what are research problems in school

45 Research Problem Examples & Inspiration

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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A research problem is an issue of concern that is the catalyst for your research. It demonstrates why the research problem needs to take place in the first place.

Generally, you will write your research problem as a clear, concise, and focused statement that identifies an issue or gap in current knowledge that requires investigation.

The problem will likely also guide the direction and purpose of a study. Depending on the problem, you will identify a suitable methodology that will help address the problem and bring solutions to light.

Research Problem Examples

In the following examples, I’ll present some problems worth addressing, and some suggested theoretical frameworks and research methodologies that might fit with the study. Note, however, that these aren’t the only ways to approach the problems. Keep an open mind and consult with your dissertation supervisor!

Psychology Problems

1. Social Media and Self-Esteem: “How does prolonged exposure to social media platforms influence the self-esteem of adolescents?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Comparison Theory
• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking adolescents’ social media usage and self-esteem measures over time, combined with qualitative interviews.

2. Sleep and Cognitive Performance: “How does sleep quality and duration impact cognitive performance in adults?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Psychology
• Methodology : Experimental design with controlled sleep conditions, followed by cognitive tests. Participant sleep patterns can also be monitored using actigraphy.

3. Childhood Trauma and Adult Relationships: “How does unresolved childhood trauma influence attachment styles and relationship dynamics in adulthood?

• Theoretical Framework : Attachment Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of attachment styles with qualitative in-depth interviews exploring past trauma and current relationship dynamics.

4. Mindfulness and Stress Reduction: “How effective is mindfulness meditation in reducing perceived stress and physiological markers of stress in working professionals?”

• Theoretical Framework : Humanist Psychology
• Methodology : Randomized controlled trial comparing a group practicing mindfulness meditation to a control group, measuring both self-reported stress and physiological markers (e.g., cortisol levels).

5. Implicit Bias and Decision Making: “To what extent do implicit biases influence decision-making processes in hiring practices?

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design using Implicit Association Tests (IAT) to measure implicit biases, followed by simulated hiring tasks to observe decision-making behaviors.

6. Emotional Regulation and Academic Performance: “How does the ability to regulate emotions impact academic performance in college students?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Theory of Emotion
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys measuring emotional regulation strategies, combined with academic performance metrics (e.g., GPA).

7. Nature Exposure and Mental Well-being: “Does regular exposure to natural environments improve mental well-being and reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression?”

• Theoretical Framework : Biophilia Hypothesis
• Methodology : Longitudinal study comparing mental health measures of individuals with regular nature exposure to those without, possibly using ecological momentary assessment for real-time data collection.

8. Video Games and Cognitive Skills: “How do action video games influence cognitive skills such as attention, spatial reasoning, and problem-solving?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Load Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design with pre- and post-tests, comparing cognitive skills of participants before and after a period of action video game play.

9. Parenting Styles and Child Resilience: “How do different parenting styles influence the development of resilience in children facing adversities?”

• Theoretical Framework : Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Inventory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of resilience and parenting styles with qualitative interviews exploring children’s experiences and perceptions.

10. Memory and Aging: “How does the aging process impact episodic memory , and what strategies can mitigate age-related memory decline?

• Theoretical Framework : Information Processing Theory
• Methodology : Cross-sectional study comparing episodic memory performance across different age groups, combined with interventions like memory training or mnemonic strategies to assess potential improvements.

Education Problems

11. Equity and Access : “How do socioeconomic factors influence students’ access to quality education, and what interventions can bridge the gap?

• Theoretical Framework : Critical Pedagogy
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative data on student outcomes with qualitative interviews and focus groups with students, parents, and educators.

12. Digital Divide : How does the lack of access to technology and the internet affect remote learning outcomes, and how can this divide be addressed?

• Theoretical Framework : Social Construction of Technology Theory
• Methodology : Survey research to gather data on access to technology, followed by case studies in selected areas.

13. Teacher Efficacy : “What factors contribute to teacher self-efficacy, and how does it impact student achievement?”

• Theoretical Framework : Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys to measure teacher self-efficacy, combined with qualitative interviews to explore factors affecting it.

14. Curriculum Relevance : “How can curricula be made more relevant to diverse student populations, incorporating cultural and local contexts?”

• Theoretical Framework : Sociocultural Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of curricula, combined with focus groups with students and teachers.

15. Special Education : “What are the most effective instructional strategies for students with specific learning disabilities?

• Theoretical Framework : Social Learning Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design comparing different instructional strategies, with pre- and post-tests to measure student achievement.

16. Dropout Rates : “What factors contribute to high school dropout rates, and what interventions can help retain students?”

• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking students over time, combined with interviews with dropouts.

17. Bilingual Education : “How does bilingual education impact cognitive development and academic achievement?

• Methodology : Comparative study of students in bilingual vs. monolingual programs, using standardized tests and qualitative interviews.

18. Classroom Management: “What reward strategies are most effective in managing diverse classrooms and promoting a positive learning environment?

• Theoretical Framework : Behaviorism (e.g., Skinner’s Operant Conditioning)
• Methodology : Observational research in classrooms , combined with teacher interviews.

19. Standardized Testing : “How do standardized tests affect student motivation, learning, and curriculum design?”

• Theoretical Framework : Critical Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative analysis of test scores and student outcomes, combined with qualitative interviews with educators and students.

20. STEM Education : “What methods can be employed to increase interest and proficiency in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields among underrepresented student groups?”

• Theoretical Framework : Constructivist Learning Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design comparing different instructional methods, with pre- and post-tests.

21. Social-Emotional Learning : “How can social-emotional learning be effectively integrated into the curriculum, and what are its impacts on student well-being and academic outcomes?”

• Theoretical Framework : Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of student well-being with qualitative interviews.

22. Parental Involvement : “How does parental involvement influence student achievement, and what strategies can schools use to increase it?”

• Theoretical Framework : Reggio Emilia’s Model (Community Engagement Focus)
• Methodology : Survey research with parents and teachers, combined with case studies in selected schools.

23. Early Childhood Education : “What are the long-term impacts of quality early childhood education on academic and life outcomes?”

• Theoretical Framework : Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Methodology : Longitudinal study comparing students with and without early childhood education, combined with observational research.

24. Teacher Training and Professional Development : “How can teacher training programs be improved to address the evolving needs of the 21st-century classroom?”

• Theoretical Framework : Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy)
• Methodology : Pre- and post-assessments of teacher competencies, combined with focus groups.

25. Educational Technology : “How can technology be effectively integrated into the classroom to enhance learning, and what are the potential drawbacks or challenges?”

• Theoretical Framework : Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
• Methodology : Experimental design comparing classrooms with and without specific technologies, combined with teacher and student interviews.

Sociology Problems

26. Urbanization and Social Ties: “How does rapid urbanization impact the strength and nature of social ties in communities?”

• Theoretical Framework : Structural Functionalism
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative surveys on social ties with qualitative interviews in urbanizing areas.

27. Gender Roles in Modern Families: “How have traditional gender roles evolved in families with dual-income households?”

• Theoretical Framework : Gender Schema Theory
• Methodology : Qualitative interviews with dual-income families, combined with historical data analysis.

28. Social Media and Collective Behavior: “How does social media influence collective behaviors and the formation of social movements?”

• Theoretical Framework : Emergent Norm Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of social media platforms, combined with quantitative surveys on participation in social movements.

29. Education and Social Mobility: “To what extent does access to quality education influence social mobility in socioeconomically diverse settings?”

• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking educational access and subsequent socioeconomic status, combined with qualitative interviews.

30. Religion and Social Cohesion: “How do religious beliefs and practices contribute to social cohesion in multicultural societies?”

• Methodology : Quantitative surveys on religious beliefs and perceptions of social cohesion, combined with ethnographic studies.

31. Consumer Culture and Identity Formation: “How does consumer culture influence individual identity formation and personal values?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Identity Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining content analysis of advertising with qualitative interviews on identity and values.

32. Migration and Cultural Assimilation: “How do migrants negotiate cultural assimilation and preservation of their original cultural identities in their host countries?”

• Theoretical Framework : Post-Structuralism
• Methodology : Qualitative interviews with migrants, combined with observational studies in multicultural communities.

33. Social Networks and Mental Health: “How do social networks, both online and offline, impact mental health and well-being?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Network Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys assessing social network characteristics and mental health metrics, combined with qualitative interviews.

34. Crime, Deviance, and Social Control: “How do societal norms and values shape definitions of crime and deviance, and how are these definitions enforced?”

• Theoretical Framework : Labeling Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of legal documents and media, combined with ethnographic studies in diverse communities.

35. Technology and Social Interaction: “How has the proliferation of digital technology influenced face-to-face social interactions and community building?”

• Theoretical Framework : Technological Determinism
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative surveys on technology use with qualitative observations of social interactions in various settings.

Nursing Problems

36. Patient Communication and Recovery: “How does effective nurse-patient communication influence patient recovery rates and overall satisfaction with care?”

• Methodology : Quantitative surveys assessing patient satisfaction and recovery metrics, combined with observational studies on nurse-patient interactions.

37. Stress Management in Nursing: “What are the primary sources of occupational stress for nurses, and how can they be effectively managed to prevent burnout?”

• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of stress and burnout with qualitative interviews exploring personal experiences and coping mechanisms.

38. Hand Hygiene Compliance: “How effective are different interventions in improving hand hygiene compliance among nursing staff, and what are the barriers to consistent hand hygiene?”

• Methodology : Experimental design comparing hand hygiene rates before and after specific interventions, combined with focus groups to understand barriers.

39. Nurse-Patient Ratios and Patient Outcomes: “How do nurse-patient ratios impact patient outcomes, including recovery rates, complications, and hospital readmissions?”

• Methodology : Quantitative study analyzing patient outcomes in relation to staffing levels, possibly using retrospective chart reviews.

40. Continuing Education and Clinical Competence: “How does regular continuing education influence clinical competence and confidence among nurses?”

• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking nurses’ clinical skills and confidence over time as they engage in continuing education, combined with patient outcome measures to assess potential impacts on care quality.

Communication Studies Problems

41. Media Representation and Public Perception: “How does media representation of minority groups influence public perceptions and biases?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cultivation Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of media representations combined with quantitative surveys assessing public perceptions and attitudes.

42. Digital Communication and Relationship Building: “How has the rise of digital communication platforms impacted the way individuals build and maintain personal relationships?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Penetration Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative surveys on digital communication habits with qualitative interviews exploring personal relationship dynamics.

43. Crisis Communication Effectiveness: “What strategies are most effective in managing public relations during organizational crises, and how do they influence public trust?”

• Theoretical Framework : Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT)
• Methodology : Case study analysis of past organizational crises, assessing communication strategies used and subsequent public trust metrics.

44. Nonverbal Cues in Virtual Communication: “How do nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions and gestures, influence message interpretation in virtual communication platforms?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Semiotics
• Methodology : Experimental design using video conferencing tools, analyzing participants’ interpretations of messages with varying nonverbal cues.

45. Influence of Social Media on Political Engagement: “How does exposure to political content on social media platforms influence individuals’ political engagement and activism?”

• Theoretical Framework : Uses and Gratifications Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys assessing social media habits and political engagement levels, combined with content analysis of political posts on popular platforms.

Before you Go: Tips and Tricks for Writing a Research Problem

This is an incredibly stressful time for research students. The research problem is going to lock you into a specific line of inquiry for the rest of your studies.

So, here’s what I tend to suggest to my students:

• Start with something you find intellectually stimulating – Too many students choose projects because they think it hasn’t been studies or they’ve found a research gap. Don’t over-estimate the importance of finding a research gap. There are gaps in every line of inquiry. For now, just find a topic you think you can really sink your teeth into and will enjoy learning about.
• Take 5 ideas to your supervisor – Approach your research supervisor, professor, lecturer, TA, our course leader with 5 research problem ideas and run each by them. The supervisor will have valuable insights that you didn’t consider that will help you narrow-down and refine your problem even more.
• Trust your supervisor – The supervisor-student relationship is often very strained and stressful. While of course this is your project, your supervisor knows the internal politics and conventions of academic research. The depth of knowledge about how to navigate academia and get you out the other end with your degree is invaluable. Don’t underestimate their advice.

I’ve got a full article on all my tips and tricks for doing research projects right here – I recommend reading it:

• 9 Tips on How to Choose a Dissertation Topic

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 101 Class Group Name Ideas (for School Students)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 19 Top Cognitive Psychology Theories (Explained)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 119 Bloom’s Taxonomy Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ All 6 Levels of Understanding (on Bloom’s Taxonomy)

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Home » Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Research Problem

Definition:

Research problem is a specific and well-defined issue or question that a researcher seeks to investigate through research. It is the starting point of any research project, as it sets the direction, scope, and purpose of the study.

Types of Research Problems

Types of Research Problems are as follows:

Descriptive problems

These problems involve describing or documenting a particular phenomenon, event, or situation. For example, a researcher might investigate the demographics of a particular population, such as their age, gender, income, and education.

Exploratory problems

These problems are designed to explore a particular topic or issue in depth, often with the goal of generating new ideas or hypotheses. For example, a researcher might explore the factors that contribute to job satisfaction among employees in a particular industry.

Explanatory Problems

These problems seek to explain why a particular phenomenon or event occurs, and they typically involve testing hypotheses or theories. For example, a researcher might investigate the relationship between exercise and mental health, with the goal of determining whether exercise has a causal effect on mental health.

Predictive Problems

These problems involve making predictions or forecasts about future events or trends. For example, a researcher might investigate the factors that predict future success in a particular field or industry.

Evaluative Problems

These problems involve assessing the effectiveness of a particular intervention, program, or policy. For example, a researcher might evaluate the impact of a new teaching method on student learning outcomes.

How to Define a Research Problem

Defining a research problem involves identifying a specific question or issue that a researcher seeks to address through a research study. Here are the steps to follow when defining a research problem:

• Identify a broad research topic : Start by identifying a broad topic that you are interested in researching. This could be based on your personal interests, observations, or gaps in the existing literature.
• Conduct a literature review : Once you have identified a broad topic, conduct a thorough literature review to identify the current state of knowledge in the field. This will help you identify gaps or inconsistencies in the existing research that can be addressed through your study.
• Refine the research question: Based on the gaps or inconsistencies identified in the literature review, refine your research question to a specific, clear, and well-defined problem statement. Your research question should be feasible, relevant, and important to the field of study.
• Develop a hypothesis: Based on the research question, develop a hypothesis that states the expected relationship between variables.
• Define the scope and limitations: Clearly define the scope and limitations of your research problem. This will help you focus your study and ensure that your research objectives are achievable.
• Get feedback: Get feedback from your advisor or colleagues to ensure that your research problem is clear, feasible, and relevant to the field of study.

Components of a Research Problem

The components of a research problem typically include the following:

• Topic : The general subject or area of interest that the research will explore.
• Research Question : A clear and specific question that the research seeks to answer or investigate.
• Objective : A statement that describes the purpose of the research, what it aims to achieve, and the expected outcomes.
• Hypothesis : An educated guess or prediction about the relationship between variables, which is tested during the research.
• Variables : The factors or elements that are being studied, measured, or manipulated in the research.
• Methodology : The overall approach and methods that will be used to conduct the research.
• Scope and Limitations : A description of the boundaries and parameters of the research, including what will be included and excluded, and any potential constraints or limitations.
• Significance: A statement that explains the potential value or impact of the research, its contribution to the field of study, and how it will add to the existing knowledge.

Research Problem Examples

Following are some Research Problem Examples:

Research Problem Examples in Psychology are as follows:

• Exploring the impact of social media on adolescent mental health.
• Investigating the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy for treating anxiety disorders.
• Studying the impact of prenatal stress on child development outcomes.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to addiction and relapse in substance abuse treatment.
• Examining the impact of personality traits on romantic relationships.

Research Problem Examples in Sociology are as follows:

• Investigating the relationship between social support and mental health outcomes in marginalized communities.
• Studying the impact of globalization on labor markets and employment opportunities.
• Analyzing the causes and consequences of gentrification in urban neighborhoods.
• Investigating the impact of family structure on social mobility and economic outcomes.
• Examining the effects of social capital on community development and resilience.

Research Problem Examples in Economics are as follows:

• Studying the effects of trade policies on economic growth and development.
• Analyzing the impact of automation and artificial intelligence on labor markets and employment opportunities.
• Investigating the factors that contribute to economic inequality and poverty.
• Examining the impact of fiscal and monetary policies on inflation and economic stability.
• Studying the relationship between education and economic outcomes, such as income and employment.

Political Science

Research Problem Examples in Political Science are as follows:

• Analyzing the causes and consequences of political polarization and partisan behavior.
• Investigating the impact of social movements on political change and policymaking.
• Studying the role of media and communication in shaping public opinion and political discourse.
• Examining the effectiveness of electoral systems in promoting democratic governance and representation.
• Investigating the impact of international organizations and agreements on global governance and security.

Environmental Science

Research Problem Examples in Environmental Science are as follows:

• Studying the impact of air pollution on human health and well-being.
• Investigating the effects of deforestation on climate change and biodiversity loss.
• Analyzing the impact of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems and food webs.
• Studying the relationship between urban development and ecological resilience.
• Examining the effectiveness of environmental policies and regulations in promoting sustainability and conservation.

Research Problem Examples in Education are as follows:

• Investigating the impact of teacher training and professional development on student learning outcomes.
• Studying the effectiveness of technology-enhanced learning in promoting student engagement and achievement.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to achievement gaps and educational inequality.
• Examining the impact of parental involvement on student motivation and achievement.
• Studying the effectiveness of alternative educational models, such as homeschooling and online learning.

Research Problem Examples in History are as follows:

• Analyzing the social and economic factors that contributed to the rise and fall of ancient civilizations.
• Investigating the impact of colonialism on indigenous societies and cultures.
• Studying the role of religion in shaping political and social movements throughout history.
• Analyzing the impact of the Industrial Revolution on economic and social structures.
• Examining the causes and consequences of global conflicts, such as World War I and II.

Research Problem Examples in Business are as follows:

• Studying the impact of corporate social responsibility on brand reputation and consumer behavior.
• Investigating the effectiveness of leadership development programs in improving organizational performance and employee satisfaction.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful entrepreneurship and small business development.
• Examining the impact of mergers and acquisitions on market competition and consumer welfare.
• Studying the effectiveness of marketing strategies and advertising campaigns in promoting brand awareness and sales.

Research Problem Example for Students

An Example of a Research Problem for Students could be:

“How does social media usage affect the academic performance of high school students?”

This research problem is specific, measurable, and relevant. It is specific because it focuses on a particular area of interest, which is the impact of social media on academic performance. It is measurable because the researcher can collect data on social media usage and academic performance to evaluate the relationship between the two variables. It is relevant because it addresses a current and important issue that affects high school students.

To conduct research on this problem, the researcher could use various methods, such as surveys, interviews, and statistical analysis of academic records. The results of the study could provide insights into the relationship between social media usage and academic performance, which could help educators and parents develop effective strategies for managing social media use among students.

Another example of a research problem for students:

“Does participation in extracurricular activities impact the academic performance of middle school students?”

This research problem is also specific, measurable, and relevant. It is specific because it focuses on a particular type of activity, extracurricular activities, and its impact on academic performance. It is measurable because the researcher can collect data on students’ participation in extracurricular activities and their academic performance to evaluate the relationship between the two variables. It is relevant because extracurricular activities are an essential part of the middle school experience, and their impact on academic performance is a topic of interest to educators and parents.

To conduct research on this problem, the researcher could use surveys, interviews, and academic records analysis. The results of the study could provide insights into the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance, which could help educators and parents make informed decisions about the types of activities that are most beneficial for middle school students.

