introduction dissertation voltaire candide

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Voltaire: A Very Short Introduction

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Voltaire (1694–1778), best remembered as the author of Candide , is one of the central actors of the European Enlightenment. Voltaire: A Very Short Introduction explores Voltaire’s remarkable career, his most important works, and demonstrates how his thinking is pivotal to our notion and understanding of the Enlightenment. It examines the nature of Voltaire’s literary celebrity, demonstrating the extent to which his work was reactive and practical, and therefore made sense within the broader context of the debates to which he responded. It concludes by looking not only at Voltaire’s impact in literature and philosophy, but also at his influence on French political values and modern French politics.

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Candide, Voltaire : fiche de lecture

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Publiée en 1759, Candide est une œuvre emblématique du siècle des Lumière .

Elle délivre un message puissant sur la recherche du bonheur dans un monde imparfait tout en proposant une critique sociale et philosophique du XVIIIème siècle.

Candide : analyse en vidéo

Qui est Voltaire ?

François-Marie Arouet , plus connu sous le nom de Voltaire (1694-1778), fut l’un des plus éminents écrivains et philosophes du siècle des Lumières en France.

Célèbre pour son esprit incisif, son engagement en faveur de la tolérance et son combat contre l’obscurantisme , Voltaire fut un auteur prolifique qui s’est exprimé dans de nombreux genre s : théâtre, contes et essais philosophiques, poésie, articles d’Encyclopédie…

Son esprit critique et son engagement pour la liberté ont contribué à diffuser l’esprit des Lumières dans l’ensemble de la société européenne.

Analyses d’extraits de Candide :

• Candide, chapitre 1
• Candide, chapitre 3
• Candide, chapitre 6
• Candide, chapitre 18
• Candide, chapitre 19
• Candide, chapitre 30

Comment résumer Candide de Voltaire ?

Candide vit paisiblement au château du Baron de Thunder-ten-Tronckh en Westphalie où il reçoit des leçons du philosophe Pangloss , qui prêche l’optimisme en déclarant que tout est pour le mieux dans le meilleur des mondes possibles .

Cependant, après un baiser échangé avec Cunégonde , la fille du Baron, Candide est chassé du château.

Il entreprend alors un voyage initiatique à travers le monde qui va lui permettre peu à peu de s’affranchir de l’enseignement philosophique qu’il a reçu de son maître Pangloss. Enrôlé dans les troupes bulgares au chapitre III, Candide assiste ainsi à la brutalité de la guerre lors d’une « boucherie héroïque ».

Il fuit vers Lisbonne où il est confronté à un terrible tremblement de terre et à l’ intolérance religieuse . Condamné lors d’un autodafé , il parvient à échapper à ses persécuteurs et tue l’amant de Cunégonde pour s’échapper en Espagne.

Accompagné de son valet Cacambo, de Cunégonde et d’une vieille servante, il embarque pour le Paraguay .

Au chapitre XVI, la troupe de jeunes gens est capturée par les Oreillons , une tribu sauvage et féroce, et manque de justesse d’être mangée. Aux chapitres XVII et XVIII, ils arrivent au fameux Eldorado , un lieu merveilleux , caractérisé par une abondance de richesses matérielles, une organisation sociale égalitaire et une absence de fanatisme religieux. Les jeunes gens décident pourtant de poursuivre leur chemin.

Candide embarque alors pour l’Europe et fait la rencontre de Martin , un philosophe pessimiste , qui partage son point de vue sombre sur la nature humaine.

Leur voyage les mène à Bordeaux, puis à Paris, où Candide frôle la mort en raison des soins médicaux peu fiables .

Ils longent les côtes d’Angleterre sans y accoster car Candide s’indigne de voir l’ exécution d’un officier anglais .

Finalement, ils atteignent Venise et rencontrent Pococurante , un riche noble vénitien désillusionné et blasé , ainsi que six rois détronés. Ils partent ensuite pour Constantinople , où Candide retrouve Cunégonde enlaidie .

Ils s’installent tous dans une métairie , et se tournent vers une vie plus simple et équilibrée, orientée vers le travail concret. Le chapitre XXX se conclut ainsi :

« Pangloss disait quelquefois à Candide : Tous les événements sont enchaînés dans le meilleur des mondes possibles ; car enfin si vous n’aviez pas été chassé d’un beau château à grands coups de pied dans le derrière pour l’amour de mademoiselle Cunégonde, si vous n’aviez pas été mis à l’Inquisition, si vous n’aviez pas couru l’Amérique à pied, si vous n’aviez pas donné un bon coup d’épée au baron, si vous n’aviez pas perdu tous vos moutons du bon pays d’Eldorado, vous ne mangeriez pas ici des cédrats confits et des pistaches.– Cela est bien dit, répondit Candide, mais il faut cultiver notre jardin. »  Candide , chapitre XXX

Clique ici pour lire le résumé de Candide chapitre par chapitre.

Qui sont les personnages principaux dans Candide ?

Personnage principal du conte, Candide est un jeune homme naïf et optimiste , ayant été élevé dans l’idée que « tout est au mieux dans le meilleur des mondes possibles » par son précepteur, Pangloss .

Au fil du récit, Candide est confronté à de nombreuses épreuves et découvre la dure réalité du monde. Son voyage initiatique lui permet de développer sa compréhension du mal, de la souffrance et de la nature humaine . Il incarne la quête du bonheur et de la vérité .

Le précepteur de Candide, Pangloss, est un philosophe optimiste qui enseigne que «  tout est pour le mieux dans le meilleur des mondes possibles « , et ce en dépit des malheurs et catastrophes auxquels il est confronté. Pangloss incarne l’ optimisme naïf et la confiance aveugle, malgré les preuves évidentes du mal et de la souffrance dans le monde.

C’est un personnage qui n’évolue pas au cours du récit, contrairement à Candide qui s’affranchit de ses préjugés.

Cunégonde, dont Candide est amoureux , est la fille du baron du château de Thunder-ten-Tronckh .

Au début du récit, c’est une jeune femme séduisante et désirable que Candide va tout faire pour retrouver, malgré les multiples épreuves et déceptions qu’il rencontre.

Lorsqu’ils se retrouvent à la fin du conte, Cunégonde n’a pas été épargnée par les souffrances de la vie. Enlevée, violée, maltraitée, elle s’est enlaidie . Elle incarne donc la confrontation avec la réalité brutale du monde .

Martin est un philosophe pessimiste que Candide rencontre lors de ses voyages en Europe.

Contrairement à Pangloss, Martin considère que le monde est fondamentalement mauvais . Pour lui, la souffrance et l’injustice sont inévitables. Il représente donc une voix discordante face à l’optimisme naïf de Pangloss.

Le baron de Thunder-ten-Tronckh

Le baron est le père de Cunégonde et le propriétaire du château où Candide vit au début de l’histoire. Il chasse Candide du château en raison de son amour pour Cunégonde.

Le baron représente l’ arrogance et la rigidité sociale de l’aristocratie de l’époque, mettant en évidence les inégalités et les injustices du système féodal.

Cacambo est le valet fidèle de Candide qui l’accompagne tout au long de ses aventures.

Il incarne la loyauté, l’ingéniosité et la fidélité envers son maître. Il représente également la voix de la raison face à l’optimisme naïf de Candide, l’aidant à prendre des décisions judicieuses au cours de leur périple (par exemple, il sauve Candide des Oreillons dans le chapitre XVI)

Quels sont les thèmes importants dans Candide ?

