marijuana cause and effect essay

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Harmful Effects of Smoking Cannabis: A Cerebrovascular and Neurological Perspective

Sabrina rahman archie.

1 Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, United States

Luca Cucullo

2 Center for Blood Brain Barrier Research, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, United States

Apart from being used as a medicine, cannabis or marijuana is the most widely abused recreational drug all over the world. The legalization and decriminalization of cannabis in Canada and various states of USA may be the underlying reason of the widespread popularity of it among young population. Various studies have reported about the relationship between cannabis use and different detrimental effects like cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and neurological complications among different age groups. Specifically, the young population is getting adversely affected by this, harmful yet, readily accessible recreational drug. Although the mechanism behind cannabis mediated neurological and cerebrovascular complications has not been elucidated yet, the results of these studies have confirmed the association of these diseases with cannabis. Given the lack of comprehensive study relating these harmful complications with cannabis use, the aim of this narrative literature review article is to evaluate and summarize current studies on cannabis consumption and cerebrovascular/neurological diseases along with the leading toxicological mechanisms.

Introduction

Cannabis, commonly termed as marijuana, weed, pot, and ganja, is the most widely used illicit recreational drug around the world ( Thomas et al., 2014 ; Wolff and Jouanjus, 2017 ). It is extracted from the natural plant Cannabis sativa and among more than 60 cannabinoids, tetrahydrocannabinol is one of the major active ingredients of cannabis ( Atakan, 2012 ). In addition to the natural source, the use of synthetic cannabis (SC) named as spice, K2 or Kronic has gained popularity during the last decade ( Wolff and Jouanjus, 2017 ). In spite of using cannabis in medicinal purposes as antioxidant, anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective, the detrimental effects of it cannot be denied ( Ford et al., 2017 ). Acute and chronic use of cannabis is associated with different harmful effects on central nervous system and peripheral system including hyperemesis syndrome, impaired coordination and performance, anxiety, suicidal/tendencies, psychotic symptoms and mood disorders, cannabis withdrawal symptoms, exacerbation of psychotic disorders, neurocognitive impairment, cardiovascular, neurological, respiratory, cerebrovascular, peripheral vascular diseases ( Thomas et al., 2014 ; Karila et al., 2014 ), pneumomediastinum, pneumothorax, pneumopericardium, bullous lung disease, increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, desquamated interstitial disease, and appearance of brown pigmented macrophages ( Milroy and Parai, 2011 ).

Despite having serious effects of marijuana in human health, its use has been legalized in Canada and different states of USA. The Canadian Parliament passed Bill C-45, the Cannabis Act to legalize and regulate the production, distribution, and consumption of cannabis on June 19, 2018, and its legalization started effective from October 17, 2018 ( Crepault, 2018 ). In case of US, marijuana use has been approved in 34 states for medical purposes ( State Medical Marijuana Laws, 2019 ) and in 10 states for recreational purposes ( Marijuana Overview, 2019 ).

Even though cannabis has medicinal benefit, recent studies have shown that chronic cannabis inhalation may be associated with cerebrovascular disease such as ischemic stroke ( Thanvi and Treadwell, 2009 ) although the underlying mechanism between stroke and cannabis use has not been strongly established yet. Moreover, the hemorrhagic stroke occurrence has been rarely reported in different studies ( Goyal et al., 2017 ). Several neurological disorders such as cognitive dysfunction, behavioral problems, memory, attention deficiency, structural, and functional changes in brain have been observed in different studies related to cannabis exposure ( Chadwick et al., 2013 ; Battistella et al., 2014 ; Broyd et al., 2016 ; Szutorisz and Hurd, 2018 ). Increased use of cannabis or cannabinoids is associated with several complications related to different organs including the neurological and cerebrovascular system in human body. Due to this, exhaustive studies need to be performed to establish the possible link between cannabis inhalation and neurological and cerebrovascular effect. Keeping the popularity of cannabis use in mind, the aim of this review article is to list the neurological and cerebrovascular effects of marijuana inhalation including the probable mechanisms related to these effects.

Methodology

Three biomedical literature databases, PubMed, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect were searched up to July 2019. The search was conducted using “cannabis,” “cannabinoid,” “cannabidiol,” “delta-9-THC,” “endocannabinoids,” “CB1 receptor,” “CB2 receptor,” “cerebrovascular system,” “Blood Brain Barrier,” “stroke,” “neurological disease,” “neuroprotective effect,” “oxidative stress.” Articles dealing with medical use of cannabis were excluded as the aim of our review article is based on harmful effects of cannabis inhalation on cerebrovascular and neurological system. Case reports based on cannabis inhalation and cerebrovascular diseases were also searched and evaluated for inclusion in this review. Peer-reviewed articles presenting results of experimental studies in animal models and population-based studies were analyzed and presented in this review paper.

What Are Cannabinoids?

Cannabinoids (CBs) are a group of chemical compounds which have varying affinity to cannabinoid receptors. Generally, cannabinoids can be classified into three groups namely, phytocannabinoids (isolated from natural source, C. sativa ), synthetic cannabinoids, and endocannabinoids ( Richter et al., 2018 ). Although cannabinoids can be extracted naturally from the plants, it can also be cultivated indoors using hydroponic and artificial lighting system nowadays. It was first cultivated in Central Asia however gradually it was brought to cultivate all over the world ( Singh et al., 2018 ). Generally, it is collected from three strains of cannabis plant named C. sativa , Cannabis indica , and Cannabis ruderalis which differ in the content and amount of the active ingredients called Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) ( Booth et al., 2017 ) (see Figure 1 ) and among these strains, the highest proportion of THC is present in C. sativa . THC was isolated as one of the first phytocannabionoids ( Gaoni and Mechoulam, 1964 ). In the plant C. sativa , this molecule is present as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid which is then decarboxylated to THC ( Richter et al., 2018 ). Usually, the buds and the leaves of the cannabis plants contain the highest amount of psychoactive ingredient, THC. This THC can be taken up from dried buds and leaves by smoking as well as it can be taken in other forms for instance edibles, waxes, oils, liquid incense, or vapor for both medical and recreational uses. For medical purpose, cannabis has been used to treat nausea and vomiting due to chemotherapy, neuropathic pain related to cancer and advanced neurological disorders ( Singh et al., 2018 ). However, the popularity of cannabis use lies in its recreational purposes. Therefore, in spite of being listed as a schedule 1 substance according to the Section 202 of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 by Drug Enforcement Administration of USA, the use of cannabis has been legalized or decriminalized in different states of USA ( Singh et al., 2018 ).

Chemical structure of two of the major cannabinoids contained in Marijuana. Depicted on the left is the chemical structure of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC is the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis. THC acts as a partial agonist at the cannabinoid receptor CB1 (primarily located in the brain and spinal cord as well as CB2 receptor expressed in cells of the immune system. On the right is depicted the chemical structure of cannabidiol (CBD). By contract with THC, CBD does not have any psychotropic effects, but appears to have some have anti-anxiety and anti-psychotic properties. CBD has a lower affinity for both CB1 and CB2 receptor when compared to THC. Highlighted in red are the chemical structure differences between CBD and THC.

Besides natural sources, THC compounds can be synthesized for both medical and recreational uses. Since 1985, two synthetic THC compounds named dronabinol and nabilone have been using in USA in capsule forms for treating nausea, vomiting, and weight loss related to chemotherapy and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Recently, an oral solution of dronabinol has been approved by US FDA for treating anorexia and nausea/vomiting associated with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and chemotherapy respectively. Besides, highly potent cannabinoids and cannabimimetics can be synthesized illegally by altering the structure of THC in numerous ways for recreational purposes which have already gained popularity among the users due to its potency, longer duration, and the failure of conventional drug screening tests to recognize the compounds ( Gurney et al., 2014 ).

Chemical Composition of C. Sativa

More than 421 chemicals are present in C. sativa of which 61 chemicals are cannabinoids. During cannabis smoking, over 2,000 compounds including hydrocarbon, nitrogenous compounds, amino acids, fatty acid, sugar etc. are produced by pyrolysis and all of these substances are responsible for different pharmacological as well as toxicological properties of cannabis ( Sharma et al., 2012 ).