Applications of Research Problem

Applications of Research Problem are as follows:

• Academic research: Research problems are used to guide academic research in various fields, including social sciences, natural sciences, humanities, and engineering. Researchers use research problems to identify gaps in knowledge, address theoretical or practical problems, and explore new areas of study.
• Business research : Research problems are used to guide business research, including market research, consumer behavior research, and organizational research. Researchers use research problems to identify business challenges, explore opportunities, and develop strategies for business growth and success.
• Healthcare research : Research problems are used to guide healthcare research, including medical research, clinical research, and health services research. Researchers use research problems to identify healthcare challenges, develop new treatments and interventions, and improve healthcare delivery and outcomes.
• Public policy research : Research problems are used to guide public policy research, including policy analysis, program evaluation, and policy development. Researchers use research problems to identify social issues, assess the effectiveness of existing policies and programs, and develop new policies and programs to address societal challenges.
• Environmental research : Research problems are used to guide environmental research, including environmental science, ecology, and environmental management. Researchers use research problems to identify environmental challenges, assess the impact of human activities on the environment, and develop sustainable solutions to protect the environment.

Purpose of Research Problems

The purpose of research problems is to identify an area of study that requires further investigation and to formulate a clear, concise and specific research question. A research problem defines the specific issue or problem that needs to be addressed and serves as the foundation for the research project.

Identifying a research problem is important because it helps to establish the direction of the research and sets the stage for the research design, methods, and analysis. It also ensures that the research is relevant and contributes to the existing body of knowledge in the field.

A well-formulated research problem should:

• Clearly define the specific issue or problem that needs to be investigated
• Be specific and narrow enough to be manageable in terms of time, resources, and scope
• Be relevant to the field of study and contribute to the existing body of knowledge
• Be feasible and realistic in terms of available data, resources, and research methods
• Be interesting and intellectually stimulating for the researcher and potential readers or audiences.

Characteristics of Research Problem

The characteristics of a research problem refer to the specific features that a problem must possess to qualify as a suitable research topic. Some of the key characteristics of a research problem are:

• Clarity : A research problem should be clearly defined and stated in a way that it is easily understood by the researcher and other readers. The problem should be specific, unambiguous, and easy to comprehend.
• Relevance : A research problem should be relevant to the field of study, and it should contribute to the existing body of knowledge. The problem should address a gap in knowledge, a theoretical or practical problem, or a real-world issue that requires further investigation.
• Feasibility : A research problem should be feasible in terms of the availability of data, resources, and research methods. It should be realistic and practical to conduct the study within the available time, budget, and resources.
• Novelty : A research problem should be novel or original in some way. It should represent a new or innovative perspective on an existing problem, or it should explore a new area of study or apply an existing theory to a new context.
• Importance : A research problem should be important or significant in terms of its potential impact on the field or society. It should have the potential to produce new knowledge, advance existing theories, or address a pressing societal issue.
• Manageability : A research problem should be manageable in terms of its scope and complexity. It should be specific enough to be investigated within the available time and resources, and it should be broad enough to provide meaningful results.

Advantages of Research Problem

The advantages of a well-defined research problem are as follows:

• Focus : A research problem provides a clear and focused direction for the research study. It ensures that the study stays on track and does not deviate from the research question.
• Clarity : A research problem provides clarity and specificity to the research question. It ensures that the research is not too broad or too narrow and that the research objectives are clearly defined.
• Relevance : A research problem ensures that the research study is relevant to the field of study and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. It addresses gaps in knowledge, theoretical or practical problems, or real-world issues that require further investigation.
• Feasibility : A research problem ensures that the research study is feasible in terms of the availability of data, resources, and research methods. It ensures that the research is realistic and practical to conduct within the available time, budget, and resources.
• Novelty : A research problem ensures that the research study is original and innovative. It represents a new or unique perspective on an existing problem, explores a new area of study, or applies an existing theory to a new context.
• Importance : A research problem ensures that the research study is important and significant in terms of its potential impact on the field or society. It has the potential to produce new knowledge, advance existing theories, or address a pressing societal issue.
• Rigor : A research problem ensures that the research study is rigorous and follows established research methods and practices. It ensures that the research is conducted in a systematic, objective, and unbiased manner.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Issues surrounding researching in schools

There are tens of thousands of schools in the United Kingdom, which means that observational research which focuses on just one, or a handful of schools will be unrepresentative. This is also a  problem with any of the popular documentary programmes which focus on just one school – they are very interesting as they focus on the stories of the school, and some (but only some) of the pupils and teachers, but they are never going to be representative of all schools!

There are a lot of official statistics available on schools, much of it freely available on the DFES website – information on results, attendance, exclusions are all available, as are the latest OFSTED reports, so using a mixture of secondary qualitative and quantitative data may be a good choice for researchers given that schools are ‘data rich’ institutions.

A researcher could also use official statistics to easily select a sample of schools which represent all the regions in the UK, different OFSTED grades, and/ or different school types.

However, official statistics on education can be misleading – exam results may not reflect the underlying ethos of a school, or show us the difficulties a particular school faces, and schools can manipulate their data to an extent – for example, they can reduce their exclusion statistics by ‘off-rolling pupils’ – getting parents to agree to withdraw them before they exclude them.

Schools are potentially very convenient places to conduct research – because the law requires pupils to attend and teachers/ managers need to attend to keep their jobs, you can be reasonably certain that most people you want to research are going to be in attendance! You have a captive audience!

However, school gatekeepers (i.e. head teachers) may be reluctant to allow researchers into schools: they may see research as disruptive, fearing it may interfere with their duty to educate students.

Schools are also highly organised, ‘busy’ institutions – researchers may find it difficult to find the time to ask questions of pupils and teachers during the day, meaning interviews could be a problem, limiting the researcher to less representative observational research.

The researcher will also need to ensure they blend-in, otherwise they may be seen as an outsider by teachers and students alike, which would not be conducive to getting respondents to open up and provide valid information.  

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The 10 Most Significant Education Studies of 2020

We reviewed hundreds of educational studies in 2020 and then highlighted 10 of the most significant—covering topics from virtual learning to the reading wars and the decline of standardized tests.

In the month of March of 2020, the year suddenly became a whirlwind. With a pandemic disrupting life across the entire globe, teachers scrambled to transform their physical classrooms into virtual—or even hybrid—ones, and researchers slowly began to collect insights into what works, and what doesn’t, in online learning environments around the world.

Meanwhile, neuroscientists made a convincing case for keeping handwriting in schools, and after the closure of several coal-fired power plants in Chicago, researchers reported a drop in pediatric emergency room visits and fewer absences in schools, reminding us that questions of educational equity do not begin and end at the schoolhouse door.

1. To Teach Vocabulary, Let Kids Be Thespians

When students are learning a new language, ask them to act out vocabulary words. It’s fun to unleash a child’s inner thespian, of course, but a 2020 study concluded that it also nearly doubles their ability to remember the words months later.

Researchers asked 8-year-old students to listen to words in another language and then use their hands and bodies to mimic the words—spreading their arms and pretending to fly, for example, when learning the German word flugzeug , which means “airplane.” After two months, these young actors were a remarkable 73 percent more likely to remember the new words than students who had listened without accompanying gestures. Researchers discovered similar, if slightly less dramatic, results when students looked at pictures while listening to the corresponding vocabulary. 

It’s a simple reminder that if you want students to remember something, encourage them to learn it in a variety of ways—by drawing it , acting it out, or pairing it with relevant images , for example.

2. Neuroscientists Defend the Value of Teaching Handwriting—Again

For most kids, typing just doesn’t cut it. In 2012, brain scans of preliterate children revealed crucial reading circuitry flickering to life when kids hand-printed letters and then tried to read them. The effect largely disappeared when the letters were typed or traced.

More recently, in 2020, a team of researchers studied older children—seventh graders—while they handwrote, drew, and typed words, and concluded that handwriting and drawing produced telltale neural tracings indicative of deeper learning.

“Whenever self-generated movements are included as a learning strategy, more of the brain gets stimulated,” the researchers explain, before echoing the 2012 study: “It also appears that the movements related to keyboard typing do not activate these networks the same way that drawing and handwriting do.”

It would be a mistake to replace typing with handwriting, though. All kids need to develop digital skills, and there’s evidence that technology helps children with dyslexia to overcome obstacles like note taking or illegible handwriting, ultimately freeing them to “use their time for all the things in which they are gifted,” says the Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity.

3. The ACT Test Just Got a Negative Score (Face Palm)

A 2020 study found that ACT test scores, which are often a key factor in college admissions, showed a weak—or even negative —relationship when it came to predicting how successful students would be in college. “There is little evidence that students will have more college success if they work to improve their ACT score,” the researchers explain, and students with very high ACT scores—but indifferent high school grades—often flamed out in college, overmatched by the rigors of a university’s academic schedule.

Just last year, the SAT—cousin to the ACT—had a similarly dubious public showing. In a major 2019 study of nearly 50,000 students led by researcher Brian Galla, and including Angela Duckworth, researchers found that high school grades were stronger predictors of four-year-college graduation than SAT scores.

The reason? Four-year high school grades, the researchers asserted, are a better indicator of crucial skills like perseverance, time management, and the ability to avoid distractions. It’s most likely those skills, in the end, that keep kids in college.

4. A Rubric Reduces Racial Grading Bias

A simple step might help undercut the pernicious effect of grading bias, a new study found: Articulate your standards clearly before you begin grading, and refer to the standards regularly during the assessment process.

In 2020, more than 1,500 teachers were recruited and asked to grade a writing sample from a fictional second-grade student. All of the sample stories were identical—but in one set, the student mentions a family member named Dashawn, while the other set references a sibling named Connor.

Teachers were 13 percent more likely to give the Connor papers a passing grade, revealing the invisible advantages that many students unknowingly benefit from. When grading criteria are vague, implicit stereotypes can insidiously “fill in the blanks,” explains the study’s author. But when teachers have an explicit set of criteria to evaluate the writing—asking whether the student “provides a well-elaborated recount of an event,” for example—the difference in grades is nearly eliminated.

5. What Do Coal-Fired Power Plants Have to Do With Learning? Plenty

When three coal-fired plants closed in the Chicago area, student absences in nearby schools dropped by 7 percent, a change largely driven by fewer emergency room visits for asthma-related problems. The stunning finding, published in a 2020 study from Duke and Penn State, underscores the role that often-overlooked environmental factors—like air quality, neighborhood crime, and noise pollution—have in keeping our children healthy and ready to learn.

At scale, the opportunity cost is staggering: About 2.3 million children in the United States still attend a public elementary or middle school located within 10 kilometers of a coal-fired plant.

The study builds on a growing body of research that reminds us that questions of educational equity do not begin and end at the schoolhouse door. What we call an achievement gap is often an equity gap, one that “takes root in the earliest years of children’s lives,” according to a 2017 study . We won’t have equal opportunity in our schools, the researchers admonish, until we are diligent about confronting inequality in our cities, our neighborhoods—and ultimately our own backyards.

6. Students Who Generate Good Questions Are Better Learners

Some of the most popular study strategies—highlighting passages, rereading notes, and underlining key sentences—are also among the least effective. A 2020 study highlighted a powerful alternative: Get students to generate questions about their learning, and gradually press them to ask more probing questions.

In the study, students who studied a topic and then generated their own questions scored an average of 14 percentage points higher on a test than students who used passive strategies like studying their notes and rereading classroom material. Creating questions, the researchers found, not only encouraged students to think more deeply about the topic but also strengthened their ability to remember what they were studying.

There are many engaging ways to have students create highly productive questions : When creating a test, you can ask students to submit their own questions, or you can use the Jeopardy! game as a platform for student-created questions.

7. Did a 2020 Study Just End the ‘Reading Wars’?

One of the most widely used reading programs was dealt a severe blow when a panel of reading experts concluded that it “would be unlikely to lead to literacy success for all of America’s public schoolchildren.”

In the 2020 study , the experts found that the controversial program—called “Units of Study” and developed over the course of four decades by Lucy Calkins at the Teachers College Reading and Writing Project—failed to explicitly and systematically teach young readers how to decode and encode written words, and was thus “in direct opposition to an enormous body of settled research.”

The study sounded the death knell for practices that de-emphasize phonics in favor of having children use multiple sources of information—like story events or illustrations—to predict the meaning of unfamiliar words, an approach often associated with “balanced literacy.” In an internal memo obtained by publisher APM, Calkins seemed to concede the point, writing that “aspects of balanced literacy need some ‘rebalancing.’”

8. A Secret to High-Performing Virtual Classrooms

In 2020, a team at Georgia State University compiled a report on virtual learning best practices. While evidence in the field is "sparse" and "inconsistent," the report noted that logistical issues like accessing materials—and not content-specific problems like failures of comprehension—were often among the most significant obstacles to online learning. It wasn’t that students didn’t understand photosynthesis in a virtual setting, in other words—it was that they didn’t find (or simply didn't access) the lesson on photosynthesis at all.

That basic insight echoed a 2019 study that highlighted the crucial need to organize virtual classrooms even more intentionally than physical ones. Remote teachers should use a single, dedicated hub for important documents like assignments; simplify communications and reminders by using one channel like email or text; and reduce visual clutter like hard-to-read fonts and unnecessary decorations throughout their virtual spaces.

Because the tools are new to everyone, regular feedback on topics like accessibility and ease of use is crucial. Teachers should post simple surveys asking questions like “Have you encountered any technical issues?” and “Can you easily locate your assignments?” to ensure that students experience a smooth-running virtual learning space.

9. Love to Learn Languages? Surprisingly, Coding May Be Right for You

Learning how to code more closely resembles learning a language such as Chinese or Spanish than learning math, a 2020 study found—upending the conventional wisdom about what makes a good programmer.

In the study, young adults with no programming experience were asked to learn Python, a popular programming language; they then took a series of tests assessing their problem-solving, math, and language skills. The researchers discovered that mathematical skill accounted for only 2 percent of a person’s ability to learn how to code, while language skills were almost nine times more predictive, accounting for 17 percent of learning ability.

That’s an important insight because all too often, programming classes require that students pass advanced math courses—a hurdle that needlessly excludes students with untapped promise, the researchers claim.

10. Researchers Cast Doubt on Reading Tasks Like ‘Finding the Main Idea’

“Content is comprehension,” declared a 2020 Fordham Institute study , sounding a note of defiance as it staked out a position in the ongoing debate over the teaching of intrinsic reading skills versus the teaching of content knowledge.

While elementary students spend an enormous amount of time working on skills like “finding the main idea” and “summarizing”—tasks born of the belief that reading is a discrete and trainable ability that transfers seamlessly across content areas—these young readers aren’t experiencing “the additional reading gains that well-intentioned educators hoped for,” the study concluded.

So what works? The researchers looked at data from more than 18,000 K–5 students, focusing on the time spent in subject areas like math, social studies, and ELA, and found that “social studies is the only subject with a clear, positive, and statistically significant effect on reading improvement.” In effect, exposing kids to rich content in civics, history, and law appeared to teach reading more effectively than our current methods of teaching reading. Perhaps defiance is no longer needed: Fordham’s conclusions are rapidly becoming conventional wisdom—and they extend beyond the limited claim of reading social studies texts. According to Natalie Wexler, the author of the well-received 2019 book  The Knowledge Gap , content knowledge and reading are intertwined. “Students with more [background] knowledge have a better chance of understanding whatever text they encounter. They’re able to retrieve more information about the topic from long-term memory, leaving more space in working memory for comprehension,” she recently told Edutopia .

Schools and Health: Our Nation's Investment (1997)

Chapter: 6 challenges in school health research and evaluation, 6 challenges in school health research and evaluation, overview of research and evaluation.

One of the primary arguments for establishing comprehensive school health programs (CSHPs) has been that they will improve students' academic performance and therefore improve the employability and productivity of our future adult citizens. Another argument relates to public health impact—since one-third of the Healthy People 2000 objectives can be directly attained or significantly influenced through the schools, CSHPs are seen as a means to reduce not only morbidity and mortality but also health care expenditures. It is likely that the future of CSHPs will be determined by the degree to which they are able to demonstrate a significant impact on educational and/or health outcomes.

Evaluation of any health promotion program poses numerous challenges such as measurement validity, respondent bias, attrition, and statistical power. The situation is even more challenging for CSHPs, for several reasons. First, these programs comprise multiple, interactive components, such as classroom, family, and community interventions, each employing multiple intervention strategies. Therefore, it is often difficult to determine which intervention components and specific messages, activities, and services are responsible for observed treatment effects. Second, given the broad scope of CSHPs, it is difficult to determine what the realistic outcomes should be, and measuring these outcomes in school-age children (be it the actual behavior or precursors such as communication skills) is often problematic, especially when outcomes have to do

with such sensitive matters as drug use or sexual behavior. Finally, though some aspects of a CSHP (e.g., classroom curricula) can be replicated, many aspects of the CSHP (e.g., staffing patterns, local norms, and community resources) differ across schools, cities, states, and regions. Consequently, the results of even the most rigorous evaluations may not be generalizable to other settings.

This chapter examines these and other issues related to the evaluation of CSHPs. First, general principles of research and evaluation, as applied to school health programs, are reviewed. Then the challenges and difficulties associated with research and evaluation of comprehensive, multi-component programs are examined. Finally, the difficulties and uncertainties related to research and evaluation of even a single, relatively well-defined component of comprehensive programs—the health education component—are be considered. The committee felt that it was appropriate to focus on health education in this chapter, because of the relative maturity of research in this area. Specific aspects of health education research have been chosen that highlight challenges in evaluating school-based interventions, as well as in interpreting ambiguous, if not conflicting, results relevant to other components of the comprehensive program. Discussion of the research and evaluation of other components of CSHPs—health services, nutrition or foodservices, physical education, and so forth—is found in the general discussion of these components in earlier chapters.

Types of School Health Research

Research and evaluation of comprehensive school health programs can be divided into three categories: basic research, outcome evaluation, and process evaluation.

Basic Research

An ultimate goal of CSHPs is to influence behavior. Basic research in CSHPs involves inquiry into the fundamental determinants of behavior as well as mechanisms of behavior change. Basic research includes examination of factors thought to influence health behavior—such as peer norms, self-efficacy, legal factors, health knowledge, and parental attitudes—as well as specific behavior change strategies. Basic research often employs epidemiologic strategies, such as cross-sectional or longitudinal analyses, as well as pilot intervention studies designed to isolate specific behavior change strategies, although often on a smaller scale than full outcome trials. A primary function of basic behavioral research is to in-

form the development of interventions, whose effects can then be tested in outcome evaluation trials.

Outcome Evaluation

Outcome evaluation includes empirical examination of the impact of interventions on targeted outcomes. Possible outcomes (or dependent variables) include health knowledge, attitudes, skills, behaviors, biologic measures, morbidity, mortality, and cost-effectiveness. Interventions (or independent variables) include specific health education curricula, teaching strategies, organizational change, environmental change, or health service delivery models. This type of evaluation in its most basic form resembles the randomized clinical trial with experimental and control groups, along with the requisite null hypothesis assumptions and concern for internal and external validity. Outcome evaluation can further be divided into three stages: efficacy, effectiveness, and implementation effectiveness trials (Flay, 1986).

Efficacy . Efficacy testing involves the evaluation of an intervention under ideal, controlled implementation conditions. During this stage, for example, teachers may be paid to ensure that they implement a health curriculum, or other motivational strategies may be used to ensure fidelity. The goal of efficacy testing is to determine the potential effect of an intervention, with less concern for feasibility or replicability. In drug study parlance, during this stage of research efforts are made to ensure that the ''drug" is taken so that biologic effects, or lack thereof, can be attributed to the drug rather than to degree of compliance.

