which is not part of developing a research plan

How to write a research plan: Step-by-step guide

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Today’s businesses and institutions rely on data and analytics to inform their product and service decisions. These metrics influence how organizations stay competitive and inspire innovation. However, gathering data and insights requires carefully constructed research, and every research project needs a roadmap. This is where a research plan comes into play.

Read this step-by-step guide for writing a detailed research plan that can apply to any project, whether it’s scientific, educational, or business-related.

• What is a research plan?

A research plan is a documented overview of a project in its entirety, from end to end. It details the research efforts, participants, and methods needed, along with any anticipated results. It also outlines the project’s goals and mission, creating layers of steps to achieve those goals within a specified timeline.

Without a research plan, you and your team are flying blind, potentially wasting time and resources to pursue research without structured guidance.

The principal investigator, or PI, is responsible for facilitating the research oversight. They will create the research plan and inform team members and stakeholders of every detail relating to the project. The PI will also use the research plan to inform decision-making throughout the project.

• Why do you need a research plan?

Create a research plan before starting any official research to maximize every effort in pursuing and collecting the research data. Crucially, the plan will model the activities needed at each phase of the research project .

Like any roadmap, a research plan serves as a valuable tool providing direction for those involved in the project—both internally and externally. It will keep you and your immediate team organized and task-focused while also providing necessary definitions and timelines so you can execute your project initiatives with full understanding and transparency.

External stakeholders appreciate a working research plan because it’s a great communication tool, documenting progress and changing dynamics as they arise. Any participants of your planned research sessions will be informed about the purpose of your study, while the exercises will be based on the key messaging outlined in the official plan.

Here are some of the benefits of creating a research plan document for every project:

Project organization and structure

Well-informed participants

All stakeholders and teams align in support of the project

Clearly defined project definitions and purposes

Distractions are eliminated, prioritizing task focus

Timely management of individual task schedules and roles

Costly reworks are avoided

• What should a research plan include?

The different aspects of your research plan will depend on the nature of the project. However, most official research plan documents will include the core elements below. Each aims to define the problem statement , devising an official plan for seeking a solution.

Specific project goals and individual objectives

Ideal strategies or methods for reaching those goals

Required resources

Descriptions of the target audience, sample sizes , demographics, and scopes

Key performance indicators (KPIs)

Project background

Research and testing support

Preliminary studies and progress reporting mechanisms

Cost estimates and change order processes

Depending on the research project’s size and scope, your research plan could be brief—perhaps only a few pages of documented plans. Alternatively, it could be a fully comprehensive report. Either way, it’s an essential first step in dictating your project’s facilitation in the most efficient and effective way.

• How to write a research plan for your project

When you start writing your research plan, aim to be detailed about each step, requirement, and idea. The more time you spend curating your research plan, the more precise your research execution efforts will be.

Account for every potential scenario, and be sure to address each and every aspect of the research.

Consider following this flow to develop a great research plan for your project:

Define your project’s purpose

Start by defining your project’s purpose. Identify what your project aims to accomplish and what you are researching. Remember to use clear language.

Thinking about the project’s purpose will help you set realistic goals and inform how you divide tasks and assign responsibilities. These individual tasks will be your stepping stones to reach your overarching goal.

Additionally, you’ll want to identify the specific problem, the usability metrics needed, and the intended solutions.

Know the following three things about your project’s purpose before you outline anything else:

What you’re doing

Why you’re doing it

What you expect from it

Identify individual objectives

With your overarching project objectives in place, you can identify any individual goals or steps needed to reach those objectives. Break them down into phases or steps. You can work backward from the project goal and identify every process required to facilitate it.

Be mindful to identify each unique task so that you can assign responsibilities to various team members. At this point in your research plan development, you’ll also want to assign priority to those smaller, more manageable steps and phases that require more immediate or dedicated attention.

Select research methods

Once you have outlined your goals, objectives, steps, and tasks, it’s time to drill down on selecting research methods . You’ll want to leverage specific research strategies and processes. When you know what methods will help you reach your goals, you and your teams will have direction to perform and execute your assigned tasks.

Research methods might include any of the following:

User interviews : this is a qualitative research method where researchers engage with participants in one-on-one or group conversations. The aim is to gather insights into their experiences, preferences, and opinions to uncover patterns, trends, and data.

Field studies : this approach allows for a contextual understanding of behaviors, interactions, and processes in real-world settings. It involves the researcher immersing themselves in the field, conducting observations, interviews, or experiments to gather in-depth insights.

Card sorting : participants categorize information by sorting content cards into groups based on their perceived similarities. You might use this process to gain insights into participants’ mental models and preferences when navigating or organizing information on websites, apps, or other systems.

Focus groups : use organized discussions among select groups of participants to provide relevant views and experiences about a particular topic.

Diary studies : ask participants to record their experiences, thoughts, and activities in a diary over a specified period. This method provides a deeper understanding of user experiences, uncovers patterns, and identifies areas for improvement.

Five-second testing: participants are shown a design, such as a web page or interface, for just five seconds. They then answer questions about their initial impressions and recall, allowing you to evaluate the design’s effectiveness.

Surveys : get feedback from participant groups with structured surveys. You can use online forms, telephone interviews, or paper questionnaires to reveal trends, patterns, and correlations.

Tree testing : tree testing involves researching web assets through the lens of findability and navigability. Participants are given a textual representation of the site’s hierarchy (the “tree”) and asked to locate specific information or complete tasks by selecting paths.

Usability testing : ask participants to interact with a product, website, or application to evaluate its ease of use. This method enables you to uncover areas for improvement in digital key feature functionality by observing participants using the product.

Live website testing: research and collect analytics that outlines the design, usability, and performance efficiencies of a website in real time.

There are no limits to the number of research methods you could use within your project. Just make sure your research methods help you determine the following:

What do you plan to do with the research findings?

What decisions will this research inform? How can your stakeholders leverage the research data and results?

Recruit participants and allocate tasks

Next, identify the participants needed to complete the research and the resources required to complete the tasks. Different people will be proficient at different tasks, and having a task allocation plan will allow everything to run smoothly.

Prepare a thorough project summary

Every well-designed research plan will feature a project summary. This official summary will guide your research alongside its communications or messaging. You’ll use the summary while recruiting participants and during stakeholder meetings. It can also be useful when conducting field studies.

Ensure this summary includes all the elements of your research project . Separate the steps into an easily explainable piece of text that includes the following:

An introduction: the message you’ll deliver to participants about the interview, pre-planned questioning, and testing tasks.

Interview questions: prepare questions you intend to ask participants as part of your research study, guiding the sessions from start to finish.

An exit message: draft messaging your teams will use to conclude testing or survey sessions. These should include the next steps and express gratitude for the participant’s time.

Create a realistic timeline

While your project might already have a deadline or a results timeline in place, you’ll need to consider the time needed to execute it effectively.

Realistically outline the time needed to properly execute each supporting phase of research and implementation. And, as you evaluate the necessary schedules, be sure to include additional time for achieving each milestone in case any changes or unexpected delays arise.

For this part of your research plan, you might find it helpful to create visuals to ensure your research team and stakeholders fully understand the information.

Determine how to present your results

A research plan must also describe how you intend to present your results. Depending on the nature of your project and its goals, you might dedicate one team member (the PI) or assume responsibility for communicating the findings yourself.

In this part of the research plan, you’ll articulate how you’ll share the results. Detail any materials you’ll use, such as:

Presentations and slides

A project report booklet

A project findings pamphlet

Documents with key takeaways and statistics

Graphic visuals to support your findings

• Format your research plan

As you create your research plan, you can enjoy a little creative freedom. A plan can assume many forms, so format it how you see fit. Determine the best layout based on your specific project, intended communications, and the preferences of your teams and stakeholders.

Find format inspiration among the following layouts:

Written outlines

Narrative storytelling

Visual mapping

Graphic timelines

Remember, the research plan format you choose will be subject to change and adaptation as your research and findings unfold. However, your final format should ideally outline questions, problems, opportunities, and expectations.

• Research plan example

Imagine you’ve been tasked with finding out how to get more customers to order takeout from an online food delivery platform. The goal is to improve satisfaction and retain existing customers. You set out to discover why more people aren’t ordering and what it is they do want to order or experience. 

You identify the need for a research project that helps you understand what drives customer loyalty . But before you jump in and start calling past customers, you need to develop a research plan—the roadmap that provides focus, clarity, and realistic details to the project.

Here’s an example outline of a research plan you might put together:

Project title

Project members involved in the research plan

Purpose of the project (provide a summary of the research plan’s intent)

Objective 1 (provide a short description for each objective)

Objective 2

Objective 3

Proposed timeline

Audience (detail the group you want to research, such as customers or non-customers)

Budget (how much you think it might cost to do the research)

Risk factors/contingencies (any potential risk factors that may impact the project’s success)

Remember, your research plan doesn’t have to reinvent the wheel—it just needs to fit your project’s unique needs and aims.

Customizing a research plan template

Some companies offer research plan templates to help get you started. However, it may make more sense to develop your own customized plan template. Be sure to include the core elements of a great research plan with your template layout, including the following:

Introductions to participants and stakeholders

Background problems and needs statement

Significance, ethics, and purpose

Research methods, questions, and designs

Preliminary beliefs and expectations

Implications and intended outcomes

Realistic timelines for each phase

Conclusion and presentations

How many pages should a research plan be?

Generally, a research plan can vary in length between 500 to 1,500 words. This is roughly three pages of content. More substantial projects will be 2,000 to 3,500 words, taking up four to seven pages of planning documents.

What is the difference between a research plan and a research proposal?

A research plan is a roadmap to success for research teams. A research proposal, on the other hand, is a dissertation aimed at convincing or earning the support of others. Both are relevant in creating a guide to follow to complete a project goal.

What are the seven steps to developing a research plan?

While each research project is different, it’s best to follow these seven general steps to create your research plan:

Defining the problem

Identifying goals

Choosing research methods

Recruiting participants

Preparing the brief or summary

Establishing task timelines

Defining how you will present the findings

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

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Do you analyze research data?

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FLEET LIBRARY | Research Guides

Rhode island school of design, create a research plan: research plan.

• Research Plan
• Literature Review
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A research plan is a framework that shows how you intend to approach your topic. The plan can take many forms: a written outline, a narrative, a visual/concept map or timeline. It's a document that will change and develop as you conduct your research. Components of a research plan

1. Research conceptualization - introduces your research question

2. Research methodology - describes your approach to the research question

3. Literature review, critical evaluation and synthesis - systematic approach to locating,

    reviewing and evaluating the work (text, exhibitions, critiques, etc) relating to your topic

4. Communication - geared toward an intended audience, shows evidence of your inquiry

Research conceptualization refers to the ability to identify specific research questions, problems or opportunities that are worthy of inquiry. Research conceptualization also includes the skills and discipline that go beyond the initial moment of conception, and which enable the researcher to formulate and develop an idea into something researchable ( Newbury 373).

Research methodology refers to the knowledge and skills required to select and apply appropriate methods to carry through the research project ( Newbury 374) .

Method describes a single mode of proceeding; methodology describes the overall process.

Method - a way of doing anything especially according to a defined and regular plan; a mode of procedure in any activity

Methodology - the study of the direction and implications of empirical research, or the sustainability of techniques employed in it; a method or body of methods used in a particular field of study or activity *Browse a list of research methodology books  or this guide on Art & Design Research

Literature Review, critical evaluation & synthesis

A literature review is a systematic approach to locating, reviewing, and evaluating the published work and work in progress of scholars, researchers, and practitioners on a given topic.

Critical evaluation and synthesis is the ability to handle (or process) existing sources. It includes knowledge of the sources of literature and contextual research field within which the person is working ( Newbury 373).

Literature reviews are done for many reasons and situations. Here's a short list:

Sources to consult while conducting a literature review:

Online catalogs of local, regional, national, and special libraries

meta-catalogs such as worldcat , Art Discovery Group , europeana , world digital library or RIBA

subject-specific online article databases (such as the Avery Index, JSTOR, Project Muse)

digital institutional repositories such as Digital Commons @RISD ; see Registry of Open Access Repositories

Open Access Resources recommended by RISD Research LIbrarians

works cited in scholarly books and articles

print bibliographies

the internet-locate major nonprofit, research institutes, museum, university, and government websites

search google scholar to locate grey literature & referenced citations

trade and scholarly publishers

fellow scholars and peers

Communication                              

Communication refers to the ability to

• structure a coherent line of inquiry
• communicate your findings to your intended audience
• make skilled use of visual material to express ideas for presentations, writing, and the creation of exhibitions ( Newbury 374)

Research plan framework: Newbury, Darren. "Research Training in the Creative Arts and Design." The Routledge Companion to Research in the Arts . Ed. Michael Biggs and Henrik Karlsson. New York: Routledge, 2010. 368-87. Print.

About the author

Except where otherwise noted, this guide is subject to a Creative Commons Attribution license

source document

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Guide

How to Write a Research Plan

• Research plan definition
• Purpose of a research plan
• Research plan structure
• Step-by-step writing guide

Tips for creating a research plan

• Research plan examples

Research plan: definition and significance

What is the purpose of a research plan.

• Bridging gaps in the existing knowledge related to their subject.
• Reinforcing established research about their subject.
• Introducing insights that contribute to subject understanding.

Research plan structure & template

Introduction.

• What is the existing knowledge about the subject?
• What gaps remain unanswered?
• How will your research enrich understanding, practice, and policy?

Literature review

Expected results.

• Express how your research can challenge established theories in your field.
• Highlight how your work lays the groundwork for future research endeavors.
• Emphasize how your work can potentially address real-world problems.

5 Steps to crafting an effective research plan

Step 1: define the project purpose, step 2: select the research method, step 3: manage the task and timeline, step 4: write a summary, step 5: plan the result presentation.

• Brainstorm Collaboratively: Initiate a collective brainstorming session with peers or experts. Outline the essential questions that warrant exploration and answers within your research.
• Prioritize and Feasibility: Evaluate the list of questions and prioritize those that are achievable and important. Focus on questions that can realistically be addressed.
• Define Key Terminology: Define technical terms pertinent to your research, fostering a shared understanding. Ensure that terms like “church” or “unreached people group” are well-defined to prevent ambiguity.
• Organize your approach: Once well-acquainted with your institution’s regulations, organize each aspect of your research by these guidelines. Allocate appropriate word counts for different sections and components of your research paper.

Research plan example

• Writing a Research Paper
• Research Paper Title
• Research Paper Sources
• Research Paper Problem Statement
• Research Paper Thesis Statement
• Hypothesis for a Research Paper
• Research Question
• Research Paper Outline
• Research Paper Summary
• Research Paper Prospectus
• Research Paper Proposal
• Research Paper Format
• Research Paper Styles
• AMA Style Research Paper
• MLA Style Research Paper
• Chicago Style Research Paper
• APA Style Research Paper
• Research Paper Structure
• Research Paper Cover Page
• Research Paper Abstract
• Research Paper Introduction
• Research Paper Body Paragraph
• Research Paper Literature Review
• Research Paper Background
• Research Paper Methods Section
• Research Paper Results Section
• Research Paper Discussion Section
• Research Paper Conclusion
• Research Paper Appendix
• Research Paper Bibliography
• APA Reference Page
• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography vs Works Cited vs References Page
• Research Paper Types
• What is Qualitative Research

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How to Write an Effective Research Plan: The Ultimate Guide

Some logistical headaches are inevitable. Many can be relieved with a well-structured, well-written, research plan. Heres a go-to reference for crafting one effectively. Words by Nikki Anderson-Stanier, Visuals by Alisa Harvey

When we think about what we love about our work—what excites us, what inspires us, what triggers the next big “a-ha” moment—we rarely think about processes or documentation.

But when we think about what frustrates us about our work—”next steps” that get delayed, projects that feel unfocused, little logistics that hold up our plans—we often blame processes and documentation.

Even if you don’t consistently reference a research plan, it can help ensure your next project goes more smoothly.

This walk-through will teach you how to write a plan in 15 minutes that’ll save you hours of work down the road.

Get our time-saving research plan templates (with a sample plan, and handy walkthrough) for free here.

What do you mean by user research plan? And why do I need one? A user research plan is a concise reference point for your project’s timeline, goals, main players, and objectives. It’s not always used extensively after the project has started. But sometimes youll use it to remind stakeholders of a project’s purpose, or explain certain logistical decisions (like why certain types of participants were recruited).

Overall, research plans offer an overview about the initiative taking place and serve as a kick-off document for a project. Their beauty lies in their capacity to keep your team on track, to ensure overarching goals are well-defined and agreed upon, and to guarantee those goals are met by the research.

Research plans keep the entire team focused on an outcome and provide an easy reference to keep “need-to-know” stakeholders in the know. They prevent everyone from getting bogged down in the details and from switching the goal of the research in the middle by mistake.

Most importantly, they allow researchers—or whoever is doing the research—to ensure the objectives of the research plan will be answered in the most effective and efficient way possible by the end of the project. We want to make sure we are actually answering the questions we set out to uncover, and research plans enable us to do so.

Imagine you’re working as a researcher at an online food ordering service that allows you to order takeaway delivered to your door from restaurants in your area.

One day, a project lands on your desk. A product manager wants to know how to get people to order takeaway more frequently.

After some back and forth, you get a handle on what the product team is hoping to learn. Their goal is to increase retention rates and user satisfaction. They want to know: Why do customers not order more frequently? And how do customers decide what they want to order?

The team wants to have a better overall understanding of the drivers for customer loyalty, and the pain points that prevent customers from becoming loyal to the platform.

With the project in hand, you’re ready to sit down and write a plan. Then you can share the first draft with the product team to ensure you’re interpreting their aims correctly.

The background section is pretty straightforward. It consists of a few sentences on what the research is about and why it is happening, which orients people to needs and expectations. The background also includes a problem statement (the central question you’re trying to answer with the research findings).

We want to understand the reasons behind why certain customers are reordering at a higher frequency, as well as the barriers encountered by customers that prevent them from reordering on the platform (problem statement).

We will be using generative research techniques to explore the journey users take—both inside and outside of our platform, when they decide to order takeaway—in order to better understand the challenges and needs they face in these circumstances.

Objectives are one of the hardest parts of the research plan to write. They’re the specific ideas you want to learn more about during the research and the questions you want to be answered. Essentially, the objectives drive the entire project. So, how do you write them effectively?