Pharmacokinetics of Cannabinoids

Around 20%-70% of THC can be delivered through smoking ( Adams and Martin, 1996 ). Smoking a 500 to 1,000 mg cannabis cigarette provides a THC dose of 0.2–4.4 mg where a pharmacologic effect of cannabis requires a dose of 2–22 mg. The THC level in the brain typically represents only ∼1% of the administered dose and usually corresponds to 2–44 μg.

THC is absorbed and reaches high blood concentration rapidly after inhalation through lungs ( Vandevenne et al., 2000 ). Due to extensive lipid solubility and large volume of distribution, THC has a long biological half-life (18 h to 4 days) ( Adams and Martin, 1996 ; Ashton, 2001 ) and gets distributed in adipose tissue, liver, lung, and spleen ( Chiarotti and Costamagna, 2000 ; Sharma et al., 2012 ). Hydroxylation of THC generates psychoactive compound, 11-hydroxy ▵9_tetra hydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC), and further oxidation of this compound yields inactive compound, 11-nor-9-carboxy-▵9-tetrahydrocannbinol (THCCOOH) which is important for diagnostic purposes ( Musshoff and Madea, 2006 ). The bioavailability of ▵9 THC depends on several factors including inhalation depth, duration of puff, and breath hold. It has been found that, the systemic bioavailability of THC is around 23–27% in heavy users whereas the value is 10–14% in case of occasional users ( Sharma et al., 2012 ). The time to reach maximum plasma concentrations for ▵9 THC, 11-OH-THC, and THCCOOH is 8, 15, and 81 min after onset of smoking, respectively. On the other hand, systemic absorption of THC is relatively slow after oral ingestion compared to inhalation. In case of oral ingestion, the peak plasma concentration of ▵9 THC was observed after 1–2 h of ingestion which could be further delayed by few hours in some cases ( Lemberger et al., 1971 ; Hollister et al., 1981 ). The oral bioavailability of ▵9 THC may be reduced by 4–12% by extensive hepatic metabolism ( Owens et al., 1981 ).

Regular cannabis use can be defined as taking cannabinoids 10 to 19 times monthly, whereas heavy use can be termed as using 20 times in a month. However, both regular and heavy use of cannabis are related to several chronic health problems including anxiety, depression, and neurocognitive alterations ( Hall and Degenhardt, 2009 ).

Endocannabinoid System

Cannabinoids interact directly with our body through a complex system named endocannabinoid system which helps to maintain homeostasis of body by regulating metabolism, intercellular communication, appetite, and memory, immune, and pain responses. This endocannabinoid system (ECS) consists of two types of receptors namely CB1 and CB2 ( Zou and Kumar, 2018 ) (see Figure 2 ). CB receptors mainly belong to the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family, having inhibitory function on the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) pathway through intracellular signal transduction ( Richter et al., 2018 ). Although CB1 receptors are scattered all over the body, these are present predominantly in anatomical regions of the brain ( Grotenhermen, 2005 ) related to memory, anxiety, cognition, pain sensory, motor coordination, endocrine function ( Herkenham et al., 1990 ; Adams and Martin, 1996 ). CB1 receptors have the inhibitory action on cAMP production which is facilitated by the activation of adenyl cyclase inhibitor subunit of G proteins (G i/0 proteins). Ultimately, this leads to an inhibition of N and P/Q type calcium currents and an activation of A type, inwardly rectifying potassium currents and mitogen activated protein kinase ( Sierra et al., 2015 ) (see Figure 3 ).

Schematic illustration of the primary location of CB1 and CB2 receptor. Note that CB1 receptor are primarily located in the brain and spinal cord and to a much lesser extent there are also present in the gastrointestinal tract, reproductive organs as well as muscles and vascular system. CB2 receptors are primary located in spleen, skin, and bones as well as the immune cells.

Subcellular localization and activity of CB1 receptors. CB1 receptors are primary located on the cell membrane where their activation lead to inhibition of adenylate cyclase and a resulting reduction of cyclic AMP. In parallel CB1 activation promotes the upregulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) which is involved in directing cellular responses to mitogens, heat shock, osmotic stress, and proinflammatory stimuli (e.g. cytokines). At the mitochondrial level, CB1 activation leads to inhibition of mitochondrial respiration and production of cAMP. CB1 receptors are also present at the level of lysosomes where they prompt a release of calcium from these internal storage units and increase the intracellular calcium levels. Lysosome permeability is also increased.

On the other hand, CB2 receptors are located in peripheral nervous system and immune system and the primary function of this receptor is anti-inflammatory activity through initiating an immune response to reduce inflammation as well as tissue damage ( Turcotte et al., 2016 ). Also, it plays a pivotal role in the immune suppressive action of the cannabinoids ( Sharma et al., 2012 ) (see also Figure 2 ).

The psychoactive agent of cannabis, THC binds with the cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor in the brain and the non-psychoactive component, CBD is the most likely to interact with cannabinoid 2 (CB2) receptor and exert their activities. Therefore, cannabis is used in medical purposes to reduce inflammation, relieve pain, and decrease seizures ( Rivera-Olmos and Parra-Bernal, 2016 ; Perucca, 2017 ).

Moreover, phytocannabinoid Δ 9 THC can also bind with other binding sites including the transient receptor potential cation-channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) and peroxisome proliferator activator receptors (PPARs) ( O’Sullivan, 2016 ). Also, GPR 18 receptor has been proposed as a potential cannabinoid receptor ( Console-Bram et al., 2014 ).

Physiology of Cerebrovascular System

The word cerebrovascular consists of two parts: “cerebro” means large part of the brain and “vascular” refers to arteries and veins. Thus, the cerebrovascular system refers to the blood vessels through which blood is carried out to and from the brain. The cerebrovascular anatomy has an endocranial and exocranial component that can be further divided into the anterior and posterior circulation based on the contribution of blood flow through the internal carotid arteries (ICAs) and vertebral arteries, respectively ( Hendricks et al., 2018 ).

Blood-brain barrier (BBB), a part of the neurovascular unit (NVU), is a unique, dynamic, physical, and biochemical regulatory boundary/barrier which restricts and regulates the exchange of molecules, ions, and cells between the peripheral circulation and central nervous system (CNS) ( Yang et al., 2019 ) and maintains cerebral homeostasis precisely as well ( Abdullahi et al., 2018 ). It transports essential nutrients which are required for the normal metabolism of the brain cells ( Sivandzade and Cucullo, 2018 ). The BBB is primarily composed of endothelial cells, pericytes, and astrocytes restricting the communication between blood and the brain parenchyma ( Abbott et al., 2010 ). As a result, the BBB plays a pivotal role in restraining the entry of neurotoxic plasma components, xenobiotics, blood cells, and pathogens in the brain ( Winkler et al., 2011 ) thus protecting the CNS from inflammation, injury, and different types of diseases ( Daneman and Prat, 2015 ). On contrary, the BBB also limits drug delivery into the brain to treat different neurological diseases ( Abbott, 2013 ; Kaisar et al., 2017 ).

Disruption of BBB is associated with different neurological disorders for instance stroke, MS, epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, traumatic brain injury etc. ( Abbott et al., 2010 ; Abbott and Friedman, 2012 ). Breakdown of BBB has been observed in many functional imaging of human patients and postmortem brain samples in various neurological diseases. This breakdown not only causes edema and disrupts ionic homeostasis but also results in altered signaling and immune infiltration. As a consequence, BBB breakdown leads to neuronal dysregulation and ultimately to neuronal degeneration ( Daneman and Prat, 2015 ).

Effect of Cannabis Inhalation on the Cerebrovascular System

Studies on acute neurovascular events related to cannabis use have appeared as early as 1964 ( Mohan and Sood, 1964 ). Stroke is the fifth leading cause of death in USA ( Vijayan et al., 2019 ) and recent preclinical studies, population based study, case reports, and reviews have portrayed the correlation of cannabis (both naturally and synthetically derived) to ischemic and hemorrhagic cerebrovascular diseases ( Rose et al., 2015 ) which clearly suggests that cannabis plays a pivotal role in the etiology of cerebral stroke ( Wolff et al., 2015a ).