Effectiveness . In effectiveness trials, interventions are implemented under real-world circumstances with the associated variations in implementation and participant exposure. Effectiveness trials help determine if interventions can reliably be used under real-world conditions and the extent to which effects observed under efficacy conditions are reproduced in natural settings. Some programs, despite being efficacious, may not be effective if they are difficult to implement or are not accepted by staff or students. Effectiveness research is of particular concern because the results of efficacy testing and, to a lesser extent, of effectiveness trials may not always be generalizable to the real world.

Implementation Effectiveness . In implementation effectiveness trials, variations in implementation methods are manipulated experimentally and outcomes are measured (Flay, 1986). For example, the outcomes can be compared when a CSHP is implemented with or without a school

coordinator or when a health education program is implemented by peers rather than adults.

Process Evaluation

Once an intervention has demonstrated adequate evidence for efficacy and effectiveness, it can be assumed that replications of the intervention will yield effects similar to those observed in prior outcomes research trials. The validity of this assumption is enhanced when multiple effectiveness trials have been successfully conducted under varying conditions and the intervention is delivered with fidelity in a setting and with a target population similar to those used in the initial testing.

It is at this point that process evaluation becomes the desired level of assessment. The goal of process evaluation is not to determine the basic impact of an intervention but rather to determine whether a proven intervention was properly implemented, and what factors may have contributed to the intervention's success or failure at the particular site. Implementation and/or participant exposure can be used as proxies for formal outcome evaluation. Key process evaluation strategies include implementation monitoring (e.g., teacher observation), quality assurance, and assessing consumer reactions (e.g., student, teacher, and parent response to the program).

Evaluation at this level may include some elements of outcome evaluation. Desired outcomes are often stated as objectives to be achieved by the program, which can be evaluated pre- and post-intervention, and may include a comparison group or references to normative data. Random selection and assignment of participants are typically not employed, however, and the level of rigor used to collect and analyze data is often less stringent than in formal outcome evaluation. This type of evaluation is sometimes referred to as program evaluation.

Although program evaluation can include rigorous design and analyses, in many real world program evaluations the assessment is often secondary to the intervention. Such interventions often do not bother with randomized design, control groups, or complex statistics. The evaluation is adapted to the intervention, rather than the inverse. For example, pragmatic issues, more than experimental design, often determine sample size and which sites are assigned to treatment or comparison conditions. In basic research and outcome evaluation on the other hand, evaluation is the principal reason that the intervention is being conducted; pragmatic issues often yield to methodologic concerns, and evaluation procedures largely are determined prior to initiating intervention activities.

Linking Outcome and Process Evaluations

Although outcome and process evaluation are described above as being sequential, the two often are conducted concurrently by linking process data to outcome data in order to determine causal pathways. One application of linking process and outcome data is the dose–response analysis—measuring the relationship between intervention dose and level of outcomes. For example, student behavioral outcomes can be examined relative to levels of teachers' curriculum implementation in a health education study or to students' level of clinic usage in a health services study. A positive dose–response relationship is seen as evidence for construct validity—that is, observed outcomes are attributed to the intervention rather than to other influences. Numerous health education studies have established a dose–response relationship between curriculum exposure and student outcomes (Connell et al., 1985; Parcel et al., 1991; Resnicow et al., 1992; Rohrbach et al., 1993; Taggart et al., 1990). Less is known about dose–response in other components of CSHPs.

Who Conducts the Research?

The various types of school health research are conducted by a diverse group of professionals. Basic research and outcome evaluation are typically conducted by doctoral-level professionals from university and freestanding research centers, often with funding from the federal government (though such studies also are supported by private foundations or corporations). Evaluating CSHPs at the level of basic research or outcome evaluation is largely beyond the fiscal and professional capacity of most local and even state education agencies. Process evaluation, on the other hand, can be conducted by local education agencies, perhaps in partnership with local public health agencies. Many models of CSHPs include an evaluation component, and it is important to delineate what type of evaluation schools and education agencies should reasonably be expected to conduct on the local level.

Although carried out by research professionals, basic research and outcome evaluation should not be abstract academic pursuits that are an end in themselves. Greater interaction is needed between researchers and those who actually implement programs. It would be desirable to stimulate and support research and evaluation alliances among colleges of education, schools of public health, and college of medicine. Bringing together the expertise from all three sectors in school health research and evaluation centers may enhance the understanding and interaction between these sectors and produce research and evaluation methods that can address cross-sector issues more accurately. This also will lead to

developing programs that can be disseminated more easily and to reducing the number of researchers working in isolation.

Uses for Research and Evaluation

Basic research, outcome evaluation, and process evaluation are also conducted for different audiences and intentions. The first two are largely intended to build scientific knowledge and are generally published in the peer-reviewed literature. The latter generally is used to demonstrate feasibility of an intervention, as well as to document the facts that program implementation objectives were met and funds were properly spent. Such reports are typically requested by or intended for state education agencies, local education agencies, or funding sources that may have sponsored the local project. Local program evaluations of pilot programs also are used to justify expanding dissemination efforts.

All three types of evaluation can contribute to the development and dissemination of comprehensive school health programs, although it is important that they be applied in their proper sequence. Process evaluation studies are inappropriate for demonstrating intervention efficacy or measuring cost-effectiveness, just as basic research approaches may go beyond what is necessary for local program evaluation. To merit dissemination, programs should first undergo formal experimental efficacy and effectiveness testing; lower standards may result in adoption of suboptimal programs and ultimately impair the credibility of school health programs among their educational and public health constituencies (Ennett et al., 1994).

METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES

Although traditional experimental studies using control or comparison groups are appropriate for testing individual program components and specific intervention strategies, this may not be the case for the overall CSHP, which is a complex entity and varies from site to site. In a recent discussion of methods to evaluate such complex systems as CSHPs, Shaw (1995) proposed that the use of the classic experimental design to conduct outcome evaluations may be outmoded and inadequate for several reasons. First, the randomized clinical trial, with its tightly controlled and defined independent and dependent variables, cannot measure and capture large-scale, rapidly changing systems. Traditional experimental design ignores the need for timely formative descriptive data, maintains the artificial roles of the researcher as external expert and the subject as passive recipient of a defined treatment, and fails to recognize the complex nature of multifaceted programs that vary according to community needs.

Furthermore, there may be ethical dilemmas in randomly assigning students to treatment versus control groups when children's health and well-being are at stake.

It will be difficult—and possibly not feasible—to conduct traditional randomized trials on entire comprehensive programs. However, interventions associated with individual program components should be developed and tested by using rigorous methods that involve experimental and control groups, with the requisite concern for internal and external validity. In this section, some of the methodological challenges of demonstrating program impacts are examined.

Challenges in Assessing Validity

A goal of studying CSHPs at the level of efficacy testing is to measure the extent to which programs produce the desired outcomes (internal validity)—that is, to determine whether there is a causal relationship between the independent variable (CSHP) and defined outcomes such as knowledge, health practices, or health status.

Defining the Independent Variable

The first measurement challenge is the difficulty in defining the independent variable (the CSHP) or "treatment." Knapp (1995) has described this dilemma: "The 'independent variable' is elusive. It can be many different kinds of things, even within the same intervention; far from being a fixed treatment, as assessed by many research designs, the target of study is more often a menu of possibilities."

Ironically, the most successful programs—which are, in fact, comprehensive, multifaceted, interdisciplinary and well integrated into the community—may be the most difficult to define and segregate into components readily identifiable as the independent variable. It may be impossible, for example, to separate effects of the school from those of the community (Perry et al., 1992). This poses an important assessment dilemma. While it is vital that comprehensive programs be evaluated as a whole (Lopez and Weiss, 1994), it is unlikely that any individual program could be replicated in its entirety in a different community with its varying infrastructure, needs, and values. Thus, internal validity—the extent to which the effectiveness of the entire program is being accurately measured—may be high, but external validity—the extent to which the findings can be generalized and replicated beyond a single setting—is sacrificed.

Because of limited resources, one might wish to prioritize individual program components based on their relative efficacy. However, the over-

all effect of comprehensive programs may well be more than or different from the sum of its parts. Using a factorial design to examine the effects of individual components or combinations of components would require an unwieldy number of experimental conditions and large sample size. Thus, the independent variables in a CSHP not only may be difficult to define and measure, but it is unlikely that a consensus of what should comprise the intervention can or even should be reached.

Defining the Dependent Variable

In similar ways, defining the appropriate, feasible, and measurable outcomes (dependent variables) of a CSHP is equally challenging. Is it necessary to use change in health-related behaviors, such as smoking or drug use, to measure effectiveness of health education programs, or is the acquisition of knowledge and skills sufficient? If behavior change outside the school is required to declare effectiveness, this would seem to represent an educational double standard. For example, the quality and effectiveness of mathematics education are measured by determining mathematics knowledge and skills, using some sort of school-based assessment, not by determining whether the student actually balances a checkbook or accurately fills out an income tax form as an adult. Likewise, the quality of instruction in literature or political science is measured by the acquisition of knowledge, not by whether the student writes novels, reads poetry, votes, or becomes a contributing citizen.

Similarly, should appropriate outcomes for school health services be improved health status, behaviors, and long-term health outcomes, or is simply access to and utilization of services a sufficient end point? Is a reduction in absenteeism a proxy for improved health status and a reasonable indicator of health outcomes? Dependent variables used to measure effectiveness of school-linked health services have included linking students with no prior care to health services, decreased use of the emergency room for primary care, identification of previously unidentified health problems, access to and utilization of services by students and families, perceptions and health knowledge of students and their parents, decreasing involvement in risk behaviors, and health status indicators (Glick et al., 1995; Kisker et al., 1994; Lewin-VHI and Institute of Health Policy Studies, 1995). Some of these measures simply determine whether school services provide access and utilization, whereas other measures look for a change in health status and behavior. However, if improved health status and behaviors are declared to be the expectation for school health services, does this hold the school to higher standards than those of other health care providers?

The committee points out that, although influencing health behavior

and health status are ultimate goals of CSHPs, such end points involve personal decisionmaking beyond the control of the school. Other factors—family, peers, community, and the media—exert tremendous influence on students, and schools should not bear total responsibility for students' health behavior and health status. Schools should be held accountable for conveying health knowledge, providing a health-promoting environment, and ensuring access to high-quality services; these are the reasonable outcomes for judging the merit of a CSHP. 1 Other outcomes—improved attendance, better cardiovascular fitness, less drug abuse, or fewer teen pregnancies, for example—may also be considered, but the committee believes that such measures must be interpreted with caution, since they are influenced by personal decisionmaking and factors beyond the control of the school. In particular, null or negative outcomes for these measures should not necessarily lead to declaring the CSHP a failure; rather, they may imply that other sources of influence on children and young people oppose and outweigh the influence of the CSHP.

Other Issues

In addition to the above difficulties, all of the potential biases and challenges inherent in any research also apply. Serious threats to validity in measuring effects of CSHP include:

the Hawthorne effect—positive outcomes simply due to being part of an investigation, regardless of the nature of the intervention;

self-reporting biases—responding with answers that are thought to be "correct" and socially desirable;

Type III error—incorrectly concluding that an intervention is not effective, when in fact ineffectiveness is due to the incorrect implementation of the intervention.

ensuring even and consistent distribution of the intervention;

sorting out effects of confounding and extraneous variables;

isolating effective ingredients of multifaceted programs;

control groups that are not comparable;

differential and selective attrition in longitudinal studies;

inadequate reliability and validity of measurement tools; and

vague or inadequate conceptualization of study variables.

Another problem in drawing conclusions from reported research is "reporting bias"—the fact that only positive findings tend to be reported in the literature while studies with negative or inconclusive results are not often published. It is also important to remember that results that are statistically significant may not always have educational and public health significance.

Challenges Related to Feasibility

The kinds of large-scale research studies necessary to assess long-term outcomes of CSHPs are extremely costly and require extensive coordination. Since such programs are usually implemented for entire schools, communities, regions, or states, a majority of the children who participate are at relatively low risk for a number of outcomes of potential relevance. In addition, often only small to moderate outcome effects are sought. Hence, sample size needs are large, particularly when the unit of measurement is the school or the community rather than the individual.

Once efficacy and effectiveness have been demonstrated, the problem of developing a feasible program evaluation plan is compounded by the lack of evaluation expertise at the local or regional level and the inadequate or incompatible information systems for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating information. Local planners often need assistance in selecting and implementing evaluation strategies and in identifying means to make existing data more useful. For school health education, there are numerous guidelines and evaluation manuals from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Department of Health and Human Service's Center for Substance Abuse Prevention at the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, and the Educational Development Center, to help states develop an evaluation plan. The national evaluation plan for the Healthy Schools, Healthy Communities Program provides helpful information for the evaluation of school health services (Lewin-VHI and Institute of Health Policy Studies, 1995). This plan is facilitated by a standardized data collection system and marks the first time that health education and health services will be systematically analyzed with a management information system that records different types of health education interventions, utilization of health services, and outcomes.

CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH EDUCATION RESEARCH

Health education is one of the essential components of CSHPs. As

described in earlier chapters, health instruction has taken place in schools for many years, and the field is reasonably well defined and developed compared to some of the other aspects of a CSHP. Health education research has been an active field, but considerable knowledge gaps exist and research findings are often ambiguous, unexpected, or sometimes seemingly contradictory. This section focuses on some of the challenges and unresolved questions in classroom health education and suggests issues that merit further study.

Effects of Comprehensive Health Education

The preponderance of school health education research has consisted of outcome evaluations focusing on categorical risk behavior, such as smoking, drug use, sexual behavior, and nutrition. A few notable studies have examined several risk behaviors simultaneously—such as nutrition, physical activity, and smoking—as risk reduction interventions for cardiovascular disease or cancer (Luepker et al., 1996; Resnicow et al., 1991) or have looked at efforts to prevent drug, alcohol, and tobacco abuse (Pentz, 1989a), but there have been very few studies that evaluate comprehensive, multitopic health education programs (Connell et al., 1985; Errecart et al., 1991). The lack of evaluation studies of comprehensive health education is to a large extent the result of how school health research has been funded at the federal level. Generally, health concerns are divided into categorical areas for research and demonstration funding; the result is that funding agencies are interested in funding only research and development projects that address their particular disease area of responsibility. There is a scarcity of hard data about the potential impact of overall comprehensive classroom health education programs. Only a few commercially available multitopic school health curricula have been evaluated to test their effectiveness (e.g., the Know Your Body program). Some of these either are old and or have not made use of the methods demonstrated to be effective in categorical research and demonstration projects, which means that schools are faced with adopting programs that have not been evaluated or attempting to piece together evaluated programs.

How Much Health Education Is Enough?

There is consensus that health education programming should span kindergarten through grade 12 (Lohrman et al., 1987). However, the precise number and sequence of lessons required to achieve significant enduring effects have not been clearly defined. As mentioned previously, such determinations are complicated by uncertainties in what end points

are desirable or feasible—behavior change versus change in knowledge and attitudes. If the desired end point is change in behavior, a greater dose will likely be required. ("Dose" involves two dimensions: intensity, or amount of programming per year, and duration, the number of years of programming.) Moreover, if the end point is long-term behavior change or reductions in adult morbidity and mortality, an even greater dose may be necessary that provides more intensive programming for a longer time.

The ideal means to determine adequate dose would be to deliver the same curriculum using various levels of intensity and duration and then examine differences in student outcomes by differences in curriculum exposure. However, few studies have been designed a priori to test varying format and amount of programming. Instead, most of the evidence derives from post hoc analyses examining dose–response effects between health education programming and student outcomes—that is, the relationship between level of student outcomes and how much intervention students actually received. Despite the methodologic limitations, establishing a dose–response relationship from post hoc analysis is helpful for two reasons. First, a positive dose–response relationship provides evidence for construct validity—observed changes can be attributed to the health education program rather than to other variables. Second, results of these analyses have implications regarding the proper amount and sequence of health education programming.

One of the first major studies to demonstrate a dose–response effect was the School Health Education Evaluation project (Connell et al., 1985). Students from classrooms in which health programs were implemented more fully demonstrated significantly greater improvements in attitude and behaviors, compared to the entire intervention cohort. In addition, students exposed to two years versus one year of programming showed considerably greater changes in attitudes and practices. With regard to specific dose, there was evidence that between 15 and 20 hours of classroom instruction was required to produce meaningful student effects.

Dose–response effects were also evident in the Teenage Health Teaching Modules evaluation. This study found that changes in health knowledge as well as some priority health behaviors were related to teacher proficiency and to how well teachers adhered to the program materials, although these effects were somewhat equivocal (Parcel et al., 1991). In a third study, a three-year evaluation of the Know Your Body program, Resnicow et al. (1992) found significantly larger intervention effects for blood lipids, systolic blood pressure, health knowledge, self-efficacy, and dietary behavior among students exposed to "high-implementation" teachers relative to moderate- and low-implementation teachers, as well as to comparison youth receiving no programming.

There is additional evidence regarding dose–response from a survey conducted for the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company in 1988. This survey of 4,738 students in grades 3 through 12 in 199 public schools revealed that as the years of health instruction increased, students' health-related knowledge and healthy habits increased. With one year of health instruction, 43 percent of the students drank alcohol ''sometimes or more often," a level that decreased to 33 percent for students who had received three years of health instruction. With only one year of health instruction, 13 percent of the students had taken drugs, compared with only 6 percent who had received three years of health instruction. In regard to exercising outside of the school, 80 percent of the students who had three years of health instruction did so, but only 72 percent of those who had one year of instruction exercised outside of school (Harris, 1988).

Duration, Sequence, and Timing of Health Education

Two other aspects of dose include intensity of programming (i.e., concentrated versus dispersed) and booster treatments. With regard to the former, Botvin and colleagues (1983) found that students who received a substance use education program several times a week for 4 to 6 weeks (a "concentrated" format) showed stronger treatment effects than youth receiving the program once a week for 12 weeks (a "dispersed" format). Additionally, in two separate studies, students receiving booster sessions following a year of primary intervention showed larger and more sustained behavior effects than youth receiving only the initial intervention (Botvin et al., 1983; Botvin et al., 1995). Taken together, these findings suggest that the greater the intensity and duration of health education programming, the greater is the effect. It is important to note that "increased dose" can include two elements. The first relates to the number of lessons contained in a curriculum; the second is a function of implementation fidelity on the part of classroom teachers. Thus, a complex, non-user-friendly health education program containing many lessons may, due to low teacher implementation, result in a lower dose than will a more user-friendly program containing fewer lessons.

With regard to specific policy recommendations, there are insufficient data to delineate a requisite number of lessons across content areas and grades. There is, however, some evidence to suggest that at least 10 to 15 initial lessons, plus 8 to 15 booster sessions in subsequent years, are required to produce lasting behavioral effects (Botvin et al., 1983, 1995; Connell et al., 1985). These data, however, are derived primarily from substance use prevention studies of middle school youth. Little is known about the requisite intensity and duration of programming for other content areas or other age groups. It is also unclear to what extent general life

skills training, which targets substance use or sexual risk behaviors, may positively influence other behavioral domains. If spillover, synergistic effects from skills training or other common elements of health education programs (e.g., modifying normative expectations and increasing self-efficacy) occur when categorical programs are delivered within a comprehensive framework, the total number of lessons ultimately required for comprehensive curricula may be fewer than the sum of lessons from isolated categorical programs.