First, start with the central problem statement: to understand the reasons behind why certain customers are reordering at a higher frequency, as well as the barriers encountered by customers that prevent them from reordering on the platform.

Our research objectives should address what we want to learn and how we are going to study the problem statement.

A well-crafted research plan is essential for guiding your research project towards success. Whether conducting academic studies or market research for business, having a thoughtful plan sets you up to generate meaningful insights and conclusions

This step-by-step guide will teach you how to write a clear, actionable research plan to keep your project on track.

Define the Core Research Problem

Start by clearly defining the fundamental problem your research aims to address Concisely explain

• What gap in understanding or need for knowledge exists?
• Who is affected by this problem?
• Why is it important to address?

For example, a research problem could be: “Childhood obesity has tripled over the past 30 years. This epidemic needs to be better understood so preventative health programs can be improved.”

Articulating the research problem provides focus and frames the significance of your study. It’s the catalyst for the entire endeavor.

Identify the Research Goals and Objectives

Once the research problem is established, specify your goals and objectives.

The goals are the overarching achievements you hope to accomplish. Common examples are:

• Discover new information about a topic
• Prove or disprove a hypothesis
• Develop solutions to an existing problem

Objectives are the specific aims you will complete to reach the larger goals. For instance:

• Conduct surveys gathering input from 500 patients
• Interview 25 doctors working in related healthcare fields
• Analyze trends in childhood obesity rates across 10 years of CDC data

Well-defined goals and objectives keep the project sharply focused on outcomes that address the research problem. They also establish clear milestones for measuring progress.

Choose the Research Methods

Your objectives point to the specific research methods you’ll use to conduct the study. Outline the techniques you’ll leverage to gather and analyze data.

Common qualitative methods include:

• One-on-one interviews asking open-ended questions
• Focus groups for group discussions
• Observation gathering descriptive field notes
• Case studies examining individuals or events in-depth

Quantitative methods often entail:

• Surveys with closed-ended questions
• Experiments manipulating variables under controlled conditions
• Systematic statistical analysis of numerical datasets

Choose methods that allow you to best answer your research questions with credible, relevant data. Be specific on tools and analytical approaches.

Recruit Research Participants

If your methods involve surveys, interviews, focus groups or other direct interactions with people, outline your participant recruitment plan.

• How many participants you aim to include
• Their key demographic qualifications (e.g. age, gender, location)
• How you will find and screen qualified participants
• Incentives you’ll provide in exchange for their time

Thoughtful recruiting is essential for getting enough participants with characteristics critical to your research goals. Take care to recruit ethically and avoid sampling bias.

Craft an Informative Research Summary

After defining the core elements above, draft a short summary clearly explaining:

• The research problem and goals
• Specific objectives
• Methods for collecting and analyzing data
• Participant recruitment plan
• Anticipated timeline

This high-level summary gives interested parties a quick understanding of the scope before they dive into the details. It’s a valuable part of your research proposal or application.

Build a Detailed Timeline

With goals identified, flesh out a realistic timeline for each phase. Typical steps include:

• Background reading – 2 weeks
• Research method design – 3 weeks
• Participant recruitment – 3 weeks
• Data collection – 5 weeks
• Data analysis – 4 weeks
• Conclusions, results and recommendations – 3 weeks

Schedule time for delays, revisions and unexpected roadblocks. Finishing late can decrease the value of your findings, so leave ample margins.

Tools like GANTT charts help visualize key milestones over the project timeline. Reviewing your timeline often keeps momentum going.

Plan Your Findings Report

It’s never too early to start planning how you’ll share eventual findings. Will you produce a detailed final paper? Present results at a conference? Write an executive summary for sponsors?

Define expected report elements such as:

• Statistical charts and graphs
• Highlights of major discoveries
• Recommendations based on conclusions
• Appendices with raw data or research artifacts

Consider your target audiences and tailor report formats to optimize value for each. How you share discoveries is part of the process.

Write Concisely to Showcase Expertise

Keep language clear, specific and concise throughout your research plan. Avoid excessive jargon that could confuse readers. Show you thoroughly understand the methodology at hand vs. relying on generic descriptions.

A well-written plan quickly establishes you as an expert. It instills confidence in your ability to conduct rigorous research that adds meaningful insights. Sloppy plans raise doubts.

Refine drafts until the plan encapsulates your research aims as succinctly as possible. Precision demonstrates you are ready to skillfully execute.

Emphasize Significance to Secure Support

Take every opportunity to emphasize why your research matters. Explain how it addresses important gaps or problems. Outline the practical applications of expected insights.

Funders won’t invest precious resources without believing useful knowledge will result. Help them visualize the positive impacts on organizations, communities or society at large.

Depending on the project scope, you may need to submit proposals to boards for formal approval. Convince them of merits through articulate planning.

Adjust Expectations as Needed

Research rarely goes exactly according to the initial plan. As work progresses, adjust timelines, methods and goals as needed while keeping the core aims intact.

For example, you may need to revise recruiting criteria to increase participation. Or new discoveries mid-project might lead to adding interviews for richer data.

View your plan as a guiding framework rather than unbreakable contract. Stay nimble and adaptable, but don’t lose sight of the end goalposts.

Maintain Momentum With Project Management

Throughout execution, diligently track progress against your plan. Tools like Asana, Trello and Excel help you:

• Manage timelines with reminders for upcoming milestones
• Update stakeholders on project status
• Prioritize next actions and mark items complete
• Identify any roadblocks or resource gaps

Think of your plan as a working document. Referring to it often drives momentum and keeps efforts aligned.

Celebrate Hitting Major Milestones

Research requires intense focus and persistence. But don’t forget to celebrate progress along the way.

Take time to recognize when you complete:

• Secondary objectives like finishing initial interviews
• Primary goals like collecting all survey data
• The final report compiling all insights

Acknowledging wins motivates you through slogs. Share updates with colleagues and sponsors to maintain engagement.

Careful planning sets you up to generate research that provides true value. Avoid underplanning and risk wasting significant time. Overplanning wastes energy better directed elsewhere.

Finding the right balance takes practice across projects. Use this guide to build rigorous plans that steer impactful research delivering meaningful results.

Interested in more articles like this?

Nikki Anderson-Stanier is the founder of User Research Academy and a qualitative researcher with 9 years in the field. She loves solving human problems and petting all the dogs.

Bad versus better objectives:

Here are some additional examples I have generated in order to exemplify good versus bad objectives.

Bad: Understand why participants order food.

Better: Understand the end-to-end journey of how and why participants choose to order food online.

Why: “Understand why participants order food” is still too broad. It feels more like a problem statement that you’d want to break down into further objectives. You haven’t set a direction or boundaries.

Bad: Find out how to get participants to order food online.

Better: Uncover participants’ thought processes and prior experiences behind ordering food online.

Why: Trying to learn how to make someone do something is a challenging perspective with which to go into research. How would we ask good questions to get that information?

We are more interested in seeing what their thought process is behind the process, and if/why they have done so in the past. That’s a better foundation to build from.

Bad: Find out why people use Postmates to order food.

Better: Discover the different tools participants use when deciding to order food, and how they feel about each tool

Why: This could be helpful if Postmates is a tool your users frequently use instead of your platform, and you’re setting out to do a competitive analysis.

However, in this case, we’re doing generative research—defined by the product team’s needs and the plan’s background statement.

So in this case, it’s more useful to rely on the research to uncover what kinds of other tools are used. Otherwise, you’re hyper-focused and might miss other opportunities to explore.

Now that we’ve defined our problem statements and objectives, it’s time to define the type of participants we’ll rely on to get the insights we need.

One of the most important elements to any project is talking to the right people. If you don’t have a set vision for who you want to recruit, approximate your user, and include that approximation in your plan.

This will help optimize recruiting efforts to ensure you have the best participants you need for your study. Here are a few ways to approach this:

Bring in internal stakeholders that may have a good idea of what the target user will look like (such as marketing, sales, and customer support). With these stakeholders you can create hypotheses about who your users are, which is a great starting point for who you should be talking to.

Recruit based on their audiences. You can even recruit people who use the competitors product and, during the interview, ask them how they would make it better.

This will get you the participants you need.

• Is there a particular behavior you are looking for (such as ordered takeout X# amount of times in the past three months)?
• Is it necessary they have used your product (or a competitor’s product)?
• Do they need to be a certain age or hold a certain professional title?

Make sure you include the right criteria in order to evaluate whether or not that person would be your target participant.

It’s often useful to attach your screener questions to this part of the plan.

Compared to the others, this step is fairly easy. In this section, talk briefly about the chosen methodology and the reasons behind why that particular method was chosen.

Example methodology

For this study, we’re using one-on-one generative research interviews. This method will enable us to dig deeper into understanding our customers, fostering a strong sense of empathy and enabling us to answer our objectives.

If you’ll be talking to your users in real time, an interview guide is a valuable cheat sheet. It reminds you of which questions will help you meet your objectives, and can keep your discussions on track.

If you’re doing longitudinal or unmoderated research—like unmoderated usability testing, or a diary study—your interview guide might include the exact prompts or triggers you’ll be sending your participants to complete.

Even if you don’t actively refer to your interview guide, writing one ensures everyone else on the team has a place to input their questions. And if you’re outlining questions or prompts for unmoderated research, making those questions public for reference gives your team a chance to alert you if something is unclear.

For moderated research, my interview guides consist of the following sections:

The introduction details what you will say to the participant before the session begins, and serves as a nice preview of all the different points you’ll be discussing. It’s especially helpful if you are nervous about going into a session.

Example introduction

Hi there, I’m Nikki, a user researcher at a takeaway delivery company. Thank you so much for talking with me today. I am really excited to have a conversation with you!

During this session, we are looking to better understand what makes you order food from our service. Imagine were filming a small documentary on you, and are really trying to understand all your thoughts. There are no right or wrong answers, so please just talk freely, and I promise we will find it fascinating.

This session should take about 60 minutes. If you feel uncomfortable at any time or need to stop/take a break, just let me know. Everything you say here today will be completely confidential.

Would it be okay if we recorded today’s session for internal notetaking purposes? Do you have any questions for me? Let’s get started!

This portion of the interview guide is the trickiest to write. In this section, we’re writing down some of the open-ended questions we want to ask users during the session.

For most types of qual research, you won’t always have a long list of detailed questions, since it’s more of a conversation than an interview. But readying a few open-ended questions you can then follow up on can serve as useful prep.

Pro tip: Questions to avoid in your interviews and interview guides

• Priming users – Forces the user to answer in a particular way
• Leading questions – May prohibit the user from exploring a different avenue
• Asking about future behavior – Instead of focusing on the past/present
• Double-barreled questions – Asking two questions in one sentence
• Yes/no questions – Ends the conversation. Instead, we focus on open-ended questions

Examples of priming/leading questions:

• Priming: “How much do you like being able to order takeaway online?”
• Leading: “Could you show me how you would reorder the same order by clicking on the button?”

I always outline my interview guide questions with the TEDW approach. TEDW stands for the following structures:

• “ T ell me…”
• “ E xplain….”
• “ D escribe….”
• “ W alk me through….”

Beyond that, one cool trick for question generation is to use your research objectives. Your questions should be able to give you insights that answer your objectives.

So when you ask a participant a question, it is ultimately answering one of the objectives. Turn each objective into 3–5 questions.

So, let’s take our central research problem and objectives and form some research questions.

Central research problem: To understand the reasons behind why certain customers are reordering at a higher frequency, as well as the barriers encountered by customers that prevent them from reordering on the platform.

• Discover users’ motivations behind reordering, both inside and outside of the website/app
• Uncover other websites/apps customers are using to order takeaway
• Learn about any pain points users are encountering during their process, and what improvements they might make

Research questions

Objective 1: Discover users’ motivations behind reordering, both inside and outside of the website/app

• Think about the last time you ordered takeaway on our website/app. Walk me through the entire process, starting with what sparked the idea.
• Explain how you made the decision to reorder food on our particular website/app.
• Who were you talking to?
• What time of day was it?
• How were you feeling?
• Did you have other websites/apps open?

Objective 2: Learn about any pain points users are encountering during their process, and what improvements they might make.

• How did you solve the problem?
• What would be the most ideal scenario for reordering takeaway from the website/app (crazy ideas included!)?
• How would you change or improve the process of reordering food outside of our website/app? Inside our website/app?

Objective 3: Uncover other websites/apps customers are using to order takeaway.

• Talk me through the other websites/apps you have used multiple to order takeaway (or even groceries).
• Describe your experience with these other websites/apps.
• What are the other websites/apps you use to help you make a decision about whether or not to order takeaway?

Each of these research questions is a jumping off point for a more open conversation. They get at the core of your objectives, which in turn gets to the core of the central problem you’re trying to solve.

The wrap-up is a reminder of all the items to mention during the end of an interview. Generally, you cover information such as compensation, asking if they would be interested in future research, and assuring them that you’re thankful for their time.

Example wrap up

Those are all the questions I have for you today. I really appreciate you taking the time. Your feedback was extremely helpful, and I am excited to share it with the team to see how we can improve.

Since your feedback was so useful, would you be willing to participate in another research session in the future? You have my direct email, so if you have any problems with the compensation or any questions or feedback in the future, please feel free to email me at any time.

Do you have any other questions for me? Again, thank you so much for your time and I hope you enjoy the rest of your day!

I place an approximate timeline in my research plans, so people know what to expect for start and end dates.

Some researchers stay away from this timeline, as it can solidify a deadline that may prove more difficult to meet than expected. I always stress that it is a basic approximation.

Example timeline

• Research start date: Monday, August 5th
• Research plan creation and review: Wednesday, August 7th
• Recruitment begins: Thursday, August 8th
• Interviewing begins: Thursday, August 15th
• Interviewing ends: Friday, August 23rd
• Synthesis begins: Monday, August 26th
• Synthesis ends: Wednesday, August 28th
• Report presentation: Friday, August 30th

In this section, I make sure it’s easy for everyone to find:

• Links to the research sessions
• Any synthesis documents
• The presentation
• Any development/design tickets, prototypes or concepts
• Any follow-up information which would give context to the study

Your user research plan is your research project in miniature. It’s the simplest way to align expectations, solicit feedback, and generate enthusiasm and support for your study.

Whether it actively guides your interviews, or just provides an active structure for organizing your thoughts, a solid research plan can go a long way towards guaranteeing a solid research project.

How to Write a Successful Research Proposal | Scribbr

What is a research plan?

A research plan is a documented overview of a project in its entirety, from end to end. It details the research efforts, participants, and methods needed, along with any anticipated results. It also outlines the project’s goals and mission, creating layers of steps to achieve those goals within a specified timeline.

How do I create a research plan for my project?

The first step to creating a research plan for your project is to define why and what you’re researching. Regardless of whether you’re working with a team or alone, understanding the project’s purpose can help you better define project goals.

How to write a research proposal?

A research proposal adheres to a clear and logical structure that ensures your project’s effectiveness. In the research plan structure, consider organizing its core components as in the following outline. Often referred to as the ‘need for study’ or ‘abstract,’ the introduction serves as the initial platform for your idea.

What makes a good research plan?

There’s general research planning; then there’s an official, well-executed research plan. Whatever data-driven research project you’re gearing up for, the research plan will be your framework for execution. The plan should also be detailed and thorough, with a diligent set of criteria to formulate your research efforts.

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Write Your Research Plan

In this part, we give you detailed information about writing an effective Research Plan. We start with the importance and parameters of significance and innovation.

We then discuss how to focus the Research Plan, relying on the iterative process described in the Iterative Approach to Application Planning Checklist shown at Draft Specific Aims  and give you advice for filling out the forms.

You'll also learn the importance of having a well-organized, visually appealing application that avoids common missteps and the importance of preparing your just-in-time information early.

While this document is geared toward the basic research project grant, the R01, much of it is useful for other grant types.

Table of Contents

Research plan overview and your approach, craft a title, explain your aims, research strategy instructions, advice for a successful research strategy, graphics and video, significance, innovation, and approach, tracking for your budget, preliminary studies or progress report, referencing publications, review and finalize your research plan, abstract and narrative.

Your application's Research Plan has two sections:

• Specific Aims —a one-page statement of your objectives for the project.
• Research Strategy —a description of the rationale for your research and your experiments in 12 pages for an R01.

In your Specific Aims, you note the significance and innovation of your research; then list your two to three concrete objectives, your aims.

Your Research Strategy is the nuts and bolts of your application, where you describe your research rationale and the experiments you will conduct to accomplish each aim. Though how you organize it is largely up to you, NIH expects you to follow these guidelines.

• Organize using bold headers or an outline or numbering system—or both—that you use consistently throughout.
• Start each section with the appropriate header: Significance, Innovation, or Approach.
• Organize the Approach section around your Specific Aims.

Format of Your Research Plan

To write the Research Plan, you don't need the application forms. Write the text in your word processor, turn it into a PDF file, and upload it into the application form when it's final.

Because NIH may return your application if it doesn't meet all requirements, be sure to follow the rules for font, page limits, and more. Read the instructions at NIH’s Format Attachments .

For an R01, the Research Strategy can be up to 12 pages, plus one page for Specific Aims. Don't pad other sections with information that belongs in the Research Plan. NIH is on the lookout and may return your application to you if you try to evade page limits.

Follow Examples

As you read this page, look at our Sample Applications and More  to see some of the different strategies successful PIs use to create an outstanding Research Plan.

Keeping It All In Sync

Writing in a logical sequence will save you time.

Information you put in the Research Plan affects just about every other application part. You'll need to keep everything in sync as your plans evolve during the writing phase.

It's best to consider your writing as an iterative process. As you develop and finalize your experiments, you will go back and check other parts of the application to make sure everything is in sync: the "who, what, when, where, and how (much money)" as well as look again at the scope of your plans.

In that vein, writing in a logical sequence is a good approach that will save you time. We suggest proceeding in the following order:

• Create a provisional title.
• Write a draft of your Specific Aims.
• Start with your Significance and Innovation sections.
• Then draft the Approach section considering the personnel and skills you'll need for each step.
• Evaluate your Specific Aims and methods in light of your expected budget (for a new PI, it should be modest, probably under the $250,000 for NIH's modular budget).
• As you design experiments, reevaluate your hypothesis, aims, and title to make sure they still reflect your plans.
• Prepare your Abstract (a summary of your Specific Aims).
• Complete the other forms.