Animal Studies

To examine the effect of cannabinoids on blood circulation as well as reactive vasodilation or vasoconstriction, particularly focusing on the cerebral vascular bed, several studies on rat, mouse, rabbit, cat, and pig models were performed ( Richter et al., 2018 ). It was found from various studies that, both vasodilation and vasoconstriction have been observed following administration of Δ 9 THC, 11-OH-THC, AEA, and AM-404 in rodents. However, vasodilation has been observed after administering Abn-CBD and O-1966. On the other hand, all perfused cerebral vessels reacted with wall relaxation in case of large mammals ( Richter et al., 2018 ).

From studies in isolated cerebral vessel of rabbit and cat, it has been found that cannabinoid mediated vasodilation through CB1 receptor by inhibiting Ca + influx in cerebral arterial muscle cell as well as possibly through arachidonic acid metabolism ( Ellis et al., 1995 ; Gebremedhin et al., 1999 ). Additionally, three studies on rat models ( Bloom et al., 1997 ; Stein et al., 1998 ; Iring et al., 2013 ) partially indicated the occurrence of vasoconstriction which may result in hypoperfusion by a reduction of CBF and could be a mechanism of neuronal death through ischemia ( Richter et al., 2018 ). Other studies involving rat and pig models have demonstrated the cerebrovascular dilation due to cannabinoids perfusion ( Hillard et al., 2007 ; MacIntyre et al., 2014 ; Su et al., 2015 ).

No study reported any possible mechanism underlying vasoconstrictive effect due to cannabis. It has also been suggested that, vasodilating effect could be beneficial or detrimental depending on the time of vasodilation after CNS insult. As vasodilation reduces the peripheral resistance and increases CBF, this may serve as a protective mechanism and increase oxygen supply in case of a cerebral insult. This protective mechanism may be beneficial in early stages of ischemia. However, if it happens in a later stage, it might augment the recuperation of cerebral function ( Richter et al., 2018 ). As these studies were conducted in different variety of animal models involving different experimental setup, cannabinoid molecules, and their respective doses, it is difficult to draw any conclusion ( Richter et al., 2018 ).

Case Reports

A total of 107 case reports involving cannabis (both raw and synthetic) intake and neurovascular complications have been studied since 1964 to 2019 ( Table 1 ) and it has been postulated from all these reports that there may be a link between these two events although this correlation has not been established strongly yet.

List of case reports related to neurovascular complications after natural and synthetic cannabinoid use (according to year; 1964–2019).

M, male; F, female; C, cannabis; SC, synthetic cannabinoids; T, tobacco; A, alcohol; L, dyslipidemia; MoA, migraine without aura; H, hypertension; FD, diabetes; IS, ischemic stroke; SAH, subarachnoid haemorrhage; ICH, intracranial haemorrhage; TIA, transient ischemic attack.

From these studies we can conclude that among the 107 neurovascular cases, almost 84% were ischemic stroke related to cannabis or cannabinoid use (both natural and synthetic). Considering Table 1 it is found that, young population is experiencing alarming number of neurovascular complications due to recreational use of cannabis. Statistically, around 14% and 36.4% of reported cases were involved in teenager (below 20 years) and young people (21–30 years) respectively. Besides, about 26% of the reported patients in these case reports were aged between 31 to 40 years. However, the occurrence of neurovascular complication among middle aged and older people was significantly lower compared to the young and adult population with a value of 5.6% (aged between 51–60 years) and 2.80% (aged between 61–70 years). This data clearly indicates that, young people are severely affected by neurovascular diseases as they consume cannabis in higher amount compared to older people. Although some studies have been able to establish the possible correlation between cannabis use and ischemic stroke occurrence, only 11% of total reports have demonstrated the incident of hemorrhagic stroke due to cannabis exposure ( Fonseca and Ferro, 2013 ; Wolff and Jouanjus, 2017 ). Moreover, compilation of these case reports indicates that along with cannabis or cannabinoids use, other risk factors like alcohol, tobacco, dyslipidemia, migraine without aura, hypertension etc. also act as prodromal factors for the onset of cerebrovascular diseases.

Interestingly, it can also be noted from these case reports that the occurrence of neurovascular diseases such as stroke has drastically increased after 2010. Widespread availability of cannabis or synthetic cannabinoids and its legalization across the world may be the underlying reasons behind this.

Population-Based Study

Due to the alarming effect of cannabinoids on public health, several population-based studies have been performed to correlate the relation between cannabinoid exposure as well as cerebrovascular diseases. Various studies demonstrated that cannabinoids may act as a risk or prognostic factor for cerebrovascular diseases such as stroke ( Westover et al., 2007 ; Barber et al., 2013 ; Hemachandra et al., 2016 ; Rumalla et al., 2016a ; Rumalla et al., 2016b ). Table 2 summarizes all the findings from population-based analysis, conducted between 2000 and 2015.

Summary of population-based analysis related to cannabis use, conducted between 2000 and 2015.

OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; RR, relative risk; ICH, intracranial hemorrhage; SAH, subarachnoid hemorrhage; TIA, transient ischemic stroke; IS, ischemic stroke; CB+, cannabinoid user; UDS, urine drug screen.

The result from these large sample size studies provide information on the temporal relationship between cannabis use and cerebrovascular complications like intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), and ischemic strokes (IS). Along with cannabinoids, other predominant risk factors were also considered in the assessments however, these studies have several limitations. This include lack of consideration for the high lipid solubility of cannabis metabolites which helps them to persist in fatty tissues, therefore they may be detected in the urine weeks after the initial use ( Mateo et al., 2005 ) and this may lead to erroneous result interpretation.

Probable Mechanism Associated With Cannabis-Mediated Neurovascular Diseases

It is evident from various studies that, consumption of cannabinoids through inhalation and combustion, is associated with the occurrence of cerebral infarcts ( Garrett et al., 1977 ; Wolff and Jouanjus, 2017 ). Natural cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids may act as possible trigger for reversible intracranial vasoconstriction ( Wolff et al., 2015a ) which along with severely reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF) could be a major prodromal factor to neuronal death by ischemia ( Wolff et al., 2014 ; Wolff and Jouanjus, 2017 ).

Different types of mechanisms might be involved in the development of stroke in cannabis users including orthostatic hypotension with the secondary impairment of the CBF autoregulation, altered cerebral vasomotor function, supine hypertension, and fluctuations in blood pressure, cardioembolism with atrial fibrillation, vasculopathy and vasospasm ( Singh et al., 2012 ; Wolff et al., 2013 ; Hirapara and Aggarwal, 2016 ), cerebral artery luminal stenosis, increased carboxyhemoglobin level, RCVS, and angiopathy ( Goyal et al., 2017 ). Although none of these mechanisms have been fully vetted to explain the association between use of cannabis and stroke occurrence, reversible cerebral vasoconstriction triggered by cannabis could be the most convincing theory to explain it ( Wolff and Jouanjus, 2017 ). It was shown in different case reports that, cannabis use was associated with reversible multifocal intracranial arterial stenosis ( Noskin et al., 2006 ; Calabrese et al., 2007 ; Koopman et al., 2008 ; Renard and Gaillard, 2008 ; Wolff et al., 2011 ; Marder et al., 2012 ; Tsivgoulis et al., 2014 ; Nouh et al., 2014 ; Yau et al., 2015 ; Wolff et al., 2015a ). Along with this, another eye-catching mechanism to explain the relationship between cerebrovascular complications and cannabis use could be the cellular effect of cannabis on brain mitochondria. A recent in vivo study conducted on mice has shown that THC inhibited the complexes I, II, and III of the respiration chain of mitochondria and increased the amount of hydrogen peroxide production ( Wolff et al., 2015b ). This strongly suggests that ROS production and therefore, oxidative stress, could be the linking mechanism between cannabis use and stroke. This well cope with current knowledge that oxidative stress and inflammation are established prodromal factors for the onset of stroke and other neurological disorders in humans ( Chen et al., 2011 ) (see also Figure 4 ).