Additionally, whether these findings, which are based on a categorical topic, can be applied to a comprehensive curriculum merits discussion. It may be necessary to stagger content across K–12 and to target programming by developmental needs. For example, programming could be concentrated more heavily on substance use prevention at the middle school level, while in primary grades, nutrition and safety education could comprise the areas of focus. This developmental needs approach is a deviation from currently proposed curriculum frameworks, which suggest that health education address 8 to 12 content areas at each grade level. In view of the research that suggests a minimal number of lessons per grade for each content area, more serious attention should be given to setting priority areas for each stage of student development.

Lasting Effects of School Health Education

In several long-term follow-up studies of substance prevention programs delivered in grades 5 through 8 (Bell et al., 1993; Flay et al., 1989; Murray et al., 1989), positive program effects observed one to four years following the intervention had decayed by grade 12, or shortly after graduation from high school. Decay of program effects has also been observed for curricula addressing other content areas (Bush et al., 1989). There are studies, however, in which behavioral effects decayed but significant effects for knowledge and attitude were maintained (Bell et al., 1993; Flay et al., 1995).

Recently, however, Botvin and colleagues (1995) reported positive long-term results in a study involving more than 3,500 students in grade 12 who were randomly assigned to receive either the Life Skills Training substance use prevention program in grades 7 through 9 or "treatment as usual." Significant reductions in tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use were evident at the follow-up in grade 12, and effects were greater among students whose teachers taught the program with higher fidelity (i.e., high implementors).

How can the positive effects reported by Botvin et al. be reconciled with the null results reported in prior studies? One explanation is dose. The previous interventions comprised only six to eight lessons in the first

year and, in the Ellickson and Bell (1990) and Flay et al. (1989) studies, three to five booster sessions in subsequent years. Botvin's intervention contained 15 lessons in the first year and 15 additional lessons over the next two years. Other explanations include superiority of the Life Skills Training curriculum, including its content, format, and teacher training procedures, as well as higher levels of teacher implementation. Although the results of Botvin's study of substance use prevention are encouraging, research regarding the optimal dose and timing of curricula addressing other health behaviors is still needed. Given that achieving change in language arts and mathematics skills requires daily instruction for 12 academic years, it is reasonable to conclude that changes in health knowledge and in health behaviors also will require more instruction than one semester, the standard middle and secondary school requirement.

Active Ingredients of Health Education

Many successful health education programs employ several conceptually diverse intervention strategies such as didactic, affective, and behavioral activities directed at students, as well as environmental and policy change. Although there is considerable evidence that such programs as a whole can work, the construct validity of specific subcomponents—that is, "why" programs achieve or fail to achieve their desired effects—remains unclear (McCaul and Glasgow, 1985). Consider, for example, skills training. During the 1980s, numerous skills-based interventions aimed at increasing general and behavior-specific skills were developed and evaluated (Botvin et al., 1984; Donaldson et al., 1995; Flay, 1985; Kirby, 1992; McCaul and Glasgow, 1985). While initial results were encouraging and skills training has become an integral component of many school health education programs (Botvin et al., 1980; CDC, 1988, 1994; Flay, 1985; Glynn, 1989; Kirby, 1992; Pentz et al., 1989b; Schinke et al., 1985; Walter et al., 1988), many "skills-based" programs include other intervention strategies, such as modifying personal and group norms and outcome expectations, which also many have contributed to the reported intervention effects (Botvin et al., 1984; Ellickson and Bell, 1990; Murray et al., 1989; Pentz et al., 1989a; Walter et al., 1987). Several studies specifically designed to test the independent effects of skills training have found this approach to be largely ineffective (Elder et al., 1993; Hansen and Graham, 1991; Sussman et al., 1993). Instead, these studies indicate that modifying normative beliefs—students' assumptions regarding the prevalence and acceptability of substance use—appears to be the ''active ingredient" of many of the skills training programs. Despite the questionable effectiveness of skills training in substance use prevention, skills may be important in other behavioral domains such as sexuality, nutrition, and

exercise (Baranowksi, 1989; Perry et al., 1990; Sikkema et al., 1995; St. Lawrence et al., 1995; Warzak et al., 1995).

Similarly, although there is acceptance on the part of many health educators that peers are effective "messengers," the evidence for the effectiveness of peer-based health education is also somewhat equivocal (Bangert-Drowns, 1988; Clarke et al., 1986; Ellickson et al., 1993; Johnson et al., 1986; McCaul and Glasgow, 1985; Murray et al., 1988; Perry et al., 1989; Telch et al., 1990). The effectiveness of peer-based programs is likely to depend more on how peers are included in the program than on simply having peer-led activities.

In a review of programs to reduce sexual risk behavior, Kirby and coworkers found several differences between programs that had an impact on behavior and those that did not (Kirby et al., 1994). Although the authors warn that generalizations must be made cautiously, ineffective curricula tended to be broader and less focused. Effective curricula clearly focused on the specific values, norms, and skills necessary to avoid sex or unprotected sex, whereas ineffective curricula covered a broad range of topics and discussed many values and skills. Interestingly, the length of the program or the amount of skills practice did not appear to predict the success of programs. The authors suggest, however, that skills practice may be effective only when clear values or norms are emphasized or when skills focus specifically on avoiding undesirable sexual behavior rather than on developing more general communication skills.

Given the limited funding and classroom time available for health education, it is important that school health education programs include primarily those approaches known to influence health behavior. Providing health information is a necessary but certainly not sufficient condition for affecting behavior. Identifying "active ingredients" can be achieved through factorial designs as well as post hoc statistical techniques such as structural models, and discriminant analysis can be used to elucidate mediating variables and specific intervention components that may account for program effects (Botvin and Dusenbury, 1992; Dielman et al., 1989; MacKinnon et al., 1991).

Risk-Factor-Specific Versus Problem Behavior Intervention Models

Numerous studies have found that "problem" behaviors—such as the use of alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco; precocious sexual involvement; and delinquent activity—are positively correlated and occur in clusters. Problem Behavior Theory proposes an underlying psychologic phenomenon of "unconventionality" as the unifying etiologic explanation (see Basen-Engquist et al., 1996; Donovan and Jessor, 1985; Donovan et al., 1988; Resnicow et al., 1995). This conceptualization of health behavior has

significant implications for CSHPs. As opposed to commonly used risk-factor-specific interventions that deal with each behavior separately, Problem Behavior Theory suggests that high-risk and problem behaviors can be prevented by an intervention that addresses common predisposing causes. Such interventions may be not only more effective but also more efficient, since fewer total lessons may be required to alter the common "core" causes. In addition to generic interventions, it may also be necessary to apply general strategies to selected high-risk behaviors. However, most school systems do not conceptualize health education from this perspective. Instead, health instruction is broken down into discrete content areas, more akin to the risk-factor-specific approach. Additional research, particularly studies examining the effects of interventions addressing traits that may underlie clusters of risk behaviors, is needed before health education is restructured toward a more targeted model of health behavior change.

Realistic Outcomes for School Health Education

It can be argued that previous studies reporting weak or null behavioral outcomes employed health education interventions of insufficient dose and breadth. Many of the interventions had no more than 10 lessons, delivered over the course of one year, and few or no subsequent booster lessons. As noted earlier, the positive long-term behavioral effects reported by Botvin and colleagues (1995) may be attributed largely to the increased dose. Additionally, had the categorical programs for which no long-term behavioral effects were observed been delivered within the context of a comprehensive school health program, positive effects may have been observed. It is important to set realistic expectations for school health education, particularly since many of the programs used in our schools provide a dose of insufficient intensity and duration, whose effects are further attenuated by inadequate levels of teacher implementation. As stated earlier, although influencing behavior is an ultimate goal of school health education, schools should not bear the total responsibility for student behavior, given all the other influences on students—family, peers, the media, community norms, and expectations—that are beyond the control of the school. Schools should be held accountable for providing a high-quality, up-to-date health education program that is delivered by qualified teachers using curricula that are based on research and have been validated through outcome evaluation. Schools should be held responsible for arming students with the knowledge, attitudes, and skills to adopt health-enhancing behavior and to avoid health-compromising behavior. If these conditions are met but behavioral outcomes are still less than desired, then other sources of influence on students must be exam-

ined for alignment with school health education messages. In addition, there may be delayed effects on behavior in later life, even if no immediate behavioral impacts are observed.

There is encouraging evidence that when school-based interventions are delivered along with complementary community-wide or media campaigns, significant long-term behavioral effects can be achieved (Flynn et al., 1994; Kelder et al., 1993; Perry et al., 1992; see Flay et al., 1995, for an exception). Therefore, although health education delivered in isolation may not be able to produce lasting behavioral effects, when combined with other activities or implemented within a comprehensive school health program, significant enduring changes in behavior as well as physical risk factors can be achieved.

There is considerable evidence that comprehensive curricula can produce significant short-term effects on multiple health behaviors, including substance use, diet, and exercise (Bush et al., 1989; Connell et al., 1985; Errecart et al., 1991; Resnicow et al., 1992; Walter et al., 1988, 1989). However, many of the assumptions regarding the effectiveness of classroom health education derive from studies of categorical programs, and it is unclear to what degree the effects observed for categorical programs are diminished or magnified when taught within a comprehensive framework. Although it can be argued that incorporating categorical programs within a comprehensive framework would attenuate effects because the focus on any one behavior or health issue would be diminished, it could also be argued that program effects would be enhanced because comprehensive programs provide extended if not synergistic application and reinforcement of essential skills across a wide range of topics. This is another area that calls for further research.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

Research and evaluation of CSHPs can be divided into three categories: basic research, outcome evaluation, and process evaluation. Basic research involves inquiry into the fundamental determinants of behavior as well as mechanisms of behavior change. A primary function of basic research is to inform the development of interventions that can then be tested in outcome evaluation trials. Outcome evaluation involves the empirical examination of interventions on targeted outcomes, based on the randomized clinical trial approach with experimental and control groups. Process evaluation determines whether a proven intervention was properly implemented and examines factors that may have contributed to the intervention's success or failure. Basic research and outcome evaluation are typically conducted by professionals from university or other research centers and are largely beyond the capacity of local education agencies.

The committee believes that process evaluation is the appropriate level of evaluation in local programs.

Research and evaluation are particularly challenging for CSHPs. Since these programs comprise multiple interactive components, it is often difficult to attribute observed effects to specific components or to separate program effects from those of the family or community. Determining what outcomes are realistic and measuring outcomes in students are often problematic, especially when outcomes involve sensitive matters such as drug use or sexual behavior. Furthermore, since CSHPs are unique to a particular setting, the results of even the most rigorous evaluations may not be generalizable to other situations.

Interventions associated with the separate, individual components of CSHPs—health education, health services, nutrition services, and so forth—should be developed and tested using rigorous methods involving experimental and control groups. However, such an approach is likely to be difficult—and possibly not feasible—for studying entire comprehensive programs or determining the differential effects of individual components and combinations of components.

A fundamental issue involves determining what outcomes are appropriate and reasonable to expect from CSHPs. The committee recognizes that although influencing health behavior and health status is an ultimate goal of a CSHP, such end points involve factors beyond the control of the school. The committee believes that the reasonable outcomes on which a CSHP should be judged are equipping students with the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary for healthful behavior; providing a health-promoting environment; and ensuring access to high-quality services. Other outcomes—improved cardiovascular fitness or a reduction in absenteeism, drug abuse, or teen pregnancies, for example—may also be considered, but the committee believes that such measures must be interpreted with caution, since they are influenced by factors beyond the control of the school. In particular, null or negative measures for these outcomes should not necessarily lead to declaring the CSHP a failure; rather, they may imply that other sources of influence oppose and outweigh that of the CSHP or that the financial investment in the CSHP is so limited that returns are minimal.

RECOMMENDATIONS

In order for CSHPs to accomplish the desired goal of influencing behavior, the committee recommends the following:

An active research agenda on comprehensive school health programs should be pursued in order to fill critical knowledge

gaps; increased emphasis should be placed on basic research and outcome evaluation and on the dissemination of these research and outcome findings.

Research is needed about the effectiveness of specific intervention strategies such as skills training, normative education, or peer education; the effectiveness of specific intervention messages such as abstinence versus harm reduction; and the required intensity and duration of health education programming. Evidence suggests that common underlying factors may be responsible for the clustering of health-compromising behaviors and that interventions may be more effective if they address these underlying factors in addition to intervening to change risk behaviors. Additional research is needed to understand the etiology of problem behavior clusters and to develop optimal problem behavior interventions. And finally, since the acquisition of health-related social skills—such as negotiation, decisionmaking, and refusal skills—is a desired end point of CSHPs, basic research is needed to develop valid measures of social skills that can then be used as proxy measures of program effectiveness. Diffusion-related research is critical to ensure that efforts of research and development lead to improved practice and a greater utilization of effective methods and programs. Therefore, high priority should be given to studying how programs are adopted, implemented, and institutionalized. The feasibility and effectiveness of techniques of integrating concepts of health into science and other school subjects should also be examined.

Since the overall effects of comprehensive school health programs are not yet known and outcome evaluation of such complex systems poses significant challenges, the committee recommends the following:

A major research effort should be launched to establish model comprehensive programs and develop approaches for their study.

Specific outcomes of overall programs should be examined, including education (improved achievement, attendance, and graduation rates), personal health (resistance to "new social morbidities," improved biologic measures), mental health (less depression, stress, and violence), improved functionality, health systems (more students with a "medical home," reduction in use of emergency rooms or hospitals), self-sufficiency (pursuit of higher education or job), and future health literacy and health status. Studies could look at differential impacts of programs produced by such factors as program structure, characteristics of students, and type of school and community.

A thorough understanding of the feasible and effective (including

cost-effective) interventions in each separate area of a CSHP will be necessary to provide the basis for combining components to produce a comprehensive program.

The committee recommends that further study of each of the individual components of a CSHP—for example, health education, health services, counseling, nutrition, school environment—is needed.

Additional studies are needed in a number of other areas. First, more data are needed about the advantages (cost and effectiveness) and disadvantages of providing health and social services in schools compared to other community sites—or compared to not providing services anywhere—as a function of community and student characteristics. This information will require overall consensus about the criteria to use for determining the quality of school health programs. It is also important to know how best to influence change in the climate and organizational structure of school districts and individual schools in order to bring about the adoption and implementation of CSHPs. Finally, there is a need for an analysis of the optimal structure, operation, and personnel needs of CSHPs.

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Walter, H.J., Vaughan, R.D., and Wynder, E.L. 1989. Primary prevention of cancer among children: Changes in cigarette smoking and diet after six years of intervention. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 81:995–999.

Warzak, W.J., Grow, C.R., Poler, M.M., and Walburn, J.N. 1995. Enhancing refusal skills: Identifying contexts that place adolescents at risk for unwanted sexual activity. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 16(2):98–100.

Schools and Health is a readable and well-organized book on comprehensive school health programs (CSHPs) for children in grades K-12. The book explores the needs of today's students and how those needs can be met through CSHP design and development.

The committee provides broad recommendations for CSHPs, with suggestions and guidelines for national, state, and local actions. The volume examines how communities can become involved, explores models for CSHPs, and identifies elements of successful programs. Topics include:

• The history of and precedents for health programs in schools.
• The state of the art in physical education, health education, health services, mental health and pupil services, and nutrition and food services.
• Policies, finances, and other elements of CSHP infrastructure.
• Research and evaluation challenges.

Schools and Health will be important to policymakers in health and education, school administrators, school physicians and nurses, health educators, social scientists, child advocates, teachers, and parents.

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Education's Research Problem

The "Threshold of Certainty" and Other Dilemmas

Overpromising: exuberance for evidence-poor practices, underdelivering: ignoring science that might help, causes of misjudgment in the use of science, of values, science, and education, making it better.

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Daniel T. Willingham is professor of psychology at the University of Virginia. He is the author of several books, including Why Don’t Students Like School? (Jossey-Bass, 2010) and most recently Outsmart Your Brain (Gallery, 2023).

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From our issue.

Almost everyone is concerned about K-12 students’ academic progress

Subscribe to the brown center on education policy newsletter, anna saavedra , anna saavedra behavioral scientist - usc dornsife center for economic and social research @annasaavedra19 morgan polikoff , morgan polikoff associate professor of education - usc rossier school of education @mpolikoff dan silver , and dan silver ph.d. student - usc rossier school of education @dans1lver amie rapaport amie rapaport director of research - gibson consulting.

March 23, 2021

Concern about our nation’s children is currently at the center of intense public debate. While the pandemic caused virtually all schools nationwide to close by April 2020—keeping almost all K-12 students home for the remainder of the 2019-20 school year—children’s mode of learning (fully in-person, fully remote, or a hybrid mix of the two) in 2020-21 has been highly variable .

Yet with vaccinations accelerating, COVID-19 rates falling, and money flowing, there is clear momentum behind offering in-person instruction. As schools begin to reopen, attention is turning to the deep changes necessary to reverse the learning opportunity disparities that are ingrained in U.S. education.

As educators consider possible changes, adults’ beliefs about the impacts of the pandemic on children’s academic progress—overall and for specific student subgroups—matter. These subjective opinions are important because they indicate political support, or lack thereof, for investment in education. Long-needed, fundamental, and sustained investments in and improvements to K-12 education—especially for underserved low-income and racial minority students—will need broad support. Beyond parents of elementary and secondary children and Democrats—those traditionally most supportive of investments in K-12 education—but from older and Republican voters, and from affluent as well as economically struggling voters.

To learn perspectives on children’s academic progress from adults with K-12 children in the household and from adults as a whole, we used data collected between Dec. 16, 2020, and Feb. 7, 2021, from a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults through the USC Dornsife Center for Economic and Social Research’s Understanding America Study . We asked how concerned adults were that today’s generation of K-12 students may not make as much academic progress this year as they would during a typical academic year. In addition to asking about concern for K-12 students overall, we asked separately about concern for students from lower-income households, students of color, elementary students, and middle/high school students.

The results were clear and overwhelming: Almost three-fourths (71%) of US adults are concerned about K-12 students’ current academic progress. Very few economic, political, or social concerns share this level of agreement in the population, implying policies and programs designed to address the negative impacts of the pandemic on schools could have broad support.

Given low-income communities and communities of color have been especially hard hit by the pandemic, schools in these neighborhoods will need even greater levels of resource and policy attention. We find even higher levels of concern for students in these groups: 81% of adults were concerned about lower-income children, and 77% about children of color.

Not only did we find levels of concern were high across the board, but we also found more advantaged groups were often more concerned about students’ academic progress (even when statistically controlling for an adult’s age, whether they have a K-12 child living in their household, adult race/ethnicity, household income, adult education level, and partisanship).

For instance, we found higher-income and more educated adults are more concerned—both overall and specifically about low-income students and students of color—than are low-income and less-educated adults. Seventy-four percent of adults in households making less than $25,000 are concerned about low-income children—lower than the corresponding rates for adults in households making $25,000-$150,000 (81-83% concerned about low-income children), and households making more than $150,000 (88%). As another example, greater proportions of adults aged 65 and older expressed greater levels of concern for low-income students and students of color, with 86% and 85% of adults over 65 concerned for each respective subgroup, compared to 77% and 72% concerned about these two student subgroups among adults aged 18-34. This is a promising pattern from an education policy perspective, as the unfortunate reality is that power to enact meaningful political change tends to be concentrated among the wealthiest and older individuals. These results suggest that those who tend to hold power may also have a will to enact meaningful, equity-based education policy in the wake of the pandemic.

We did not find racial differences. Regardless of their own race, adult Americans are equally concerned about the impacts of the pandemic for K-12 children.