Even the smaller sections of your application need to be well-organized and readable so reviewers can readily grasp the information. If writing is not your forte, get help.

To view writing strategies for successful applications, see our Sample Applications and More . There are many ways to create a great application, so explore your options.

Within the character limit, include the important information to distinguish your project within the research area, your project's goals, and the research problem.

Giving your project a title at the outset can help you stay focused and avoid a meandering Research Plan. So you may want to launch your writing by creating a well-defined title.

NIH gives you a 200 character limit, but don’t feel obliged to use all of that allotment. Instead, we advise you to keep the title as succinct as possible while including the important information to distinguish your project within the research area. Make your title reflect your project's goals, the problem your project addresses, and possibly your approach to studying it. Make your title specific: saying you are studying lymphocyte trafficking is not informative enough.

For examples of strong titles, see our Sample Applications and More .

After you write a preliminary title, check that

• My title is specific, indicating at least the research area and the goals of my project.
• It is 200 characters or less.
• I use as simple language as possible.
• I state the research problem and, possibly, my approach to studying it.
• I use a different title for each of my applications. (Note: there are exceptions, for example, for a renewal—see Apply for Renewal  for details.)
• My title has appropriate keywords.

Later you may want to change your initial title. That's fine—at this point, it's just an aid to keep your plans focused.

Since all your reviewers read your Specific Aims, you want to excite them about your project.

If testing your hypothesis is the destination for your research, your Research Plan is the map that takes you there.

You'll start by writing the smaller part, the Specific Aims. Think of the one-page Specific Aims as a capsule of your Research Plan. Since all your reviewers read your Specific Aims, you want to excite them about your project.

For more on crafting your Specific Aims, see Draft Specific Aims .

Write a Narrative

Use at least half the page to provide the rationale and significance of your planned research. A good way to start is with a sentence that states your project's goals.

For the rest of the narrative, you will describe the significance of your research, and give your rationale for choosing the project. In some cases, you may want to explain why you did not take an alternative route.

Then, briefly describe your aims, and show how they build on your preliminary studies and your previous research. State your hypothesis.

If it is likely your application will be reviewed by a study section with broad expertise, summarize the status of research in your field and explain how your project fits in.

In the narrative part of the Specific Aims of many outstanding applications, people also used their aims to

• State the technologies they plan to use.
• Note their expertise to do a specific task or that of collaborators.
• Describe past accomplishments related to the project.
• Describe preliminary studies and new and highly relevant findings in the field.
• Explain their area's biology.
• Show how the aims relate to one another.
• Describe expected outcomes for each aim.
• Explain how they plan to interpret data from the aim’s efforts.
• Describe how to address potential pitfalls with contingency plans.

Depending on your situation, decide which items are important for you. For example, a new investigator would likely want to highlight preliminary data and qualifications to do the work.

Many people use bold or italics to emphasize items they want to bring to the reviewers' attention, such as the hypothesis or rationale.

Detail Your Aims

After the narrative, enter your aims as bold bullets, or stand-alone or run-on headers.

• State your plans using strong verbs like identify, define, quantify, establish, determine.
• Describe each aim in one to three sentences.
• Consider adding bullets under each aim to refine your objectives.

How focused should your aims be? Look at the example below.

Spot the Sample

Read the Specific Aims of the Application from Drs. Li and Samulski , "Enhance AAV Liver Transduction with Capsid Immune Evasion."

• Aim 1. Study the effect of adeno-associated virus (AAV) empty particles on AAV capsid antigen cross-presentation in vivo .
• Aim 2. Investigate AAV capsid antigen presentation following administration of AAV mutants and/or proteasome inhibitors for enhanced liver transduction in vivo .
• Aim 3. Isolate AAV chimeric capsids with human hepatocyte tropism and the capacity for cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) evasion.

After finishing the draft Specific Aims, check that

• I keep to the one-page limit.
• Each of my two or three aims is a narrowly focused, concrete objective I can achieve during the grant.
• They give a clear picture of how my project can generate knowledge that may improve human health.
• They show my project's importance to science, how it addresses a critical research opportunity that can move my field forward.
• My text states how my work is innovative.
• I describe the biology to the extent needed for my reviewers.
• I give a rationale for choosing the topic and approach.
• I tie the project to my preliminary data and other new findings in the field.
• I explicitly state my hypothesis and why testing it is important.
• My aims can test my hypothesis and are logical.
• I can design and lead the execution of two or three sets of experiments that will strive to accomplish each aim.
• As much as possible, I use language that an educated person without expertise can understand.
• My text has bullets, bolding, or headers so reviewers can easily spot my aims (and other key items).

For each element listed above, analyze your text and revise it until your Specific Aims hit all the key points you'd like to make.

After the list of aims, some people add a closing paragraph, emphasizing the significance of the work, their collaborators, or whatever else they want to focus reviewers' attention on.

Your Research Strategy is the bigger part of your application's Research Plan (the other part is the Specific Aims—discussed above.)

The Research Strategy is the nuts and bolts of your application, describing the rationale for your research and the experiments you will do to accomplish each aim. It is structured as follows:

• Significance
• You can either include this information as a subsection of Approach or integrate it into any or all of the three main sections.
• If you do the latter, be sure to mark the information clearly, for example, with a bold subhead.
• Possible other sections, for example, human subjects, vertebrate animals, select agents, and others (these do not count toward the page limit).

Though how you organize your application is largely up to you, NIH does want you to follow these guidelines:

• Add bold headers or an outlining or numbering system—or both—that you use consistently throughout.
• Start each of the Research Strategy's sections with a header: Significance, Innovation, and Approach.

For an R01, the Research Strategy is limited to 12 pages for the three main sections and the preliminary studies only. Other items are not included in the page limit.

Find instructions for R01s in the SF 424 Application Guide—go to NIH's SF 424 (R&R) Application and Electronic Submission Information for the generic SF 424 Application Guide or find it in your notice of funding opportunity (NOFO).

For most applications, you need to address Rigor and Reproducibility by describing the experimental design and methods you propose and how they will achieve robust and unbiased results. The requirement applies to research grant, career development, fellowship, and training applications.

If you're responding to an institute-specific program announcement (PA) (not a parent program announcement) or a request for applications (RFA), check the NIH Guide notice, which has additional information you need. Should it differ from the NOFO, go with the NIH Guide .

Also note that your application must meet the initiative's objectives and special requirements. NIAID program staff will check your application, and if it is not responsive to the announcement, your application will be returned to you without a review.

When writing your Research Strategy, your goal is to present a well-organized, visually appealing, and readable description of your proposed project. That means your writing should be streamlined and organized so your reviewers can readily grasp the information. If writing is not your forte, get help.

There are many ways to create an outstanding Research Plan, so explore your options.

What Success Looks Like

Your application's Research Plan is the map that shows your reviewers how you plan to test your hypothesis.

It not only lays out your experiments and expected outcomes, but must also convince your reviewers of your likely success by allaying any doubts that may cross their minds that you will be able to conduct the research.

Notice in the sample applications how the writing keeps reviewers' eyes on the ball by bringing them back to the main points the PIs want to make. Write yourself an insurance policy against human fallibility: if it's a key point, repeat it, then repeat it again.

The Big Three

So as you write, put the big picture squarely in your sights. When reviewers read your application, they'll look for the answers to three basic questions:

• Can your research move your field forward?
• Is the field important—will progress make a difference to human health?
• Can you and your team carry out the work?

Add Emphasis

Savvy PIs create opportunities to drive their main points home. They don't stop at the Significance section to emphasize their project's importance, and they look beyond their biosketches to highlight their team's expertise.

Don't take a chance your reviewer will gloss over that one critical sentence buried somewhere in your Research Strategy or elsewhere. Write yourself an insurance policy against human fallibility: if it's a key point, repeat it, then repeat it again.

Add more emphasis by putting the text in bold, or bold italics (in the modern age, we skip underlining—it's for typewriters).

Here are more strategies from our successful PIs:

• While describing a method in the Approach section, they state their or collaborators' experience with it.
• They point out that they have access to a necessary piece of equipment.
• When explaining their field and the status of current research, they weave in their own work and their preliminary data.
• They delve into the biology of the area to make sure reviewers will grasp the importance of their research and understand their field and how their work fits into it.

You can see many of these principles at work in the Approach section of the Application from Dr. William Faubion , "Inflammatory cascades disrupt Treg function through epigenetic mechanisms."

• Reviewers felt that the experiments described for Aim 1 will yield clear results.
• The plans to translate those findings to gene targets of relevance are well outlined and focused.
• He ties his proposed experiments to the larger picture, including past research and strong preliminary data for the current application. 

Anticipate Reviewer Questions

Our applicants not only wrote with their reviewers in mind they seemed to anticipate their questions. You may think: how can I anticipate all the questions people may have? Of course you can't, but there are some basic items (in addition to the "big three" listed above) that will surely be on your reviewers' minds:

• Will the investigators be able to get the work done within the project period, or is the proposed work over ambitious?
• Did the PI describe potential pitfalls and possible alternatives?
• Will the experiments generate meaningful data?
• Could the resulting data prove the hypothesis?
• Are others already doing the work, or has it been already completed?

Address these questions; then spend time thinking about more potential issues specific to you and your research—and address those too.

For applications, a picture can truly be worth a thousand words. Graphics can illustrate complex information in a small space and add visual interest to your application.

Look at our sample applications to see how the investigators included schematics, tables, illustrations, graphs, and other types of graphics to enhance their applications.

Consider adding a timetable or flowchart to illustrate your experimental plan, including decision trees with alternative experimental pathways to help your reviewers understand your plans.

Plan Ahead for Video

If you plan to send one or more videos, you'll need to meet certain standards and include key information in your Research Strategy now.

To present some concepts or demonstrations, video may enhance your application beyond what graphics alone can achieve. However, you can't count on all reviewers being able to see or hear video, so you'll want to be strategic in how you incorporate it into your application.

Be reviewer-friendly. Help your cause by taking the following steps:

• Caption any narration in the video.
• Choose evocative still images from your video to accompany your summary.
• Write your summary of the video carefully so the text would make sense even without the video.

In addition to those considerations, create your videos to fit NIH’s technical requirements. Learn more in the SF 424 Form Instructions .

Next, as you write your Research Strategy, include key images from the video and a brief description.

Then, state in your cover letter that you plan to send video later. (Don't attach your files to the application.)

After you apply and get assignment information from the Commons, ask your assigned scientific review officer (SRO) how your business official should send the files. Your video files are due at least one month before the peer review meeting.

Know Your Audience's Perspective

The primary audience for your application is your peer review group. Learn how to write for the reviewers who are experts in your field and those who are experts in other fields by reading Know Your Audience .

Be Organized: A B C or 1 2 3?

In the top-notch applications we reviewed, organization ruled but followed few rules. While you want to be organized, how you go about it is up to you.

Nevertheless, here are some principles to follow:

• Start each of the Research Strategy's sections with a header: Significance, Innovation, and Approach—this you must do.

The Research Strategy's page limit—12 for R01s—is for the three main parts: Significance, Innovation, and Approach and your preliminary studies (or a progress report if you're renewing your grant). Other sections, for example, research animals or select agents, do not have a page limit.

Although you will emphasize your project's significance throughout the application, the Significance section should give the most details. Don't skimp—the farther removed your reviewers are from your field, the more information you'll need to provide on basic biology, importance of the area, research opportunities, and new findings.

When you describe your project's significance, put it in the context of 1) the state of your field, 2) your long-term research plans, and 3) your preliminary data.

In our Sample Applications , you can see that both investigators and reviewers made a case for the importance of the research to improving human health as well as to the scientific field.

Look at the Significance section of the Application from Dr. Mengxi Jiang , "Intersection of polyomavirus infection and host cellular responses," to see how these elements combine to make a strong case for significance.

• Dr. Jiang starts with a summary of the field of polyomavirus research, identifying critical knowledge gaps in the field.
• The application ties the lab's previous discoveries and new research plans to filling those gaps, establishing the significance with context.
• Note the use of formatting, whitespace, and sectioning to highlight key points and make it easier for reviewers to read the text.

After conveying the significance of the research in several parts of the application, check that

• In the Significance section, I describe the importance of my hypothesis to the field (especially if my reviewers are not in it) and human disease.
• I also point out the project's significance throughout the application.
• The application shows that I am aware of opportunities, gaps, roadblocks, and research underway in my field.
• I state how my research will advance my field, highlighting knowledge gaps and showing how my project fills one or more of them.
• Based on my scan of the review committee roster, I determine whether I cannot assume my reviewers will know my field and provide some information on basic biology, the importance of the area, knowledge gaps, and new findings.

If you are either a new PI or entering a new area: be cautious about seeming too innovative. Not only is innovation just one of five review criteria, but there might be a paradigm shift in your area of science. A reviewer may take a challenge to the status quo as a challenge to his or her world view.

When you look at our sample applications, you see that both the new and experienced investigators are not generally shifting paradigms. They are using new approaches or models, working in new areas, or testing innovative ideas.

After finishing the draft innovation section, check that

• I show how my proposed research is new and unique, e.g., explores new scientific avenues, has a novel hypothesis, will create new knowledge.
• Most likely, I explain how my project's research can refine, improve, or propose a new application of an existing concept or method.
• Make a very strong case for challenging the existing paradigm.
• Have data to support the innovative approach.
• Have strong evidence that I can do the work.

In your Approach, you spell out a few sets of experiments to address each aim. As we noted above, it's a good idea to restate the key points you've made about your project's significance, its place in your field, and your long-term goals.

You're probably wondering how much detail to include.

If you look at our sample applications as a guide, you can see very different approaches. Though people generally used less detail than you'd see in a scientific paper, they do include some experimental detail.

Expect your assigned reviewers to scrutinize your approach: they will want to know what you plan to do and how you plan to do it.

NIH data show that of the peer review criteria, approach has the highest correlation with the overall impact score.

Look at the Application from Dr. Mengxi Jiang , "Intersection of polyomavirus infection and host cellular responses," to see how a new investigator handled the Approach section.

For an example of an experienced investigator's well-received Approach section, see the Application from Dr. William Faubion , "Inflammatory cascades disrupt Treg function through epigenetic mechanisms."

Especially if you are a new investigator, you need enough detail to convince reviewers that you understand what you are undertaking and can handle the method.

• Cite a publication that shows you can handle the method where you can, but give more details if you and your team don't have a proven record using the method—and state explicitly why you think you will succeed.
• If space is short, you could also focus on experiments that highlight your expertise or are especially interesting. For experiments that are pedestrian or contracted out, just list the method.

Be sure to lay out a plan for alternative experiments and approaches in case you get negative or surprising results. Show reviewers you have a plan for spending the four or five years you will be funded no matter where the experiments lead.

See the Application from Drs. Li and Samulski , "Enhance AAV Liver Transduction with Capsid Immune Evasion," for a strong Approach section covering potential. As an example, see section C.1.3.'s alternative approaches.

Here are some pointers for organizing your Approach:

• Enter a bold header for each Specific Aim.
• Under each aim, describe the first set of experiments.
• If you get result X, you will follow pathway X; if you get result Y, you will follow pathway Y.
• Consider illustrating this with a flowchart.

Trim the fat—omit all information not needed to make your case. If you try to wow reviewers with your knowledge, they'll find flaws and penalize you heavily. Don't give them ammunition by including anything you don't need.

As you design your experiments, keep a running tab of the following essential data on a separate piece of paper:

• Who. A list of people who will help you for your Key Personnel section later.
• What. A list of equipment and supplies for the experiments you plan.
• Time. Notes on how long each step takes. Timing directly affects your budget as well as how many Specific Aims you can realistically achieve.

Jotting this information down will help you Create a Budget and complete other sections later.

After finishing a draft Approach section, check that

• I include enough background and preliminary data to give reviewers the context and significance of my plans.
• They can test the hypothesis (or hypotheses).
• I show alternative experiments and approaches in case I get negative or surprising results.
• My experiments can yield meaningful data to test my hypothesis (or hypotheses).
• As a new investigator, I include enough detail to convince reviewers I understand and can handle a method. I reviewed the sample applications to see how much detail to use.
• If I or my team has experience with a method, I cite it; otherwise I include enough details to convince reviewers we can handle it.
• I describe the results I anticipate and their implications.
• I omit all information not needed to state my case.
• I keep track of and explain who will do what, what they will do, when and where they will do it, how long it will take, and how much money it will cost.
• My timeline shows when I expect to complete my aims.

If you are applying for a new application, include preliminary studies; for a renewal or a revision (a competing supplement to an existing grant), prepare a progress report instead.

Describing Preliminary Studies

Your preliminary studies show that you can handle the methods and interpret results. Here's where you build reviewer confidence that you are headed in the right direction by pursuing research that builds on your accomplishments.

Reviewers use your preliminary studies together with the biosketches to assess the investigator review criterion, which reflects the competence of the research team.

Give alternative interpretations to your data to show reviewers you've thought through problems in-depth and are prepared to meet future challenges. If you don't do this, the reviewers will!

Though you may include other people's publications, focus on your preliminary data or unpublished data from your lab and the labs of your team members as much as you can.

As we noted above, you can put your preliminary data anywhere in the Research Strategy that you feel is appropriate, but just make sure your reviewers will be able to distinguish it. Alternatively, you can create a separate section with its own header.

Including a Progress Report

If you are applying for a renewal or a revision (a competing supplement to an existing grant), prepare a progress report instead of preliminary studies.

Create a header so your program officer can easily find it and include the following information:

• Project period beginning and end dates.
• Summary of the importance of your findings in relation to your Specific Aims.
• Account of published and unpublished results, highlighting your progress toward achieving your Specific Aims.

Note: if you submit a renewal application before the due date of your progress report, you do not need to submit a separate progress report for your grant. However, you will need to submit it, if your renewal is not funded.

After finishing the draft, check that

• I interpret my preliminary results critically.
• There is enough information to show I know what I'm talking about.
• If my project is complex, I give more preliminary studies.
• I show how my previous experience prepared me for the new project.
• It's clear which data are mine and which are not.

References show your breadth of knowledge of the field. If you leave out an important work, reviewers may assume you're not aware of it.

Throughout your application, you will reference all relevant publications for the concepts underlying your research and your methods.

Read more about your Bibliography and References Cited at Add a Bibliography and Appendix .