Schematic illustration of the Activation of the cellular antioxidative response system under normal and stress condition. Under normal conditions, the response to injury is adaptive, designed to restore homoeostasis and to protect the cell from further injury. In response to excessive oxidative stress stimuli, NADPH oxidase is activated, producing an excess of O 2 ‑ which in the presence of nitric oxide (.NO; also abundant in CS and release in response to IR) results in formation of peroxinitrite (ONOO ‑ ). Furthermore, the excess of H 2 O 2 leads to the formation of hydroxyl radicals (OH; Fenton’s reaction). The unchecked OS leads then to mitochondrial depolarization, lipid peroxidation, DNA fragmentation and inflammation which at the cerebrovascular level can cause BBB damage and ultimately facilitate the onset of CNS diseases.

Preclinical Studies Related to the Effects of Cannabinoids and Cannabinoid Receptor on Stroke Outcome

Different preclinical studies demonstrated the effects of cannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors on stroke outcome, One of particular interest is the fact that cannabinoids not only decreased infarct volume following an ischemic stroke (both transient and permanent occlusion models), but also improved early and late functional outcome ( England et al., 2015 ). Furthermore activation of the endogenous cannabinoid signaling pathway as indirectly demonstrated by a study conducted on CB1 receptor knockout mice which exhibited increased mortality, severe infarct size, and neurological deficits after transient local cerebral ischemia, reduced cerebral blood flow, and increased N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) neurotoxicity when compared to wild type ( Parmentier-Batteur et al., 2002 ).

Post-stroke inflammatory responses can be reduced by CB2 ligands whereas, activation of CB1 receptors promotes chemical hypothermia. Both processes result in a reduced stroke infarct volume ( Leker et al., 2003 ; Murikinati et al., 2010 ). Specifically, activation of CB1 receptor activation reduces glutamate release ( Hayakawa et al., 2007 ), allied excitotoxicity ( Shen et al., 1996 ) and increased cerebral blood flow ( Parmentier-Batteur et al., 2002 ). On the other hand, CB2 receptors activation results in reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines release, neutrophil recruitment ( Murikinati et al., 2010 ; Zarruk et al., 2012 ) and adhesion of leukocyte to cerebral vessels ( Zhang et al., 2007 ).

Another study demonstrated that CB2 receptor plays a major role in driving neuroblast migrations as well as subsequent neurogenesis in the peri-infarct cortex after experimental stroke in mice which positively impact stroke outcome. It was also suggested that, endocannabinoid tone is essential for this process by promoting migration of neuroblasts toward the injured brain tissue which leads to increased number of new cortical neurons. As a result, motor functional recovery is increased which is beneficial for improving the outcome of aged patients as well as reducing their disabilities after chronic stroke ( Bravo-Ferrer et al., 2017 ).

Even though these preclinical studies suggest a neuroprotective action of cannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors on stoke outcome, the matter is far from being set. In fact, conflicting results remain ( Rivers-Auty et al., 2014 ; Garberg et al., 2016 ). Rivers-Auty et al. demonstrated that, CB2R agonist {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"GW405833","term_id":"288331434","term_text":"GW405833"}} GW405833 , cannot improve brain damage related to hypoxia-ischemia in rat models ( Rivers-Auty et al., 2014 ). Another study conducted by Garberg HT et al. did not find any significant neuroprotective action of cannabinoids after hypoxia-ischemia in piglets ( Garberg et al., 2016 ). Finally, most of the neuroprotective effect of cannabinoids related preclinical studies did not evaluate stroke outcomes with behavioral studies however, behavioral studies are integral part of stroke outcome research ( Alamri et al., 2018 ). Investigators tried to correlate stroke outcomes with histological scores. Since histological improvement does not confirm long term post stroke benefits ( Clarkson et al., 2010 ), further studies with proper behavioral outcomes is required to clarify these contradictory findings ( Rivers-Auty et al., 2014 ). Furthermore, there are no human studies to confirm or refute these in data and properly assess the post-stroke effects of cannabinoids as neuroprotectant.

Neurological Effect of Cannabis or Cannabinoids

Cannabis based medications for instance nabiximols and THC have therapeutic potential against some symptoms associated with neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis, chronic pain ( Cohen et al., 2019 ). Moreover, CBD, CBDV, and ▵9 THCV have been shown to have activity against epilepsy ( Scutt and Williamson, 2007 ; Dennis et al., 2008 ; Jones et al., 2010 ; De Petrocellis et al., 2011 ; Ma et al., 2008 ).

Exogenous cannabinoids such as CBD and nabilone are also found to have therapeutic activity in psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and general and social anxiety ( Cohen et al., 2019 ). Although cannabinoid-based drugs have shown some therapeutic activities against neurological and psychiatric disorders the effect of cannabis on the neurological system cannot be denied. It has been demonstrated from various in vivo studies that THC is responsible for inducing dose-dependent toxicity as well as causing structural changes in those parts of brain which are rich in CB1 receptors. These receptors are located primarily in cerebellum, hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and striatum ( Lawston et al., 2000 ; Downer et al., 2001 ; Burns et al., 2007 ). However, studies conducted on human brains assessing the long term cannabis use and related brain structural changes do not fully confirm these findings although changes in the density of gray or white matter have been reported in different regions of frontal and parietal lobes ( Matochik et al., 2005 ; Churchwell et al., 2010 ; Gruber et al., 2011 ). This disconnect between in vivo and human studies might be due to the different sample characteristics, inter-individual variabilities related to past history of drug use, consumption rate, psychological problems, and differences in the experimental methodology ( Batalla et al., 2013 ). Moreover, some studies demonstrated changes in the hippocampus/parahippocampal complex and amygdala ( Matochik et al., 2005 ; Yucel et al., 2008 ; Zalesky et al., 2012 ; Goyal et al., 2017 ) and a recent one reported a significant reduction in gray matter in the CB1 receptors enriched regions of brain including media l temporal cortex, temporal pole, parahippocampal gyrus, insula, and orbitofrontal cortex when regular cannabis users were compared to groups of occasional users. These regions of the brain control motivation, emotion, and affective processing ( Battistella et al., 2014 ). Various studies reported that, adolescents can experience persistent deficiency in different cognitive functions including attention, memory, and processing speed due to chronic cannabis use ( Chadwick et al., 2013 ; Broyd et al., 2016 ; Szutorisz and Hurd, 2018 ). It has been found from neuropsychological tests and advanced imaging techniques that, learning process of adolescents can be affected by cannabinoid use as well ( Rivera-Olmos and Parra-Bernal, 2016 ).

Additionally, fatal brain development can also be affected by cannabis exposure during pregnancy which may ultimately result in impaired vision and coordination, larger intermittent attention, as well as behavioral problems in children at later phase ( Wu et al., 2011 ).

Also, different psychiatric diseases ( Table 3 ) including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, social anxiety, and suicidal thought are found to be higher in cannabis users compared to non-users ( Mental Health, 2017 ).

Adverse psychiatric consequence of cannabis use ( NIDA, 2019a ).

These detrimental effects of cannabinoid may vary from person to person because of genetic variability. Besides, these detrimental effects can also depend on the age of the user. For instance, the exposure of adolescents to cannabinoids leads to severe memory impairment compared to adult ( Jouroukhin et al., 2019 ).

Several studies have demonstrated the potential role of gene variation on the development of psychosis due to cannabis use ( NIDA, 2019a ). It has been found that risk of psychosis among the daily cannabis users carrying a specific variant of AK21 gene is seven times higher compared with those who use it infrequently or never used ( Di Forti et al., 2012 ). Another study revealed an increased risk of psychosis among adults who carry a specific variant of the gene for catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) enzyme and used cannabis during adolescence. This enzyme can degrade different neurotransmitters for instance, dopamine and norepinephrine ( Caspi et al., 2005 ).

Interestingly, cannabis use has also been shown to worsen the condition of schizophrenic patients. Cannabis can cause an acute psychotic reaction at high doses, in non-schizophrenic people who are cannabis users, although this fades as the drug effects wears off ( NIDA, 2019a ).

Probable Mechanisms Associated With Cannabis Mediated Neurological Diseases

Although the mechanism behind THC induced cognitive and behavioral dysfunction is yet to be established, recent studies conducted on mice model have demonstrated that these detrimental effects are facilitated by astrocyte CNR1 ( Han et al., 2012 ; Chen et al., 2013 ). Moreover, THC may activate nuclear factor κB signal as well as upregulate cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) which may result in elevated release of glutamate by astrocytes ( Bezzi et al., 1998 ).