Notably, too, we found high levels of bipartisan concern. Republicans (77%) and Democrats (70%) are concerned about K-12 children’s academic progress. Over 80% of Republicans and Democrats are concerned about lower-income children (81% Republicans, 84% Democrats) and close to 80% of each political group are concerned about children of color (76% Republicans, 82% Democrats). In other words, despite Congress’s partisan voting on the American Rescue Plan, there is widespread agreement that the effects of the pandemic on children are concerning.

In contrast, in 2019, relevant national survey results reflected much larger partisan differences on public education issues. For example, while 76% of Democrats thought education should be a top federal policy priority , 58% of Republicans felt the same. Also in 2019, 67% of Democrats supported or strongly supported basing part of teachers’ salaries on whether they teach in schools with many disadvantaged students , compared to 52% of Republicans.

What does this all mean? There may never have been more widespread, bipartisan concern about K-12 children’s educational progress, especially among adults without a K-12 child in the home. Unjust as it may be, political will to mobilize change often rests with more affluent and more educated groups. It also typically requires at least some degree of bipartisan agreement. The vast majority of affluent adults, and those from both sides of the political aisle, are concerned for K-12 children—particularly those who have been underserved. As districts and schools reopen, with leaders designing and rolling out new initiatives, they will likely find widespread encouragement.

The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from the National Science Foundation Grants No.2037179 and 2120194. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. The authors are also grateful to Marshall Garland, Shira Korn Haderlein, and the UAS administration team for their contributions to this work.

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364 Education Research Topics about School Issues, Special Education, and More

The field of education encompasses diverse areas of study, ranging from elementary school to higher education. It includes curriculum development, teaching policy-making, and the application of psychology and technology in learning.

Education research explores learning theories and effective teaching practices, examines the impact of sociocultural elements on teaching, and addresses concerns of equality and inclusion. This dynamic discipline continually evolves, driven by innovations and the desire to enhance learning outcomes for all students while creating new avenues for fundamental research.

In this article, you’ll find many education research topics for your projects. You can also find additional ideas in our free essay database .

🏫 15 Controversial School Topics

🔎 research areas & topics in education, 🎒 elementary education research topics, 👩‍🎓 adult education research topics, 🧮 action research topics in education, 🔕 special education research topics, 🚌 school issues topics, 📒 more controversial school topics, 🧠 school psychology research topics, 🔗 references.

• The role of school counselors’ support for students considering abortion.
• Psychedelic therapy: The impact on students’ mental health.
• The role of school religion classes in promoting cultural understanding.
• How do economic policies impact teacher retention and job satisfaction?
• Sexual harassment in schools: Prevalence, structure, and perceptions.
• Free education and its role in reducing educational inequality.
• Why is parental support crucial in achieving academic success?
• Bullying and cyberbullying: The influence on the school environment.
• The effectiveness of school-based sex education programs.
• Promoting school safety for LGBTQ students.
• Inclusive curriculum as a path to better educational performance.
• Cultural diversity in secondary school classrooms.
• The link between alcohol consumption and educational performance.
• Gambling behavior and risk factors in preadolescent students.
• Final exams as the main reason for student depression and anxiety.

Research in education seeks to improve learning outcomes, address the issues of equity and inclusion , and integrate innovative technology into the educational process. Look at the table below to learn what different research areas in education deal with!

• The influence of modern technologies on elementary school education.
• Elementary education: Methods and strategies.
• Elementary School: Picture Communication at the Lesson .
• Promotion of the healthy diet program in elementary schools.
• The role of physical education in elementary schools.
• Addressing Bullying in Elementary and Middle School Classrooms .
• Social studies in the elementary school.
• How to increase motivation among students in elementary school?
• Math Methodology for Elementary Teachers .
• The value of community and family involvement in elementary schools.
• Dominant learning styles among elementary school students.
• Teacher Efficacy of Pre-service Elementary Teachers .
• Elementary education principles: Europe vs. the US.
• The problem of bullying among elementary school students.
• Departmentalization in American Elementary Schools .
• The impact of laptops on elementary school students’ performance.
• The history of elementary education development in Europe.
• Yorktown Elementary School Improvement Plan .
• Corporal punishment as a way of dealing with elementary-level aggressive children.
• Pedagogical Skills in Elementary School .
• Effects of obesity on elementary school students’ development.
• Elementary-level art education and its importance.
• Students’ Academic Performance: Elementary Homework Policies .
• The standards of learning at the elementary educational level.
• Modern approaches to self-studying in elementary school.
• Task-Based Language Teaching Applied in Elementary Classroom .
• Learning English in bilingual elementary schools.
• Lack of proper grooming as a cause of violence among elementary students.
• Proposal for Providing Healthier Food Choices for Elementary Students .
• The need for sexual education in elementary school.
• Differences between adult and child education.
• Main types of adult education and their features.
• Adult Education: Reasons to Continue Studying .
• The most popular adult education agencies and institutions in Europe.
• Adult education: Purpose and theories.
• Adult Education in the “Real World” Classroom .
• Challenges and motivating factors in education for adults.
• Greater social inclusion as one of the crucial benefits of adult education.
• Adult Education for Canadian Immigrants .
• Adult-education movements in the UK.
• What sets adult education apart from traditional education?
• Interaction Strategies in Adult Education .
• Albert Mansbridge and his role in adult education development.
• Adult education in Canada: Key features.
• Adult Educational Pedagogical Philosophies, Theories .
• Peculiarities of learning environment for adult students.
• Critical resources for adult education and training.
• Importance of Adult Education: Risks and Rewards .
• Adult education as a tool for developing leadership capabilities.
• The role of critical thinking in adult education.
• Adult Education: McClusky’s Power-Load-Margin .
• What theories of adult learning are used in UK education?
• Modern technology and its impact on adult learning improvement.
• Michael Collins “Adult Education as Vocation”: Theoretical Positions .
• Theories of adult learning in the context of clinical teaching nurses.
• Adult education: Opportunities and limitations.
• Concept of Lifelong Learning .
• The aid of volunteers in adult education.
• Teaching skills that play a vital role in adult education.

Action research seeks to identify problems, weaknesses, or areas for improvement in different dimensions of the education system — instructional, academic, or organizational. It is a cyclical process, the goal of which is to equip teachers with a mechanism for problem resolution in schools to enhance student learning and teacher effectiveness.

• William Barry: A theory-based educational approach to action research.
• The Effects of Cyberbullying on Students’ Academic Performance .
• Educators’ challenges in conducting action research in classrooms.
• Action research’s importance in teacher education courses.
• Inclusion Policies in Education and Their Effects .
• Primary school education: Action research plan.
• The benefits of using action research in the classroom.
• Learning Disabilities and Intervention Methods .
• The role of action research in college education.
• Parental involvement in student’s education with the help of action research.
• Online Learning and Students’ Mental Health .
• The influence of action research on curriculum development.
• Action research in education: Characteristics and working principles.
• How Is Social Media Affecting College Students?
• Why is action research one of the best ways to improve academic performance?
• Action research for educational reform: Remodeling action research theories.
• College Students’ Weight Gain and Its Causes .
• The use of action research in higher education and its outcomes.
• International educational perspectives through action research.
• Inclusion and Individual Differences in Classroom .
• The contribution of action research to investigating classroom practice.
• How does action research support the development of inclusive classroom environments?
• Homeschooling: Argumentation For and Against .

School & Classroom Management

• Peculiarities of educational management in primary and elementary schools.
• Classroom Management and Techniques to Incorporate in Student’s Reinforcement Plan .
• Preventive approaches to classroom management.
• Educational management: The blue vs. orange card theory.
• Teaching Strategies and Classroom Management .
• What is the role of corporal punishment in educational management?
• Classroom management system: Effective classroom rules.
• Dominance and Cooperation as Classroom Management Strategies .
• Culturally responsive classroom management: Definition and features.
• The influence of school management on student well-being and engagement.
• Blended Learning and Flipped Classrooms .
• Use of information communication technology in school management.
• The problems of classroom management with high school students.
• The Role of Computers in the Classroom .
• Assessment of the role of teachers in school management.
• Online vs. Traditional Classroom Education .

Educational Policies

• Why are education policies and strategies crucial for teachers and students?
• The effectiveness of implementing educational policies.
• Implementation of Federal Educational Policies .
• State policies to increase teacher retention.
• Policies and laws promoting gender equality in education.
• The Separate But Equal Education and Racial Segregation .
• Education policy issues in 2020: Consequences of Covid-19.
• Educational policies for students with disabilities.
• Higher Education Should Be Free for Everyone .
• What education policies and practices does UNESCO prioritize?
• Education policies as a way to improve the school system in the Philippines.
• Where and How Sex Education Should Be Conducted Among the Young People?
• The education policy fellowship program and its value and goal.
• Should Schools Distribute Condoms?
• European education policy regarding the education of adults.
• The main features of the special education process.
• Use of assistive technology in improving education for students with special needs.
• Special Education in New York City .
• Special education: Transforming America’s classrooms.
• The issues faced by parents of students with disabilities.
• Functional Curriculum Goals in Special Education .
• The role of social skills training in the development of special education.
• Paraeducators: Assisting students with special needs in their studies.
• Labeling in Special Education .
• Physical class as a vital part of special education.
• Effects of co-teaching approaches on the academic performance of students with disabilities.
• English Language Learning in Special Education .
• Behavioral strategies for dealing with autism spectrum conditions during lessons.
• Natural Readers Website as Assistive Technology in Education .
• Trauma-informed teaching as a trending issue in special education.
• Special education: The main concepts and legal background.
• Learning Disabilities: Speech and Language Disorders .
• Use of cultural resonance in special education.
• Current issues in special education for children with disabilities.
• Related Services for Students with Disabilities .
• The special education profession and its value.
• Special education: Teaching children with mental disorders.
• Exclusion of Students with Learning Disabilities .
• How to create a perfect curriculum for students with special needs?
• The importance of collaboration between parents and special education teachers.
• General Curriculum for Students with Severe Disabilities .
• The Netherlands as a leader in supporting intellectual disabilities programs.
• Effective Strategies for Students With Learning Disabilities
• The role of cultural sensitivity in multicultural special education.
• Special education: The main aspects and conflicts.
• New Technologies for the Students with Disabilities .
• The frequency and consequences of firearm-related incidents in schools.
• Gun Control and School Shootings .
• The impact of political ideology on educational policies and practices.
• Why is sexual assault a serious problem on American campuses?
• Negative Impact of Media Attention to School Shooting .
• Regulations and procedures for preventing unauthorized access to weapons in schools.
• College accreditation and student loan forgiveness.
• Discrimination in School and Its Effects on Students .
• Modern technologies as a real threat to student privacy and security.
• The issue with learning accommodation for non-traditional students.
• Discrimination and Inequality in the Education System
• Why is standardized testing one of the biggest problems in education?
• The prevalence and patterns of alcohol consumption among students.
• The Early Education Issues: Development and Importance .
• Student poverty and its connection to academic performance and success.
• Teacher salaries: A critical education issue of the 21st century.
• School Bullying and Legal Responsibility .
• What effect does the size of the class have on student outcomes?
• School violence: Dealing with it and minimizing the danger.
• Adolescent Mental Health: Depression .
• Analyzing the impact of technology integration on the increased level of cheating.
• Teacher burnout and its impact on student achievement.
• Adolescent Drug Abuse, Their Awareness, and Prevention .
• What is the influence of socioeconomic status on educational achievement gaps?
• Social Inequality at School .
• High-stakes testing as the main reason for increasing student stress levels.
• Homework: The main disadvantages of self-studying at home.
• Social Inequality and Juvenile Delinquency .
• The effects of drug education campaigns on student knowledge and attitudes.
• Why do college students often become addicted to gambling?

School Bullying

• A method to prevent bias and discrimination in the school system.
• Cyberbullying Among University Students .
• The social consequences of cyberbullying and cyberstalking for students.
• What is the influence of bullying on the academic performance of students?
• School Bullying and Problems in Adult Life .
• Bullying and suicide: Understanding the link and dealing with it.
• School Bullying: Causes and Effects .
• The issue of bullying of children with special needs in school.
• The impact of bullying on school communities.
• Prevention of Bullying in Schools .
• What effect does bullying have on high school-aged students?
• Parenting Style and Bullying Among Children .
• School bullying: Government strategies for managing the problem.
• What steps can parents take to stop bullying at school?
• Cyberbullying of Children in Canada .
• The importance of the anti-bullying program for schools.
• The contribution of technology to the occurrence or prevention of bullying.
• Student Dropouts in Bully-Friendly Schools .
• Bullying and its influence on school climate.
• Bullying and violence in schools: Social psychology perspective.
• The Long-Term Consequences of Being Bullied or Bullying Others in Childhood .
• What are the leading causes of bullying in school?
• Investigating the consequences of online bullying among school-aged children.
• Bullying of Learners with Disabilities .

Lack of Funding

• The impact of school funding issues on the performance of students.
• Children Education. Federal Funding of Preschool .
• School funding issues: Methods and strategies to overcome the problem.
• Why is school funding a key to equitable education?
• The Role of External Funding in Academic Projects .
• The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on school funding.
• How can an increase in spending on education help boost economic recovery?
• School-Funding System in New Jersey .
• Investigating the link between financial disparities and educational inequality.
• How Misuse of Funding Could Affect Education .
• The influence of budget cuts on teacher recruitment and retention.
• Inadequate funding as one of the biggest problems in education.
• Free College Education: Arguments in Support .
• Problems of insufficient funding for elementary education in Asia.
• The role of private sector partnerships in education funding.
• Should College Education Be Free for All US Citizens?
• Public education funding in the US: Peculiarities.
• The importance of educating children in poor countries.
• Should College Athletes Be Paid or Not?
• How can the issue of improper funding for schools be solved?
• New school funding model in Kenya: Benefits and main problems.
• Evidence-Based Model and Solving Problems with School Funding .
• How do decreasing budgets affect student learning and achievement?

Mental Health of Students

• Why do many college students experience symptoms of severe mental health conditions?
• University Students’ Mental Health in 2000-2020 .
• Depression as a common mental health issue in US students.
• Suicidal ideation and intent in students: The leading causes and symptoms.
• The Effect of Mental Health Programs on Students Academic Performance .
• American Psychological Association and its role in helping students with anxiety.
• Eating disorders: The female college students’ problem.
• Mental Health Issues in College Students .
• Substance misuse and its influence on the social life of students.
• What are the long-term effects of academic stress on student mental health?
• Strategies to Decrease Nursing Student Anxiety .
• Factors contributing to the rise in student anxiety and depression rates.
• Social media use and its connection to the mental health of high school students.
• Adolescent Depression: Modern Issues and Resources .
• Sleep quality and duration’s influence on student mental health.
• How does parental involvement influence the mental health and well-being of students?
• The Problem of Adolescent Suicide .
• Physical activity and its contribution to students’ mental health.
• The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student mental health.
• Mental Health Well-Being Notion: Its Effect on Education .
• The effectiveness of school-based mental health programs for students in Europe.
• Education and Motivation for At-Risk Students .
• Creative approaches to support teenagers with mental disorders.

Inclusivity

• The value of inclusive education for high school students.
• Diversity and Inclusivity as Teaching Philosophy .
• Government measures to advance inclusive education.
• Inclusive education: Essential elements, related laws, and strategies.
• Inclusive Education for Students With Autism Spectrum Disorder .
• Inclusive teaching principles at Columbia schools.
• How do open society foundations support inclusive education?
• Student-Teacher Interaction in Inclusive Education .
• Inclusive education and its benefits for students with disabilities.
• Non-competitive learning as the main concept of inclusive education.
• Inclusive Education for Students With Disabilities .
• Increasing inclusivity in the classroom: The main benefits and methods.
• How can parents build an inclusive behavioral model for their children in elementary school?
• Effective Practice in Inclusive and Special Needs Education .
• The role of government in funding inclusive education in the US.
• Respectful language as a key to teaching students to be more tolerant.
• Early Childhood: Inclusive Programs and Social Interactions .
• Diverse groups and their contribution to increasing inclusivity in the classroom.
• The value of inclusive education: Socialization and academic progress.
• Creating Inclusive Classrooms for Diverse Learners .
• Peculiarities of curriculum and pedagogy in inclusive education.
• What are the critical challenges in implementing inclusive education policies?

Other School Issues

• Traditional teaching methods and their negative impact on student performance.
• Shooting in Schools: Trends and Definition .
• The main teaching issues: Constant pressure and a lot of paperwork.
• The lack of effective communication between teachers and students in high school.
• Alcohol Abuse Among Students: Reforming College Drinking .
• Students’ behavior as one of the relevant issues in elementary school.
• The risk of burning out in college students: Causes and symptoms.
• Dormitory Life and Its Tough Sides for Students .
• How does a lack of support outside of the classroom influence students’ grades?
• The connection between administrative workload and teacher retention rates.
• Changes in Diet and Lifestyle for Students .
• Changing educational trends as one of the challenges faced by teachers.
• What are the main limitations of disciplining students?
• Homeschooling Disadvantages for Students and Parents .
• The issue of using mobile devices in the classroom.
• The potential drawbacks and limitations of redundant teaching techniques.
• Dealing With Procrastination Among Students .
• How to deal with the growing discipline problem in US classrooms?
• The effects of educational technology use on college student learning.
• Teaching Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder .
• The emotional and mental toll of lesson planning on teachers.
• What is the impact of pressure from school administrators on teacher performance?
• Cybersecurity Threats for Students & How to Fight Them .
• The community perceptions and concerns regarding armed guards in schools.
• Small-Group Counseling for the High-School Students .
• The need for bilingual education for students in England.
• LGBT+ inclusive sex education: Advantages and disadvantages.
• Challenges Faced by Foreign Students in Adapting to University Culture .
• Why should school uniforms in middle and high school be mandatory?
• The influence of teaching salaries on teacher motivation and performance.
• The Problem of Technology Addiction Among College Students .
• The role of teachers in navigating religious diversity in classrooms.
• What makes private schools in the US better than public ones?
• Why Some Students Cheat .
• The impact of free colleges on the quality of higher education.
• Dissection in school: The value and impact on student’s attitudes toward science.
• How Inclusive Learning Affects Other Students .
• The social and emotional development of students in homeschooling and traditional schooling.
• Why is it necessary to implement college courses in state prisons?
• How to Keep Young Students Engaged and Disciplined in Classroom .
• The effectiveness of school-supplied condoms in preventing teenage pregnancy.
• The impact of implicit bias on racial segregation in education.
• The Problem of Anxiety Among the College Students .
• Race-based school discipline in high school: For and against.
• What are the cons and pros of single-sex schools?
• The Need for Curriculum Change Among African American Students .
• Corporal punishment in schools as a way of controlling undisciplined behavior.
• The role of online education in student-teacher interaction.
• Self-Esteem and Self-Anxiety in Nursing Students .
• The problem of sexually or socially provocative clothes at school and methods of solving it.
• Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP) For Anxious Students .
• Corruption and emotional manipulations in the educational system.
• How can social and religious issues uniquely affect education?
• Mandatory Drug Tests for Nursing Students .
• What are the main aspects and goals of school psychology?
• Adlerian Theory for School Counseling .
• Historical foundations of American school psychology.
• The role of school psychologists in conceptualizing children’s development.
• Solution-Focused Brief Therapy in School Counseling .
• School psychology: The helping hand in overcoming school crisis.
• The value of professional development programs in high school.
• Therapy Modality for Transformational P-12 School Counselors .
• Job prospects in school psychology in the United States.
• What is the role of school psychologists in supporting students with special needs?
• The McMartin Preschool and Forensic Psychology .
• School psychology in the 21st century: Foundations and practices.
• How do the social-emotional learning programs impact student well-being?
• The effects of school-based crisis interventions on students’ post-traumatic recovery.
• Cognitive Distortions in Middle-School Students.
• School psychology science: Skills and procedures.
• What are the most effective psychological strategies for reducing bullying in schools?
• Instruction Development for Students with Cognitive Disability .
• The effects of crisis intervention work on school psychologists.
• National Association of School Psychologists: Standards and practices.
• The influence of psychologists on the formulation of school policies in the UK.
• Risky Sexual Behaviors Among College Students .
• Counseling students with a sexual abuse history and its impact on academic success.
• Religion and spirituality as diverse topics in school psychology publications.
• Social-Behavioral Skills of Elementary Students with Physical Disabilities .
• School-based considerations for supporting American youths’ mental health.
• The practices for increasing cross-cultural competency in school.
• Classroom Management Ideas: Behavioral Crises and Promotion of Friendship Between Students .
• School psychologists: Principles of professional ethics .