• Throughout my application I cite the literature thoroughly but not excessively, adding citations for all references important to my work.
• I cite all papers important to my field, including those from potential reviewers.
• I include fewer than 100 citations (if possible).
• My Bibliography and References Cited form lists all my references.
• I refer to unpublished work, including information I learned through personal contacts.
• If I do not describe a method, I add a reference to the literature.

Look over what you've written with a critical eye of a reviewer to identify potential questions or weak spots.

Enlist others to do that too—they can look at your application with a fresh eye. Include people who aren't familiar with your research to make sure you can get your point across to someone outside your field.

As you finalize the details of your Research Strategy, you will also need to return to your Specific Aims to see if you must revise. See Draft Specific Aims .

After you finish your Research Plan, you are ready to write your Abstract (called Project Summary/Abstract) and Project Narrative, which are attachments to the Other Project Information form.

These sections may be small, but they're important.

• All your peer reviewers read your Abstract and narrative.
• Staff and automated systems in NIH's Center for Scientific Review use them to decide where to assign your application, even if you requested an institute and study section.
• They show the importance and health relevance of your research to members of the public and Congress who are interested in what NIH is funding with taxpayer dollars.

Be sure to omit confidential or proprietary information in these sections! When your application is funded, NIH enters your title and Abstract in the public RePORTER database.

Think brief and simple: to the extent that you can, write these sections in lay language, and include appropriate keywords, e.g., immunotherapy, genetic risk factors.

As NIH referral officers use these parts to direct your application to an institute for possible funding, your description can influence the choice they make.

Write a succinct summary of your project that both a scientist and a lay person can understand (to the extent that you can).

• Use your Specific Aims as a template—shorten it and simplify the language.
• In the first sentence, state the significance of your research to your field and relevance to NIAID's mission: to better understand, treat, and prevent infectious, immunologic, and allergic diseases.
• Next state your hypothesis and the innovative potential of your research.
• Then list and briefly describe your Specific Aims and long-term objectives.

In your Project Narrative, you have only a few sentences to drive home your project's potential to improve public health.

Check out these effective Abstracts and Narratives from our R01  Sample Applications :

• Application from Dr. Mengxi Jiang , "Intersection of polyomavirus infection and host cellular responses"
• Application from Dr. William Faubion , "Inflammatory cascades disrupt Treg function through epigenetic mechanisms"
• My Project Summary/Abstract and Project Narrative (and title) are accessible to a broad audience.
• They describe the significance of my research to my field and state my hypothesis, my aims, and the innovative potential of my research.
• My narrative describes my project's potential to improve public health.
• I do not include any confidential or proprietary information.
• I do not use graphs or images.
• My Abstract has keywords that are appropriate and distinct enough to avoid confusion with other terms.
• My title is specific and informative.

Previous Step

Have questions.

A program officer in your area of science can give you application advice, NIAID's perspective on your research, and confirmation that your proposed research fits within NIAID’s mission.

Find contacts and instructions at When to Contact an NIAID Program Officer .

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

11.2 Steps in Developing a Research Proposal

Learning objectives.

• Identify the steps in developing a research proposal.
• Choose a topic and formulate a research question and working thesis.
• Develop a research proposal.

Writing a good research paper takes time, thought, and effort. Although this assignment is challenging, it is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you develop a thoughtful, informative, well-supported research paper.

Your first step is to choose a topic and then to develop research questions, a working thesis, and a written research proposal. Set aside adequate time for this part of the process. Fully exploring ideas will help you build a solid foundation for your paper.

Choosing a Topic

When you choose a topic for a research paper, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will help determine whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether your final paper fulfills the assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may later find it difficult to work with your topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that fulfills the assignment requirements and fits the assignment’s purpose and audience. (For more information about purpose and audience, see Chapter 6 “Writing Paragraphs: Separating Ideas and Shaping Content” .) Choosing a topic that interests you is also crucial. You instructor may provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on your own. In either case, try to identify topics that genuinely interest you.

After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic to pursue. Will you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a paper about this topic that presents and supports your original ideas? Is the topic too broad or too narrow for the scope of the assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask these questions during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, your instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. It is important to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. You may also use the list as a starting point to help you identify additional, related topics. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration, as he prepares a research paper. You will also plan, research, and draft your own research paper.

Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the media for an introductory course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the students, Jorge had to decide which specific issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of possibilities.

If you are writing a research paper for a specialized course, look back through your notes and course activities. Identify reading assignments and class discussions that especially engaged you. Doing so can help you identify topics to pursue.

• Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) in the news
• Sexual education programs
• Hollywood and eating disorders
• Americans’ access to public health information
• Media portrayal of health care reform bill
• Depictions of drugs on television
• The effect of the Internet on mental health
• Popularized diets (such as low-carbohydrate diets)
• Fear of pandemics (bird flu, HINI, SARS)
• Electronic entertainment and obesity
• Advertisements for prescription drugs
• Public education and disease prevention

Set a timer for five minutes. Use brainstorming or idea mapping to create a list of topics you would be interested in researching for a paper about the influence of the Internet on social networking. Do you closely follow the media coverage of a particular website, such as Twitter? Would you like to learn more about a certain industry, such as online dating? Which social networking sites do you and your friends use? List as many ideas related to this topic as you can.

Narrowing Your Topic

Once you have a list of potential topics, you will need to choose one as the focus of your essay. You will also need to narrow your topic. Most writers find that the topics they listed during brainstorming or idea mapping are broad—too broad for the scope of the assignment. Working with an overly broad topic, such as sexual education programs or popularized diets, can be frustrating and overwhelming. Each topic has so many facets that it would be impossible to cover them all in a college research paper. However, more specific choices, such as the pros and cons of sexual education in kids’ television programs or the physical effects of the South Beach diet, are specific enough to write about without being too narrow to sustain an entire research paper.

A good research paper provides focused, in-depth information and analysis. If your topic is too broad, you will find it difficult to do more than skim the surface when you research it and write about it. Narrowing your focus is essential to making your topic manageable. To narrow your focus, explore your topic in writing, conduct preliminary research, and discuss both the topic and the research with others.

Exploring Your Topic in Writing

“How am I supposed to narrow my topic when I haven’t even begun researching yet?” In fact, you may already know more than you realize. Review your list and identify your top two or three topics. Set aside some time to explore each one through freewriting. (For more information about freewriting, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” .) Simply taking the time to focus on your topic may yield fresh angles.

Jorge knew that he was especially interested in the topic of diet fads, but he also knew that it was much too broad for his assignment. He used freewriting to explore his thoughts so he could narrow his topic. Read Jorge’s ideas.

Conducting Preliminary Research

Another way writers may focus a topic is to conduct preliminary research . Like freewriting, exploratory reading can help you identify interesting angles. Surfing the web and browsing through newspaper and magazine articles are good ways to start. Find out what people are saying about your topic on blogs and online discussion groups. Discussing your topic with others can also inspire you. Talk about your ideas with your classmates, your friends, or your instructor.

Jorge’s freewriting exercise helped him realize that the assigned topic of health and the media intersected with a few of his interests—diet, nutrition, and obesity. Preliminary online research and discussions with his classmates strengthened his impression that many people are confused or misled by media coverage of these subjects.

Jorge decided to focus his paper on a topic that had garnered a great deal of media attention—low-carbohydrate diets. He wanted to find out whether low-carbohydrate diets were as effective as their proponents claimed.

Writing at Work

At work, you may need to research a topic quickly to find general information. This information can be useful in understanding trends in a given industry or generating competition. For example, a company may research a competitor’s prices and use the information when pricing their own product. You may find it useful to skim a variety of reliable sources and take notes on your findings.

The reliability of online sources varies greatly. In this exploratory phase of your research, you do not need to evaluate sources as closely as you will later. However, use common sense as you refine your paper topic. If you read a fascinating blog comment that gives you a new idea for your paper, be sure to check out other, more reliable sources as well to make sure the idea is worth pursuing.

Review the list of topics you created in Note 11.18 “Exercise 1” and identify two or three topics you would like to explore further. For each of these topics, spend five to ten minutes writing about the topic without stopping. Then review your writing to identify possible areas of focus.

Set aside time to conduct preliminary research about your potential topics. Then choose a topic to pursue for your research paper.

Collaboration

Please share your topic list with a classmate. Select one or two topics on his or her list that you would like to learn more about and return it to him or her. Discuss why you found the topics interesting, and learn which of your topics your classmate selected and why.

A Plan for Research

Your freewriting and preliminary research have helped you choose a focused, manageable topic for your research paper. To work with your topic successfully, you will need to determine what exactly you want to learn about it—and later, what you want to say about it. Before you begin conducting in-depth research, you will further define your focus by developing a research question , a working thesis, and a research proposal.

Formulating a Research Question

In forming a research question, you are setting a goal for your research. Your main research question should be substantial enough to form the guiding principle of your paper—but focused enough to guide your research. A strong research question requires you not only to find information but also to put together different pieces of information, interpret and analyze them, and figure out what you think. As you consider potential research questions, ask yourself whether they would be too hard or too easy to answer.

To determine your research question, review the freewriting you completed earlier. Skim through books, articles, and websites and list the questions you have. (You may wish to use the 5WH strategy to help you formulate questions. See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information about 5WH questions.) Include simple, factual questions and more complex questions that would require analysis and interpretation. Determine your main question—the primary focus of your paper—and several subquestions that you will need to research to answer your main question.

Here are the research questions Jorge will use to focus his research. Notice that his main research question has no obvious, straightforward answer. Jorge will need to research his subquestions, which address narrower topics, to answer his main question.

Using the topic you selected in Note 11.24 “Exercise 2” , write your main research question and at least four to five subquestions. Check that your main research question is appropriately complex for your assignment.

Constructing a Working ThesIs

A working thesis concisely states a writer’s initial answer to the main research question. It does not merely state a fact or present a subjective opinion. Instead, it expresses a debatable idea or claim that you hope to prove through additional research. Your working thesis is called a working thesis for a reason—it is subject to change. As you learn more about your topic, you may change your thinking in light of your research findings. Let your working thesis serve as a guide to your research, but do not be afraid to modify it based on what you learn.

Jorge began his research with a strong point of view based on his preliminary writing and research. Read his working thesis statement, which presents the point he will argue. Notice how it states Jorge’s tentative answer to his research question.

One way to determine your working thesis is to consider how you would complete sentences such as I believe or My opinion is . However, keep in mind that academic writing generally does not use first-person pronouns. These statements are useful starting points, but formal research papers use an objective voice.

Write a working thesis statement that presents your preliminary answer to the research question you wrote in Note 11.27 “Exercise 3” . Check that your working thesis statement presents an idea or claim that could be supported or refuted by evidence from research.

Creating a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief document—no more than one typed page—that summarizes the preliminary work you have completed. Your purpose in writing it is to formalize your plan for research and present it to your instructor for feedback. In your research proposal, you will present your main research question, related subquestions, and working thesis. You will also briefly discuss the value of researching this topic and indicate how you plan to gather information.

When Jorge began drafting his research proposal, he realized that he had already created most of the pieces he needed. However, he knew he also had to explain how his research would be relevant to other future health care professionals. In addition, he wanted to form a general plan for doing the research and identifying potentially useful sources. Read Jorge’s research proposal.

Before you begin a new project at work, you may have to develop a project summary document that states the purpose of the project, explains why it would be a wise use of company resources, and briefly outlines the steps involved in completing the project. This type of document is similar to a research proposal. Both documents define and limit a project, explain its value, discuss how to proceed, and identify what resources you will use.

Writing Your Own Research Proposal

Now you may write your own research proposal, if you have not done so already. Follow the guidelines provided in this lesson.

Key Takeaways

• Developing a research proposal involves the following preliminary steps: identifying potential ideas, choosing ideas to explore further, choosing and narrowing a topic, formulating a research question, and developing a working thesis.
• A good topic for a research paper interests the writer and fulfills the requirements of the assignment.
• Defining and narrowing a topic helps writers conduct focused, in-depth research.
• Writers conduct preliminary research to identify possible topics and research questions and to develop a working thesis.
• A good research question interests readers, is neither too broad nor too narrow, and has no obvious answer.
• A good working thesis expresses a debatable idea or claim that can be supported with evidence from research.
• Writers create a research proposal to present their topic, main research question, subquestions, and working thesis to an instructor for approval or feedback.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Illustration by James Round

How to plan a research project

Whether for a paper or a thesis, define your question, review the work of others – and leave yourself open to discovery.

by Brooke Harrington   + BIO

is professor of sociology at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire. Her research has won international awards both for scholarly quality and impact on public life. She has published dozens of articles and three books, most recently the bestseller Capital without Borders (2016), now translated into five languages.

Edited by Sam Haselby

Need to know

‘When curiosity turns to serious matters, it’s called research.’ – From Aphorisms (1880-1905) by Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach

Planning research projects is a time-honoured intellectual exercise: one that requires both creativity and sharp analytical skills. The purpose of this Guide is to make the process systematic and easy to understand. While there is a great deal of freedom and discovery involved – from the topics you choose, to the data and methods you apply – there are also some norms and constraints that obtain, no matter what your academic level or field of study. For those in high school through to doctoral students, and from art history to archaeology, research planning involves broadly similar steps, including: formulating a question, developing an argument or predictions based on previous research, then selecting the information needed to answer your question.

Some of this might sound self-evident but, as you’ll find, research requires a different way of approaching and using information than most of us are accustomed to in everyday life. That is why I include orienting yourself to knowledge-creation as an initial step in the process. This is a crucial and underappreciated phase in education, akin to making the transition from salaried employment to entrepreneurship: suddenly, you’re on your own, and that requires a new way of thinking about your work.

What follows is a distillation of what I’ve learned about this process over 27 years as a professional social scientist. It reflects the skills that my own professors imparted in the sociology doctoral programme at Harvard, as well as what I learned later on as a research supervisor for Ivy League PhD and MA students, and then as the author of award-winning scholarly books and articles. It can be adapted to the demands of both short projects (such as course term papers) and long ones, such as a thesis.

At its simplest, research planning involves the four distinct steps outlined below: orienting yourself to knowledge-creation; defining your research question; reviewing previous research on your question; and then choosing relevant data to formulate your own answers. Because the focus of this Guide is on planning a research project, as opposed to conducting a research project, this section won’t delve into the details of data-collection or analysis; those steps happen after you plan the project. In addition, the topic is vast: year-long doctoral courses are devoted to data and analysis. Instead, the fourth part of this section will outline some basic strategies you could use in planning a data-selection and analysis process appropriate to your research question.

Step 1: Orient yourself

Planning and conducting research requires you to make a transition, from thinking like a consumer of information to thinking like a producer of information. That sounds simple, but it’s actually a complex task. As a practical matter, this means putting aside the mindset of a student, which treats knowledge as something created by other people. As students, we are often passive receivers of knowledge: asked to do a specified set of readings, then graded on how well we reproduce what we’ve read.

Researchers, however, must take on an active role as knowledge producers . Doing research requires more of you than reading and absorbing what other people have written: you have to engage in a dialogue with it. That includes arguing with previous knowledge and perhaps trying to show that ideas we have accepted as given are actually wrong or incomplete. For example, rather than simply taking in the claims of an author you read, you’ll need to draw out the implications of those claims: if what the author is saying is true, what else does that suggest must be true? What predictions could you make based on the author’s claims?

In other words, rather than treating a reading as a source of truth – even if it comes from a revered source, such as Plato or Marie Curie – this orientation step asks you to treat the claims you read as provisional and subject to interrogation. That is one of the great pieces of wisdom that science and philosophy can teach us: that the biggest advances in human understanding have been made not by being correct about trivial things, but by being wrong in an interesting way . For example, Albert Einstein was wrong about quantum mechanics, but his arguments about it with his fellow physicist Niels Bohr have led to some of the biggest breakthroughs in science, even a century later.

Step 2: Define your research question

Students often give this step cursory attention, but experienced researchers know that formulating a good question is sometimes the most difficult part of the research planning process. That is because the precise language of the question frames the rest of the project. It’s therefore important to pose the question carefully, in a way that’s both possible to answer and likely to yield interesting results. Of course, you must choose a question that interests you, but that’s only the beginning of what’s likely to be an iterative process: most researchers come back to this step repeatedly, modifying their questions in light of previous research, resource limitations and other considerations.

Researchers face limits in terms of time and money. They, like everyone else, have to pose research questions that they can plausibly answer given the constraints they face. For example, it would be inadvisable to frame a project around the question ‘What are the roots of the Arab-Israeli conflict?’ if you have only a week to develop an answer and no background on that topic. That’s not to limit your imagination: you can come up with any question you’d like. But it typically does require some creativity to frame a question that you can answer well – that is, by investigating thoroughly and providing new insights – within the limits you face.

In addition to being interesting to you, and feasible within your resource constraints, the third and most important characteristic of a ‘good’ research topic is whether it allows you to create new knowledge. It might turn out that your question has already been asked and answered to your satisfaction: if so, you’ll find out in the next step of this process. On the other hand, you might come up with a research question that hasn’t been addressed previously. Before you get too excited about breaking uncharted ground, consider this: a lot of potentially researchable questions haven’t been studied for good reason ; they might have answers that are trivial or of very limited interest. This could include questions such as ‘Why does the area of a circle equal π r²?’ or ‘Did winter conditions affect Napoleon’s plans to invade Russia?’ Of course, you might be able to make the argument that a seemingly trivial question is actually vitally important, but you must be prepared to back that up with convincing evidence. The exercise in the ‘Learn More’ section below will help you think through some of these issues.

Finally, scholarly research questions must in some way lead to new and distinctive insights. For example, lots of people have studied gender roles in sports teams; what can you ask that hasn’t been asked before? Reinventing the wheel is the number-one no-no in this endeavour. That’s why the next step is so important: reviewing previous research on your topic. Depending on what you find in that step, you might need to revise your research question; iterating between your question and the existing literature is a normal process. But don’t worry: it doesn’t go on forever. In fact, the iterations taper off – and your research question stabilises – as you develop a firm grasp of the current state of knowledge on your topic.

Step 3: Review previous research

In academic research, from articles to books, it’s common to find a section called a ‘literature review’. The purpose of that section is to describe the state of the art in knowledge on the research question that a project has posed. It demonstrates that researchers have thoroughly and systematically reviewed the relevant findings of previous studies on their topic, and that they have something novel to contribute.