La critique de l’optimisme.

Candide ou l’Optimisme s’inscrit dans un débat important au XVIIIème siècle qui oppose Voltaire et le philosophe allemand Leibniz .

Leibniz considère que le monde est guidé par le principe de «  raison suffisante  » dans une «  harmonie parfaite préétablie  » par Dieu. Ainsi «  tout est pour le mieux  » puisque tout est organisé par une intelligence supérieure, celle de Dieu.

Pour Voltaire, cet optimisme philosophique défie la raison et l’observation.

Il décide alors d’écrire un conte philosophique avec deux personnages types, le professeur Pangloss (clairement l’ incarnation de Leibniz ) et Candide un personnage naïf, vierge de tout préjugés qui va mettre à l’épreuve les théories optimistes de son maître .

C’est ainsi que Candide va connaître la guerre (chapitre III), la superstition et l’injustice (chapitre VII), la captivité (chapitre XVI), l’ennui (chapitre XVIII), la maladie (XXIV), le scepticisme et la vanité des sciences (Chapitre XXV), et la déception de retrouver Cunégonde enlaidie.

Ce tour du monde de la tragédie humaine a vocation à déconstruire l’optimisme naïf de Candide qui adoptera à la fin du conte une a utre philosophie, plus pragmatique  : «  il faut cultiver notre jardin  » .

Le tour du monde de Candide est l’occasion pour Voltaire de montrer que le mal est universel et qu’il est partout . Le conte explore différentes manifestations du mal :

– Le mal dans la société : « Candide » critique la société européenne du XVIIIe siècle en mettant en évidence les inégalités sociales, la corruption et les abus de pouvoir . Les guerres injustes , l’intolérance religieuse , l’exploitation des paysans et l’arrogance des élites aristocratiques dessinent une société gangrénée par le mal.

– Mais le mal est également naturel : tout au long du récit, Candide et ses compagnons sont confrontés à des désastres naturels tel le tremblement de terre de Lisbonne. L’épisode de la tribu sauvage des Oreillons montre aussi qu’à l’état de nature, les hommes ne sont pas naturellement bons.

– La souffrance de l’expérience humaine : Les personnages de « Candide » sont soumis à d’innombrables souffrances et tragédies personnelles tout au long du roman : maladies, perte d’un être cher, tromperie du conjoint, etc.

Tout en dépeignant un monde marqué par l’injustice et la souffrance, Voltaire ne se contente toutefois pas de critiquer passivement le mal. Le philosophe soulève la question du libre arbitre et de la responsabilité humaine face au mal .

La recherche du bonheur réside ainsi dans l’acceptation des réalités, dans l’action pragmatiqu e et le partage des valeurs humaines fondamentales telles que la tolérance, la compassion et la solidarité.

La quête du bonheur

Le bonheur est un thème fondamental au XVIIIème siècle. Avec Candide , Voltaire remet en cause certaines visions du bonheur en vogue au XVIIIème siècle :Il montre que le bonheur ne réside pas dans un état de nature comme le prétend Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Ainsi, le chapitre XVI sur les Oreillons souligne que le bon sauvage n’est qu’un mythe . C’est parce qu’ils sont civilisés que Candide et Cacambo ont la vie sauve.

– Ensuite, Voltaire suggère que le bonheur ne réside pas non plus dans les sociétés politiques . Il déconstruit ainsi le mythe d’ Eldorado et du nouveau monde, lieu à l’organisation politique parfaite, qui ne parvient pas à faire rester Candide.

– L’auteur montre aussi que le bonheur ne réside pas dans le voyage . En effet, le périple de Candide ne correspond qu’à une succession de fuites au cours desquelles le personnage principal apprend la déception et la mélancolie.

– Le bonheur ne réside pas non plus dans les possessions matérielles . Ainsi, Pococurante, seigneur désillusionné et blasé, possède une immense collection d’œuvres d’art et de livres, ainsi que tout ce qu’il désire, mais demeure insatisfait de tout.

– Le bonheur se trouve finalement dans une sorte de bien être minimal épicurien où il convient de cultiver son jardin.

Le voyage est un thème central dans Candide.

Il joue tout d’abord un rôle narratif puisque chaque déplacement des personnages d’un continent à l’autre donne lieu à des rencontres, des aventures et des épreuves qui mettent en lumière les incohérences et les absurdités du monde. Le voyage est également la métaphore de la quête existentielle de Candide.

Au fur et à mesure de ses aventures, Candide est confronté à des événements tragiques et à des dilemmes moraux qui le conduisent à remettre en question les idées préconçues qu’il a reçues de son précepteur, Pangloss, et à adopter une approche plus réaliste et pragmatique face aux difficultés de la vie. La voyage de Candide, qui est circulaire, peut aussi être analysé comme une métaphore de l’Encyclopédie . L’encyclopédie est en effet un ambitieux ouvrage en cours de rédaction lors de la publication de Candide et qui a pour but de faire un tour du monde des connaissances .

Candide peut être considéré comme la métaphore de l’esprit encyclopédique qui fait le tour du monde, l’expérimente pour en tirer des leçons de sagesse.

Quelles sont les caractéristiques de l’écriture de Voltaire dans Candide ?

L’écriture de Voltaire est d’une richesse inouïe dans ce conte.

L’exotisme des récits de voyage du XVIIIème siècle

Tout d’abord, Voltaire a recours à l’exotisme , qui permet aux lecteurs de s’évader et de trouver des charmes pittoresques à cette aventure.

Le passage par Eldorado est par exemple très attendu par les lecteurs de l’époque, abreuvés aux récits de voyages depuis la fin du XVIIème .

Un rythme enlevé

Ensuite, Voltaire crée une narration dynamique, enlevée où il se passe toujours quelque chose. Les péripéties sont nombreuses. Voltaire multiplie les personnages, les sépare et les rassemble à la fin.

En ce sens, Candide a beaucoup de points communs avec les comédies théâtrales , comme celles de Molière : le nom des personnages, les types caricaturaux qui rappellent des personnages de théâtre comique, la multiplication des personnages, des séparations et des retrouvailles.

Des registres variés

Voltaire utilise aussi le registre tragique pour montrer son indignation face à la guerre notamment au chapitre III.

Le style pathétique et le réalisme froid pour décrire les cadavres ensanglantés provoquent terreur et pitié.

L’ironie

Mais le trait saillant de l’écriture de Candide est sans conteste l’ironie qui dénonce les injustices et suscite la réflexion du lecteur tout en le divertissant avec un récit humoristique et plein d’esprit. Par exemple, lorsque Pangloss affirme que « tout est au mieux dans le meilleur des mondes possibles » malgré les terribles épreuves que les personnages endurent, Voltaire utilise l’ ironie pour montrer le décalage entre la vision optimiste de Pangloss et la réalité de la souffrance vécue par les personnages. Ou au chapitre III, lorsque Voltaire qualifie la guerre de «  boucherie héroïque  », il contredit un terme épique (« héroïque ») en le juxtaposant à un terme décrivant la cruelle réalité (« boucherie »).