Educational research advances knowledge across diverse disciplines, employing scientific methods to address real-world challenges within the realm of education. By exploring various topics , from innovative pedagogies to the impact of technology, we gain valuable insights to enhance educational practices, ensure inclusivity, and empower future generations with the tools for success.

❓ Educational Research Topics FAQ

What are good research topics for education.

An effective topic is one you can explore in-depth within the length of your assignment. Here are some crucial characteristics of a good research topic:

• Relevant and clear.
• Not too broad or narrow.
• Interesting for the author and target audience.

For example:

• Project-based learning in the classroom: Pros and cons.
• What role did technology play in the development of online tutoring?

How do I find a research topic in education?

You should take 3 simple steps to find a research topic in education:

• Determine the area in education that interests you the most.
• Read all the relevant information to understand the hot issues in your field.
• If you still cannot find the one that suits you best, use our base of the most exciting research topics in education!

What are the top 5 most researched topics?

• Bullying and cyberbullying as significant issues in US schools.
• Why are modern technologies more of a distraction than a helper in education?
• The benefits of inclusive classrooms for students with disabilities.
• How did COVID-19 affect student mental health and the school environment?
• The barriers to education access in underserved communities.
• 10 Challenges Facing Public Education Today | National Education Association
• Education Issues, Explained | EducationWeek
• The Education Crisis: Being in School Is Not the Same as Learning | The World Bank
• The 10 Most Significant Education Studies of 2021 | Edutopia
• Special Education Topics | Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction
• Social Issues That Special Education Teachers Face | Chron
• How Teachers Can Learn Through Action Research | Edutopia
• School Psychology | American Psychological Association
• Issues and Problems in Education | Sociology by University of Minnesota
• Educational Research Design | University of Pittsburgh
• Global Education Issues: Making a Difference Through Policy | American University
• Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education | Brookings
• Higher Education | George Mason University
• Department of Curriculum and Instruction: Research Topics | University of Minnesota
• A Six Step Process to Developing an Educational Research Plan | East Carolina University
• Teaching and Learning Topics | University of Oregon
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What’s It Like To Be a Teacher in America Today?

4. challenges in the classroom, table of contents.

• Problems students are facing
• A look inside the classroom
• How teachers are experiencing their jobs
• How teachers view the education system
• Satisfaction with specific aspects of the job
• Do teachers feel trusted to do their job well?
• Likelihood that teachers will change jobs
• Would teachers recommend teaching as a profession?
• Reasons it’s so hard to get everything done during the workday
• Staffing issues
• Balancing work and personal life
• How teachers experience their jobs
• Lasting impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
• Major problems at school
• Discipline practices
• Policies around cellphone use
• Verbal abuse and physical violence from students
• Addressing behavioral and mental health challenges
• Teachers’ interactions with parents
• K-12 education and political parties
• Acknowledgments
• Methodology

In addition to asking public K-12 teachers about issues they see at their school, we asked how much each of the following is a problem among students in their classroom :

• Showing little to no interest in learning (47% say this is a major problem)
• Being distracted by their cellphones (33%)
• Getting up and walking around when they’re not supposed to (21%)
• Being disrespectful toward the teacher (21%)

Some challenges are more common among high school teachers, while others are more common among those who teach elementary or middle school.

• Cellphones: 72% of high school teachers say students being distracted by their cellphones in the classroom is a major problem. A third of middle school teachers and just 6% of elementary school teachers say the same.
• Little to no interest in learning: A majority of high school teachers (58%) say students showing little to no interest in learning is a major problem. This compares with half of middle school teachers and 40% of elementary school teachers. 
• Getting up and walking around: 23% of elementary school teachers and 24% of middle school teachers see students getting up and walking around when they’re not supposed to as a major problem. A smaller share of high school teachers (16%) say the same.
• Being disrespectful: 23% of elementary school teachers and 27% of middle school teachers say students being disrespectful toward them is a major problem. Just 14% of high school teachers say this.

About eight-in-ten teachers (82%) say their school or district has policies regarding students’ use of cellphones in the classroom. Of those, 56% say these policies are at least somewhat easy to enforce, 30% say they’re difficult to enforce, and 14% say they’re neither easy nor difficult to enforce.

High school teachers are the least likely to say their school or district has policies regarding students’ use of cellphones in the classroom (71% vs. 84% of elementary school teachers and 94% of middle school teachers).

Among those who say there are such policies at their school, high school teachers are the most likely to say these are very or somewhat difficult to enforce. Six-in-ten high school teachers say this, compared with 30% of middle school teachers and 12% of elementary school teachers.

Most teachers (68%) say they have experienced verbal abuse from their students, such as being yelled at or verbally threatened. About one-in-five (21%) say this happens at least a few times a month.

Physical violence is far less common, but about one-in-ten teachers (9%) say a student is physically violent toward them at least a few times a month. Four-in-ten say this has ever happened to them.

Differences by school level

Elementary school teachers (26%) are more likely than middle and high school teachers (18% and 16%) to say they experience verbal abuse from students a few times a month or more often.

And while relatively small shares across school levels say students are physically violent toward them a few times a month or more often, elementary school teachers (55%) are more likely than middle and high school teachers (33% and 23%) to say this has ever happened to them.

Differences by poverty level

Among teachers in high-poverty schools, 27% say they experience verbal abuse from students at least a few times a month. This is larger than the shares of teachers in medium- and low-poverty schools (19% and 18%) who say the same.

Experiences with physical violence don’t differ as much based on school poverty level.

Differences by gender

Teachers who are women are more likely than those who are men to say a student has been physically violent toward them. Some 43% of women teachers say this, compared with 30% of men.

There is also a gender difference in the shares of teachers who say they’ve experienced verbal abuse from students. But this difference is accounted for by the fact that women teachers are more likely than men to work in elementary schools.

Eight-in-ten teachers say they have to address students’ behavioral issues at least a few times a week, with 58% saying this happens every day .

A majority of teachers (57%) also say they help students with mental health challenges at least a few times a week, with 28% saying this happens daily.

Some teachers are more likely than others to say they have to address students’ behavior and mental health challenges on a daily basis. These include:

• Women: 62% of women teachers say they have to address behavior issues daily, compared with 43% of those who are men. And while 29% of women teachers say they have to help students with mental health challenges every day, a smaller share of men (19%) say the same.
• Elementary and middle school teachers: 68% each among elementary and middle school teachers say they have to deal with behavior issues daily, compared with 39% of high school teachers. A third of elementary and 29% of middle school teachers say they have to help students with mental health every day, compared with 19% of high school teachers.
• Teachers in high-poverty schools: 67% of teachers in schools with high levels of poverty say they have to address behavior issues on a daily basis. Smaller majorities of those in schools with medium or low levels of poverty say the same (56% and 54%). A third of teachers in high-poverty schools say they have to help students with mental health challenges every day, compared with about a quarter of those in medium- or low-poverty schools who say they have this experience (26% and 24%). 

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Four of the biggest problems facing education—and four trends that could make a difference

Eduardo velez bustillo, harry a. patrinos.

In 2022, we published, Lessons for the education sector from the COVID-19 pandemic , which was a follow up to,  Four Education Trends that Countries Everywhere Should Know About , which summarized views of education experts around the world on how to handle the most pressing issues facing the education sector then. We focused on neuroscience, the role of the private sector, education technology, inequality, and pedagogy.

Unfortunately, we think the four biggest problems facing education today in developing countries are the same ones we have identified in the last decades .

1. The learning crisis was made worse by COVID-19 school closures

Low quality instruction is a major constraint and prior to COVID-19, the learning poverty rate in low- and middle-income countries was 57% (6 out of 10 children could not read and understand basic texts by age 10). More dramatic is the case of Sub-Saharan Africa with a rate even higher at 86%. Several analyses show that the impact of the pandemic on student learning was significant, leaving students in low- and middle-income countries way behind in mathematics, reading and other subjects.  Some argue that learning poverty may be close to 70% after the pandemic , with a substantial long-term negative effect in future earnings. This generation could lose around $21 trillion in future salaries, with the vulnerable students affected the most.

2. Countries are not paying enough attention to early childhood care and education (ECCE)

At the pre-school level about two-thirds of countries do not have a proper legal framework to provide free and compulsory pre-primary education. According to UNESCO, only a minority of countries, mostly high-income, were making timely progress towards SDG4 benchmarks on early childhood indicators prior to the onset of COVID-19. And remember that ECCE is not only preparation for primary school. It can be the foundation for emotional wellbeing and learning throughout life; one of the best investments a country can make.

3. There is an inadequate supply of high-quality teachers

Low quality teaching is a huge problem and getting worse in many low- and middle-income countries.  In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, the percentage of trained teachers fell from 84% in 2000 to 69% in 2019 . In addition, in many countries teachers are formally trained and as such qualified, but do not have the minimum pedagogical training. Globally, teachers for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects are the biggest shortfalls.

4. Decision-makers are not implementing evidence-based or pro-equity policies that guarantee solid foundations

It is difficult to understand the continued focus on non-evidence-based policies when there is so much that we know now about what works. Two factors contribute to this problem. One is the short tenure that top officials have when leading education systems. Examples of countries where ministers last less than one year on average are plentiful. The second and more worrisome deals with the fact that there is little attention given to empirical evidence when designing education policies.

To help improve on these four fronts, we see four supporting trends:

1. Neuroscience should be integrated into education policies

Policies considering neuroscience can help ensure that students get proper attention early to support brain development in the first 2-3 years of life. It can also help ensure that children learn to read at the proper age so that they will be able to acquire foundational skills to learn during the primary education cycle and from there on. Inputs like micronutrients, early child stimulation for gross and fine motor skills, speech and language and playing with other children before the age of three are cost-effective ways to get proper development. Early grade reading, using the pedagogical suggestion by the Early Grade Reading Assessment model, has improved learning outcomes in many low- and middle-income countries. We now have the tools to incorporate these advances into the teaching and learning system with AI , ChatGPT , MOOCs and online tutoring.

2. Reversing learning losses at home and at school

There is a real need to address the remaining and lingering losses due to school closures because of COVID-19.  Most students living in households with incomes under the poverty line in the developing world, roughly the bottom 80% in low-income countries and the bottom 50% in middle-income countries, do not have the minimum conditions to learn at home . These students do not have access to the internet, and, often, their parents or guardians do not have the necessary schooling level or the time to help them in their learning process. Connectivity for poor households is a priority. But learning continuity also requires the presence of an adult as a facilitator—a parent, guardian, instructor, or community worker assisting the student during the learning process while schools are closed or e-learning is used.

To recover from the negative impact of the pandemic, the school system will need to develop at the student level: (i) active and reflective learning; (ii) analytical and applied skills; (iii) strong self-esteem; (iv) attitudes supportive of cooperation and solidarity; and (v) a good knowledge of the curriculum areas. At the teacher (instructor, facilitator, parent) level, the system should aim to develop a new disposition toward the role of teacher as a guide and facilitator. And finally, the system also needs to increase parental involvement in the education of their children and be active part in the solution of the children’s problems. The Escuela Nueva Learning Circles or the Pratham Teaching at the Right Level (TaRL) are models that can be used.

3. Use of evidence to improve teaching and learning

We now know more about what works at scale to address the learning crisis. To help countries improve teaching and learning and make teaching an attractive profession, based on available empirical world-wide evidence , we need to improve its status, compensation policies and career progression structures; ensure pre-service education includes a strong practicum component so teachers are well equipped to transition and perform effectively in the classroom; and provide high-quality in-service professional development to ensure they keep teaching in an effective way. We also have the tools to address learning issues cost-effectively. The returns to schooling are high and increasing post-pandemic. But we also have the cost-benefit tools to make good decisions, and these suggest that structured pedagogy, teaching according to learning levels (with and without technology use) are proven effective and cost-effective .

4. The role of the private sector

When properly regulated the private sector can be an effective education provider, and it can help address the specific needs of countries. Most of the pedagogical models that have received international recognition come from the private sector. For example, the recipients of the Yidan Prize on education development are from the non-state sector experiences (Escuela Nueva, BRAC, edX, Pratham, CAMFED and New Education Initiative). In the context of the Artificial Intelligence movement, most of the tools that will revolutionize teaching and learning come from the private sector (i.e., big data, machine learning, electronic pedagogies like OER-Open Educational Resources, MOOCs, etc.). Around the world education technology start-ups are developing AI tools that may have a good potential to help improve quality of education .

After decades asking the same questions on how to improve the education systems of countries, we, finally, are finding answers that are very promising.  Governments need to be aware of this fact.

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Consultant, Education Sector, World Bank

Senior Adviser, Education

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Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

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If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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10 Major Challenges Facing Public Schools

Few would argue that the state of our education system has plenty of room for improvement. However, developing a plan to take schools in the right direction is easier said than done. The first challenge lies in identifying underlying problems keeping students from learning today. This challenge, in part, is due to the fact that the problems may change considerably depending on who is labeling them, whether it is students, parents, educators or lawmakers. Consider this list of 10 major challenges currently facing public schools, based on the perspective of many involved in the world of education today.

Classroom Size

Many areas of the country are facing classrooms that are literally busting out at the seams. A report at NEA Today two years ago discussed how schools in Georgia, in the midst of major funding cuts for schools, had no choice but to lift all class size limits to accommodate students with the faculty the school system could still afford to keep. More recently, Fairfax County in Virginia has been looking into a proposal to increase classroom sizes in the face of significant budget cuts. The Board of Education in South Carolina is also weighing their options in this area.

When money gets tight, classroom numbers are often impacted. Yet, most teachers agree that they cannot effectively teach every student in a classroom, if the class size exceeds about 30. Their statements are backed up by research. Class Size Matters cites a study performed by the Tennessee Star that found classes of 15-17 students in grades K-3 provided both long and short-term benefits to both the students and the teachers in those classrooms. Minority students, those living in poverty and male students appeared to benefit from smaller classroom sizes the most.

Technorati reported last fall that 22 percent of the children in the U.S. live at or below poverty level. American Graduate defines poverty as a family of four with an annual income level of $23,050 or lower. American Graduate also cites a report from the Southern Education Foundation, which shows in 17 states across the U.S., low-income students now comprise the majority of public school students in those states. Some estimates put poverty levels for public school students at 25% in the not-so-distant future.

Students living at or below poverty level tend to have the highest dropout rates. Studies show that students who do not get enough food or sleep are less likely to perform at their full academic potential. Schools know these truths first-hand, and despite efforts to provide students with basic essentials, teachers, administrators and lawmakers know there is simply not enough to go around.

Family Factors

Family factors also play a role in a teacher’s ability to teach students. Principals and teachers agree that what is going on at home will impact a student’s propensity to learn. Divorce , single parents, poverty, violence and many other issues are all challenges a student brings to school every day. While some teachers and administrators try to work with children in less than ideal family environments, they can only do so much – especially when parents are often not willing to partner with the schools to provide for the children.

Kids Health Guide reports that students are more technologically advanced than many teachers today, putting instructors at a decided disadvantage in the classroom. However, a student’s love of technology also tends to distract him from his schoolwork, according to NEA Today. When teachers don’t have the techno-savvy to compete with those devices, by bringing education and technology together , it can be difficult to keep students’ interest and attention to properly teach new concepts.

Technology needs to come into the classroom to keep up with the learning demands of the 21 st century. Schools that are already cash-strapped may find an unsurmountable challenge in coming up with the funding to bring computers and other forms of technology into their classes. Scholastic offers some tips for school districts that want to fit the bill for technology, including everything from asking individuals in the district for “big gifts” to going to Uncle Sam for the funding. The website also suggests negotiating prices on technology when possible and allowing student to bring their own from home.

Photo By Intel Free Press CC-BY-SA-2.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

Bullying is not a new problem, but it is one that has a profound impact on the learning aptitude of many students today. Technology has given bullies even more avenues to torment their victims – through social networking, texting and other virtual interactions. Cyberbullying has become a major issue for schools, as evidenced by the number of suicides that can be directly traced to bullying events . The fact that laws are still fuzzy regarding cyberbullying adds to the challenge – since parents, teachers and administrators are unsure of how to legally handle such issues.

Student Attitudes and Behaviors

Many public school teachers also cite student attitudes, such as apathy and disrespect for teachers, as a major problem facing schools today. A poll from the National Center for Education Statistics cited that problems like apathy, tardiness, disrespect and absenteeism posed significant challenges for teachers. These issues were seen more frequently at the secondary school level, rather than the primary grades.

No Child Left Behind

Many students, parents and teachers see No Child Left Behind as a detriment to the public education environment today. Although the current Obama Administration is working to reform NCLB policies, the focus in education on both the national and state level continues to be on the testing process. Student test scores are now being used by a number of states as a way to evaluate teacher performance, putting even more pressure on faculty in schools to “teach to the tests.”

NEA Today quotes Kansas special educator Shelly Dunham as saying, “Testing, testing, testing, what is the point of testing? Do we use the data to remediate those who do not measure up? No!” Many teachers believe they are forced to teach to the annual standardized tests, and activities like recess and lunch have been cut way down to make more time for academics in light of the new testing procedures.

Parent Involvement

Often teachers find there is no happy medium when it comes to parental involvement , according to the Kids Health Guide. Some parents won’t be seen for the entire school year, no matter what sort of issues might arise. Others never seem to go away, hovering over the child and teacher and interfering with the education process. There are ways parents can become involved and support their child’s education at the same time, but teachers don’t always get that level from parents.

Student Health

Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in the U.S., and the same poor eating habits that led to the obesity problem may also be contributing to lower student achievement. Obesity also increases a student’s risk for other conditions, like diabetes and high blood pressure, which could result in higher absenteeism and more academic issues.

Photo By English: Lance Cpl. Ryan M. Joyner [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

The national school lunch movement Let’s Move! has been working to bring healthier options into school lunchrooms across the country. According to the website , the U.S. Department of Agriculture released new guidelines in 2012 to boost the nutritional quality of the meals students get at school. Exercise programs are also coming to schools across the country to promote more physical activity among students of all ages. However, it seems the country as a whole still has a long way to go to get on the road to better health on a large scale.

Budget cuts have created huge problems for most public schools in recent years. Less funding means smaller staffs, fewer resources and a lower number of services for students. While some argue that throwing more money at the education problems won’t make them go away, others assert that lack of funding caused many of the problems in the first place.

There are many problems in public schools today, but identifying those issues is half the battle. With a laundry list of challenges to face, now is the time for educators, parents and lawmakers to come together and begin to find solutions – for the benefit of all students in public schools today. Questions? Contact us on Twitter. @publicschoolreview

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What Are The Problems, Issues, And Concerns In School?