Your own research project should include something like this, even if it’s a high-school term paper. In the research planning process, you’ll want to list at least half a dozen bullet points stating the major findings on your topic by other people. In relation to those findings, you should be able to specify where your project could provide new and necessary insights. There are two basic rhetorical positions one can take in framing the novelty-plus-importance argument required of academic research:

• Position 1 requires you to build on or extend a set of existing ideas; that means saying something like: ‘Person A has argued that X is true about gender; this implies Y, which has not yet been tested. My project will test Y, and if I find evidence to support it, that will change the way we understand gender.’
• Position 2 is to argue that there is a gap in existing knowledge, either because previous research has reached conflicting conclusions or has failed to consider something important. For example, one could say that research on middle schoolers and gender has been limited by being conducted primarily in coeducational environments, and that findings might differ dramatically if research were conducted in more schools where the student body was all-male or all-female.

Your overall goal in this step of the process is to show that your research will be part of a larger conversation: that is, how your project flows from what’s already known, and how it advances, extends or challenges that existing body of knowledge. That will be the contribution of your project, and it constitutes the motivation for your research.

Two things are worth mentioning about your search for sources of relevant previous research. First, you needn’t look only at studies on your precise topic. For example, if you want to study gender-identity formation in schools, you shouldn’t restrict yourself to studies of schools; the empirical setting (schools) is secondary to the larger social process that interests you (how people form gender identity). That process occurs in many different settings, so cast a wide net. Second, be sure to use legitimate sources – meaning publications that have been through some sort of vetting process, whether that involves peer review (as with academic journal articles you might find via Google Scholar) or editorial review (as you’d find in well-known mass media publications, such as The Economist or The Washington Post ). What you’ll want to avoid is using unvetted sources such as personal blogs or Wikipedia. Why? Because anybody can write anything in those forums, and there is no way to know – unless you’re already an expert – if the claims you find there are accurate. Often, they’re not.

Step 4: Choose your data and methods

Whatever your research question is, eventually you’ll need to consider which data source and analytical strategy are most likely to provide the answers you’re seeking. One starting point is to consider whether your question would be best addressed by qualitative data (such as interviews, observations or historical records), quantitative data (such as surveys or census records) or some combination of both. Your ideas about data sources will, in turn, suggest options for analytical methods.

You might need to collect your own data, or you might find everything you need readily available in an existing dataset someone else has created. A great place to start is with a research librarian: university libraries always have them and, at public universities, those librarians can work with the public, including people who aren’t affiliated with the university. If you don’t happen to have a public university and its library close at hand, an ordinary public library can still be a good place to start: the librarians are often well versed in accessing data sources that might be relevant to your study, such as the census, or historical archives, or the Survey of Consumer Finances.

Because your task at this point is to plan research, rather than conduct it, the purpose of this step is not to commit you irrevocably to a course of action. Instead, your goal here is to think through a feasible approach to answering your research question. You’ll need to find out, for example, whether the data you want exist; if not, do you have a realistic chance of gathering the data yourself, or would it be better to modify your research question? In terms of analysis, would your strategy require you to apply statistical methods? If so, do you have those skills? If not, do you have time to learn them, or money to hire a research assistant to run the analysis for you?

Please be aware that qualitative methods in particular are not the casual undertaking they might appear to be. Many people make the mistake of thinking that only quantitative data and methods are scientific and systematic, while qualitative methods are just a fancy way of saying: ‘I talked to some people, read some old newspapers, and drew my own conclusions.’ Nothing could be further from the truth. In the final section of this guide, you’ll find some links to resources that will provide more insight on standards and procedures governing qualitative research, but suffice it to say: there are rules about what constitutes legitimate evidence and valid analytical procedure for qualitative data, just as there are for quantitative data.

Circle back and consider revising your initial plans

As you work through these four steps in planning your project, it’s perfectly normal to circle back and revise. Research planning is rarely a linear process. It’s also common for new and unexpected avenues to suggest themselves. As the sociologist Thorstein Veblen wrote in 1908 : ‘The outcome of any serious research can only be to make two questions grow where only one grew before.’ That’s as true of research planning as it is of a completed project. Try to enjoy the horizons that open up for you in this process, rather than becoming overwhelmed; the four steps, along with the two exercises that follow, will help you focus your plan and make it manageable.

Key points – How to plan a research project

• Planning a research project is essential no matter your academic level or field of study. There is no one ‘best’ way to design research, but there are certain guidelines that can be helpfully applied across disciplines.
• Orient yourself to knowledge-creation. Make the shift from being a consumer of information to being a producer of information.
• Define your research question. Your question frames the rest of your project, sets the scope, and determines the kinds of answers you can find.
• Review previous research on your question. Survey the existing body of relevant knowledge to ensure that your research will be part of a larger conversation.
• Choose your data and methods. For instance, will you be collecting qualitative data, via interviews, or numerical data, via surveys?
• Circle back and consider revising your initial plans. Expect your research question in particular to undergo multiple rounds of refinement as you learn more about your topic.

Good research questions tend to beget more questions. This can be frustrating for those who want to get down to business right away. Try to make room for the unexpected: this is usually how knowledge advances. Many of the most significant discoveries in human history have been made by people who were looking for something else entirely. There are ways to structure your research planning process without over-constraining yourself; the two exercises below are a start, and you can find further methods in the Links and Books section.

The following exercise provides a structured process for advancing your research project planning. After completing it, you’ll be able to do the following:

• describe clearly and concisely the question you’ve chosen to study
• summarise the state of the art in knowledge about the question, and where your project could contribute new insight
• identify the best strategy for gathering and analysing relevant data

In other words, the following provides a systematic means to establish the building blocks of your research project.

Exercise 1: Definition of research question and sources

This exercise prompts you to select and clarify your general interest area, develop a research question, and investigate sources of information. The annotated bibliography will also help you refine your research question so that you can begin the second assignment, a description of the phenomenon you wish to study.

Jot down a few bullet points in response to these two questions, with the understanding that you’ll probably go back and modify your answers as you begin reading other studies relevant to your topic:

• What will be the general topic of your paper?
• What will be the specific topic of your paper?

b) Research question(s)

Use the following guidelines to frame a research question – or questions – that will drive your analysis. As with Part 1 above, you’ll probably find it necessary to change or refine your research question(s) as you complete future assignments.

• Your question should be phrased so that it can’t be answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
• Your question should have more than one plausible answer.
• Your question should draw relationships between two or more concepts; framing the question in terms of How? or What? often works better than asking Why ?

c) Annotated bibliography

Most or all of your background information should come from two sources: scholarly books and journals, or reputable mass media sources. You might be able to access journal articles electronically through your library, using search engines such as JSTOR and Google Scholar. This can save you a great deal of time compared with going to the library in person to search periodicals. General news sources, such as those accessible through LexisNexis, are acceptable, but should be cited sparingly, since they don’t carry the same level of credibility as scholarly sources. As discussed above, unvetted sources such as blogs and Wikipedia should be avoided, because the quality of the information they provide is unreliable and often misleading.

To create an annotated bibliography, provide the following information for at least 10 sources relevant to your specific topic, using the format suggested below.

Name of author(s):

Publication date:

Title of book, chapter, or article:

If a chapter or article, title of journal or book where they appear:

Brief description of this work, including main findings and methods ( c 75 words):

Summary of how this work contributes to your project ( c 75 words):

Brief description of the implications of this work ( c 25 words):

Identify any gap or controversy in knowledge this work points up, and how your project could address those problems ( c 50 words):

Exercise 2: Towards an analysis

Develop a short statement ( c 250 words) about the kind of data that would be useful to address your research question, and how you’d analyse it. Some questions to consider in writing this statement include:

• What are the central concepts or variables in your project? Offer a brief definition of each.
• Do any data sources exist on those concepts or variables, or would you need to collect data?
• Of the analytical strategies you could apply to that data, which would be the most appropriate to answer your question? Which would be the most feasible for you? Consider at least two methods, noting their advantages or disadvantages for your project.

Links & books

One of the best texts ever written about planning and executing research comes from a source that might be unexpected: a 60-year-old work on urban planning by a self-trained scholar. The classic book The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) by Jane Jacobs (available complete and free of charge via this link ) is worth reading in its entirety just for the pleasure of it. But the final 20 pages – a concluding chapter titled ‘The Kind of Problem a City Is’ – are really about the process of thinking through and investigating a problem. Highly recommended as a window into the craft of research.

Jacobs’s text references an essay on advancing human knowledge by the mathematician Warren Weaver. At the time, Weaver was director of the Rockefeller Foundation, in charge of funding basic research in the natural and medical sciences. Although the essay is titled ‘A Quarter Century in the Natural Sciences’ (1960) and appears at first blush to be merely a summation of one man’s career, it turns out to be something much bigger and more interesting: a meditation on the history of human beings seeking answers to big questions about the world. Weaver goes back to the 17th century to trace the origins of systematic research thinking, with enthusiasm and vivid anecdotes that make the process come alive. The essay is worth reading in its entirety, and is available free of charge via this link .

For those seeking a more in-depth, professional-level discussion of the logic of research design, the political scientist Harvey Starr provides insight in a compact format in the article ‘Cumulation from Proper Specification: Theory, Logic, Research Design, and “Nice” Laws’ (2005). Starr reviews the ‘research triad’, consisting of the interlinked considerations of formulating a question, selecting relevant theories and applying appropriate methods. The full text of the article, published in the scholarly journal Conflict Management and Peace Science , is available, free of charge, via this link .

Finally, the book Getting What You Came For (1992) by Robert Peters is not only an outstanding guide for anyone contemplating graduate school – from the application process onward – but it also includes several excellent chapters on planning and executing research, applicable across a wide variety of subject areas. It was an invaluable resource for me 25 years ago, and it remains in print with good reason; I recommend it to all my students, particularly Chapter 16 (‘The Thesis Topic: Finding It’), Chapter 17 (‘The Thesis Proposal’) and Chapter 18 (‘The Thesis: Writing It’).

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• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

Published on October 12, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will conduct your research.

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will contain at least these elements:

Introduction

Literature review.

• Research design

Reference list

While the sections may vary, the overall objective is always the same. A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide for your research plan, helping you get organized and feel confident in the path forward you choose to take.

Table of contents

Research proposal purpose, research proposal examples, research design and methods, contribution to knowledge, research schedule, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research proposals.

Academics often have to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student, you might have to write a research proposal as part of a grad school application , or prior to starting your thesis or dissertation .

In addition to helping you figure out what your research can look like, a proposal can also serve to demonstrate why your project is worth pursuing to a funder, educational institution, or supervisor.

Research proposal length

The length of a research proposal can vary quite a bit. A bachelor’s or master’s thesis proposal can be just a few pages, while proposals for PhD dissertations or research funding are usually much longer and more detailed. Your supervisor can help you determine the best length for your work.

One trick to get started is to think of your proposal’s structure as a shorter version of your thesis or dissertation , only without the results , conclusion and discussion sections.

Download our research proposal template

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We’ve included a few for you below.

• Example research proposal #1: “A Conceptual Framework for Scheduling Constraint Management”
• Example research proposal #2: “Medical Students as Mediators of Change in Tobacco Use”

Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:

• The proposed title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your institution and department

The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.

Your introduction should:

• Introduce your topic
• Give necessary background and context
• Outline your  problem statement  and research questions

To guide your introduction , include information about:

• Who could have an interest in the topic (e.g., scientists, policymakers)
• How much is already known about the topic
• What is missing from this current knowledge
• What new insights your research will contribute
• Why you believe this research is worth doing

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review  shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.

In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:

• Comparing and contrasting the main theories, methods, and debates
• Examining the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches
• Explaining how will you build on, challenge, or synthesize prior scholarship

Following the literature review, restate your main  objectives . This brings the focus back to your own project. Next, your research design or methodology section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.

To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasize again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.

For example, your results might have implications for:

• Improving best practices
• Informing policymaking decisions
• Strengthening a theory or model
• Challenging popular or scientific beliefs
• Creating a basis for future research

Last but not least, your research proposal must include correct citations for every source you have used, compiled in a reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use our free APA citation generator .

Some institutions or funders require a detailed timeline of the project, asking you to forecast what you will do at each stage and how long it may take. While not always required, be sure to check the requirements of your project.

Here’s an example schedule to help you get started. You can also download a template at the button below.

Download our research schedule template

If you are applying for research funding, chances are you will have to include a detailed budget. This shows your estimates of how much each part of your project will cost.

Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover. For each item, include:

• Cost : exactly how much money do you need?
• Justification : why is this cost necessary to complete the research?
• Source : how did you calculate the amount?

To determine your budget, think about:

• Travel costs : do you need to go somewhere to collect your data? How will you get there, and how much time will you need? What will you do there (e.g., interviews, archival research)?
• Materials : do you need access to any tools or technologies?
• Help : do you need to hire any research assistants for the project? What will they do, and how much will you pay them?

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

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The Research Plan

Where to start with scholarly research, expectations for research, scholarly vs. popular sources, grey literature, primary vs. secondary sources, preliminary research.

• Create a Plan

A good essay is grounded in good research, which requires clear direction, patience and persistence.

Research helps you to focus your topic, formulate and refine your thesis, and discover details, opinions, and facts to support your overall argument. You are better equipped to search for and sort sources when you have made decisions about your topic and developed a working thesis.

It is important that your research be accurate, reliable, relevant, and, for many disciplines, recent. The quality of your research determines the efficacy of your argument and your instructor’s assessment of your work.

Maintaining your academic integrity is an important factor that is assessed by your professors. The sources you use must be properly documented, accurately communicated, and clearly explained in relation to your topic and thesis. You are less likely to copy the text word for word or paraphrase too closely if you have spent some time thinking about how the research will inform your thesis and if you think carefully about your research process

Types of Sources

Many assignments will require you to focus primarily on scholarly, peer-reviewed sources. Check with your professor or the assignment instructions for guidance on using popular sources. 

Scholarly sources are supported by the peer review process, which means they are sources that have been evaluated by other experts in the same field.

Scholarly sources:

• Are written by and for academics
• Ensure that data is thoroughly checked
• Cite all evidence
• Make arguments which are supported by research
• Meet conventions of scholarship in the discipline
• Are written in formal, academic language

Popular sources are written for a wider, general audience and are more informal in tone. Sources like newspaper articles, documentaries and corporate websites are not scholarly, but they can offer useful information that you can include in your analysis alongside evidence presented by scholarly sources.

Grey literature is produced by entities whose main task is NOT publishing. Industry, think tanks, government departments, scholarly societies and associations can all produce grey literature. Grey literature can include reports, working papers, newsletters, government documents, speeches, white papers, and urban plans. Grey literature also includes newsletters, emails, blogs and other social networking sites. In addition to scholarly sources, grey literature can offer valuable evidence to your essay, but be sure to consider whether its use is appropriate for the discipline, the course, or the assignment.

In some disciplines, such as history, philosophy, or English literature, it is important to distinguish between primary and secondary sources.

Primary sources are original, first-hand materials. A primary source may be a government document, census data, a short story, old letters, or a piece of art.

Secondary source s are articles, editorials, textbooks, books, and other published materials that may interpret data, works of literature, ideas or events.

You may need to do preliminary research to find or refine a topic. Some early reading can help you narrow your focus, establish research questions, and avoid the frustration of directionless research.

Places to Start  

• Begin with course materials. The syllabus, required or recommended readings, textbooks and lecture notes will often provide ideas for a topic, while focusing on the major themes of your course.
• During the early stages of research, you can use reference works, such as discipline-specific textbooks, encyclopedias and dictionaries, or Wikipedia, for an introduction to your topic. Use the library subject guide to find useful reference works in your subject. Be sure that only material from your scholarly research, not Wikipedia , is used and cited in your paper.

The materials found during the preliminary research stage can help you to identify main concepts, key terminology, and important literature on the topic.

Planning your Research

A plan establishes research goals and clarifies direction.

A clear direction and plan for research helps you assess the quality and relevance of sources. 

Creating a Research Plan

In advance of beginning a search for evidence, take time to make a plan.

• Develop specific questions about your topic: what do you want to know and how does it relate to your thesis?
• Create a list of key words and synonyms for your search. Include specific and more general terms; establish parameters for your search (place, time, theory, field, species) but be open to related materials.
• Identify types of evidence you are required to use (research requirements of the assignment) and you will find informative for your topic. Think about where you can find these types of sources.

Look to your course content to identify the types of sources commonly used in the discipline; here are some examples:

• Peer-Reviewed scholarship: Argumentative articles, clinical trials, empirical articles (use library databases, google scholar)
• Numerical and financial data: export data, quality of life measures (see library subject guides
• Visual records (maps, old photographs, film)
• NGO documents: Stakeholder reports, Best practice documents
• Government documents: laws, legislation, reports

Research Plan worksheet - Accessible version (Word doc)

Writing a Research Strategy

This page is focused on providing practical tips and suggestions for preparing The Research Strategy, the primary component of an application's Research Plan along with the Specific Aims. The guidance on this page is primarily geared towards an R01-style application, however, much of it is useful for other grant types as well.

Developing the Research Strategy

The primary audience for your application is your peer review group. When writing your Research Strategy, your goal is to present a well-organized, visually appealing, and readable description of your proposed project and the rationale for pursuing it. Your writing should be streamlined and organized so your reviewers can readily grasp the information. If it's a key point, repeat it, then repeat it again. Add more emphasis by putting the text in bold , or bold italics . If writing is not your forte, get help. For more information, please visit  W riting For Reviewers .

How to Organize the Research Strategy Section

How to organize a Research Strategy is largely up to the applicant. Start by following the NIH application instructions and guidelines for formatting attachments such as the research plan section.

It is generally structured as follows:

Significance

For Preliminary Studies (for new applications) or a Progress Report (for renewal and revision applications).

• You can either include preliminary studies or progress report information as a subsection of Approach or integrate it into any or all of the three main sections.
• If you do the latter, be sure to mark the information clearly, for example, with a bold subhead.

 Helpful tips to consider when formatting:

• Organize using bold headers or an outline or numbering system—or both—that are used consistently throughout.
• Start each section with the appropriate header: Significance, Innovation, or Approach.
• Organize the Approach section around the Specific Aims.