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English 287:  Great Books

There is also a much briefer study guide to this work.  It is designed to highlight certain central questions that moderately experienced reader would be inclined to frame and pursue in the course of reading the tale.  The guide you are reading now, though, is designed for readers who want to explore things a bit more deeply.

Here are some things to pay attention to as you review Candide .  (Incidentally, don't overlook the notes that are provided beginning on p. 91 of our text [Dover Thrift Edition].  These are often essential for clarifying points that readers today would have no way of knowing on their own.)

For an introduction to Voltaire, check out one of the following:

• Voltaire:  Author and Philosopher at LucidCafé .  (This is more compact.)
• The biographical sketch at Malaspina Great Books .  (This is more comprehensive.)

Another resource:  there's also the SparkNotes Study Guide to Candide .

It would be useful to have a look now at the opening item in that study guide, on the social and cultural context within which Candide was created.

The title page

The title page is unfortunately absent in our edition.  But you can take a look at what it looked like in the original edition of 1759 here .  It says:  "Candide or Optimism.  Translated from the German of Dr. Ralph."  Two facts bear noting:

(1) The title is an alternative doublet:  it is named after the story's main character and, equally, by what is its (supposedly) real subject, "optimism," which in that day referred to what came to be called more specifically "philosophical optimism."  This doctrine stems from the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who in 1710 published a treatise called Essais de Théodicée .  It found acceptance in certain circles all over Europe, for example in English, where it became the subject of Alexander Pope's famous poem Essay on Man (1732-44).

 Leibniz argued that the world we are in, despite all the suffering and criminality that attaches to it, is "the best of all possible worlds."  This proposition is the central thesis of a larger argument  -- from certain premises (that Voltaire regarded as false) and giving rise to certain further implications that Voltaire found politically and morally objectionable.     Voltaire uses this phrase as a convenient shorthand for the entire argument and the outlook on natural and moral evil that it supports. You might find it interesting, eventually, to check out an abstract of the central argument of the Theodicy (as Leibnitz' treatise has come to be referred to, in abbreviated form):  a shorter one or a somewhat more extensive one .

E Although philosophical optimism was also denounced by orthodox Christian thinkers -- who regarded it as a heresy, on the grounds that it implicitly denied Original Sin (see the end of Chapter 5) -- you should be thinking about how the particular lines along which Voltaire ridicules philosophical optimism in Candide led the clergy and the pious to recognize it as corrosive to traditional Christianity as well.

In fact, it makes sense regard the book's overt holding out of "[philosophical] optimism" as its target as a fairly transparent disguise for an attack on the Christian key axioms of original sin and divine providence & intervention as an explanation for natural events and human history.  Certainly it was regarded as such by the religious authorities.

(2) Hence it is easy to understand why Voltaire never in his life publicly acknowledged that this little story (destined to become his most famous work) was his.  Instead, the book came to the public as having been written by some learned German no one had ever heard of, and translated by who knows whom, but probably some hack hired by the French publisher (who also was nowhere specified).

Of course Voltaire's close friends were in the know, and it wasn't long before it was an open secret in intellectual circles in Europe that Candide was the child of the famous Voltaire.  But Voltaire himself always modestly disavowed the work in public.  In fact, behind the scenes he went to some lengths to further obscure its authorship. [When you've finished reading the story, you might find it fun to return here and check out the letter he wrote (also under a pseudonym) to the editors of the Journal encyclopédique shortly after the first edition appeared.  (Note the date with which he endowed this letter from "Herr Demad.")]

To appreciate Voltaire's caution, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the methods and powers of the Inquisition .

The story begins in Germany, which Voltaire treats as a backwater of barbaric aristocrats with ridiculous pretensions to culture.  Though the 

How does Voltaire design the opening chapter to be recognized as a parody of the Biblical story of the Fall?  (In case we missed this on first reading, the opening lines of Chapter 2 remind us to rethink the opening chapter in these terms.)

What elements parallel the Biblical story of Paradise and the Fall of Adam of Eve from it?   It would be a good idea to briefly review the details of Genesis 2:4-3:24 .  

What, though, are the differences that make for humor here?

Why would Voltaire be doing this?

Chapters 2 & 3

What attitude towards princes and established religions does Voltaire invite in his treatment of the war between the Abares and the Bulgarians?

Amsterdam / Lisbon (Chapters 3 - 9)

What reaction does Candide get to his plea for alms from several serious-minded citizens of Amsterdam?

What do you figure Voltaire might be getting at here?

What are we to make of the behavior of the orator upon charity Candide encounters in Amsterdam?

James the Anabaptist

What are we supposed to notice about the Anabaptist James (who appears in Chapters 3-5)?  [If you are reading a different translation, you may find this character bearing the name "Jacques."  One is the English, the other the French version of Hebrew name Jacob .]

What are his key actions in the several episodes in which we see him?   How does he contrast with the Batavian sailor?  with Pangloss?  (later:  with Martin?)   What do you think is Voltaire's point in including him in the story?

When Candide meets up with his old tutor Pangloss, the latter is in a pitiable condition. (Footnote 4 is of help here in catching on to the humor.)

How does he explain the cause of his woes in the light of his principles of philosophical optimism?  (What does this have to do with what his name connotes?  [See Footnote 1.]) What are we to think of his explanation?

The Lisbon Earthquake.   On Sunday, the first of November, 1755, around 11 o'clock in the morning Lisbon (the capital of Portugal) was struck by a horrendous earthquake.  Buildings were leveled all over the city.  Death was massive, particularly because much of the population was at the moment attending church, and was buried in the rubble of their collapse.  News of the disaster spread rapidly all over Europe.

What trauma can you imagine this event posed for both orthodox Christian theology and philosophical optimism?  (What features are in common between the two outlooks, that you infer that Voltaire is hostile to?) Have a look at a letter Voltaire wrote on hearing of the Lisbon earthquake .

• In Chapter 5, Pangloss gets into a discussion of theological issues with a "a familiar of [informant for] the Inquisition." 

It's worth having a look at a brief description of this practice .

What assumptions about the causes of the earthquake can we infer must have motivated the recommendation of the faculty of the University of Coimbra?

What does Voltaire think of the mentality of the faculty? Can you put your finger on where exactly this opinion is most directly indicated?

How does Candide come to be reunited with Cunegonde?

What are the chief episodes in her story of her experiences since the "Fall"? What points is Voltaire making about military honor and religious authorities? What stress is this story designed to put upon the assumptions of philosophical optimism? How are these implications emphasized by the sorts of happenings Voltaire has invented as the facts of the Old Woman who has become Cunegonde's valet companion?

Why does Candide have to skidaddle from Lisbon?  

What kind of advice does he get from the Old Woman?   E How does her use of Reason differ from that of Pangloss, who is absent?

Spain (Avecenna, Cádiz) / Atlantic voyage to Argentina (Chapters 10 - 13)

How does Cunegonde lose her jewels?

What do you think Voltaire's point here is?

What qualities of mind does the Old Woman exhibit in this emergency?

What opportunity does Candide seize when the party arrives at Cádiz?

What kind of reasoning do the travelers engage in during the voyage from Cádiz to Argentina and Paraguay (Chapter 10)?

What are the main themes of the history of the Old Woman (Chapters 11 and 12)?  

What does this catalogue of disasters have to do with the overall theme of Candide ?   What attitude does the Old Woman adopt towards what has happened to her?   What counsel does she give her companions on the basis of her experience?   What does Candide (Chapter 13) think the old woman's history means for the theories of Pangloss?