Adolescence is a time in a young person’s life that is filled with difficult lessons, immense physical growth, surging hormones, and a newfound need for autonomy. Teenagers are designed to test limits, push boundaries, and engage in behaviors that help them discover their true selves and begin to cultivate a moral compass. The teenage brain is not yet fully developed, and will not reach full development until age twenty-five, at the earliest. A teenager relies heavily on the amygdala (the area of the brain associated with impulses, emotions, aggression, instinctive behavior, and plays a role in sexual activity and libido) when reacting to certain stimuli whereas an adult relies on the prefrontal cortex (the area of the brain that is involved in planning, self-control, and decision making) when reacting to the same stimuli. Hence, teenagers instinctively react to stimuli emotionally and often without any consideration of foresight or rational thought. Part of growing up in America is the necessity for education and to attend some type of school through the duration of one’s adolescence. School is also often the place where young people work out much of their teenage angst. Hence, there are a variety of school-related challenges that young people face during adolescence. 

Problems, Issues, and Concerns

Each teen is different and will be faced with unique problems, issues, and concerns when it comes to school, including but not limited to the following examples:

• Problems: include problems that a teenager may be experiencing that affects his or her performance in school, such as:
• Bullying: defined as “an ongoing and deliberate misuse of power in relationships through repeated verbal, physical, and/ or social behavior that intends to cause physical, social, and/ or psychological harm.”
• Violence in schools
• Issues: include issues that a teenager may be struggling with that affects his or her performance in school, such as:
• Academic pressure: defined as “an experience in which a student is burdened by the demands of time and energy to achieve specific academic goals. The stress can come from a variety of potential sources and have a myriad of impacts on students both emotionally and academically.”
• Materialism
• Drug and alcohol abuse
• Concerns: include concerns that a teenager may be grappling with that affects his or her performance in school, such as:
• Physical appearance
• Academic concerns
• Gender identity
• Mental health

The school-related problems, issues, and concerns that arise will be distinct to everyone. Facing school-related difficulties and learning to navigate the challenges of adolescence in and out of a school setting can help a young person’s social and emotional growth and development.  

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Early childhood problems linked to persistent school absenteeism

by University of Leeds

Children who are not considered "school-ready" by their teachers are more than twice as likely to become persistently absent at some point in their education, according to a new study led by the University of Leeds.

Researchers analyzed data for 62,598 children aged 5-13 from across the Bradford district and compared it with school absence records between the academic years 2012-2013 and 2019-2020 to identify associations between early childhood problems and absenteeism.

The team from the School of Psychology and the Born in Bradford Centre for Applied Education Research found that 67% of all persistent absentees with attendance below 90% were considered "not school-ready" when they entered reception. This contrasted with only 37% of "not school-ready" children who were not persistently absent.

The researchers believe their findings, which are published today in the Royal Society Open Science journal, show that the seeds of absenteeism are sown early in childhood, and that school readiness measures already used by teachers could identify children at risk of long-term disengagement from the education system.

Lead author Dr. Megan Wood, a post-doctoral research fellow in the School of Psychology, said, "School is where children develop and flourish, academically, emotionally, socially, and physically. However, as a society, we are edging towards a school absence epidemic, with many pupils missing out on opportunities to thrive by not attending every day. This has worsened dramatically since the pandemic."

In the UK, absenteeism is a major concern for school leaders and policymakers, with data from the 2022-23 autumn term showing that nearly a quarter of all pupils missed at least 39 half-day sessions. According to the UK's Department for Education, this means they are considered "persistent absentees" with attendance below 90%.

The number of children classified as being "persistently absent" has risen over time, particularly between 2017-18 and 2020-21, with the more recent figures attributed to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. These figures have led to a formal inquiry by the UK Government's Education Committee.

The researchers say there is an urgent need to understand the factors that lead to absenteeism and determine how children at risk of this behavior can be identified before they disengage from the school system.

School readiness assessments in England involve teachers using a three-point scale (emerging, expected, exceeding) to rate a child's performance in various areas of development, including physical; personal, social and emotional; communication; math and literacy. Children rated as "emerging" in any of the early learning goals are defined as not being school-ready.

The researchers say potential explanations for the relationship between school readiness and absenteeism could be due in part to the engagement levels of parents, with those who are more engaged better preparing their children for the learning environment, resulting in children who are more excited to learn. Such parental engagement may continue throughout the child's school journey, in the form of helping with homework and ensuring children arrive at school ready to learn.

Alternatively, not being school-ready may be indicative of underlying needs, such as neurodivergence or mental health issues that are not currently being met, making school difficult for these children.

Co-author, Mark Mon-Williams, Professor of Psychology at the University of Leeds, said, "There is a school absence crisis and the long-term consequences for the UK are frightening. The UK's future depends on a well-educated and healthy workforce and the evidence shows clearly that school absence is a major risk factor for poor health in later life.

"This research shows that we need to act early and how we can identify children at risk before they disengage with school. It also highlights that there are many reasons why children are absent, and suggests we need evidence-based responses tailored to individual circumstances to address the crisis."

The researchers found that socioeconomic circumstances, measured by eligibility for free school meals, were a major risk factor for persistent absence.

Ethnicity was also found to be associated with persistent absenteeism, with children of Pakistani heritage having significantly lower odds of becoming persistent absentees compared to children of white British heritage.

Dr. Wood added, "It is often too late to intervene once the problems have already begun. Instead, preventative measures should be adopted to avoid children disengaging from school in the first place. These findings demonstrate how we can use existing data—readily available to schools and teachers—to highlight the pupils who may need additional support to keep them engaged with school , even prior to problems arising.

"We urge policymakers to encourage the use of such data within schools. By identifying needs early, we can ensure all pupils are provided the opportunity to grow and develop the skills needed to function within society."

The researchers believe their findings raise further questions about which early interventions or support may be the most appropriate to stop persistent absenteeism. They intend to investigate those questions in subsequent studies.

Journal information: Royal Society Open Science

Provided by University of Leeds

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Chronic absenteeism is schools' 'biggest problem.' Five reasons kids are missing school.

Cur’ra McCoy is one of millions of students who missed weeks of school over the past few years. Instead, the Baltimore teen often slept in or played on her phone. She did a whole lot of nothing, for the most part. McCoy blames her absences on boredom, which led to her not doing well in some classes. That made her dislike school even more . 

“When I don’t do nothing, I don’t feel like doing nothing at all,” the 18-year-old said. “So I stopped trying.”

Chronic absenteeism – when students miss at least 10% of the school year – has become an epidemic in America’s schools. Though educators and advocates hoped attendance would improve after the instability of the pandemic, in many cases it has become more pervasive and intractable. From 2018 to 2023, the rate of chronic absenteeism nearly doubled, from 15% to 26% . 

The problem, which has contributed to lower performance even among students who aren’t chronically absent, became one of the most pressing challenges this past school year. The American Enterprise Institute, a right-leaning think tank, has described it as “the biggest problem facing schools right now.” And it’s not just low-income kids who are missing class time: Students across the socioeconomic spectrum are skipping school at record-high rates. 

Why has the problem become so grave? The causes are usually complex and multidimensional. Here are five key explanations: 

COVID made school attendance hard. Why aren’t kids (or teachers) returning to class?

Kids are bored and disconnected.

McCoy, the Baltimore teen, loved math when she was little. She appreciated its simplicity, the fact that it’s a universal language. 

But as she got older, she says, she started “slacking.” The instruction became boring, zapping her energy and will to put in effort. In eighth grade, she decided math was no longer for her. By the time she got to high school, she began failing some of her classes. 

“We barely had any activities,” said McCoy, who added she learns best when she gets one-on-one support. “When I started getting worse at math, I just stopped coming.”

A nationally representative poll published in April found that nearly 2 in 3 teens say school is boring . Just 2 in 5 of the roughly 1,000 respondents said they liked going to school, and almost a third said going is a waste of time. Such disengagement leads to absences. And sometimes, schools’ strategies for handling absenteeism – like fines for truancy – exacerbate rather than solve the problem.

In her junior year, McCoy started getting tutored and mentored through a company called Concentric Educational Solutions, whose staff also occasionally visited her home to check in with her. Her attendance began to improve, as did her grades. She appreciated the personalized attention she got from her tutors, especially a mentor named Raiana Davis. Davis would check in on days she had slept in, McCoy explained. “It just made my energy change.”

McCoy graduated early this month, and she wants to become an engineer. She plans to enroll in college or pursue her career through the Navy. 

They’re struggling with mental health.

Many children decide not to attend school because of poor mental health. These challenges, especially among adolescents, have worsened in recent years: More than 4 in 10 teens reported in 2021 that they felt persistently sad or hopeless . One analysis in Los Angeles found anxiety and depression were the top health-related reasons kids missed class.

School avoidance – when children refuse to attend or struggle being in school for the entire day – is a growing problem . USA TODAY has reported on this type of refusal becoming pronounced since the COVID-19 pandemic. 

One student, Anna, described the heart palpitations and body shakes she felt in the mornings as she approached her high school campus. It wasn’t that she didn’t want to go to school, she told USA TODAY, but that she couldn’t.

“It’s scary because it’s not voluntary at all,” said Anna, who asked to be identified only by her first name because of stigmas faced by people with mental illness. “It’s just kind of happening to you.”

Refusing to attend: School avoidance is becoming a mental health crisis.

They’re being bullied.

Bullying, which is pervasive in many schools, prompts kids to avoid school, too. Just a third of teens in the April EdChoice poll said they felt their school was adequately addressing bullying. Separate research reveals students who are bullied are more likely to miss class. 

In a recent segment , NPR’s "Morning Edition" featured a sophomore in Colorado named Neomi who has been chronically absent. Asked what was behind the absences, Neomi cried as her mother explained she had been bullied and taunted after a breakup. Her peers laughed and talked behind her back. "I don't have friends,” the sophomore said. “I don't have any people."

When students have limited connections with adults, their odds of missing school are greater. Surveys have found that fewer than a quarter of teens and preteens say many or all of their teachers try to understand what their lives are like outside school.

They’re confused about the rules.

During the pandemic, families were instructed to keep kids out of school at any sign of illness. The rules evolved as society gained a better understanding of COVID-19. The ever-shifting protocols fueled confusion over what to do when a child has the sniffles or complains about a headache. 

Hedy Chang, founder and executive director of Attendance Works, says such puzzlement has persisted among parents. “We were pretty dramatic about quarantining and staying home, and I still think there’s a lot of confusion,” she said. “At the same time, we said to people: ‘If you’re worried about being ill, shift to online learning. … That’s just as good as learning in person.’”

Those messages have had “lasting effects,” according to Chang, and many schools no longer have a virtual option for sick days. 

USA TODAY regularly visited a pair of elementary schools in Virginia last year to understand, among other questions, why chronic absenteeism has persisted. One school distributed thermometers so parents could check if children who said they weren’t feeling well were truly too sick to attend class. It also hosted educational coffee hours and published a checklist on its homepage to help families determine what to do when a child appears symptomatic.

The other school discovered higher absenteeism rates on Mondays – a day many students’ parents had off work. Perhaps parents were keeping their children home that day because it was the only time they could spend together, school officials concluded. That finding hinted at another ripple effect of the pandemic: the perception among some families that school is optional. 

During quarantines and closures, kids learned through their computers at home. Daily in-person attendance has felt less crucial to certain parents ever since. That attitude plays out in different ways for different families. A single mom who needs her high schooler to care for her 2-year-old while she is at work might request the teen skip school. An affluent family that wants to go on a two-week vacation might choose to do so during school days to avoid the crowds. 

“Whatever your chronic absenteeism level was pre-pandemic, it tended to double,” said Chang, alluding to the problem’s impact across income levels.

As absences have worsened across the board, they’ve also exacerbated disparities, according to Chang. High-income families are more likely than lower-income ones to be able to afford resources – such as summer test prep and tutoring – to make up for lost time. 

They’re navigating family, safety or transportation challenges.

Some kids aren’t showing up for school because of family hardships or fears about campus safety. Housing insecurity and poverty continue to disrupt low-income students’ routines .

Many schools have made it more difficult to enter buildings over fears of active shooters and other dangers, Chang said. These well-intended policies have, in some cases, created divisions between families and educators. 

Logistical problems are another obstacle. USA TODAY shadowed during some home visits with Concentric in Baltimore this spring. The company’s staff stops by the residences of families whose children have been flagged by their schools as chronically absent. At one home, a mom named Lynetric Brightful was parking just as the Concentric van pulled up. Her son hadn’t been showing up for school, and Aaris Johnson, the Concentric engagement specialist and driver, asked her, “What resources can we help you get?”

Brightful explained that she works two jobs and has to leave the house early – before her son wakes up. It’s difficult to ensure he attends class by the 7:45 a.m. start time, especially since he has to take a couple of city buses to get there, trekking through dangerous neighborhoods often before sunrise. Her husband recently died, and she has no one else to rely on for help. She had lost another job because she was staying home in the morning to drive her child to school. 

School transportation options are limited in Baltimore, a problem that has hit more and more districts across the country. Nationally, school bus ridership is in decline , in part because of staff shortages, service changes and delays.

Brightful began to cry when Johnson told her his organization would try to provide support. She had been desperate for a solution, and it seemed as if no one was willing to help. Without better transportation, she feared her son would continue to miss school.

"I have to do what I have to do to live,” she said. “I'm trying my best.”

I Combed Through 81 Studies on School Discipline. Here’s What Educators Need to Know

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For many district and school leaders, the new school year has not only brought excitement but also uncertainty about how to address their school discipline dilemma . Directors of student supports and principals are inevitably having heated conversations about whether to suspend certain students—and for how long—or send them to alternative schools. Refashioning school discipline policies and practices has become the bane of policymakers’ and educators’ existence.

District and school leaders are caught between a rock and a hard place. Teachers and parents are demanding safe schools. Equity advocates highlight persistent racial inequality in suspensions and expulsions and growing evidence of the school-to-prison pipeline. Student behavior has worsened as students are still readjusting to life after the disruption of the pandemic. Infractions like vaping and banned cellphone use are on the rise. There is an ongoing mental health crisis among students. Many districts are struggling to find teachers to fill vacancies in the face of the supposed mounting chaos in public schools.

Some states are responding to the uptick in students’ behavioral issues by reverting to zero-tolerance policies and hardening schools . This impulse to suspend, not support, students presents a false dichotomy between the exclusion of students of color for the benefit of the overall “orderly” learning environment. We are stuck in punitive sands as racial disparities in students’ disciplinary outcomes remain persistent . We need a better plan.

School discipline is a highly racialized topic, but there is no shortage of studies on what’s driving discipline disproportionalities . And the knowledge base for what school discipline reforms are working is rapidly expanding. So, what can we do to reduce the far too frequent instances of Black students and students with disabilities being disciplined more frequently or severely than their peers?

In a recently published integrative literature review , I synthesized the research evidence (81 studies published between 2010 and 2022) on policies and programs that have successfully reduced discipline disparities, not only the rates at which students are sent to the office, suspended, or expelled. Several considerations emerge for educational policymakers and leaders to address the root cause of discipline disparities by lowering office discipline referrals for African American students:

1. School discipline reform needs a strategic direction. Districts and schools are rarely doing one thing to address school discipline issues. Typically, there is some combination of code-of-conduct changes as well as other possible investments in programs and personnel to reduce discipline disparities. Rejecting race-neutral school discipline reforms and strategically coordinating various alternative approaches to exclusionary discipline are a central plank of transforming school discipline. A key question that district and school leaders must ask is whether school discipline reforms are educator-focused or student-focused.

2. School discipline reform must support educators, not just students. Developing an empathic mindset , coaching, and professional development in classroom management and culturally responsive practices for educators are evidence-based reforms that show promise. Teachers have been given the proverbial basket to carry water. Upgrading their training and capacity to better manage classrooms is also a central plank of reducing discipline disproportionality, based in large measure on documented deficiencies in teacher-preparation programs. There is also evidence that the “top referrers"—the small number of educators who send the most students to the office for discipline— contribute significantly to discipline disparities . As such, supporting school administrators and teachers—emphasizing educator-focused interventions as much as student-focused programs—is an important strategic direction in school discipline reforms.

3. Leaders should acknowledge the potential and the limitations of school discipline-policy changes. A ban on suspensions for attendance-related infractions may reduce the overall use of exclusionary discipline and lower the racial disparities in suspensions. Yet, a growing number of studies have illustrated the limitations of policy interventions in school discipline. Before those interventions can succeed, however, educators need training to build their capacity and confidence and be given the tool kits to implement nonpunitive policies. Implementing policy changes without providing the prerequisite training is akin to putting the cart before the horse.

4. Sustainable school discipline reform depends on the quality of implementation. District and school leaders ought to prioritize the fidelity of the implementation of school-based programs such as restorative justice and positive behavioral interventions and supports, or PBIS. Complementing these programs with school mental health help also shows promise of reducing racial inequality in office discipline referrals and suspensions. PBIS in tandem with school mental health may reduce the overall use of exclusionary discipline and importantly the rates at which Black students are referred to the office and suspended. Overall, the emerging evidence indicates programs’ outcomes are dependent on the quality of the implementation. Factors such as the tiers and length of implementation (reforms may need sufficient time to take root) shape the overall effectiveness of programs such as PBIS on students’ disciplinary outcomes.

In closing, there seems to be a disconnect between the wealth of research evidence, the prevailing discourse around school discipline reforms, and the decisions that will disrupt discipline disparities in schools and districts. This is not to say that there is no need for further research on topics such as the effects of anti-bias training and culturally responsive programs on students’ disciplinary outcomes at the national level. Comparative studies of multiple districts could also help bolster the consensus on essential mechanisms across states and districts.

My experiences have also led me to believe that equity-centered research-practice partnerships may provide a vehicle to connect research evidence on school discipline to the decisionmaking process on school discipline policies and practices in districts, though more empirical research is needed. Now is the time to listen to the research evidence on school discipline and forge new ways of tapping into the experiential knowledge and expertise of practitioners to disrupt racial inequality in school discipline.

A version of this article appeared in the November 01, 2023 edition of Education Week as 4 Research-Backed Lessons On School Discipline

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The state of EV charging in America: Harvard research shows chargers 78% reliable and pricing like the ‘Wild West’

Featuring Omar Asensio . By Barbara DeLollis and Glen Justice on June 26, 2024 .

BiGS Actionable Intelligence:

BOSTON — New data-driven research led by a Harvard Business School fellow reveals a significant obstacle to increasing electric vehicle (EV) sales and decreasing carbon emissions in the United States: owners’ deep frustration with the state of charging infrastructure, including unreliability, erratic pricing, and lack of charging locations.

The research proves that frustration extends beyond “range anxiety,” the common fear that EV batteries won't maintain enough charge to reach a destination. Current EV drivers don’t see that as a dominant issue. Instead, many have "charge anxiety," a fear about keeping an EV powered and moving, according to scholar Omar Asensio, the climate fellow at HBS’s Institute for the Study of Business in Global Society (BiGS) who led the study.

Asensio’s research is based on a first-ever examination of more than 1 million charging station reviews by EV drivers across North America, Europe, and Asia written over 10 years. In their reviews, these drivers described how they regularly encounter broken and malfunctioning chargers, erratic and secretive pricing, and even “charging deserts” — entire counties in states such as Washington and Virginia that don’t have a single public charger and that have even lost previously available chargers. EV drivers also routinely watch gas-engine vehicle drivers steal parking spots reserved for EV charging.

Asensio said that listening to the current drivers — owners rather than potential buyers — provides a new window on the state of America’s charging system because drivers are incredibly candid about their experiences.

“It’s different than what any one company or network would want you to believe,” said Asensio, who is also an associate professor at the Georgia Institute of Technology . He added that most charging providers don’t share their data and have few regulatory incentives to do so.