For most applications, you need to address Rigor ous Study Design  by describing the experimental design and methods you propose and how they will achieve robust and unbiased results. See the NIH guidance for elaboration on the 4 major areas of rigor and transparency emphasized in grant review. These requirements apply to research grant, career development, fellowship, and training applications.

Tips for Drafting Sections of the Research Strategy

Although you will emphasize your project's significance throughout the application, the Significance section should give the most details. The farther removed your reviewers are from your field, the more information you'll need to provide on basic biology, importance of the area, research opportunities, and new findings. Reviewing the potentially relevant study section rosters may give you some ideas as to general reviewer expertise. You will also need to describe the prior and preliminary studies that provide a strong scientific rationale for pursuing the proposed studies, emphasizing the strengths and weaknesses in the rigor and transparency of these key studies.

This section gives you the chance to explain how your application is conceptually and/or technically innovative. Some examples as to how you might do this could include but not limited to:

• Demonstrate the proposed research is new and unique, e.g., explores new scientific avenues, has a novel hypothesis, will create new knowledge.
• Explain how the proposed work can refine, improve, or propose a new application of an existing concept or method.

If your proposal is paradigm-shifting or challenges commonly held beliefs, be sure that you include sufficient evidence in your preliminary data to convince reviewers, including strong rationale, data supporting the approach, and clear feasibility. Your job is to make the reviewers feel confident that the risk is worth taking.

For projects predominantly focused on innovation and outside-the-box research, investigators may wish to consider mechanisms other than R01s for example (e.g., exploratory/developmental research (R21) grants, NIH Director's Pioneer Award Program (DP1), and NIH Director's New Innovator Award Program (DP2).

The Approach section is where the experimental design is described. Expect your assigned reviewers to scrutinize your approach: they will want to know what you plan to do, how you plan to do it, and whether you can do it. NIH data show that of the peer review criteria, approach has the highest correlation with the overall impact score. Importantly, elements of rigorous study design should be addressed in this section, such as plans for minimization of bias (e.g. methods for blinding and treatment randomization) and consideration of relevant biological variables. Likewise, be sure to lay out a plan for alternative experiments and approaches in case you get uninterpretable or surprising results, and also consider limitations of the study and alternative interpretations. Point out any procedures, situations, or materials that may be hazardous to personnel and precautions to be exercised. A full discussion on the use of select agents should appear in the Select Agent Research attachment. Consider including a timeline demonstrating anticipated completion of the Aims. 

Here are some pointers to consider when organizing your Approach section:

• Enter a bold header for each Specific Aim.
• Under each aim, describe the experiments.
• If you get result X, you will follow pathway X; if you get result Y, you will follow pathway Y.
• Consider illustrating this with a flowchart.

Preliminary Studies

If submitting a new application to a NOFO that allows preliminary data, it is strongly encouraged to include preliminary studies. Preliminary studies demonstrate competency in the methods and interpretation. Well-designed and robust preliminary studies also serve to provide a strong scientific rationale for the proposed follow-up experiments. Reviewers also use preliminary studies together with the biosketches to assess the investigator review criterion, which reflects the competence of the research team. Provide alternative interpretations to your data to show reviewers you've thought through problems in-depth and are prepared to meet future challenges. As noted above, preliminary data can be put anywhere in the Research Strategy, but just make sure reviewers will be able to distinguish it from the proposed studies. Alternatively, it can be a separate section with its own header.

Progress Reports

If applying for a renewal or a revision (a competing supplement to an existing grant), include a progress report for reviewers.

Create a header so reviewers can easily find it and include the following information:

• Project period beginning and end dates.
• Summary of the importance and robustness of the completed findings in relation to the Specific Aims.
• Account of published and unpublished results, highlighting progress toward achieving your Specific Aims.

Other Helpful Tips

Referencing publications.

References show breadth of knowledge of the field and provide a scientific foundation for your application. If a critical work is omitted, reviewers may assume the applicant is not aware of it or deliberately ignoring it.

Throughout the application, reference all relevant publications for the concepts underlying your research and your methods. Remember the strengths and weaknesses in the rigor of the key studies you cite for justifying your proposal will need to be discussed in the Significance and/or Approach sections.

Read more about Bibliography and References Cited at Additional Application Elements .

Graphics can illustrate complex information in a small space and add visual interest to your application. Including schematics, tables, illustrations, graphs, and other types of graphics can enhance applications. Consider adding a timetable or flowchart to illustrate your experimental plan, including decision trees with alternative experimental pathways to help your reviewers understand your plans.

Video may enhance your application beyond what graphics alone can achieve. If you plan to send one or more videos, you'll need to meet certain requirements and include key information in your Research Strategy. State in your cover letter that a video will be included in your application (don't attach your files to the application). After you apply and get assignment information from the Commons, ask your assigned Scientific Review Officer (SRO) how your business official should send the files. Your video files are due at least one month before the peer review meeting.

However, you can't count on all reviewers being able to see or hear video, so you'll want to be strategic in how you incorporate it into your application by taking the following steps:

• Caption any narration in the video.
• Include key images from the video
• Write a description of the video, so the text would make sense even without the video.

Tracking for Your Budget

As you design your experiments, keep a running tab of the following essential data:

• Who. A list of people who will help (for the Key Personnel section later).
• What. A list of equipment and supplies for the experiments
• Time. Notes on how long each step takes. Timing directly affects the budget as well as how many Specific Aims can realistically be achieved.

Jotting this information down will help when Creating a Budget  and complete other sections later.

Review and Finalize Your Research Plan

Critically review the research plan through the lens of a reviewer to identify potential questions or weak spots.

Enlist others to review your application with a fresh eye. Include people who aren't familiar with the research to make sure the proposed work is clear to someone outside the field.

When finalizing the details of the Research Strategy, revisit and revise the Specific Aims as needed. Please see Writing Specific Aims . 

Want to contact NINDS staff? Please visit our Find Your NINDS Program Officer page to learn more about contacting Program Officer, Grants Management Specialists, Scientific Review Officers, and Health Program Specialists. Find NINDS Program Officer

Developing a Research Plan

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the importance of a good research plan

Have you ever embarked on a research project and found yourself struggling to stay on track, or feeling lost and unsure of what to do next? A research plan can help you avoid these challenges and ensure that your research project is a success.

In this article, we'll dive into the key features of a research plan, and outline the steps you can take to create one for your research project. Whether you're a student, researcher, or professional, you'll learn what is the importance of having a research plan and how to make one that will help you achieve your research goals.

What is a Research Plan in a Project Management?

A research plan in project management can be thought of as a blueprint for the research that will be done as part of the project. Essentially, it's a roadmap that outlines everything from the background of the project to the methods and techniques that will be used, to the timeline and resources required to carry out the research.

At its core, the purpose of a research plan is to make sure the research is organized, and systematic and contributes to the overall success of the project.

What are the 5 purposes of research?

Research is at the heart of human progress, and it serves a variety of purposes. Here are five key reasons why research is essential:

Knowledge Expansion

Research helps us better understand the world around us, uncovering new information and deepening our understanding of existing knowledge.

Problem Solving

Through research, we can identify the root causes of complex issues and develop innovative solutions to tackle them.

Policy Development

Research findings inform evidence-based policymaking, ensuring that decisions are grounded in data and best practices.

Technological Advancements

Scientific research paves the way for groundbreaking inventions and technological advancements that shape our lives.

Skill Development

The research process hones critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills, which are essential in today's fast-paced, ever-changing world.

What are the methods of research?

Various research methods are available to choose from, depending on your research question and objectives. Here are a few common methods:

Qualitative Research

This method focuses on exploring human experiences and understanding the meanings people attach to their actions or surroundings. It often involves interviews, focus groups, and observations.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research seeks to quantify data and analyze relationships between variables using statistical methods. Surveys, experiments, and numerical data analysis are common in this approach.

Mixed Methods

This approach combines both qualitative and quantitative methods, capitalizing on the strengths of each to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a research question.

Experimental Research

In this method, researchers manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable, allowing for causal inferences.

Case Studies

Case studies involve an in-depth examination of a specific situation or example, offering rich insights into the complexities of real-world phenomena.

When selecting your research method, consider the goals and context of your study. Keep in mind that the choice of method can significantly impact the outcomes and conclusions drawn from your research.

What goes into a research plan?

Here are some of the key components you might expect to see in a research plan:

1.       Background: This section gives a brief overview of what the project is all about and why the research is being done.

2.      Objectives: Here, you'll find the clear and specific goals for the research, along with the questions that will be answered and the outcomes that are expected.

3.    Methods: This section lays out the different methods that will be used to gather information, such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, or experiments.

4.      Participants: You'll learn about the people who will be included in the research, along with the criteria for choosing them and how many participants there will be.

5.       Data collection: This section provides a detailed plan for how the data will be gathered, including the tools that will be used and the procedures for collecting and storing the information.

6.    Data analysis: Here, you'll find the plan for analyzing the data and what statistical methods will be used to do so.

7.       Timelines: This section outlines the schedule for carrying out the research, with deadlines for each step of the process.

8.      Budget: This part provides an estimate of the resources that will be required, including personnel, equipment, and materials.

9.       Ethical considerations: This section addresses important ethical issues, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and data protection.

Overall, a well-designed research plan is an essential part of successful project management, helping to minimize risk and reduce the chances of errors or delays.

Research Plan Features

Conducting a study can be compared to planning a road trip with your friends. Just like a well-planned road trip, a successful study requires a solid research plan. A research plan acts as a roadmap that guides you through the entire process, from start to finish, to ensure a successful outcome.

A study can have unexpected challenges and obstacles. For example, you may encounter bad weather or road closures on your trip. In a study, you may encounter unexpected challenges, like missing data or a lack of participants. But, with a well-planned research plan, you'll be prepared to handle these challenges and keep moving forward toward your destination.

Just like reaching your destination on a road trip, a successful study requires patience and persistence. You may encounter detours and delays, but with a clear roadmap, you'll be able to reach your destination. In a study, you may encounter setbacks, but with a solid research plan, you'll be able to overcome these challenges and achieve a successful outcome.

Here are some of the key features you need to include in your research plan:

Feature 1: Objectives and Goals - The Destination

Your research objectives and goals are like the destination you're trying to reach on your road trip. Just as you need to know where you're headed, your research plan should clearly define what you hope to achieve through your study. This includes defining the questions you want to answer, the outcomes you expect to see, and the impact you aim to have.

For example, if you're studying the effects of a new drug on patients with a specific illness, your objectives and goals might be to determine the drug's effectiveness and safety.

Feature 2: Methodology - The Route

Your methodology outlines the methods and techniques you'll use to conduct your study, just like choosing the best route for your road trip. This includes the study design, sample size, data collection methods, and analysis techniques. The methodology should be chosen based on your research question, available resources , and limitations of your study.

For example, if you're studying the impact of a new teaching method on student performance, your methodology might include conducting a randomized control trial to compare the new method to traditional teaching methods.

Feature 3: Timelines and Budgets - The Map

Your timelines and budgets act as the map you'll use to plan your road trip. Your research plan should include a schedule of when each aspect of your study will be completed and the resources you'll need to complete the project. These should be realistic and achievable, allowing for contingencies in case of unexpected events.

For example, if you're conducting a study on the effects of a new environmental policy on air quality, your timeline might include conducting air quality tests before and after the policy is implemented, and your budget might include the cost of the tests, equipment, and labor.

How to Write a Research Plan

Writing a research plan can seem overwhelming, especially if you're just starting. But trust me, having a solid plan in place will make the whole research process a lot smoother. A research plan is just a roadmap for your research project - it outlines your goals, the methods you'll use to achieve them, and the timeline for getting everything done.

So, where do you even begin with creating a research plan? Here's a step-by-step guide to help you get started:

Step 1: Find Your Focus - Define the Research Question

Before you dive into any research project, you need to have a clear idea of what you want to accomplish. The first step is to define the research question - this will serve as the cornerstone of your project. When formulating your research question, think about the problem you want to solve and how you want to approach it. It's important to make sure your research question is relevant, feasible, and aligns with the overall goals of your project.

Example: If you're interested in exploring the impact of social media on mental health, your research question could be "How does social media usage affect the mental well-being of young adults?"

Step 2: Get to Know the Literature - Review the Literature

Next, you'll want to familiarize yourself with what's already out there on your topic. This is where the literature review comes in - it will provide you with a comprehensive understanding of what's already known and what still needs to be explored. The literature review involves searching academic journals, books, and other sources for information on your topic. By the end of this step, you'll have a solid foundation of knowledge and a better idea of the gaps in the existing knowledge that your research project will fill.

Example: If your research question is about the impact of social media on mental health, you could search for articles and studies that have looked at the relationship between social media usage and mental well-being.

Step 3: Plan Your Attack - Develop the Methodology

Now that you have a good understanding of your topic and what's already out there, it's time to develop a plan for your research project. This is where you'll decide on the research design, sample size, data collection methods, and analysis techniques that will best address your research question. Your methodology should be based on the literature review and should be feasible, ethical, and reliable.

Example: If you're exploring the impact of social media on mental health, you could use a survey to gather data from young adults on their social media usage and mental well-being. You could also use statistical analysis to identify patterns and relationships between these variables.

Step 4: Get Organized - Prepare the Timeline and Budget

Finally, it's time to put all the pieces together and prepare a timeline and budget for your research project. This involves estimating the resources you'll need for each aspect of your project and creating a schedule for completing it. When developing your timeline and budget, it's important to be realistic, achievable, and flexible. Make sure to allow for unexpected events and contingencies.

Example: If you're exploring the impact of social media on mental health, your timeline could include steps like designing the survey, recruiting participants, collecting and analyzing data, and writing up the results. Your budget could include the cost of survey software, printing, and any other resources you'll need to complete the project.

How do you write a research plan on Edworking?

We understand the importance of a good research plan and how it can make or break your work. But where to begin? Enter Edworking, the all-in-one productivity platform that makes planning and executing research projects a breeze. In this article, we'll guide you on how to write a research plan on Edworking while providing helpful resources to empower you throughout the process.

Define your research objective

Before diving headfirst into the sea of research, it's essential to know your destination. What do you want to achieve with your research? By defining clear objectives, you'll be able to stay focused and streamline your efforts. Use Edworking's task management feature to create tasks and milestones for your objectives, keeping your research plan on track.

Identify your research questions

Once you've set your objectives, it's time to dig deeper. What are the burning questions that need answers? Listing these questions will help you stay on course and ensure you're gathering the right information. Try using the Stories feature in Edworking to share your questions with your team, encouraging open discussion and collaboration.

Outline your methodology

In the world of research, methodology is king. Decide which methods you'll use to collect and analyze data, and consider the ethical implications of your choices. Will you conduct interviews, surveys, or observe from afar? With Edworking's workspace, you can document your methodology in real-time, collaborate with your team, and even publish it as a blog.

Allocate resources and set a timeline

A good research plan needs a realistic timeline and proper resource allocation. Estimate how long each task will take, and assign resources accordingly. Edworking's task management tool lets you assign tasks to team members, track progress, and communicate updates seamlessly.

Monitor and adjust your research plan

Life is full of surprises, and your research plan is no exception. Keep an eye on your progress, and be ready to adapt to new information or unexpected obstacles. By using Edworking's integrated communication tools, you'll be able to pivot and make adjustments in real time, ensuring your research plan stays on course.

In conclusion, writing a research plan on Edworking is a walk in the park when you follow these steps. The platform's integrated features provide everything you need to create, manage, and execute your research plans, allowing you to focus on what truly matters: the success of your project. So, why wait? Sign up for a free demo on Edworking today and bring your research plans to life.

Thank you for taking the time to read this article on the importance of a good research plan. I hope you found it informative and helpful in your research journey. Remember, a solid research plan is the key to a successful research project and can make all the difference in achieving your goals and objectives.

If you're looking for a tool to help you create a research plan that's both well-structured and effective, I highly recommend checking out Edworking . This online platform provides you with all the tools you need to create a comprehensive research plan. With Edworking, you'll be able to streamline the research planning process and ensure that your project is a success. So why not give it a try today and see how it can help you reach your research destination with ease and confidence!

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The Reflective Educator's Guide to Classroom Research: Learning to Teach and Teaching to Learn Through Practitioner Inquiry

Student resources, chapter 5. developing a research plan: making inquiry a part of your teaching practice.

Activity 5.1: Open-Ended Sentences

Activity 5.2: Coaching Inquiry Brief Development

Activity 5.3: Inquiry Brief Feedback

How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates)

Table of Contents

Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.  

Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.  

This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.  

What is a Research Proposal ?  

A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.   

With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.  

Purpose of Research Proposals  

A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.  

Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³  

• To describe the importance of research in the specific topic  
• Address any potential challenges you may encounter  
• Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study  
• Apply for a role at a research institute  
• Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program  
• Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project  
• Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience  

What Goes in a Research Proposal?    

Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.  

The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.  

The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.  

The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.   

Research Proposal Example  

Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.  

Structure of a Research Proposal  

If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹  

1. Introduction  

This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.  

2. Literature review  

This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.  

3. Objectives  

Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.  

4. Research design and methodology  

Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.  

5. Ethical considerations  

This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.  

6. Budget/funding  

Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.  

7. Appendices  

This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.  

8. Citations  

Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal  

Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5  

The Planning Stage  

• Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline.
• What is the primary objective of your research?  
• Will your research address any existing gap?  
• What is the impact of your proposed research?  
• Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?  
• If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?  

  The Writing Stage  

• Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.  
• Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.   
• Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.  
• Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.  
• Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.  
• Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.  
• Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.  
• Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.  
• Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.  
• Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.  
• Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.  
• Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.  

Key Takeaways   

Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:  

• A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.  
• Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.  
• A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.  
• Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?  

A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6  

• Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?  
• Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?  
• Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?  
• Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?  
• Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?  

Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?  

A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.  

Q3. How long should a research proposal be?  

A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.  

Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?  

A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7  

• No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.  
• Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.  
• Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.   
• Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.  
• Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.  
• Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.  

Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.  

This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.  

References  

• Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/  
• Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals  
• What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal  
• Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf  
• Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf  
• Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals  
• 7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/  

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Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

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The value of a good research plan

A research plan is a guiding framework that can make or break the efficiency and success of your research project. Oftentimes teams avoid them because they’ve earned a reputation as a dry or actionless document — however, this doesn’t have to be the case.

In this article, we’ll go over the most important aspects of a good research plan and show you how they can be visual and actionable with monday.com Work OS.

Don’t miss more quality content!