Southern South America (Chapters 13 - 16)

Buenos Aires

What kind of fellow is the Governor of Buenos Aires?  

What is Voltaire's point in giving him the name that he does?  

What is the Old Woman's advice to Cunegonde?

What kind of a fellow is Cacambo?  (As you continue to get acquainted with him, try to find words to formulate the traits that seem to stand out with him.)

How is he similar to the Old Woman?  How is he different?   What advice does he give his master Candide?

The "Jesuit kingdom" in Paraguay

What are the outstanding features of the "Jesuit kingdom" Candide and Cacambo visit in Paraguay (Chapters 14-15)?  

Why is Voltaire so hostile to this community?  (If you have seen the film The Mission , you will be struck by the divergence of evaluations!) Whom does Candide meet there, to his great surprise?   Why does the encounter end as it does?   What advice does Cacambo give his master?  (How does his presence of mind here contrast with that of "the young philosopher"?)

An unknown country without a beaten path | a beautiful meadow 

In the third paragraph of Chapter 16 we read of Candide that "[w]hile he was thus lamenting his fate, he went on eating." What is Voltaire nudging us to notice here?  

• Does this remind you of a point of view we've heard expressed earlier in the story?  
• Does it come up elsewhere later on as well?

What mistake does Candide make in rescuing the girls from the monkeys that are chasing them?  

What do you think might be Voltaire's the point in devising this episode?

The country of the Oreillons

How is it that the pair doesn't end up on a spit, and being eaten by the Oreillons (the "Big-Ears")?  

What's the fun Voltaire is having with the idea of "natural reason" -- the quality of intellect common (because "native," in-born) to the species?

El Dorado (Chapters 17 - 18)

How do the despairing pair get there?

What mistakes of interpretation do they make during their first encounters with the natives? 

in the village schoolyard in the first house in the village (a hostel) What assumptions are these mistakes meant to throw into relief?   Why does Voltaire want the reader to reflect on these?

What is Candide's comment on these initial discoveries (i.e., at the end of Chapter 17)?

What are the important points of the history of El Dorado that are conveyed by the old sage (retired from Court, and now living in the village C & C have stumbled into)?

• "Contentment" and "containment" are etymological cousins.  (Check this out in a decent-sized desk dictionary.) 
• What do you detect as the fundamental assumptions behind such a decision?
• How might we connect these assumptions with the economic and domestic political facts of the kingdom the visitors find so striking (up to now and later on during their visit)?

What is striking about the religion of El Dorado , as explained by the old wise man? (Note how certain key facts are pointed up by having the old man be surprised by Candide's questions.)

There are at least 5 points that you'd want to take stock of. What key features of prevailing European religion (i.e., Catholic and Protestant Christianity) get highlighted here?   How are these connected with differences over the interpretation of divine providence in respect of how God wills that sinners be reconciled to Him (i.e., how "justification" is accomplished)? the effects of Original Sin on human nature (i.e., on the in-born character of all individuals)? how God decides to act personally within human history (i.e., miracles, divine interventions) how God chooses to make his will known to human beings (i.e., what constitutes ultimate authority for discovering God's will)

What is Voltaire's getting at in his overall portrait of religion in El Dorado?

• Here you may want to consult what WH has to say on the subject of deism [p. 404-405].  
• Or check out one or more of the pages referenced in our glossary page on deism .

Both philosophical optimism and Voltaire's renunciation of theodicy could be regarded as forms of deism, under these definitions.   How so?   What, though, are their essential points of difference?

What does Candide's reflection on this part of his conversation with the retired elder have to say about philosophical optimism?

• How might the accusation of "provinciality" apply not just to Pangloss but to Leibniz?

What is striking about the political order that holds in El Dorado , as the Candide discovers in his visit to the capital?

What is striking about the reception Candide and Cacambo receive from the King of El Dorado?   What is this meant to get us to question concerning European monarchs?   Why are the latter the way they are?   What "necessities" drive them to it? What would be necessary for them to cease thinking of these as necessary?

What underlying differences do these differences evidently stem from?  (Voltaire is here prompting the reader to do some reflecting.  Take up the challenge.)

Note that Voltaire does not seem to suppose that natural reason would lead men to form a democracy.  Why do you think that is?

At the same time, how does his conception of rational monarchy differ from what prevails in Europe, where one is constantly confronted with all sorts of policies justified in the name of "reasons of state."

Why does Candide resolve to leave El Dorado?  

• There are two factors, one more profound for assessing the social facts that are taken for granted as natural in Europe.  Can you locate each?
• Why can't Candide be content to remain in El Dorado?

[general issues to be thinking through concerning the El Dorado episode]

If Voltaire thinks that reason is a property of the human race as a species, how do you think he would account for the fact that what passes for "reasonable" and "required by reason" differs so strikingly in Europe from what it is in El Dorado?

• How is this clear?
• Why do you think Voltaire rejects this key teaching of Christianity?  (That is:  with what other beliefs that you infer he holds is the belief in original sin inconsistent?)

But if Voltaire is going to reject this as an explanation for why reason does not seem to be prevailing in Europe, what explanation do you think he will be inclined to favor?

What is the focus of intellectual life in El Dorado?  

• How does Voltaire's estimation of the value of astronomy and other sciences differ from that of Jonathan Swift?  Why do you think that is?

What essential features of European civilization are absent from El Dorado? 

• What does this tell us about El Dorado and Europe?  (Try to penetrate to the assumptions in virtue of which each set of institutions or the lack of them seems "natural" and "necessary" or "only sensible" to the people of the respective societies.)

The visit to El Dorado sits approximately in the middle of Voltaire's tale.  Could this be telling us something?

Northern South America / Atlantic voyage back to Europe (Chapters 19 - 21)

From El Dorado to Dutch Surinam

What point is Voltaire making in the encounter Cacambo and Candide have with the negro they find on the way in to Dutch Surinam?

• What theological issues get raised in the course of this meeting?
• How does what the negro says here 
• On reflection, what do you notice about Candide's reaction if you ask what James the Anabaptist would have done, in Candide's shoes?

Dutch Surinam / departure from it

What kind of a person is Mynheer Vandurdendur?  ("Mynheer," by the way, is a term of address, meaning "my lord" or "mister").

(We've encountered him twice, right:  he's the owner of the Negro C & C met on the way into town, and he's the owner of the ship )

How does Candide come to take on the company of Martin?

How does Martin define his own philosophical perspective?  

What exactly does he mean by describing himself as a "Manichean"?   It would be worth memorizing his definition, so that you can bring it to mind when you see Martin interpreting things that he and Candide witness from now until the end of the story.

You might also want to have a look at a comprehensive discussion of Manicheism.  Try one of these (say, a shorter and a longer one):

• definition by Austin Cline
• more extensive discussion from Britannica.com
• brief discussion at nationmaster.com
• article in the Catholic Encyclopedia
• How do Pangloss and Martin (as "philosophers") contrast with Cacambo and the Old Woman, in the use they make of their faculty of Reason?
• What assumptions to Pangloss and Martin nevertheless seem to share?  As you read further in the story, keep thinking about this question.
• How does Martin's outlook evidently differ from that of the inhabitants of El Dorado?  (Stay open to the possibility that there might be more than one way.)  As you read further in the story, keep thinking about this question.
• What accounts for the difference between the interpretations that Candide and Martin make?
• Check out (in increasing order of informativeness) this or this or this or this .
• What do you think Voltaire's opinion would be of the Socinians?