Research: EV chargers less reliable than gas pumps

One of the study’s main findings, discovered using customized artificial intelligence (AI) models trained on EV review data, is that charging stations in the U.S. have an average reliability score of only 78%, meaning that about one in five don’t work. They are, on average, less reliable than regular gas stations, Asensio said. “Imagine if you go to a traditional gas station and two out of 10 times the pumps are out of order,” he said. “Consumers would revolt.”

Elizabeth Bruce, director, Microsoft Innovation and Society, said, "This project is a great example of how increasing access to emerging AI technologies enables researchers to better understand how we can build a more sustainable and equitable society.”

Asensio’s research is timely as U.S. policymakers, entrepreneurs, automakers such as General Motors and Tesla , and others grapple with how to develop the nation’s charging network, who should finance it, and who should maintain it. Because charging influences vehicle sales and the ability to meet emissions targets, it’s a serious question. EV sales have climbed, topping 1 million in 2023, but concerns over batteries and charging could slow that growth.

Today, there are more than 64,000 public EV charging stations in the U.S., according to the U.S. Department of Energy's Alternative Fuels Data Center. Experts say that the nation needs many times more to make a smooth, sustainable, and equitable transition away from gas-powered vehicles — and to minimize the anxiety surrounding EVs.

“I couldn’t even convince my mother to buy an EV recently,” Asensio said. “Her decision wasn’t about the price. She said charging isn’t convenient enough yet to justify learning an entirely new way of driving.”

Reviews give voice to 1 million drivers

An economist and engineer by training, Asensio has been studying EV infrastructure since its infancy in 2010. At that time, the consensus among experts was that the private sector would finance a flourishing charging network, Asensio said. But that didn’t happen at the scale expected, which sparked his curiosity about how the charging market would emerge at points of interest rather than only near highways.

To get answers, Asensio focused on consumer reviews “because they offer objective, unsolicited evidence of peoples’ experience,” he said.

The smartphone apps that EV drivers use to pay for charging sessions allow them to review each station for factors such as functionality and pricing in real-time, much like consumers do on Yelp or Amazon. Asensio and his team, supported by Microsoft and National Science Foundation awards, spent years building models and training AI tools to extract insights and make predictions from drivers leaving these reviews in more than 72 languages.

Until now, this type of data hasn’t existed anywhere, leaving consumers, policymakers, and business leaders — including auto industry executives — in the dark.

Research reveals five facts about EV life

Here are some of the top findings from Asensio’s research about public EV charging stations:

Reliability problems. EV drivers often find broken equipment, making charging unreliable at best and simply not as easy as the old way of topping off a tank of gas. The reason? “No one’s maintaining these stations,” Asensio said. Entrepreneurs are already stepping in with a solution. For example, at Harvard Business School’s climate conference in April 2023, ChargerHelp! Co-founder Evette Ellis explained that her Los Angeles-based technology startup trains people to operate and maintain public charging stations. But until quality control improves nationwide, drivers will likely continue to encounter problems.

Driver clashes. One consumer complaint that surprised Asensio was a mysterious gripe from drivers about “getting ICE’d.” The researchers didn’t know what it meant, so they did some digging and discovered that ICE stands for “internal combustion engine.” EV drivers adopted the term to grouse about gas-fueled car drivers stealing their public EV charger spots for parking.

Price confusion. Drivers are vexed by the pricing they encounter at public charging stations, which are owned by a mix of providers, follow different pricing models, and do not regularly disclose pricing information. The result is often surprises on the road. As one reviewer wrote, “$21.65 to charge!!!!!!! Holy moly!!!! Don’t come here unless you are desperate!!”

Equity questions. Public charging stations are not equally distributed across the U.S., concentrated more heavily in large population centers and wealthy communities and less so in rural areas and smaller cities. The result is that drivers have disparate experiences, well-served in some areas and starved in others. Some parts of the country have become “charging deserts,” with no station at all.

Commercial questions. Commercial drivers in many areas can’t find enough public EV charging stations to reliably charge their cars. Here too, drivers are having very different experiences, well-supplied in some areas and not in others.

‘Wild West’ pricing is a major pain point

The research shows that EV drivers are dissatisfied with EV charging station pricing models, likening the situation to the “Wild West.” Indeed, vehicle charging is both unregulated and non-transparent.

Pricing can vary substantially by facility, level of demand, time of day, and other factors, including the type of charger available. A 45-minute fast charger may have one price, while a traditional charger that takes 3 to 5 hours may have another. Pricing can also change by the hour, based on market conditions.

Unlike traditional gas stations, which often display fuel prices on lighted signs, EV stations rarely advertise what charging will cost. Drivers often arrive without any information on what to expect or how to make comparisons, because there’s no reliable way for consumers to find the most cost-effective places to charge. “The government has a source that lists all locations, but not in real-time,” Asensio said. “You might need five different apps to figure it out.”

The driver reviews in Asensio’s data reflect the irritation caused by the current system. “People are getting frustrated because they don’t feel like they’re getting their money’s worth,” he said.

Why is the charging network so opaque? Research conducted by Asensio and his colleagues in 2021 found that charging station hosts, in the absence of regulation, have no incentive to share data — and they don’t. Station hosts are typically privately owned, highly decentralized, not well-monitored, and have highly varied patterns of demand and pricing.

The lack of transparency prevents researchers — and journalists — from investigating trends. In stark contrast to headlines trumpeting the ups and downs of gas prices, news organizations are not reporting on differential pricing among EV charging stations.

‘Charging deserts’ emerge

With municipal, state, and federal governments all pushing to increase the number of electric vehicles on the road and decrease carbon emissions, experts agree that America will need more charging stations — a lot more.

Looking only at Level 2 chargers, which top off an EV battery in 3 to 5 hours and are the most common type, S&P Global Mobility estimates a need for 1.2 million nationwide by 2027 and almost twice that by 2030. That’s in addition to in-home chargers.

Of course, that assumes robust growth in EV sales. “The transition to a vehicle market dominated by electric vehicles (EVs) will take years to fully develop, but it has begun,” said Ian McIlravey, an analyst at S&P. “With the transition comes a need to evolve the public vehicle charging network, and today's charging infrastructure is insufficient to support a drastic increase in the number of EVs in operation.”

Making matters more difficult, the chargers that do exist are not evenly distributed. Predictably, the places with the most public chargers installed are those with the highest number of registered electric vehicles, including states like California, Florida, and Texas. Yet, even as the federal government invests billions in new charging stations, many of them along major transportation corridors, places are left behind.

Asensio’s research shows that small urban centers and rural areas attract fewer public charging stations, and in some cases, there are “charging deserts” with no facilities at all — and they may not be where you think.

For example, electric vehicles are popular in Washington state, which ranked fourth in number of EV registrations and sixth in number of public charging stations in 2023. Yet Ferry County , an area outside Spokane with about 7,500 residents, where the average commute is 25 minutes and the median income is about $46,000, had only one charging station for several years. And now there are none.

Similarly, Virginia ranked 11th in EV registrations and 13th in public chargers in 2023. There, researchers found Wise County, an area outside Roanoke and Knoxville, Tennessee, with about 3,500 residents and a median income of almost $45,000. The county has an average commute time of 22 minutes, but there are no public charging stations available.

EV charging presents a classic “chicken and egg” situation, begging the question of whether cars or charging facilities must come first. However, a lack of public charging in areas like Ferry County and Wise County makes electric vehicle adoption difficult.

As American drivers debate whether to swap their gas-powered vehicles for EVs and lower emissions, Asensio said research should play a larger role. Policymakers, auto manufacturers, entrepreneurs, and investors need more and better data to build infrastructure where it’s needed, provide reliable charging, and facilitate EV sales.

“How [else] can we make effective decisions about the economics of EVs?” Asensio said.

General Motors: ‘Anxiety around EV charging’

Omar Vargas, head of public policy at General Motors, emphasized the importance of public EV charging infrastructure to driving EV adoption during an interview with The BiGS Fix at one of BiGS’ business leadership roundtables in Northern Virginia.

“We're looking at what are the best places to install an EV charging station for a community,” Vargas said. “The anxiety around EV charging is an inhibitor to EV adoption.”

Beyond the public investment in rolling out charging infrastructure, GM (whose brands include Chevrolet and Cadillac) has committed $750 million in private capital to the development of EV charging stations. It is partnering with car dealerships and other companies. For instance, GM is testing charging stations at Flying J rest stops.

GM, which reported full-year revenue of $171.8 billion for 2023 , also is joining community partnership efforts that are being formed to secure federal dollars through state and local governments. “We're helping that kind of planning, and we're pretty confident that in the next couple of years, we're going to have a vigorous EV charging network in the United States,” Vargas said.

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With heat waves, an increased risk for heart problems, new research shows

By V ictoria St. Martin , Inside Climate News

This article originally appeared on   Inside Climate News , a nonprofit, independent news organization that covers climate, energy and the environment. It is republished with permission. Sign up for their newsletter   here .

As a cardiologist in the largest city in   the nation’s fastest-warming region , Ethan Katznelson has daily, first-hand knowledge of how high temperatures can put stress on the human heart.

Katznelson, who practices at New York Presbyterian Weill Cornell Medical Center, regularly sees the cardiovascular stress suffered by patients who live in homes without air conditioning, or climb steep stairs in multi-story apartment buildings with no elevators, or rely on public assistance to help cope with the heat in a city where residents feel almost 10 degrees hotter than their suburban neighbors because of the   urban heat island effect .

He’s long understood the threat—but has wondered whether the same can be said of “the average doctor.”

So he and a team of research associates set out to make that case as powerfully as possible, examining roughly 500 observational studies of the effects of high temperatures, extreme weather and wildfire smoke—all factors amplified by climate change—on cardiovascular problems.

Their findings, published in June   in JAMA Cardiology , noted an increased risk for cardiovascular problems related to high heat that intensified the longer populations were exposed to the heat, particularly in normally cooler locations where buildings often don’t have air conditioning and heart patients aren’t as used to high heat.

The research team also found that extreme weather events such as hurricanes and floods not only increased the risk of cardiovascular health issues, but that the dangers exist long after the event itself.

The research team cited one study of the health impact of Hurricane Sandy in 2012, after which the risk of death from cardiovascular disease remained elevated for up to a year after the storm.

With cardiovascular disease already the   leading cause of death worldwide , members of the research team said that they hope their work can help people take steps to address their health as the planet continues to warm.

“It’s really salient that people do think about their cardiovascular health and take cardiovascular events more seriously,” said   Dhruv S. Kazi , an associate professor at Harvard Medical School, who was the first author of the review. “And I think we can advance the conversation on climate change. If we point out to people that there are these effects on cardiovascular health, cardiovascular disease is not theoretical or something that is going to happen in the future. This is here and now.”

Kazi said that among the most surprising findings by the research team was how high temperatures can affect people living in communities with older housing stock where central air conditioning is not already in place.

“The places that are at greatest risk are places where air conditioning is not widely available and people are not habituated to heat,” Kazi said. “So, ironically, even though, when you think about high temperatures, you say, ‘Oh, wow, Phoenix is going to be unlivable.’ What we’re going to see is that the Pacific Northwest is going to get into trouble at lower temperatures—starting in the mid-80s even—because people are neither habituated to high temperatures nor have regular access to air conditioning.”

The researchers were also struck by the wide reach of such extreme weather events such as the Canadian wildfires, which   blanketed much of the nation with smoke last summer .

“People are going to get exposed, you know, hundreds of miles beyond where the fires are,” said Kazi, who also serves as the associate director of the Richard A. and Susan F. Smith Center for Outcomes Research at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston.

“People saw that most dramatically last year in New York, where there were days of awful air quality, even though the fires weren’t even in the same country. They were all the way in Quebec,” he said. “So the fact that we’ve traditionally thought of wildfires affecting the American West, and that’s no longer true. There are people in Illinois and New York and Boston and Massachusetts who will get substantial exposure to a lot of fire, smoke and the related risks of cardiovascular disease.”

While the research team was able to determine that people of color and those with low incomes are disproportionately affected by the threats of cardiovascular problems, Kazi said that it was essential that researchers continued to study how heat affects those communities, as well as those who live in the Global South.

“There’s a really glaring lack of data from low-income countries, in particular,” Kazi said. “There’s very little data coming out of Africa. And this is both a missed opportunity and a real threat because we know that lower wealth communities, particularly in the tropics, are going to have a pretty marked exposure to climate change related events and have limited resources to climate change resilience. And so there really needs to be a systematic effort to understand how that works.”

The review by Kazi, Katznelson and their colleagues is just one component of an expanding body of recently released research that explores the potentially perilous effects of heat.

In May, a team of researchers at the University of California-Irvine announced that they had identified the molecular components that   adversely affect the brain, liver and digestive tract during heat waves .

By studying the heat-stressed tissues of mice, the study’s authors were able to identify changes in genes in the brain that are linked to motor dysfunction, cognitive impairment and a weakening of the blood-brain barrier.

“The liver-brain axis is a vital communication network influencing human health, connecting the gut, liver and brain,” the researchers wrote. “The impact of climate change on neurological diseases and gastrointestinal health, including the liver-brain axis, has been highlighted, with potential implications for metabolic liver diseases and associated neuropathologies.”

And in March,   another group of researchers announced   they had found that short-term exposure to high temperatures could increase inflammation and adversely affect the body’s immune system.

The research, which was presented at a conference hosted by the American Heart Association, found that for every 5 degree increase in the   Universal Thermal Climate Index —a measurement of how the human body responds to air temperature and a range of other conditions—there was an increase in the levels of killer T-cells and other markers of inflammation and a decrease in B cells, which help regulate the body’s response to germs and disease.

Daniel W. Riggs , who teaches at the University of Louisville’s School of Medicine and was the lead author of the March study, said the findings could have particularly broad implications for those who regularly work outdoors.

“These findings for our project could be even more extreme for outdoor workers that are just exposed all day, more than the general population,” he said.

Rollins Research Review: Contraceptive Affordability, Neighborhood Deprivation and Breast Cancer Mortality, and the Effects of IPV on PrEP Adherence

By Shelby Crosier

This month, Rollins researchers authored papers on a wealth of public health topics. Find summaries of a few highlights below.

Title:    “I Probably Have Access, but I Can’t Afford It”: Expanding Definitions of Affordability in Access to Contraceptive Services Among People with Low Income in Georgia, USA

Journal: BMC Health Services Research

Rollins Authors: Anna Newton-Levinson, PhD; Sarah Blake, PhD; Jessica Sales, PhD

Important Takeaways:

• People of color, low-income people, and those living in the Southeastern U.S. have lower rates of contraceptive use, which may be, in part, because these groups having less access to family planning services.
• Researchers interviewed 25 low-income people who may become pregnant in suburban Georgia to learn about the factors that influenced how they sought out family planning services throughout their lives.
• They learned that access to contraceptives was often influenced by their affordability (which is influenced by a person’s financial situation, the cost of contraceptives, and other individual and health system factors), and affordability tended to change over the course of a person’s life.
• It is important to consider the fluid nature of affordability and the multi-level factors that influence it in future contraceptive access research and policy.

Title:    Neighborhood Deprivation and Breast Cancer Mortality Among Black and White Women

Journal: JAMA Network Open

Rollins Authors: Lauren Barber, PhD; Maret Maliniak, PhD; Leah Moubadder; Dayna Johnson, PhD; Jeffrey Switchenko, PhD; Kevin Ward, PhD; Lauren McCullough, PhD

• Black women in the U.S. are much more likely than white women to die from breast cancer due to many social, structural, and individual health factors.
• In this paper, researchers used data from the Georgia Cancer Registry to investigate if low neighborhood socio-economic status (also known as neighborhood deprivation) is associated with breast cancer mortality in Black and white patients.
• They found that higher neighborhood deprivation was associated with higher breast cancer mortality only for non-Hispanic white women, and there was not an association in non-Hispanic Black women. More research is needed to understand why.

Title:  Maternal Periconceptional Exposure to Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products and Neural Tube Defects in Offspring

Journal: Birth Defects Research

Rollins Author: Vijaya Kancherla, PhD

• Neural tube defects like spina bifida develop in fetuses during pregnancy and are often caused by folic acid deficiency. Some research suggests that exposure to water disinfection by-products could also be a factor.
• Researchers used interview reports from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study and public water system monitoring data to study the association between disinfection by-product exposure and neural tube defects.
• There were some associations between exposure to certain disinfection by-products and neural tube defects, but the results were inconclusive.
• More individual-level exposure data is needed to strengthen future research into this potential association.

Title:    The Impact of Intimate Partner Violence on PrEP Adherence Among U.S. Cisgender Women at Risk for HIV

Journal: BMC Public Health

Rollins Author: Katherine Anderson

• Even though 20% of new HIV infections in the U.S. are in cisgender women, they tend to be less engaged in HIV prevention.
• In this study, researchers examined adherence to pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in cisgender women who were experiencing intimate partner violence, a group at heightened risk of HIV infection.
• They found that women who had ever experienced physical intimate partner violence were less likely to take PrEP at a level that was protective against HIV infection.
• This means that interventions looking to promote PrEP adherence should prioritize women who have experienced physical intimate partner violence, and these programs should take a trauma-informed approach.

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University of the Philippines Rural High School Continuing the SPARK11

Since 2019, the SPARK11 (Samsung Philippines Algo Research for K11) program has challenged the youth to come up with innovative, future-forward ideas to address social issues using cutting edge technology, encouraging young students to take action in shaping the future that they want to see. Samsung R&D Institute Philippines (SRPH) successfully concluded this year’s SPARK11 in partnership with University of the Philippines Rural High School (UPRHS) last May 9, 2024 at the SRPH Boardroom located in Science Hub Tower 3.

This year’s program commenced with opening remarks from SRPH’s Managing Director, Yong Seok Park, in which he expressed his gratitude for the collaboration with UPRHS, which has continued since 2022. After a month of mentoring from SRPH’s top engineers, SPARK11 contestants finally reached the most crucial stage of the competition, the Idea Contest, where they are tasked to present their smart-tech solutions to address social problems in the Philippines.

Eight teams, Syntax Error, Algorhythm, Carebears, Pixelites, Blackbox, BuddyBears, AmiGOS, and OSO, competed for the prize. Finalists presented ideas that aim to solve issues related to disaster readiness, healthcare, nutrition, wiring installations, and configuration problems while adhering to Sustainable Development Goals (SDG).

Each team was given a total of 15 minutes to share their ideas, with 10 minutes allotted for the presentation proper and 5 minutes for the Q&A. The panel of judges consisted of tech experts from SRPH: Alwyn Cardones, Goodwealth Chu, Blaise Cruz, Silver Rae Garcia, and Jeffrey Kenneth Go, along with Prof. Romeo Lacro III and Asst. Prof. Leopold Laset from UPRHS. Contestants’ ideas, which included a diverse range of algorithm applications to solve pressing social problems, were evaluated according to innovativeness, necessity, suitability, and feasibility.

Through a short video, finalists recalled their experiences in collaborating during difficult times, and shared how they were inspired to gain more tech experience to become globally competent in the IT industry. Mabel Buela, UPRHS Assistant Professor, delivered a special message of support for the finalists before the announcement of the winning team.

Finally, after careful deliberation from the judges, The winning team, CareBears, was presented with a Certificate of Recognition, and each member took home a pair of Samsung Galaxy Buds. Additionally, all participants received exclusive SPARK11 merchandise.

In his closing remarks, Michael Pascua, management sponsor of SRPH CSR, reminded everyone of SPARK11’s mission and vision: to empower the Filipino youth and to enable them to adapt to the digital world through the use of innovative global technology. He hopes that the SRPH CSR program continues to light a spark within each participant, inspiring them to take charge in shaping the future through technology.