Interestingly, all the cannabis users do not experience cognitive impairment which clearly suggests the impact of genetic vulnerability on detrimental effects of cannabis ( Blanco et al., 2016 ; Levine et al., 2017 ; Hasin, 2018 ). Likewise, several preclinical studies in genetically mutated mice model for psychiatric disorders showed higher effect of THC on memory ( O’Tuathaigh et al., 2010 ; Long et al., 2013 ; Tantra et al., 2014 ; Ballinger et al., 2015 ; Segal-Gavish et al., 2017 ) although the underlying mechanism of the effect of genetic mutation on cognitive function has not been delineated yet ( Jouroukhin et al., 2019 ). A recent study reported that genetic predisposition and THC exposure synergistically activates the NF-κB-COX-2 signal in astrocytes. This activation results in excessive glutamate secretion and decreased immunoreactivity of parvalbumin-positive presynaptic boutons around pyramidal neurons of the CA3 area of the hippocampus as well as impaired memory. It has been suggested from this research that, COX-2 inhibitors can prevent these cognitive deficits which may act as a potential target for future studies ( Jouroukhin et al., 2019 ).

Cannabis and Oxidative Stress

It is well established that oxidative stress (OS) is associated with vascular endothelial dysfunction in a causative and dose dependent manner. Current scientific opinion considers the exposure to reactive oxygen species (ROS; e.g. H 2 O 2 , epoxides, nitrogen dioxide, peroxynitrite- ONOO ‑ , etc.), and OS-mediated pathways leading to inflammation ( Ahmed et al., 2019 ) and cellular/tissue damage to play a major role in the pathogenesis of cerebrovascular and neurological disorders like stroke, and Alzheimer’s and BBB impairment ( Sajja et al., 2018 ). At the cerebrovascular level OS promotes oxidative damage and BBB breakdown via tight junction (TJ) modification as well as activation of proinflammatory pathways ( Pun et al., 2009 ). Under normal conditions, ROS are converted into less reactive molecules by superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) as well as scavenged by endogenous antioxidants including vitamins (such as ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol) ( Chiu et al., 2008 ; Hossain et al., 2011 ). Activation of the Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (NRF2), a redox-sensitive transcription factor which, in turn, promotes the activation of several biological systems encompassing anti-inflammatory molecules, antioxidants, drug metabolizing enzymes (including cytochrome P450s), and free radical scavengers, also plays a critical protecting role against OS(136-138). However, chronic exposure to OS stimuli [such as that to tobacco smoke ( Prasad et al., 2017 )] can overwhelm these protective mechanisms and/or compromise their functionality ( Prasad et al., 2017 ; Kaisar et al., 2018 ).

From the point of view of oxidative stress, several studies suggest that smoking marijuana is not much different than smoking tobacco. Sarafian et al. have previously shown that marijuana cigarettes promote the formation of ROS while lowering the intracellular levels of glutathione ( Sarafian et al., 1999 ). In addition, other investigators found that THC, the main psychoactive component in the cannabis, acts as a potent promoter of OS and inflammation, thus appearing as a risk factor for the onset of ischemic stroke ( Wolff et al., 2015b ). On the other hand, there are also evidences that non-psychoactive CBDs, can have neuroprotective effects by reducing the reactivity of microglial cells, and transmigration of leukocytes (through downregulation of chemokines, interleukin-1, and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) ( Mecha et al., 2013 ). In vitro studies using amyloid-beta-stimulate PC12 neurons CBD could inhibit the activity of inducible nitric oxide synthase, thus preventing the production of nitric oxide and reducing OS ( Esposito et al., 2006 ). By contrast, in vivo studies to assess the protective effect of cannabis treatment against OS development and nigrostriatal cell injury induced by intrastriatal injection of rotenone did not produce any significant result ( Omar, 2015 ). Unfortunately, there are contrasting results concerning the oxidative and antioxidative property of cannabinoids. Some of these controversial results could be attributed to the length of exposure such as acute vs. long term chronic exposure. As for the overall pro-oxidative effect of smoking marijuana, it is very likely that ROS are generated as a byproduct of combustion rather than a direct effect of cannabinoids. Similarly to tobacco smoke where most of the oxidative stress is generated by the combustion of tobacco rather than exposure to nicotine which can also promotes OS but to a much lower extent ( Naik et al., 2014 ).

Cannabis or marijuana is the most widely used recreational drug and around 181 million people use it around the world 2 . Even though cannabis is used for treating inflammation, nausea seizure, pain, mental disorder, addiction ( NIDA, 2019b ) movement problem, Alzheimer’s ( Mack, 2000 ), uncontrolled use of cannabinoids may have severe detrimental effects. Now-a-days cannabis use among young people especially teenagers has been increased drastically as a recreational element. National Institute of Drug Abuse reported that, 13.90% of 8 th graders, 32.60% of 10 th graders, and 43.60% of 12 th graders are prevalent to marijuana or hashish, according to the data of 2018 ( NIDA, 2018 ). It has also been found that, cannabis use among college students in US remains at the highest level in last three decades. Around 38% of full time college students and 41% of non-full time college students, who are aged 19–22 used cannabis at least once in one year ( Schulenberg et al., 2018 ; Marijuana use among US college students remains at highest level in three decades, 2018 ). This data clearly indicates the widespread use of cannabis among youth and it is the high time to elucidate the consequence of cannabis use in human. Although the direct effect of cannabis exposure and health consequences is still unknown, numerous case reports, population-based studies as well as animal studies demonstrated the potential link between cannabis use and neurovascular as well as neurological diseases. It is evident from various studies that, recreational use of cannabinoids is related to both cardio and cerebrovascular events such as ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke ( Goyal et al., 2017 ) and neurological diseases for instance structural and functional changes in brain, cognitive dysfunction as well as behavioral disorders ( Chadwick et al., 2013 ; Battistella et al., 2014 ; Broyd et al., 2016 ; Szutorisz and Hurd, 2018 ). Unfortunately, both cerebrovascular and neurological disorders are found to be higher in young population as they are the main consumer.

Although the underlying mechanism behind cannabis use and occurrence of cerebrovascular diseases has not been elucidated yet, the handful of case reports and preclinical studies on animal model highlighted provide some plausible insights. These includes (but not limited to) reversible cerebral vasoconstriction ( Wolff et al., 2015a ), ROS generation inducing oxidative stress (although, similar to tobacco smoke ROS could be generated as a byproduct of marijuana combustion rather than a specific effect of cannabinoids) ( Chen et al., 2011 ), cerebral artery luminal stenosis, cerebral auto-dysregulation, cardioembolism, reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS), angiopathy ( Goyal et al., 2017 ). A very recent report showed that, genetic modifications as well as age of consumers play a pivotal role in developing neurological disorders ( Jouroukhin et al., 2019 ). However, additional and more specific studies will be necessary to determine their relevant contribution to the onset of cerebrovascular and neurological disorders.

To the best of our knowledge, a very few studies have been performed to understand the mechanism of detrimental effect of cannabis on both neurology and the BBB. Since the BBB restricts the communication between blood and brain parenchyma and maintains cerebral homeostasis, damage of BBB results in neuronal dysregulation and degeneration. Therefore, it is evident the studying the effects of cannabis and particularly chronic exposure to it, should be considered a major target for future studies.

Author Contributions

SA conceived the study and prepared the drafting of the manuscript. LC assisted with the drafting of the manuscript and preparation of the figures. LC also oversaw the entire project and provided funding support. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health/National Institute on Drug Abuse 2R01-DA029121-01A1 and National Institutes of Health/Food and Drug Administration 1R01-OD026234 to LC.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

cAMP, Cyclic adenosine monophosphate; BBB, Blood-Brain Barrier; CBs, Cannabinoids; CBD, Cannabidiol; CBF, Cerebral blood flow; CNS, Central nervous system; COMT, Catechol-O-methyltransferase; COX-2, Cyclooxygenase-2; ECS, Endocannabinoid system; GPCR, G-protein coupled receptor; GSH-Px, Glutathione peroxidase; ICH, Intracerebral hemorrhage; IS, Ischemic strokes; OS, Oxidative stress; NMDA, N-methyl-d-aspartate; NRF2, Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor; NVU, Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor; PTSD, Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor; RCVS, Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome; ROS, Reactive Oxygen Species; SAH, Subarachnoid hemorrhage; SC, Synthetic cannabis; SOD, Superoxide dismutase; THC, Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol; TJ, Tight junctions; 11-OH-THC, 11-hydroxy Δ9_Tetra hydrocannabinol; THCCOOH, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannbinol; TRPV1, Transient receptor potential cation-channel subfamily V member 1; PPARs, Peroxisome proliferator activator receptors.