Why is the research plan pivotal to a research project.

A research plan is pivotal to a research project because it identifies and helps define your focus, method, and goals while also outlining the research project from start to finish.

This type of plan is often necessary to:

• Apply for grants or internal company funding.
• Discover possible research partners or business partners.
• Take your research from an idea into reality.

It will also control the entire journey of the research project through every stage by defining crucial research questions and the hypothesis (theory) that you’ll strive to prove or disprove.

What goes into a research plan?

The contents of a thorough research plan should include a hypothesis, methodology, and more. There is some variation between academic and commercial research, but these are common elements:

• Hypothesis:  the problem you are trying to solve and the basis for a theoretical solution. For example, if I reduce my intake of calories, I’ll lose weight.
• Research questions: research questions help guide your investigation into particular issues. If you were looking into the potential impact of outsourcing production, you might ask something like: how would outsourcing impact our production costs?
• Research method: the method you’ll use to get the data for your research. For example, a case study, survey, interviews, a clinical trial, or user tests.
• Definitions: a glossary for the research plan, explaining the terminology that you use throughout the document.
• Conceptual frameworks:  a conceptual framework helps illustrate what you think you’ll discover with your research. In a sense, it’s a visual representation of a more complex hypothesis.

For commercial plans, there will also likely be a budget and timeline estimate, as well as concrete hypothetical benefits for the company (such as how much money the project should save you).

OK, so you’ve got a handle on the building blocks of a research plan, but how should you actually write it?

How do you write a research plan on monday.com?

The first, and perhaps most crucial part of having a good research plan is having the right medium for creating and sharing it. Using a pre-defined template can also make it much easier to get started.

On monday.com, you can choose from several templates like the Project Proposal Template or better yet the Research Power Tools Template to manage all aspects of your project including important communication with internal and external stakeholders and teammates.

Use your template to:

• Create workdocs
• Upload assets
• Provide feedback
• Assign task owners
• Automate communication

The next step in writing a research plan is choosing the topic. To pick the right topic, focus on these factors:

• What are the priorities of the potential funder/employer, such as the company or institution?
• Are there any relevant recent studies with results you can build on and explore with further research?
• Can you creatively adapt your experience — whether post-grad or professional — to make you the natural candidate? They don’t just need to believe in the research project, but also in your ability to manage it successfully.

Do your research, no pun intended. Once you’ve got the topic, you need to work on fleshing out the core ideas with the building blocks we mentioned above.

• Get specific with your research questions and goals. Don’t go with, “how can we revolutionize our HR practices?” Instead use, “what is the economic and environmental impact of only accepting digital CVs?”
• Use clear language aimed at gatekeepers.  If it’s a CTO (Chief Technology Officer) or a lab committee, you can use well-known technical terms. If they aren’t technical experts, adjust accordingly.
• Include preliminary data or highlight similar studies.  For companies, showing that a similar approach helped a competitor is a better argument than an empty assertion.

The recommended length of the plan depends on who you’re sending it to and their expectations. If possible, look at successful examples or directly ask your potential employers about their preferences. Not only do you need the right idea, but you also need to present it in the right way for your research project to have a fighting chance.

What is a good research plan?

A good research plan is one that gets accepted and funded to start doing the research.

If you want to plan a pivotal study, it’s not enough to consider the problem in a vacuum. You also need to evaluate how you can best communicate the value of your project to the gatekeepers.

Consider the entirety of your current situation and what that means for your project.

For example, inputs like funding, staff, IP, and how the scale of the project lines up with your company’s research budget. Or how it aligns with the goals of a University program. If the primary goal of the research is to impact a company or government agency directly, you should consider these stages of research engagement.

( Image Source )

• Inputs: anything from funding and staff to company IP that you need to both run the project and implement any results. Does this line up with the budget?
• Activities: case studies, trials, surveys, the actual research.
• Outputs: the final reports, any publications, and raw data.
• Outcome: how will it directly impact the company, organization, or larger society?
• Impacts: what are the indirect benefits or downsides?

In an internal research proposal, you can outline these aspects in separate sections. That allows different execs or managers to focus on the details that matter most to them. You must also work to engage stakeholders  and make sure that they understand the importance of your project.

Frequently asked questions

What are the 5 purposes of research.

The 2 primary purposes of research are to gather information or test an existing theory. When broken down further, you can see 5 more specific purposes:

• Exploratory research  is an early-stage inquiry that explores a topic for further study down the line, like exploring the deep ocean with a submersible vehicle.
• Descriptive research  aims to explore and describe a specific substance, person, or phenomenon.
• Explanatory research  is about figuring out the causal relationship, why something happens.
• Predictive research  is all about trying to predict what might happen in specific situations based on the properties of the research object.
• Meta-research  looks for overarching insights from multiple sources and tests the validity of common hypotheses.

What is a research work plan?

A research work plan is another name for a research plan, which is a critical component of any research proposal. Universities, labs, and companies use them to evaluate research projects before they decide to accept them.

As a researcher, it’s essential when targeting a funding opportunity of any kind.

What are the methods of research?

There are many research methods ranging from a simple online survey to a high-budget clinical study. Here are some examples of popular data collection methods:

• Clinical trials
• Experiments
• Case studies
• Observations

Which one is right for your plan depends on your hypothesis, goals, industry regulations, and more.

Create a dynamic research plan

If you want to turn your research project into a reality, you need to go beyond the academic and into management mode.

With a template from monday.com, you can plan out a research project from start to finish. Including goals and objectives, budget estimates, milestones, and more.

Send this article to someone who’d like it.

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Developing and executing an effective research plan

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Robert J. Weber, Daniel J. Cobaugh, Developing and executing an effective research plan, American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy , Volume 65, Issue 21, 1 November 2008, Pages 2058–2065, https://doi.org/10.2146/ajhp070197

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Purpose. Practical approaches to successful implementation of practice-based research are examined.

Summary. In order to successfully complete a research project, its scope must be clearly defined. The research question and the specific aims or objectives should guide the study. For practice-based research, the clinical setting is the most likely source to find important research questions. The research idea should be realistic and relevant to the interests of the investigators and the organization and its patients. Once the lead investigator has developed a research idea, a comprehensive literature review should be performed. The aims of the project should be new, relevant, concise, and feasible. The researchers must budget adequate time to carefully consider, develop, and seek input on the research question and objectives using the principles of project management. Identifying a group of individuals that can work together to ensure successful completion of the proposed research should be one of the first steps in developing the research plan. Dividing work tasks can alleviate workload for individual members of the research team. The development of a timeline to help guide the execution of the research project plan is critical. Steps that can be especially time-consuming include obtaining financial support, garnering support from key stakeholders, and getting institutional review board consent. One of the primary goals of conducting research is to share the knowledge that has been gained through presentations at national and international conferences and publications in peer-reviewed biomedical journals.

Conclusion. Practice-based research presents numerous challenges, especially for new investigators. Integration of the principles of project management into research planning can lead to more efficient study execution and higher-quality results.

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Medicare Advantage in 2024: Premiums, Out-of-Pocket Limits, Supplemental Benefits, and Prior Authorization

Meredith Freed , Jeannie Fuglesten Biniek , Anthony Damico, and Tricia Neuman Published: Aug 08, 2024

People with Medicare have the option of receiving their Medicare benefits through the traditional Medicare program administered by the federal government or through a private Medicare Advantage plan , such as an HMO or PPO. In Medicare Advantage, the federal government contracts with private insurers to provide Medicare benefits to enrollees. Medicare pays insurers a set amount per enrollee per month, which varies depending on the county in which the plan is located, the health status of the plan’s enrollees, and the plan’s estimated costs of covering Medicare Part A and Part B services.

The plans use these payments to pay for Medicare-covered services, and in most cases, also pay for supplemental benefits, reduced cost sharing and lower out-of-pocket limits, which are attractive to enrollees. Plans are able to offer these additional benefits, often without charging an additional premium for Part D prescription drugs or supplemental benefits, because they receive an additional $2,329 per enrollee above their estimated costs of providing Medicare-covered services. This portion of plan payments, also called the rebate, has increased substantially in the last several years, more than doubling since 2018. At the same time, Medicare Advantage plans can use cost management tools, such as prior authorization requirements, which can impose barriers to receiving care, and limited networks of providers, which can restrict beneficiary choice of physicians and hospitals. More than half (56%) of Medicare Advantage beneficiaries are enrolled in HMO plans that typically do not cover out-of-network services.

This brief provides information about Medicare Advantage plans in 2024, including premiums, out-of-pocket limits, supplemental benefits, and prior authorization, as well as trends over time. A companion analysis examines trends in Medicare Advantage enrollment.

While data on Medicare Advantage plan availability, enrollment and plan offerings is robust, the same cannot be said about service utilization (especially for supplemental benefits) and out-of-pocket spending patterns (though some of this data is starting to be collected), which would allow assessment of how well the program is meeting its goals in terms of value and quality and help Medicare beneficiaries compare coverage options. As enrollment in Medicare Advantage and federal payments to private plans continue to grow, greater transparency and more comprehensive information will become increasingly relevant for people with Medicare program oversight.

Highlights for 2024:

• In 2024, three quarters (75%) of enrollees in individual Medicare Advantage plans with prescription drug coverage pay no premium other than the Medicare Part B premium , which is a big selling point for beneficiaries, particularly those living on modest incomes and savings .
• Most Medicare Advantage enrollees are in plans that offer supplemental benefits not covered by traditional Medicare, such as vision, hearing and dental . From 2023 to 2024, Medicare Advantage enrollees overall did not experience a significant loss in benefits despite concerns that changes in Medicare Advantage payment would lead to a drastic reduction in benefits or increase in premiums, though there were small declines in the share of enrollees in plans with access to some benefits from 2023 to 2024.
• Nearly all Medicare Advantage enrollees (99%) are in plans that require prior authorization for some services , which is generally not used in traditional Medicare. Prior authorization is most often required for relatively expensive services, such as skilled nursing facility stays (99%), Part B drugs (98%), inpatient hospital stays (acute: 98%; psychiatric: 93%) and outpatient psychiatric services (82%) and is rarely required for preventive services (6%).

In 2024, three quarters of Medicare Advantage enrollees (75%) are in plans with no supplemental premium (other than the Part B premium)

In 2024, most people (75%) enrolled in individual Medicare Advantage plans with prescription drug coverage (MA-PDs) pay no premium other than the Medicare Part B premium ($174.70 in 2024) (Figure 1). The MA-PD premium includes both the cost of Medicare-covered Part A and Part B benefits and Part D prescription drug coverage. In 2024, 97% of Medicare Advantage enrollees in individual plans open for general enrollment are in plans that offer prescription drug coverage.

Altogether, including those who do not pay a premium, the average enrollment-weighted premium in 2024 is $14 per month, and averages $9 per month for just the Part D portion of covered benefits, substantially lower than the average premium of $43 for stand-alone prescription drug plans (PDP) in 2024. Higher average PDP premiums compared to the MA-PD drug portion of premiums is due in part to the ability of MA-PD sponsors to use rebate dollars from Medicare payments to lower their Part D premiums. When a plan’s estimated costs for Medicare-covered services are below the maximum amount the federal government will pay private plans in an area (known as the benchmark), the plan retains a portion of the difference, known as the “rebate”. According to the Medicare Payment Advisory Commission (MedPAC), rebates average over $2,300 per enrollee in 2024 .

For the remaining 25% of beneficiaries who are in plans with a MA-PD premium (5.0 million), the average premium is $56 per month, and averages $36 for the Part D portion of covered benefits.

Premiums paid by Medicare Advantage enrollees have declined since 2015.

Average MA-PD premiums have declined from $36 per month in 2015 to $14 per month in 2024. Average MA-PD premiums have declined markedly for local PPOs, declining from $65 per month in 2015 to $16 per month in 2024. Premiums for HMOs have also declined steadily from $28 per month in 2015 to $12 per month in 2024. Only regional PPOs, which represent a very small and declining share of enrollment, have seen an increase in plan premiums over this time from $36 per month in 2015 to $55 per month in 2024. Nearly 6 in 10 Medicare Advantage enrollees are in HMOs (56%), 43% are in local PPOs, and 1% are in regional PPOs in 2024. The reduction for nearly all plans is driven in part by the decline in premiums for local PPOs and HMOs, that account for a rising share of enrollment over this time period, as well as the increase in rebates paid by Medicare to these plans.

Since 2015, a rising share of plans estimate that their cost of providing Medicare Part A and Part B services (the “bid”) is below the maximum amount that CMS will pay in the area where the plan operates (the “benchmark”). The difference between bids and benchmarks enables plans to offer coverage that typically includes extra benefits without charging an additional premium. As plan bids have declined, the rebate portion of plan payments has increased, and plans are allocating some of those rebate dollars to lower the part D portion of the MA-PD premium. According to MedPAC , rebates have increased from an average of about $900 per enrollee in 2015 to over $2,300 per enrollee in 2024. This trend contributes to greater availability of zero-premium plans, which brings down average premiums.

The average out-of-pocket limit for Medicare Advantage enrollees is $4,882 for in-network services and $8,707 for both in-network and out-of-network services (PPOs).

Since 2011, federal regulation has required Medicare Advantage plans to provide an out-of-pocket limit for services covered under Parts A and B. In contrast, traditional Medicare does not have an out-of-pocket limit for covered services.

In 2024, the out-of-pocket limit for Medicare Advantage plans may not exceed $8,850 for in-network services and $13,300 for in-network and out-of-network services combined. These out-of-pocket limits apply to Part A and B services only, and do not apply to Part D spending. Due to a provision in the Inflation Reduction Act, there is a cap in Part D spending of around $3,300 in 2024 , and in 2025, Medicare beneficiaries will pay  no more than $2,000  out of pocket for prescription drugs covered under Part D.

HMOs generally only cover services provided by in-network providers so typically do not have a limit for out-of-network services. However, about 5 million Medicare Advantage enrollees are in HMOs that are Point-of-Service plans (HMOPOS), which allow out-of-network care for certain services, though they typically cost more than services received in-network. PPOs also cover services delivered by out-of-network providers but charge enrollees higher cost sharing for this care. The size of Medicare Advantage provider networks for  physicians  and  hospitals  vary greatly both across counties and across plans in the same county.

In 2024, the enrollment-weighted average for out-of-pocket limits for Medicare Advantage enrollees is $4,882 for in-network services and $8,707 for in-network and out-of-network services combined. For enrollees in HMOs, the average out-of-pocket (in-network) limit is $3,965 (Figure 3). Enrollees in HMOs are generally responsible for 100% of costs incurred for out-of-network care. For local and regional PPO enrollees, the average out-of-pocket limit for both in-network and out-of-network services is $8,634, and $10,728, respectively.

The average out-of-pocket limit for in-network services has generally trended down from 2017 ($5,297), though increased slightly from $4,835 in 2023 to 4,882 to 2024. The average combined in- and out-of-network limit for PPOs slightly increased from $8,659 in 2023 to $8,707 in 2024.

Most Medicare Advantage enrollees, including enrollees in special needs plans (SNPs), are in plans that offer some benefits not covered by traditional Medicare in 2024

Virtually all enrollees in individual Medicare Advantage plans (those generally available to Medicare beneficiaries) are in plans that offer primarily health related supplemental benefits including eye exams and/or glasses  (more than 99%),  dental care  (98%) hearing exams and/or aids (96%), and a fitness benefit (95%) (Figure 4). Similarly, most enrollees in SNPs are in plans that offer these benefits. However, benefits such as Part B drug rebate are less common for enrollees in both individual plans (12%) and SNPs (7%). This analysis excludes employer-group health plans because employer plans do not submit bids, and available data on supplemental benefits may not be reflective of what employer plans actually offer.

Though these benefits are widely available, the scope of specific services varies. For example,  a dental benefit  may include preventive services only, such as cleanings or x-rays, or more comprehensive coverage, such as crowns or dentures. Plans also vary in terms of cost sharing for various services and limits on the number of services covered per year, many impose an annual dollar cap on the amount the plan will pay toward covered service, and some have networks of dental providers beneficiaries must choose from.

Enrollees in SNPs have greater access than other Medicare Advantage enrollees to transportation (91% vs 36%), meal benefits (85% vs 74%), bathroom safety devices (49% vs 31%), and in-home support services (23% vs 9%). However, as noted above, it is not known what share of enrollees have used these benefits because data are not yet available.

As of 2020, Medicare Advantage plans have been allowed to include telehealth benefits as part of the basic Medicare Part A and B benefit package –  beyond what was allowed under traditional Medicare prior to the public health emergency , and was extended to December 2024. Therefore, these benefits are not included in the figure above because their cost is not covered by either rebates or supplemental premiums. Medicare Advantage plans may also offer supplemental telehealth benefits via remote access technologies and/or telemonitoring services, which can be used for those services that do not meet the requirements for coverage under traditional Medicare or the requirements for additional telehealth benefits (such as the requirement of being covered by Medicare Part B when provided in-person). The majority of enrollees in both individual plans and SNPs are in plans that offer remote access technologies (72% and 78%, respectively), but just 4% of enrollees in individual plans and 1% of enrollees in SNPs have access to telemonitoring services.

Nearly all Medicare Advantage enrollees are in plans that offer vision, dental, and hearing benefits, similar to 2023, with the share of enrollees in plans that offer many benefits increasing substantially since 2015.

In 2024, there were modest changes to the share of enrollees in plans that offer specific benefits compared to 2023. Similar shares of enrollees in individual plans are in plans that offer eye exams and/or eyeglasses (100% in 2023 and 2024), dental benefits (98% in 2023 and 2024), and hearing exams and/or aids (99% in 2023 vs 96% in 2024) (Figure 5). Smaller shares of enrollees are in plans that offer transportation benefits (44% in 2023 vs 36% in 2024) while a larger share of enrollees is in plans that offer bathroom safety devices (10% in 2023 vs 31% in 2024).

For those in Special Needs Plans, similar shares of enrollees are in plans that offer eye exams and/or eyeglasses (97% in 2023 vs 98% in 2024), dental benefits (95% in 2023 and 2024), and hearing exams and/or aids (92% in 2023 vs 93% in 2024). Larger shares of SNP enrollees are in plans that offer over the counter benefits (84% in 2023 vs 96% in 2024) and bathroom safety devices (15% in 2023 vs 49% in 2024).