[a key concept in the story]

This would be a good time to stop to consider the concept (or concepts) of prudence, and to start collecting and organizing our thoughts about its role in Candide .

• definition at Hyperdictionary or ( same ) at die.net or ( same ) at selfknowledge.com
• definition at WordReference.com
• entry at Thesaurus.com indicating terms with related but distinct meanings
• also interesting:  definition of the prudent man rule at investorwords.com

The etymology of the term "prudence" involves an interesting relationship with the term "providence."  How are these related, but importantly different, in today's usage? Why would a successful business man need to be competent in the virtues of prudence?

What behaviors indicate that Candide and Cunegonde are somewhat lacking in prudence?

What in particular about their backgrounds may help account for this?

In what respects is James the Anabaptist an example of a prudence?

In what respects is he not?

In what respects are Pangloss and Martin (as Candide's philosophical sidekicks) not concerned with prudence?

How are Cacambo and the Old Woman, as valets (and hence, in the narrative, sidekicks) to Candide and Cunegonde, outstanding in prudence?

How does Mynheer Vandurdendur acquaint us with a different dimension or (alternatively) a different sort of "prudence" from the one we associate with Cacambo and the Old Woman? How about the Batavian sailor we meet just before and during the Lisbon earthquake (in Chapter 5).  Does he qualify as "prudent"? Is prudence the same thing as "competent selfishness"?  Or are there restraints on the kind of selfishness that is consistent with "true prudence"?  (What could be the force of the qualifier "true" in such a phrase, if we're not going to use it as a weasel-word to obscure the fact that we're just being arbitrary?)

Summing up:  what do you think Voltaire thinks about the virtue of prudence?

Are there virtues that are more important than prudence, in Voltaire's view? If so, what might these be, and where (how) do you see the story indicating this?

Does Voltaire suggest that there is an important distinction to be made between a "broader" and a "narrower" understanding of "prudence"?

If so, what would this difference consist in?  Can you formulate it?  What, in your view, does the story provide that prompts us to frame such a distinction?

You'll want to return to this set of questions after you've finished the novella.  What in particular does the final chapter have to "say" on this subject?

Drawing near to the coast of France

Chapter 21 is worth at least a cursory look.

• What are Martin's views concerning France and Paris?  How do they compare with Candide's?  (Notice how certain themes here re-surface in the concluding chapter of the story.)

Consider Candide's speculative questions in natural and moral philosophy, and Martin's replies to them.  What do we learn about each character's inclinations from the questions and answers concerning

• whether the earth might originally have been a sea
• the purpose of the creation of the world
• the surprisingness of the love of the Oreillon women for the monkeys
• whether men have always been evil
• free will [? - this one gets truncated by their arrival at Bordeaux:  here's a device we see variations upon throughout.  What do you think Candide was getting ready to ask about free will?  Why do you think Voltaire picked this topic to engineer the "practical interruption" upon on this occasion?]

France:  Bordeaux, Paris (Chapter 22)

Candide and Martin encounter a scholar at the dinner hosted by the Marchiness of Parolignac.  What is Voltaire up to in designing this conversation?

What is the hoax played by the Abbé?  How do the pair escape?

England:  Portsmouth (Chapter 23)

How does Martin's view of England compare to his view of France?

• What is the point of the episode in which Candide and Martin witness the execution of Admiral Byng (Chapter 23)?

Why is Candide inconsolably depressed upon their arrival in Venice?  (Would one expect consolation out of Martin?!?)

What do we learn from the stories (Chapter 24) of 

• Paquette (on the life of a prostitute) and 
• Friar Giroflée (on religious faith)? 

The visit to Senator Pococurante (Chapter 25) is an important episode.

Poco  = Italian:  "little"   |   curante = Italian:  "caring"

How is his name fitting? 

• How does his life stand with respect to the subject of "the cares of" life or "cares in" life?
• with respect to "caring for" life?

Recall Pococurante later on when you encounter the Old Turk.  How do they exhibit different sorts of "indifference," with radically different sorts of implications for happiness?

How is one wise, the other foolish?

How does the theme of indifference arise in the picture the Dervish conveys through his little capsule parable of "his highness" (the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire) and the mice on board the ship?

What do Candide and Martin learn at the dinner with the 6 strangers at the public inn in Venice (Chapter 26)?

Who turns up, in what circumstances?  What is familiar, in the tale we've become acquainted with, about the kind of story behind this surprise reappearance?

What is Martin's view of the sufferings of the 6?  (Cf. Chapter 27, p. 78.)  Who has the most convincing case - Martin or Candide?

Voyage to Constantinople (Chapters 27 - 29)

How does everyone in the little society come to be all gathered together at the end?

Cacambo?  (Ch. 26-27) Pangloss?  (Ch. 27-28) the Baron?  (Ch. 27-28) Cunegonde & the Old Woman?  (Ch. 29) Paquette and the Friar?  (Ch. 30, p. 85)

What are the themes of the Baron's story?

What are the themes of Pangloss' story?   What are we to think of the explanation he gives of his refusal to recant?

What surprise is in store for Candide with Cunegonde?

What is the Baron's response to Candide's response to Cunegonde's demand, and Candide's response to the Baron? [How does this ring a bell with the behavior of the Baron's aunt, in the rumor back in Chapter 1 (end of ¶1)?] What do Candide and his advisors finally decide to do with the Baron? This proves satisfying to all.  How so?  What larger issues does Voltaire seem to be getting at here?

Candide's farm outside of Constantinople (Chapter 30)

The great reversal occurs in the highly compact, and radiantly significant concluding chapter.

I.  The little farm's miserable beginning (pp. 84-5)? 

What question does the Old Woman pose that stumps them all?

[In the light of how things eventually turn out, what is the diagnosis of the root of the problem?]

What is the effect on their philosophical reflections of the arrival of Paquette and Friar Giroflée?

II.  The visit to the Dervish.

How does the Dervish's initial reply undercut the assumption of Pangloss's opening question?

How does the sequel explain the rationale of the rejection of that apparently eminently sensible assumption?

Spell out the allegorical significance of the mini-parable contained in the one-sentence rhetorical question with which the Dervish replies to Candide's follow-up.

What is the significance of the Sultan's attitude towards the mice in the hold of the ship?  (What is the Sultan presumably concerned about?)

How is this a radical rejection of a fundamental postulate of the Judeo-Christian picture of the meaning of history?  (Where did we find that picture articulated?)

Now turn the perspective around:  what do we notice if we ask what the attitude is of the mice towards the Sultan?  (What are they presumably concerned about?  Is this appropriate - sensical - under the circumstances?)

What is the implicit advice in this parable for mankind?

What would Luther think of this?  Calvin?  the participants in the Council of Trent?  Pope Urban VIII?  Swift?  (even Pelagius?)

How does Pangloss' reply indicate that he hasn't heard what the Dervish has been saying?

How does the Dervish's answer to Pangloss' question speak to what is (wrong with) Pangloss?  (Remember what his name means:  pan = "all," gloss = "tongue," and derivatively "word.") [Here we have to do with a brilliant translation (by the 18th-century English novelist Tobias Smollet).  Actually, the original French reads not "Hold your tongue" but simply "Shut up" (" Tais-toi ").  Indirectly, the same irony is at work -- but far more indirectly than in Smollet's translation.]