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The benefits and harms of marijuana, explained by the most thorough research review yet

A new report looks at more than 10,000 studies on marijuana. It has good and bad news for pot users.

by German Lopez

Marijuana has been with humans in some way or another for thousands of years. But after all this time, there is still a lot of public debate about what, exactly, pot’s risks and benefits are.

A recent review of the research from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine attempts to fill the gap in our knowledge. By combing through more than 10,000 studies published since 1999, the review, conducted by more than a dozen experts, provides the clearest look at the scientific evidence on marijuana yet.

The research finds both some strong benefits and major downsides to cannabis. It seems to be promising for chronic pain, multiple sclerosis, and cancer patients. But it also seems to pose a significant risk for respiratory problems if smoked, schizophrenia and psychosis, car crashes, lagging social achievement in life, and perhaps pregnancy-related problems.

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The findings aren’t just for marijuana; they’re for marijuana or cannabinoids, chemical compounds commonly found in pot. It’s possible that, down the line, some of the benefits in particular will be split from the marijuana leaf itself — although many drug experts believe that there’s an “entourage effect” with marijuana in which all of its cannabinoids and chemicals, which number in the hundreds , work together to make its effects as potent as possible.

One major caveat to this: The report is, by its own admission, only a best guess for a lot of its findings, because much of the research out there just isn’t very good. The report pins the lack of good research largely on government policies — particularly regulatory barriers linked to marijuana’s federal classification as a highly restricted Schedule 1 substance — that make it hard to conduct good studies on the drug. The National Academies ultimately calls for these barriers to be cut down and more research to be funded so we can get a better idea of what pot is capable of, especially as more states legalize it for both medical and recreational uses.

Still, the report is the best look at marijuana yet. It is nearly 400 pages; if you want a really deep dive into the benefits and harms of marijuana, you should read it in full . But here I’ve provided a summary of what the researchers found.

What are marijuana’s benefits?

Since the mid-1990s, 28 states have legalized marijuana for medical uses. But in all that time, the benefits of pot have remained hazy. Despite some research showing that it can be good for pain and muscle stiffness, many of the claims about what pot can do for other ailments — such as epilepsy and irritable bowel syndrome — are based on anecdotal evidence and have yet to be scientifically proven.

The report can’t fully validate or invalidate all of the claims about marijuana’s medical benefits, given that there are still no studies on some of these questions, and many of the studies that are out there are bad or lacking. But it does have some solid findings.

For one, the review confirms what previous studies have found: There is “substantial evidence” that marijuana is good for treating chronic pain. This is one of the most common reasons cited for marijuana’s medical use — particularly in light of the opioid painkiller epidemic , which has spawned in part as patients turn to opioids to try to treat debilitating pain. The report concludes that marijuana can treat chronic pain. And that may allow it to substitute more dangerous, deadlier opioid painkillers.

The report also found “conclusive evidence” that marijuana is effective for treating chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Coupled with the findings on pain, this suggests that marijuana really is a potent treatment for cancer patients in particular, who can suffer from debilitating pain and severe nausea as a result of their illness.

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And the report found “substantial evidence” that marijuana can improve patient-reported multiple sclerosis spasticity symptoms. But it only found “limited evidence” for marijuana improving doctor-reported symptoms of this kind.

Beyond the strongest findings, the report found “moderate evidence” that marijuana is effective for “improving short-term sleep outcomes in individuals with sleep disturbance associated with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, fibromyalgia, chronic pain, and multiple sclerosis.” It also found “limited evidence” for marijuana’s ability to treat appetite and weight loss associated with HIV/AIDS, improving Tourette syndrome symptoms, improving anxiety symptoms in individuals with social anxiety disorders, and improving PTSD. And there’s “limited evidence” of a correlation between marijuana and better outcomes after a traumatic brain injury.

The report also disproved — or at least cast a lot of doubt — on some of the claimed benefits of pot. It found “limited evidence” that marijuana is ineffective for treating symptoms associated with dementia and glaucoma, as well as depressive symptoms in individuals with chronic pain or multiple sclerosis.

And it found “no or insufficient evidence” for marijuana as a treatment for cancers, cancer-associated anorexia, irritable bowel syndrome, epilepsy, spasticity in patients with paralysis due to spinal cord injury, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, dystonia, drug addiction, and schizophrenia.This doesn’t mean that marijuana can’t treat any of these — some patients, who are prescribed pot for these ailments today, will swear that marijuana helped treat their epilepsy, for example — but that there’s just not enough evidence so far to evaluate the claims.

Overall, the report suggests that, as far as therapeutic benefits go, marijuana is a solid treatment for multiple symptoms associated to chronic pain, chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, and multiple sclerosis. Everything else, from epilepsy to HIV/AIDS, needs more research before pot is more definitively shown to be effective or ineffective.

What are marijuana’s harms?

Marijuana is often described as one of the safest drugs out there, in part because it’s never been definitively linked to an overdose death and it’s broadly safer than other drugs like alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, and heroin. And while the National Academies’ report doesn’t find evidence of a marijuana overdose death, it does add a few wrinkles to the narrative of marijuana as a safe drug.

For one, the report finds “substantial evidence” of marijuana’s negative effects for a few conditions. For long-term marijuana smokers, there’s a risk of worse respiratory symptoms and more frequent chronic bronchitis episodes. For pregnant women who smoke pot, there’s a risk of lower birth weight for the baby. For marijuana users in general, there’s a greater risk of developing schizophrenia and other psychoses. And there’s a link between marijuana use and increased risk of car crashes.

The report also found “limited evidence” of links between marijuana use and several other negative outcomes, including an increased risk of testicular cancer, triggering a heart attack, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and pregnancy complications. And it found “moderate” to “limited” evidence that marijuana use might worsen symptoms or risk for some mental health issues, including depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among heavier users, and anxiety disorders, particularly social anxiety disorder among regular users.

Besides medical conditions, the report found evidence for some psychosocial problems. There’s “moderate evidence” that acute marijuana use impairs learning, memory, and attention. There’s “limited evidence” of marijuana use and worse outcomes in education, employment, income, and social functioning.

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There was some good news: The report found “moderate evidence” of no link between marijuana smoking and lung cancer or marijuana use and head and neck cancers, which are commonly linked to tobacco. There was also “moderate evidence” of better cognitive performance among individuals with psychotic disorders and a history of marijuana use.

The report, however, couldn’t find sufficient evidence for pot’s links to a lot of problems: other types of cancer, an increased chronic risk of heart attack, asthma, later outcomes for infants born of mothers that used marijuana during pregnancy, deadly pot overdoses, and PTSD.

With the problems specifically linked to smoking marijuana, it’s worth noting that other forms of consumption — vaping and edibles in particular — may not carry the same risk. More research will be needed to evaluate that, particularly for vaping.

The report also found some “substantial evidence” that more pot use can lead to problematic marijuana use — what one typically thinks of as excessive use or even dependence. It also outlined, with “limited” to “substantial” evidence, some of the risk factors for problematic marijuana use, including being male, smoking cigarettes, a major depressive order, exposure to combined use of other drugs, and use at an earlier age. But it also cited “limited” to “moderate” evidence to rule out a few risk factors, including anxiety, personality, and bipolar disorders, adolescent ADHD, and alcohol or nicotine dependence.

It also found a “limited” to “moderate” evidence of a correlation between marijuana use and use of other illicit drugs. This is the typical evidence cited for the so-called “gateway” effect: that marijuana use may lead to the use of harder drugs.

