Characteristics of Adolescent Pregnancy in Taiwan.” International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 9 (1997): 213–216.

DOI: 10.1515/IJAMH.1997.9.3.213 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In Taiwan, much like in the United States, adolescent pregnancy was a major concern in the 1990s. There was widespread concern among the public and professionals involved in policy development and the delivery of services. Birth rates among girls between fifteen and nineteen years of age were considered high at 17 percent.

Nagamatsu, Miyuki, Hisako Saito, and Takeshi Sato. “Factors Associated with Gender Differences in Parent-Adolescent Relationships That Delay First Intercourse in Japan.” Journal of School Health 78 (2008): 601–606.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00352.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this study, gender differences in parent-adolescent relationships were examined to identify factors that delayed sexual initiation for both boys and girls. The authors report that parental monitoring, parental disapproval of the adolescent’s sexual behavior, parental control, and satisfaction with the parent-adolescent relationship was important in delaying first intercourse.

Raj, Anita, Niranjan Saggurti, Donta Balaiah, and Jay G. Silverman. “Prevalence of Child Marriage and Its Effect on Fertility and Fertility-Control Outcomes of Young Women in India: A Cross-Sectional, Observational Study.” Lancet 373 (2009): 1883–1889.

DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60246-4 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In India, child marriage is viewed as a primary concern related to women’s health and, as such, a barrier to social and economic development in India. Associated with child marriage were no contraceptive use before first childbirth, high fertility, rapid repeat childbirth, multiple unwanted pregnancies, pregnancy terminations, and sterilization.

Raut, Dharmendra, and Amol Patil. “ Study of Comparison of Pregnancy and Foetal Outcome among the Pregnant Adolescent (13-19yrs) and Control (20-25yrs) Groups .” Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 3 (2014): 15374–15380.

DOI: 10.14260/jemds/2014/4072 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study suggests the extent of the risk of adolescent pregnancy in India. Adverse outcomes because of an adolescent pregnancy varied by region and were associated with higher risk of adverse pregnancy and fetal outcomes. The authors suggest that comprehensive adolescent pregnancy programs could be effective.

Rawat, Seema. Is Youth of India Ready for Sex Education? A Study on Opinions towards Sex Education among Adolescent Students, their Parents and Teachers in Mumbai City . 2014.

This study is a good example of a debate over providing basic sex education to students in the state of Maharashtra in India. To determine the support of sexual education, the authors assessed the students’ knowledge of sex, and the attitudes of the adolescents, their parents, and teachers toward sexual education.

Serquina-Ramiro, Laurie. “Physical Intimacy and Sexual Coercion among Adolescent Intimate Partners in the Philippines.” Journal of Adolescent Research 20 (2005): 476–496.

DOI: 10.1177/0743558405275170 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Sexual coercion among unmarried Filipino adolescents was the focus of this study. The results suggest that sexual coercion was common in adolescent intimate relationships. Almost 65 percent reported that they had been involved in a coercive intimate relationship. Some 42 percent of victims were boys and 64.6 percent were girls.

Skinner, S. Rachel, Jennifer Smith, Jennifer Fenwick, Sue Fyfe, and Jacqueline Hendriks. “Perceptions and Experiences of First Sexual Intercourse in Australian Adolescent Females.” Journal of Adolescent Health 43 (2008): 593–599.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.04.017 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A better understanding of the influences on sexual initiation provides information that can help reduce adolescent risk taking behavior. Those who said they were “ready” were more likely to have delayed intercourse until they were ready. Peer norms and intoxication were typical reasons for unwanted sexual initiation.

Wang, Bo, Xiaoming Li, Bonita Stanton, et al. “ Sexual Attitudes, Pattern of Communication, and Sexual Behavior among Unmarried Out-of-School Youth in China .” BMC Public Health 7 (2007): 189.

DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-7-189 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study provides data for China’s prevention and intervention efforts related to reducing risk among out-of-school adolescents engaging in premarital sex. Approximately 60 percent of adolescents surveyed approved of premarital sex. Boys generally did not talk with either parent about sex. One-third of girls talked to their mothers about sexual matters.

Wolf, Merrill, Phan Bich Thuy, Alyson Hyman, and Amanda Huber. “Abortion in Vietnam History: Culture and Politics Collide in the Era of Doi Moi .” In Abortion in Asia: Local Dilemmas, Global Politics . Vol. 20. Edited by Andrea Whittaker, 149–174. New York: Berghahn, 2010.

Culture and politics collide in the era of Doi Moi (renovation). The Vietnamese government’s effort to reduce population growth began in the 1960s. The national family planning program limited families to two children. Contraceptive methods were in short supply. Abortion and IUD’s were the common methods available to most women.

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Home / Essay Samples / Health / Teenage Pregnancy / Teenage Pregnancy: Exploring Causes and Impacts

Teenage Pregnancy: Exploring Causes and Impacts

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