What is "Pangloss" about Pangloss' final protest?

How does the Dervish's final gesture, in response to Pangloss' exasperation, execute his advice from his own side?

III.  The news from Constantinople:

How is this a translation (application) to the secular plane of precisely the categories at stake in the conversation with the Dervish, on a cosmic plane?

What is "Pangloss" about Pangloss' response?  How has he still not heard the Dervish's lesson?  (You should notice some similarity here between the sources of comedy with Pangloss and part of the fun Molière has with Madame Pernelle in the opening scene of Tartuffe .)

IV.  The visit with the Old Turk and his household:

How is the Old Turk implicitly acting, with respect to the political powers that be, in accordance with the Dervish's advice to the little group of inquirers?

What is the secret of the happiness of their household?

Do you see any connections with the conditions of "contentment" (in the "containment" of one's desires) that we were led to consider in connection with the El Dorado episode?

How does what the Old Turk say clarify the predicament of Pococurante?

V.  The "new order" at the little farm:

Can you see how what the group accomplishes is a kind of "mutualist commune"?

What is the attitude here towards the idea of "private property"?

Is this necessarily a "drop-out" attitude towards the world?  Or could one's "garden" include (say) a much larger social unit?

Keep in mind that Voltaire was very active in the campaign for political justice and against religious fanaticism in France.

The irrepressible Pangloss

How does the philosopher's last remark remind you of his reply to Candide's question about whether the Devil is the origin of syphilis (back in Chapter 4)?

General questions in light of the concluding chapter

Can you see how this ending amounts to an endorsement of a humble version of the Baconian project ? Can you see how one might describe Voltaire's position as a kind of secular and non-ascetic Pelagianism ? What would it mean to qualify the term "Pelagian" with the term "secular"? What changes would be indicated by adding the term "non-ascetic"?

How does Voltaire imply that the attempt to interpret natural and historical events in theological terms is a waste of time?

• Where do we see "providential explanation" of phenomena of nature?  Where do we get hints about how Voltaire evaluates this form of explanation?
• Where do we see "providential explanation" of facts (imagined, since this is after all a work of fiction) of human history?  Where do we get hints about Voltaire's views on the usefulness of this approach to understanding what happens in human affairs?
• What does Voltaire seem to regard as a sufficient guide to human conduct?  What do people need to consult in order to know how to behave, in general terms?  How does Voltaire indicate this?

How does the final chapter develop further our thinking on the topic of prudence ?

Some other short works by Voltaire, bearing on themes important in Candide

In 1734 -- twenty-five years before Candide  -- Voltaire published Lettres philosophiques [or Philosophical Letters ], in which he offered to the French his reflections on British institutions and intellectual culture.  Two of these are especially pertinent here, revealing as they do Voltaire's admiration for two towering figures of  the 17th-Century scientific revolution, the philosopher of science Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and the mathematician-physicist Isaac Newton (1642-1727).  Both laid the foundations for a movement away from revealed religion as a foundation of natural science.  And Bacon pointed the way towards a focus on improvement, over generations, of the conditions of earthly existence.   Francis Bacon [In 1620, Bacon published his Novum Organum ( New Method ).  In it he argued that progress in natural science would be necessary for progress in controlling nature for the improvement of the human condition, and that such progress in knowledge of the hidden laws of the operation of nature would require a new method of inquiry.  Ancient authority (whether secular, like the writings of Aristotle, or religious, like the traditions of the pronouncements of the Church, or the interpretation of Holy Scripture) would have to be set aside in favor of careful reasoning on the basis of systematic observation of natural phenomena through the senses. This visionary programme -- which we can call for short the Baconian project  -- is a major step in the process of secularization that has marked Western society since the 16th Century.  Extended from natural philosophy to moral philosophy -- in today's terms, from the natural sciences to the social sciences and to ethics and political philosophy -- it pointed towards education and legislation, rather than divine grace and purifying self-castigation, as the techniques by which the evils of social existence could be effectively addressed, and to utilitarian or "universal rationalist" ethics, rather than scriptural citation and interpretation, as the arbiter of rational social policy.  For these reasons, Bacon's view of where society and individuals should invest human effort and other resources remains controversial today, especially for persons of fundamentalist outlook, whether Hindu, Muslim, Jewish, or Christian.]

• Isaac Newton

[In 1787, the 24-year-old Newton published his Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica  ( The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy ), in which he generalized Galileo's studies of terrestrial acceleration into his famous 3 laws of motion, and used these, together with the law of gravity, to explain Kepler's revised version of the Copernican astronomical hypothesis, which accurately explained in turn the observed motions of the heavenly bodies.  From ancient times, the Ptolemaic picture of the structure of the cosmos had been integrated with Aristotle's physics.  With Newton's book, the credibility of Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system collapsed.  But because in the late middle ages the traditional Christian picture of history had been integrated with the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic synthesis, this picture of man's relation to God (based on centuries of interpretation of Scripture) came under serious strain as well.]

Fifteen years after the initial publication of Candide , Voltaire was still vigorously at work flogging philosophical optimism.  When you've finished reading the tale, you might want to have a look at his article "All is well" in the Philosophical Dictionary , initially published (also anonymously) in 1764, and continuously supplemented in later editions.

Here are two additional articles from the Philosophical Dictionary, which (as you can see) was not confined to the essay form:

• "Dogmas" -- a satirical dream vision.
• "Freedom of Thought" -- a miniature philosophical dialogue.

A famous mini-philosophical-tale by Voltaire is "The Story of a Good Brahmin" .  Here again we see Voltaire's distrust of "speculative philosophy," Voltaire's sly code-word (sly how?) for "theology" -- the attempt to explain nature and history in terms of the dispositions and decisions of divine beings.  

The Good Brahmin of this story, though, is treated with a good deal more respect than is either Pangloss or (even) Martin in Candide?  Can you see what it is about him that makes him sympathetic to the reader?  [For those who are interested, there's a Study Guide to this little tale.]

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Everything you need for every book you read.

Candide is a young man who lives in the Barony of Thunder-ten-tronckh. There, he is instructed by the philosopher Pangloss , whose doctrine is that we live in “the best of all possible worlds.” One day, the Baron's daughter Cunégonde comes across Pangloss having sex with Paquette , her mother's chambermaid. Inspired, she approaches Candide, intending to do the same. Unfortunately, the two are caught kissing. Furious, the Baron kicks Candide out of Thunder-ten-tronckh. Candide wanders from place to place, and is eventually tricked by two Bulgarian soldiers into joining their army. He performs well in military exercises, but flees like a coward in the first battle.

Candide makes his way to Holland, because he has heard it is a rich country. There, he begs for money, generally without success. The wife of a Protestant orator dumps a chamber pot over his head after he refuses to say that the Pope is the Antichrist. Eventually, he is taken in by the altruistic Anabaptist Jacques . Shortly thereafter, he comes across Pangloss, who is ill with syphilis. Jacques takes Pangloss in, and also pays for his cure. Pangloss loses an eye and an ear to the disease, but survives. The three travel to Lisbon, debating philosophically on the voyage there.