One caveat to much of the research: correlation is not always causation. For example, in the case of the “gateway” effect, other researchers argue that the correlation between pot and harder drug use may just indicate that people prone to all sorts of drug use only start with marijuana because it’s the cheapest and most accessible of the illicit drugs. If cocaine or heroin were cheaper and more accessible, there’s a good chance people would start with those drugs first.

Still, the bottom line is that marijuana does pose some harms — particularly for people at risk of developing mental health disorders, pregnant women, those vulnerable to respiratory problems, and anyone getting into a car. And while some of these harms may be overcome by marijuana’s benefits or curtailed by consuming pot without smoking it, the evidence shows that weed’s reputation as a safe drug is undeserved.

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Essay Papers Writing Online

How to master the art of writing a successful cause and effect essay that captivates your readers and earns you top grades.

Are you intrigued by the interconnected nature of events and phenomena? Do you aspire to unravel the hidden threads that link causes to effects? Crafting a cause and outcome essay provides an excellent platform to explore and dissect these connections, allowing you to showcase your analytical skills and express your ideas with precision and clarity.

In this comprehensive guide, we will delve deep into the art of writing cause and outcome essays, equipping you with effective strategies, invaluable tips, and real-life examples that will help you master the craft. Whether you are a seasoned writer looking to enhance your skills or a beginner eager to embark on a new writing journey, this guide has got you covered.

Throughout this journey, we will navigate the intricate realm of cause and outcome relationships, examining how actions, events, and circumstances influence one another. We will explore the essential elements of a cause and outcome essay, honing in on the importance of a strong thesis statement, logical organization, and compelling evidence. By the end of this guide, you will possess the necessary tools to produce a captivating cause and outcome essay that engages your readers and leaves a lasting impact.

Tips for Writing a Cause and Effect Essay

When composing a paper that focuses on exploring the connections between actions and their consequences, there are several essential tips that can help you write a compelling cause and effect essay. By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your essay is well-structured, clear, and effectively communicates your ideas.

By following these tips, you can enhance your ability to write a compelling cause and effect essay. Remember to analyze the causes and effects carefully, organize your ideas effectively, provide clear explanations, use transitional words, and proofread your essay to ensure a polished final piece of writing.

Understand the Purpose and Structure

One of the most important aspects of writing a cause and effect essay is understanding its purpose and structure. By understanding these key elements, you can effectively communicate the relationship between causes and effects, and present your argument in a clear and organized manner.

In a cause and effect essay, the purpose is to analyze the causes of a specific event or phenomenon and explain the effects that result from those causes. This type of essay is often used to explore the connections between different factors and to demonstrate how one event leads to another.

To structure your cause and effect essay, consider using a chronological or sequential order. Start by introducing the topic and providing some background information on the causes you will discuss. Then, present your thesis statement, which should clearly state your main argument or claim.

In the body paragraphs, discuss each cause or group of causes in a separate paragraph. Provide detailed explanations, examples, and evidence to support your claims. Make sure to use transitional words and phrases to guide the reader through your essay and to show the logical progression of causes and effects.

Finally, in the conclusion, summarize your main points and restate your thesis, reinforcing your overall argument. You can also discuss the broader implications of your analysis and suggest possible solutions or further research.

By understanding the purpose and structure of a cause and effect essay, you can effectively convey your ideas and arguments to your readers. This will help them follow your reasoning and see the connections between causes and effects, leading to a more convincing and impactful essay.

Choose a Topic

When embarking on the journey of writing a cause and effect essay, one of the first steps is to choose an engaging and relevant topic. The topic sets the foundation for the entire essay, determining the direction and scope of the content.

To select an effective topic, it is important to consider your interests, as well as the interests of your intended audience. Think about subjects that captivate you and inspire curiosity. Consider current events, personal experiences, or areas of study that pique your interest. By choosing a topic that you are genuinely passionate about, you will be more motivated to conduct thorough research and present compelling arguments.

Additionally, it is essential to select a topic that is relevant and meaningful. Identify an issue or phenomenon that has a clear cause-and-effect relationship, allowing you to explore the connections and consequences in depth. Look for topics that are timely and impactful, as this will ensure that your essay resonates with readers and addresses significant issues in society.

Moreover, a well-chosen topic should have enough depth and breadth to support a comprehensive analysis. Avoid selecting topics that are too broad or shallow, as this can make it challenging to delve into the causes and effects in a meaningful way. Narrow down your focus to a specific aspect or aspect of a broader topic to ensure that you have enough material to explore and analyze.

In conclusion, choosing a topic for your cause and effect essay is a critical step that will shape the entire writing process. By selecting a topic that aligns with your interests, is relevant and meaningful, and has enough depth and breadth, you will lay the foundation for a compelling and informative essay.

Conduct Thorough Research

Before diving into writing a cause and effect essay, it is essential to conduct a comprehensive research on the topic of your choice. This research phase will provide you with the necessary background information and context to develop a strong and well-supported essay.

During the research process, explore various sources such as books, academic journals, reputable websites, and credible news articles. Utilize synonyms for “research” like “investigate” or “explore” to keep your writing engaging and varied.

Avoid relying solely on a single source or biased information. Instead, strive to gather a variety of perspectives and data points that will enhance the credibility and validity of your essay.

Take notes as you research, highlighting key points, statistics, and quotes that you may want to include in your essay. Organize your findings in a clear and structured manner, making it easier to refer back to them as you begin writing.

Incorporating well-researched evidence and supporting examples into your cause and effect essay will lend credibility to your arguments, making them more persuasive and convincing. By conducting thorough research, you will be able to present a well-rounded and informed analysis of the topic you are writing about.

Create an Outline

One of the crucial steps in writing any type of essay, including cause and effect essays, is creating an outline. An outline helps to organize your thoughts and ideas before you start writing, ensuring that your essay has a clear and logical structure. In this section, we will discuss the importance of creating an outline and provide some tips on how to create an effective outline for your cause and effect essay.

When creating an outline, it is important to start with a clear understanding of the purpose and main points of your essay. Begin by identifying the main cause or event that you will be discussing, as well as its effects or consequences. This will serve as the foundation for your outline, allowing you to structure your essay in a logical and coherent manner.

Once you have identified the main cause and effects, it is time to organize your ideas into a clear and logical order. One effective way to do this is by using a table. Create a table with two columns, one for the cause and one for the effect. Then, list the main causes and effects in each column, using bullet points or short phrases. This will help you see the connections between the different causes and effects, making it easier to write your essay.

In addition to listing the main causes and effects, it is also important to include supporting details and examples in your outline. These can help to strengthen your argument and provide evidence for your claims. Include specific examples, facts, and statistics that support each cause and effect, and organize them under the relevant point in your outline.

Lastly, make sure to review and revise your outline before you start writing your essay. Check for any gaps in your logic or missing information, and make any necessary adjustments. Your outline should serve as a roadmap for your essay, guiding you through the writing process and ensuring that your essay is well-structured and coherent.

In conclusion, creating an outline is an essential step in writing a cause and effect essay. It helps to organize your thoughts and ideas, ensuring that your essay has a clear and logical structure. By identifying the main cause and effects, organizing your ideas into a table, including supporting details and examples, and reviewing your outline, you can create an effective outline that will guide you through the writing process.

Develop the Body Paragraphs

Once you have identified the main causes and effects of the topic you are writing about, it is time to develop your body paragraphs. In these paragraphs, you will present specific evidence and examples to support your claims. The body of your essay should be well-structured and focused, with each paragraph addressing a single cause or effect.

Start each body paragraph with a topic sentence that clearly states the main point you will be discussing. Then, provide detailed explanations and evidence to support your argument. This can include statistics, research findings, expert opinions, or personal anecdotes. Remember to use clear and concise language to convey your ideas effectively.

In order to make your writing more coherent, you can use transition words and phrases to connect your ideas and create a logical flow between paragraphs. Words like “because”, “as a result”, “therefore”, and “consequently” can be used to show cause and effect relationships.

Additionally, it is important to use paragraph unity, which means that each paragraph should focus on a single cause or effect. Avoid including unrelated information or discussing multiple causes/effects in a single paragraph, as this can confuse the reader and weaken your argument.

Furthermore, consider using examples and evidence to enhance the clarity and persuasiveness of your arguments. Concrete examples and real-life scenarios can help illustrate the cause and effect relationship and make your writing more engaging to the reader.