Overall, Medicare Advantage enrollees have not experienced a significant loss in benefits despite concerns that changes in Medicare Advantage payment would lead to a drastic reduction in benefits or increase in premiums. While the share enrolled in plans that offer benefits appears to have remained mostly stable from 2023 to 2024 and has increased substantially from 2015 for many benefits, this analysis does not account for any changes to the design of benefits, which could be less robust, even if the benefits are still offered by the plan, such as restrictions on eligibility for these benefits, narrower networks of providers or less comprehensive coverage.

Enrollees in SNPs are more likely to be in plans that offer Special Supplemental Benefits for the Chronically Ill (SSBCI) than other Medicare Advantage enrollees.

Beginning in 2020, Medicare Advantage plans have also been able to offer supplemental benefits that are not primarily health related for chronically ill beneficiaries, known as Special Supplemental Benefits for the Chronically Ill (SSBCI). In addition, Medicare Advantage plans participating in the Value-Based Insurance Design Model may also offer these non-primarily health related supplemental benefits to their enrollees, but can use different eligibility criteria than required for SSBCI, including offering them based on an enrollee’s socioeconomic status (e.g., LIS eligibility ) or whether the enrollee lives in an underserved area.

The vast majority of individual plan enrollees and about half of SNP Medicare Advantage enrollees are in plans that do not offer these benefits. However, while the share in plans that are offered these benefits varies widely, this often translates to a similar number of enrollees. For example, the share of Medicare Advantage enrollees who are offered SSBCI benefits in 2024 is highest for food and produce – 15% for individual plans or about 3.1 million enrollees, while 49% of SNP enrollees are offered these benefits, or about 3.3 million enrollees (Figure 6).

The other SSBCI benefits that are most commonly offered are general supports for living (e.g., housing, utilities) (10% in individual plans and 43% for SNPs) and transportation for non-medical needs (9% for individual plans and 29% for SNPs). A similar share of enrollees in individual plans (5%) are offered pest control, a social needs benefit (e.g., community programs), and meals beyond a limited basis though the share of enrollees in SNPs who have access to these benefits is higher (17%, 15%, and 12%, respectively). Smaller shares of enrollees are in plans that offer indoor air quality equipment and services (e.g., air conditioning units) (4% in individual plans and 12% for SNPs), services supporting self-direction (e.g., power of attorney for health services, financial literacy classes) (3% in individual plans and 12% for SNPs), complementary therapies (those offered alongside traditional medical treatment) (3% in individual plans and 12% for SNPs) and structural home modifications (0.02% for individual plans and 1% for SNPs).

In addition to the 10 initially enumerated examples of SSBCI provided by CMS , plans are also able to offer “other” extra benefits specified by the plan, including pet care/service animal supplies (5% in individual plans and 18% for SNPs) and personal care (2% in individual plans and 9% for SNPs)(Figure 6). About 2% of SNP enrollees are in plans that offer roadside and travel assistance and home cleaning (less than 1% in individual plans), and less than 1% are in SNPs or individual plans that offer hairstyling and beauty care (data not shown), though this is not an exhaustive list of additional benefits plans may offer.

While the share of enrollees with plans that offer some SSBCI benefits has increased since 2021, such as food and produce, growth for other benefits has been much slower.

Though the share of SNP enrollees in plans with food and produce benefits, general supports for living benefits, and transportation for non-medical needs has grown considerably since 2021, the share of enrollment in plans for other SSBCI benefits has grown much more slowly, particularly for enrollees in individual plans (Figure 7). For example, the share of SNP Medicare Advantage enrollees with food and produce benefits in SNPs has more than doubled from 21% in 2021 to 49% in 2024, while for individual plans, the share of enrollees with these benefits has also doubled, but only from 7% to 15%. For general supports for living benefits, the share of SNP Medicare Advantage enrollees with these benefits has more than quadrupled from 10% to 43%, while for individual plans, the share has more than tripled, but only from 3% to 10%.

Like for other supplemental benefits, the scope of services for SSBCI benefits varies. For example, many plans offer a specified dollar amount that enrollees can use toward a variety of benefits, such as food and produce, utility bills, rent assistance, and transportation for non-medical needs, among others. This dollar amount is often loaded onto a flex card or spending card that can be used at participating stores and retailers, which can vary depending on the vendor administering the benefit. Depending on the plan, this may be a monthly allowance that expires at the end of each month or rolls over month to month until the end of the year, when any unused amount expires.

Nearly all Medicare Advantage enrollees are in plans that require prior authorization for many higher-cost services

Medicare Advantage plans can require enrollees to receive prior authorization before a service will be covered, and nearly all Medicare Advantage enrollees (99%) are in plans that require prior authorization for some services in 2024 (Figure 8). Prior authorization is most often required for relatively expensive services, such as skilled nursing facility stays (99%), Part B drugs (98%), inpatient hospital stays (acute: 98%; psychiatric: 93%) and outpatient psychiatric services (82%) and is rarely required for preventive services (6%). Prior authorization is also required for the majority of enrollees for some extra benefits (in plans that offer these benefits), including comprehensive dental services, and hearing and eye exams. The number of enrollees in plans that require prior authorization for one or more services stayed around the same from 2023 to 2024. In contrast to Medicare Advantage plans, traditional Medicare does not generally require prior authorization for services and does not require step therapy for Part B drugs.

Meredith Freed, Jeannie Fuglesten Biniek, and Tricia Neuman are with KFF. Anthony Damico is an independent consultant.

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Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know

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What is ADHD?

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder marked by persistent symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Some people mostly have symptoms of inattention. Others mostly have symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity. Some people have both types of symptoms.

Symptoms begin in childhood and can interfere with daily life, including social relationships and school or work performance. ADHD is well-known among children and teens, but many adults also have the disorder. Effective treatments are available to manage symptoms.

What are the symptoms of ADHD?

People with ADHD may experience an ongoing pattern of:

• Inattention : Difficulty paying attention
• Hyperactivity : Showing too much energy or moving and talking too much
• Impulsivity : Acting without thinking or having difficulty with self-control

Signs of inattention can include frequent difficulty with :

• Paying attention to details, leading to careless mistakes at school, work, or during other activities
• Concentrating on tasks or activities, for instance, while having conversations, taking tests, completing assignments, or reading papers
• Listening when spoken to directly
• Following instructions or finishing tasks at school, work, or home
• Organizing tasks and activities, managing time, and meeting deadlines
• Completing tasks that require sustained attention, such as homework, large projects, and complicated forms
• Losing things, such as backpacks, books, keys, wallets, and phones
• Getting easily distracted by unrelated thoughts or stimuli
• Forgetting about daily activities, such as chores, errands, and events, or other important things, like assignments, appointments, and phone calls

Signs of hyperactivity and impulsivity can include often :

• Fidgeting, tapping hands or feet, or squirming while seated
• Moving around when expected to remain seated, such as in the classroom or office, or feeling restless in these situations
• Running, climbing, or moving around at times when it is not appropriate
• Being constantly “on the go” and acting as if driven by a motor
• Being unable to quietly play or take part in hobbies and activities
• Talking excessively
• Answering questions before they are fully asked or finishing other people’s sentences
• Struggling to wait or be patient, such as when playing a game or waiting in line
• Interrupting or intruding on others, for example, in conversations, games, or meetings

What causes ADHD?

Researchers are not sure what causes ADHD, although many studies suggest that genes play a large role. Like many other disorders, ADHD probably results from a combination of factors.

In addition to genetics, researchers are looking at differences in brain development and neurobiology among people with ADHD compared to those without the disorder. They are also studying environmental factors that might increase the risk of developing ADHD, including brain injuries, nutrition, and social environments.

How is ADHD diagnosed?

Based on their specific symptoms, a person can be diagnosed with one of three types of ADHD:

• Inattentive : Mostly symptoms of inattention but not hyperactivity or impulsivity
• Hyperactive-impulsive : Mostly symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity but not inattention
• Combined : Symptoms of both inattention and hyperactivity and impulsivity

ADHD symptoms must begin in childhood (before age 12). Symptoms often continue into the teen years and adulthood. The criterion for a diagnosis differs slightly based on age. 

• Children up to 16 years must show at least six symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, or both.
• Adults and youth over 16 years must show at least five symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, or both.

To be diagnosed with ADHD, a person’s symptoms must also:

• Occur for at least 6 months
• Be present in two or more settings (for example, at home, at work, in school, or with friends)
• Interfere with or impair social, school, or work functioning

Stress, sleep disorders, anxiety, depression, and other physical conditions or illnesses can cause similar symptoms to those of ADHD. A health care provider needs to do a thorough evaluation to determine the cause of symptoms, make a diagnosis, and identify effective treatments.

Primary care providers sometimes diagnose and treat ADHD, or they may refer the person to a mental health professional. During an evaluation, a provider usually:

• Examines the person’s mental health and medical history, including their mood and past or current health conditions.
• Looks at the person’s current or, if an adult, childhood behavior and school experiences. To obtain this information, the provider may ask for permission to talk with family, friends, partners, teachers, and others who know the person well and have seen them in different settings to learn about behaviors and experiences at home, school, or elsewhere.
• Uses standardized behavior rating scales or ADHD symptom checklists to determine whether the person meets the criteria for a diagnosis of ADHD.
• Administers psychological tests that look at cognitive skills, such as working memory, executive functioning (abilities such as planning and decision-making), visual and spatial abilities, or reasoning. Such tests can help identify psychological or cognitive (thinking-related) strengths and challenges and identify or rule out possible learning disabilities.

Does ADHD look the same in everyone?

Anyone can have ADHD. However, boys and men tend to display more hyperactive and impulsive symptoms, while girls and women are more likely to be diagnosed with inattentive ADHD.

ADHD can also be diagnosed at any age, although symptoms must have begun in childhood (before age 12). Adults with ADHD often have a history of problems with school, work, and relationships.

ADHD symptoms may change as a person gets older.

• Children show hyperactivity and impulsivity as the most common symptoms. As academic and social demands increase, symptoms of inattention often become more prominent and begin to interfere with academic performance and peer relationships.
• Adolescents usually show less hyperactivity and may appear as restless or fidgeting. Symptoms of inattention and impulsivity typically continue and may cause academic, organizational, or relationship challenges. Teens with ADHD are more likely to engage in impulsive, risky behaviors, such as substance use and unsafe sexual activity.
• Adults, including older adults , can show inattention, restlessness, and impulsivity, although, in some people, those symptoms become less severe and less impairing. They may also be irritable, have a low tolerance for frustration and stress, or experience frequent or intense mood changes.

Some adults may not have been diagnosed with ADHD when younger because their teachers or family did not recognize the disorder, they had a mild form of the disorder, or they managed well until experiencing the demands of adulthood. But it is never too late to seek a diagnosis and treatment for ADHD and other mental health conditions that may co-occur with it. Effective treatment can make day-to-day life easier for people with ADHD and their families.

How is ADHD treated?

Although there is no cure for ADHD, current treatments may help reduce symptoms and improve functioning. Common treatments for ADHD are medication, psychotherapy, and other behavioral interventions. For children, treatment often includes parent education and school-based programs.

Researchers are studying new treatments for people with ADHD, such as cognitive training and neurofeedback. These options are usually explored only after medication and psychotherapy have already been tried. For many people, treatment involves a combination of elements.

Stimulants are the most common type of medication used to treat ADHD, and research shows them to be highly effective. They work by increasing levels of brain chemicals involved in thinking and attention.

Like all medications, stimulants can have side effects and must be prescribed and monitored by a health care provider. Tell the provider about other medications you or your child are taking. Medications for common health problems, such as diabetes, anxiety, and depression, can interact with stimulants, in which case, a provider can suggest other medication options.

Health care providers sometimes prescribe nonstimulant medications like antidepressants to treat ADHD. However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved these medications specifically for ADHD. Sometimes, a person must try several different medications or dosages before finding the one that works for them.

Learn more about  stimulants and other mental health medications . You can learn more about specific medications, including the latest approvals, side effects, warnings, and patient information, on the  FDA website  .

Psychotherapy and behavioral interventions

Psychological interventions for ADHD can take many forms and be combined with medication and other elements for parents, families, and teachers. Adding therapy to an ADHD treatment plan can help some people better cope with daily challenges, gain confidence, or manage impulsive and risky behaviors.

Therapy is especially helpful if ADHD co-occurs with other mental disorders, such as anxiety, depression, conduct problems, or substance use disorders. Learn about  other mental disorders .

Several psychosocial interventions have been shown to help manage symptoms and improve functioning.

• Behavioral therapy  helps a person change their behavior. It might involve practical assistance, such as organizing tasks or completing schoolwork, learning social skills, or monitoring one’s behavior.
• Cognitive behavioral therapy  helps a person become aware of attention and concentration challenges and work on skills to improve focus and organization and complete daily tasks (for instance, by breaking large tasks into smaller, more manageable steps).
• Family and marital therapy  helps family members learn to handle disruptive behaviors, encourage behavior changes, and improve interactions with children and partners.

Some people find it helpful to get support from a professional life coach or ADHD coach who can teach them skills to improve daily functioning.

Learn more about  psychotherapy .

Parent education and support

Therapy for children and teens requires parents to play an active role. Treatment sessions with the child alone are more likely to be effective for treating symptoms of anxiety or depression that may co-occur with ADHD than for managing core symptoms of the disorder.

Mental health professionals can educate parents about the disorder and how it affects a family. They also can help parents develop new skills, attitudes, and ways of relating to their child. Examples include parenting skills training, stress management techniques for parents, and support groups that help parents and families connect with others who have similar concerns.

School-based programs

Many children and teens with ADHD benefit from school-based behavioral interventions and academic accommodations. Interventions include behavior management plans or classroom-taught organizational and study skills. Accommodations include preferential seating in the classroom, reduced classwork, and extended time on tests and exams. Schools may provide accommodations through what is called a 504 Plan or, for children who qualify for special education services, an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). 

Learn more about special education services and the  Individuals with Disabilities Education Act  .

Cognitive training

Cognitive training approaches involve repeatedly using a program or activity over several weeks to improve specific functions, such as memory or attention. Exercises are tailored to the person’s ongoing performance.

Cognitive training is shown to modestly improve the tasks being practiced. For instance, research shows the training can help memory, attention, inhibition, planning, and cognitive flexibility in people with ADHD. However, these improvements don’t usually translate to changes in core ADHD symptoms of impulsivity and hyperactivity.

Neurofeedback

Neurofeedback is a noninvasive technique in which an electronic device monitors and records a person’s brain activity, providing them with immediate feedback to support self-regulation. The device measures brain activity through such means as EEG or fMRI scans and feeds the information back to the person, usually in the form of a computer screen or visual cue. Through this feedback, people learn to self-regulate their brain activity to directly alter the associated behavior. The assumption is that, with repeated, real-time information, people can change their internal brain activity, with observable effects on behavior and cognition.

For people with ADHD, neurofeedback is used to train and improve specific cognitive functions. Although it is shown to help reduce some ADHD symptoms, the effects of neurofeedback remain lower than those seen from medication and psychotherapy. Additional research is needed to refine the treatment and determine for whom it works and under what conditions.

Complementary health approaches

Some people may explore complementary health approaches to manage symptoms of ADHD. These can include natural products, vitamins and supplements, diet changes, and acupuncture. Others find it helpful to make lifestyle changes, like adding more physical exercise to their daily schedule.

Unlike psychotherapy and medication that are scientifically shown to improve ADHD symptoms, complementary health approaches generally have not been found to treat ADHD effectively and do not qualify as evidence-supported interventions.

Find more information from the  National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health  . 

How can I find help?

If you’re unsure of where to get help, a health care provider is a good place to start. They can refer you to a qualified mental health professional, such as a psychologist, psychiatrist, or clinical social worker, who can help figure out the next steps. Find tips for talking with a health care provider about your or your child’s mental health.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)  has information about ADHD symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment, as well as additional resources for families and providers.

You can learn more about getting help on the NIMH website. You can also learn about finding support  and locating mental health services  in your area on the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) website.

How can I help myself?

Medication and therapy are the most effective treatments for ADHD. Other strategies may also help manage symptoms.

• Get regular exercise, especially when feeling hyperactive or restless.
• Eat regular, healthy meals.
• Get plenty of sleep. Try to turn off screens at least 1 hour before bedtime and get between 7–9 hours of sleep every night.
• Stick to a consistent routine.
• Work on time management and organization. Prioritize time-sensitive tasks and write down assignments, messages, appointments, reminders, and important thoughts.
• Take short breaks during tasks that require sustained attention to help maintain focus and prevent burnout. Break large tasks into smaller, more manageable steps.
• Connect with people and maintain relationships. Schedule activities with friends, particularly supportive people who understand your challenges with ADHD.
• Take medications as directed. Avoid alcohol, tobacco, and drugs not prescribed for you.

How can I help my child?

• Be patient, flexible, and understanding. ADHD can be frustrating both for people who have it and the people in their lives. ADHD may make it hard for your child to perform certain tasks or behaviors. Some children may need to use different strategies to help them succeed.
• Use clear, simple, direct language to explain rules and expectations. Reward behaviors that meet these expectations with positive reinforcement. Provide consistent praise or rewards for acting in a desired way.
• Offer practical help, such as on tasks like cleaning and organizing, or simply be present and engaged while your child works, which can give them a sense of accountability and motivation and help them stay focused and on track.
• Provide opportunities to explore different activities and interests. Help your child discover their unique talents and build confidence in their abilities.

What are clinical trials and why are they important?

Clinical trials are research studies that look at ways to prevent, detect, or treat diseases and conditions. These studies help show whether a treatment is safe and effective in people. Some people join clinical trials to help doctors and researchers learn more about a disease and improve health care. Other people, such as those with health conditions, join to try treatments that aren’t widely available.

NIMH supports clinical trials across the United States. Talk to a health care provider about clinical trials and whether one is right for you. Learn more about participating in clinical trials .

For more information

Learn more about mental health disorders and topics . For information about various health topics, visit the National Library of Medicine’s MedlinePlus   .

The information in this publication is in the public domain and may be reused or copied without permission. However, you may not reuse or copy images. Please cite the National Institute of Mental Health as the source. Read our copyright policy to learn more about our guidelines for reusing NIMH content.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES National Institutes of Health NIH Publication No. 24-MH-8300 Revised 2024

Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Jonathan Swan Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

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