As soon as they reach the Bay of Lisbon, there is a terrible storm. The ship sinks, and Jacques the Anabaptist dies. Pangloss and Candide float to shore, but as soon as they land, the terrible Lisbon Earthquake takes place, killing thousands. Candide and Pangloss survive, but are soon after arrested by the Inquisition, which is holding an auto-da-fé (a public festival for the punishment of heretics) in an attempt to prevent future earthquakes. Candide is publicly whipped, and Pangloss is hung. Candide despairs, beginning to doubt Pangloss’s optimistic philosophy.

An old woman approaches Candide and leads him to a house in the country. There, he is reunited with Cunégonde, who is being sexually shared by the Grand Inquisitor and a Jewish merchant named Don Issachar . Don Issachar and the Grand Inquisitor both enter the house shortly thereafter, and Candide kills each one as he enters.

Candide, Cunégonde, and the old woman flee all the way to Buenos Aires in South America, where Candide is put in charge of a military company mustered for the war against the rebelling Jesuits in Paraguay. The Governor, Don Fernando , wants to keep Cunégonde as his mistress. News arrives that the minions of the murdered Inquisitor are about to land in Buenos Aires, and Candide flees with his valet Cacambo .

Cacambo takes Candide to the Kingdom of the Jesuits, where he discovers that the Reverend Commandant is none other than the young Baron of Thunder-ten-tronckh. Their tearful reunion takes an unexpected turn when Candide announces his intention to marry Cunégonde, the Baron's sister. Outraged, the Baron attacks Candide, who stabs him through the stomach in self-defense. Candide weeps, overcome with remorse for having now killed three men.

Candide and Cacambo flee the Jesuit Kingdom and head for the wilderness. There, a mishap results in their capture by the savage Oreillons, who take them for Jesuits and prepare to eat them. Thanks to Cacambo's charisma, the Oreillons release them.

Candide and Cacambo wander through the wilderness for a long period of time. Totally by accident, they reach El Dorado, a utopian society filled with precious metals and happy people. Candide concludes that this must be the “best of all possible worlds,” which Pangloss described. Though they are happy in El Dorado , a desire for fame and glory causes Candide and Cacambo to leave. The King of El Dorado helps them depart from the isolated place, giving them many riches and a flock of red sheep as a parting gift. A few days after leaving El Dorado, Candide and Cacambo come across an African slave who is missing his hand and left leg.

Knowing that he will be arrested if he returns to Buenos Aires, Candide sends Cacambo to search for Cunégonde, promising to meet him in Venice. Candide himself heads to Suriname, where he tries to arrange passage back to Europe. He is tricked by the ship owner Mynheer Vanderdendur , who steals his flock of sheep and abandons him. At this point, Candide is almost ready to abandon his optimism completely.

Nevertheless, Candide manages to arrange a journey to Bordeaux with Martin , an impoverished scholar and pessimist whom he chooses as his traveling companion. On the way there, a battle takes place between two ships, and one of Candide's red sheep floats up from the wreckage, alive—he takes this as a good omen.

Candide and Martin arrive in Bordeaux, and then head to Paris. In Paris, Candide is tricked and robbed by the devious and superficial Abbé of Perigord and Marchioness of Parolignac , along with many other minor characters.

Candide and Martin briefly go to England, and then move on to Venice. There, Candide finds Paquette in the arms of Friar Giroflée —she has become a prostitute. Candide and Martin visit the home of Pococuranté , a wealthy Venetian Senator who is dissatisfied with everything he has. Soon after, they have dinner with six kings who have been deposed. At the dinner, Candide finds Cacambo, who informs him that Cunégonde is working as a servant in Turkey.

Candide, Cacambo and Martin travel to Turkey. On the ship which takes them there, they find Pangloss and the Young Baron, both of whom have been enslaved. Candide pays to have them both freed. When he arrives in Turkey, he does the same for Cunégonde and the old woman. By now, after lengthy journeys and countless misfortunes, all of the major characters have been reunited.

Cunégonde has become ugly, but Candide still wishes to marry her. When the Baron, her brother, opposes it, they send him back to Rome—by force. The two marry, and all of the remaining characters move to a small farm. There, they complain about their misfortunes and discuss philosophy endlessly.

One day, Candide comes across an old Turkish farmer , with a garden he takes care of with his children. The man seems to be happier with his lot than Candide and the other characters. Because of him, Candide is inspired to abandon the endless questions of philosophy for the solace of practical work. He concludes that while we are alive, “we must cultivate our garden .”

Introduction à ‘Candide’ de Voltaire : Une Analyse Approfondie

Symbols: 3299

Candide est un chef-d’œuvre de la littérature française écrit par Voltaire, un des plus grands philosophes du XVIIIème siècle. Il s’agit d’un conte philosophique qui offre une critique satirique de la société de son époque, en particulier de l’optimisme philosophique promu par Leibniz. Dans cet article, nous allons analyser le contexte dans lequel l’œuvre a été écrite et examiner l’intrigue et les thèmes de l’histoire pour comprendre davantage ce conte emblématique.

Comprendre le Contexte de ‘Candide’ par Voltaire

Voltaire a écrit Candide en 1759, période marquée par de grands changements sociaux, politiques et intellectuels en Europe. C’est l’ère des Lumières, un mouvement qui a cherché à remettre en question les idées reçues et à promouvoir la raison et la liberté de pensée. Voltaire, en tant que l’un des plus influents philosophes des Lumières, utilise l’humour et la satire dans Candide pour critiquer l’optimisme aveugle, l’église, le gouvernement et la guerre.

L’optimisme aveugle est principalement représenté par la philosophie de Leibniz, que Voltaire a trouvée trop naïve et déconnectée de la réalité. Leibniz croyait que nous vivions dans le meilleur des mondes possibles, idée que Voltaire a rejetée en raison des injustices et des souffrances omniprésentes dans la société. Par ailleurs, l’église est également critiquée pour son hypocrisie et sa corruption, tandis que le gouvernement est dépeint comme étant injuste et oppressif.

Oral du bac de français

Ecrit du bac de français, pour aller plus loin.

75 pages • 2 hours read

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Introduction

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Teacher Introduction

• Genre: Satire; Philosophical Fiction
• Originally Published: 1759
• Reading Level/Interest: Lexile 1110L Adult
• Structure/Length: Novel divided into chapters; approximately 129 pages; audiobook length approximately 3 hours and 26 minutes.
• Protagonist/Central Conflict: Candide is a satirical novella by Voltaire that follows the adventures of its titular character, Candide. The central conflict revolves around Candide's journey, which begins with his expulsion from the Baron's castle and takes him on a whirlwind tour of the world. He encounters various absurd and often tragic situations, all while seeking his beloved Cunégonde. The novella is a scathing critique of the philosophical optimism of the time, particularly as espoused by Leibniz, and it uses humor and irony to satirize the injustices and follies of the world. Candide is a classic work of satire that remains relevant for its commentary on human nature, society, and the pursuit of happiness.
• Potential Sensitivity Issues: Themes related to satire, social criticism, and philosophical exploration

Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet), Author

• Bio: Born 1694, died 1778; influential French Enlightenment writer known for his wit, satire, and philosophical writings; Voltaire was a prolific author and philosopher of the 18th century.
• Other Works: Letters Concerning the English Nation (1733); Philosophical Dictionary (1764)

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• The Pursuit of Happiness and Individual Suffering

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Présentation et introduction à l’étude de Candide de Voltaire

Par orianehamon   •  12 Octobre 2016  •  Cours  •  1 675 Mots (7 Pages)  •  5 220 Vues

Présentation et introduction à l’étude de  Candide  de Voltaire

Le genre du conte

Le XVIII° siècle offre une variété de genres : essais, traités, discours, encyclopédies et dictionnaires, lettres etc. Voltaire s’est essayé à tous ces genres avec une redoutable efficacité mais celui qui affirmait qu’il acceptait « tous les genres sauf le genre ennuyeux » a trouvé dans la forme du conte un moyen extraordinaire de faire passer ses idées.

Candide ou l’optimisme  est intitulé « conte philosophique ». Le genre du conte est très en vogue et permet aussi de toucher un public plus enclin à lire un petit ouvrage divertissant qu’un traité de philosophie. Car tout en amusant son lecteur, Voltaire veut aussi l’instruire. Son conte se met au service d’idées et c’est en cela qu’il est philosophique. Son projet est de railler l’optimisme et de montrer l’ampleur du mal dans le monde. Le conte devient une arme et l’ironie voltairienne contribue à son efficacité.

Critiquer mais aussi amuser, telle est la devise de Voltaire.  L’auteur utilise avec succès les ficelles du genre romanesque : roman héroïque, roman d’amour, récit de voyage, roman de formation … il n’en reste pas moins conte avec se personnages sans épaisseur, ses invraisemblances, ses miraculeuses résurrections.

Le regard de l’autre

Le XVIII ° siècle est marqué par le goût de l’exotisme, des voyages : la découverte d’autres contrées ouvre la voie à la comparaison. La littérature fait naître la figure de l’étranger naïf qui découvre un pays qui n’est pas le sien.

En 1721, Montesquieu publie Les Lettres persanes , roman épistolaire qui réunit les lettres fictives de deux Persans voyageant en Europe et observant avec étonnement tout ce qu’ils découvrent.

Voltaire reprend ce procédé dans Micromégas (1752) où deux habitants de Sirius et Saturne descendant sur terre puis dans l’Ingénu où un Huron sort de sa contrée pour découvrir le monde civilisé.

Le regard de l’autre, de l’étranger permet la satire de notre société et nous interroge sur le bien-fondé de nos mœurs. Candide est ce naïf, cet étranger au monde qui au sortir de son paradis de TTT découvre le monde et l’absurdité de ses horreurs. Il renvoie l’image d’un monde rongé par le mal que Voltaire ne cesse de dénoncer.

Les combats de Voltaire

Voltaire s’engage dans une lutte acharnée contre les différents maux qui touchent le monde comme le fanatisme, l’intolérance, la guerre et l’esclavage.

• Contre l’optimisme de Leibniz

Candide peut être vu comme un pamphlet contre les théories de Leibniz (1646-1716). Ce philosophe et mathématicien allemand publie en 1710 des essais de théodicée où il s’interroge sur Dieu, le mal et l’harmonie du monde.

Pour L, Dieu est parfait, juste et bon, et le monde qu’il a créé ne peut être imparfait ou mauvais. Dieu a nécessairement voulu le meilleur des mondes. L ne nie pas l’existence du mal, il l’intègre dans un grand dessein qui dépasse la courte vue de l’homme : malgré  l’imperfection du monde, tout est fait  pour la meilleure combinaison.

L’optimisme est le  système de ceux qui pensent que tout est bien, que le monde est le meilleur que Dieu ait pu créer.

Voltaire s’insurge contre ce système. Pour lui, c’est une aberration : l’optimisme est sans doute contredit par les désastres contemporains : le tremblement de terre de Lisbonne de 1755 qui tue près de 30000 pers, la guerre de Sept ans qui ravage L’Europe de 156 à 1763, les crimes des fanatiques et l’intolérance.  V ridiculise l’optimisme de L dans C. Pangloss, le maitre de métaphysico-théologo-cosmolonigologie ou nigaud tout court, n’ ridiculise l’optimisme de L dans C. Pangloss, le maitre de métaphysico-théologo-cosmolonigologie ou nigaud tout court, n’est que discours, aveuglé par la croyance que tout est bien. Malgré la perte de son œil, il refuse de voir la réalité.

• Contre l’Eglise et l’intolérance

La question religieuse est très présente dans les débats philo de l’époque. V se fait le pourfendeur du fanatisme et de l’intolérance religieuse : l’autodafé de L (chap 6) décidé par l’Inquisition qui condamne au fau des personnes accusées de crimes mineurs, l’interdiction faite aux comédiens d’être enterrés religieusement (chap 22) etc.  indignent V mais ne font pas de lui un athée. V est anticlérical mais il est théiste (vise à exprimer un tout qui joint le culte d’une religion à la croyance en un Dieu). Cf description de la pratique religieuse dans le chap17.

• Contre la guerre

Ce fléau apparaît dès le chap 3. V en souligne l’horreur et la cruauté mais aussi l’absurdité. Les Bulgares affrontent les Abares  sans que l’on sache pourquoi, la France et l’Angleterre « sont en guerre pour qqs arpents de neige vers le Canada » (chap 23). Durant le voyage de C les Espagnols assemblent des troupes contre les jésuites du Paraguay (10), les Russes assiègent une ville turque (12), une bataille navale fait rage au large de Bordeaux (20).

• Contre l’esclavage

Faisant écho aux dénonciations successives par Montesquieu dans son chap. « de l’esclavage des nègres » dans L’Esprit des lois  (1748) et par l’article « esclavage » de l’ Encyclopédie (1755), V condamne l’esclavage : épisode du nègre de S (19), récits e Cunégonde (7) et de la vieille (11,12) montrent l’horreur des sociétés qui se disent civilisées.

Les armes de Voltaire

Les armes de V sont la satire et l’irone. L’objectif est de critiquer ne fait que montrer les ridicules et il laisse au lecteur le soin de formuler la dénonciation : «  Le livres les plus utiles sont ceux dont les lecteurs font eux-mêmes la moitié » (préface du Dictionnaire philosophique ). Le lecteur doit interpréter la satire.

V parsème son œuvre de figures ecclésiastiques : il y a les débauchés, le grand inquisiteur de L qui partage Cunégonde (8), la pape Urbain X, père de la vieille (11), le frère Giroflée qui se console avec des prostituées comme Paquette (24). Il y a aussi les cupides : le révérend père cordelier qui vole l’argent et les bijoux de Cde (13), l’abbé périgourdin qui introduit C dans l’enfer parisien en espérant profiter de ses largesses. Il y a enfin ceux qui comme les jésuites goûtent au pouvoir  politique  en exploitant la misère du peuple.

La noblesse n’est pas épargnée : le gouverneur de BA (13), le baron et son fils.

Paris est l’objet de la satire de V au chap. 22. La ville devient le lieu de tous les vices, celui du jeu et de la luxure, le temple des beaux parleurs, des faiseurs de feuilles, ville infernale dont on ne peut sortir que malade comme C.

Cette tonalité dominante est l’arme la + efficace de V. Elle amène à comprendre que ce que l’auteur pense est le contraire de ce qu’il écrit.

La ou les leçon(s) de C

V intitule le dernier chap. « conclusion ». Ce singulier pourrait être remplacé par un pluriel.