• Use accurate data and precise details to back up your claims
• Include relevant research and studies to support your arguments
• Provide real-life examples and cases that demonstrate the cause and effect relationship

In conclusion, developing the body paragraphs of your cause and effect essay is crucial in presenting a well-structured and persuasive argument. By using topic sentences, clear explanations, transition words, and relevant evidence, you can effectively convey your ideas and convince the reader of the cause and effect relationship you are discussing.

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Causes And Effects Of Marijuana

Show More What does marijuana cause? and how it spread in the past years?. "Marijuana is the most common illicit re rational drug used in the United States". "As many as 77% of illicit drug users are current users of marijuana”. Marijuana has spread a lot and peoples who takes it between 12-25 ages. Millions of people around the world are marijuana users. United State of America had legalize the marijuana in Colorado.CO and Washington.DC. It’s wrong to legalize the marijuana, because it’s effect for the body, health, and family issues. There “re many side effects of marijuana that impact the community and the person himself. Marijuana can effects very badly on the health. ”Mar“juana can effect specially the brain. It can effect the memory, the person who take marijuana always forget things. It can make the person does not realize what happen around him. If he or she are students face problem in learning lessons and analyze it. Marijuana can effect on behavior and make the person do things that he or she does not aware from it. The most important effect of marijuana it’s on pregnant women. “Research shows that the use of marijuana in the teen years increases the severity of schizophrenia and lowers the age of its onset for those susceptible to it." Marijuana it’s very dangerous for the people it can …show more content… "Marijuana use can also have a wide range of effects on the cardiopulmonary system. It causes various respiratory problems and it forces the heart to work much harder than it should"". "It actually causes the heart to beat 100 per cent more and within the first hour increases the risk of a heart attack fivefold". "Marijuana use also has many dangerous effects on mental health. It can produce temporary psychotic reaction, including hallucinations and paranoia, depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts among adolescents and personality disturbances”. All that effects can lead the country into economic

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Know the Risks of Marijuana

Marijuana is the most commonly used illegal substance in the U.S. and its use is growing. Marijuana use among all adult age groups, both sexes, and pregnant women is going up. At the same time, the perception of how harmful marijuana use can be is declining. Increasingly, young people today do not consider marijuana use a risky behavior.

But there are real risks for people who use marijuana, especially youth and young adults, and women who are pregnant or nursing. Today’s marijuana is stronger than ever before. People can and do become addicted to marijuana.

Approximately 1 in 10 people who use marijuana will become addicted. When they start before age 18, the rate of addiction rises to 1 in 6.

Marijuana Risks

Marijuana use can have negative and long-term effects:

Marijuana and Pregnancy

Marijuana use during pregnancy can be harmful to a baby’s health and cause many serious problems.

What is Your Marijuana IQ?

How much do you really want to know about the risks of marijuana? You might be surprised.

Marijuana Addiction

Contrary to popular belief, marijuana is addictive. Research shows that:

• 1-in-6 people who start using the drug before the age of 18 can become addicted.
• 1-in-10 adults who use the drug can become addicted.

Over the past few decades, the amount of THC in marijuana has steadily climbed; today's marijuana has three times the concentration of THC compared to 25 years ago. The higher the THC amount, the stronger the effects on the brain—likely contributing to increased rates of marijuana-related emergency room visits. While there is no research yet on how higher potency affects the long-term risks of marijuana use, more THC is likely to lead to higher rates of dependency and addiction.

About Marijuana

Marijuana refers to the dried leaves, flowers, stems, and seeds from the Cannabis sativa or Cannabis indica plant. Marijuana is a psychoactive drug that contains close to 500 chemicals, including THC, a mind-altering compound that causes harmful health effects.

People smoke marijuana in hand-rolled cigarettes, in pipes or water pipes, in blunts, and by using vaporizers that pull THC from the marijuana. Marijuana can also be mixed in food (edibles), such as brownies, cookies, and candy, or brewed as a tea. People also smoke or eat different forms of marijuana extracts, which deliver a large amount of THC and can be potentially more dangerous.

Rise of Marijuana Use

Today, marijuana use is on the rise among all adult age groups, both sexes, and pregnant women. People ages 18-25 have the highest rate of use.

Marijuana and THC remain illegal at the federal level, even though many states have legalized its use. In states where legal, marijuana is a fast-growing industry with sales to individuals over 21 in retail stores, wineries, breweries, coffee shops, dispensaries, online, as well as grown at home.

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» View and share the following marijuana videos and resources

Video: Marijuana Use while Pregnant or Breastfeeding

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7 Ways Marijuana Can Affect Your Brain Health (PDF | 901 KB)

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If you, or someone you know, need help to stop using substances – whether the problem is methamphetamine, alcohol or another drug – call SAMHSA’s National Helpline at 1-800-662-HELP (4357) or TTY: 1-800-487-4889 , or text your zip code to  435748 (HELP4U), or use the SAMHSA’s Behavioral Health Treatment Services Locator to get help.

References and Relevant Resources

• Find Treatment
• Technology Transfer Centers (TTC) Program marijuana resources
• Tips for Teens: Marijuana
• Changes in Cannabis Potency over the Last Two Decades (1995-2014) - Analysis of Current Data in the United States: National Center for Biotechnology Information
• Drugged Driving DrugFacts | NIDA
• Drug Facts: Marijuana | NIDA
• Drug Facts: Marijuana | United States Drug Enforcement Administration
• Early-Onset, Regular Cannabis Use Is Linked to IQ Decline | NIDA
• Is Marijuana Addictive? | NIDA
• National Survey on Drug Use and Health | SAMHSA
• Marijuana and Public Health | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Marijuana: Facts for Teens | NIDA
• Marijuana: Is there a Link Between Marijuana Use and Psychiatric Disorders? | NIDA
• The Contribution of Cannabis Use to Variation in the Incidence of Psychotic Disorder Across Europe | The Lancet

Last Updated: 07/15/2024

Marijuana: an in-depth look at its use, cause, and effects in medical applications.

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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Marijuana Legalization — Marijuana Legalisation: Positive and Negative Effects of Marijuana

Marijuana Legalisation: Positive and Negative Effects of Marijuana

• Categories: Marijuana Marijuana Legalization

About this sample

Words: 1241 |

Published: Apr 8, 2022

Words: 1241 | Pages: 3 | 7 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, the legal status and history of marijuana in new zealand, negative effects of marijuana, the benefits of marijuana.

• Abel, S., & Casswell, S. (1998). Cannabis Police: issues and options. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Medical Journal.
• Andrea, S. R. (2011). Marijuana uses, Effects and the Law. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
• Caulkins, J. P., Hawken, A., Kilmer, B., & Kleiman, M.A.R. (2012). Marijuana legalization what everyone needs to know. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Dangerous Drugs Act, No.18. (1927). Retrieved from http://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/dda192718gv1927n18252/
• Hill, K. P. (2015, June 23-30). Medical Marijuana for Treatment of Chronic Pain and Other Medical and Psychiatric Problems. Clinical Crossroads, 313(24), 2474-2483.
• Iversen, L. L., (2018). The science of marijuana. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Miron, J,A., & Zwiebel, J. (1995). The Economic Case Against Drug Prohibition. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9(4), 175-192.
• Misuse of Drugs Act, No.116. (1975). Retrieved from http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1975/0116/latest/DLM436190.html
• Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act, No.42. (2019). Retrieved from http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2019/0042/latest/LMS167550.html
• Narcotics Act, No.45. (1965). Retrieved from http://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/na19651965n45141.pdf

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Use of Marijuana and Its Consequences Cause and Effect Essay

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Marijuana is a drug obtained from a plant called cannabis sativa. Another name for cannabis sativa is hemp. The plant was grown in the United States of America for agricultural purposes during the colonial period up to the beginning of the 20 th century. It was used in the manufacture of birdseed, clothes, lacquer and ropes. Marijuana is the most commonly abused drug among the youths in the United States and other countries in the world, as well (Iversen, 2001).

Once I get to know that my teenage child smokes marijuana, I will advise him/her on the merits of using the drug as well as the dangers associated with it for his/her life. The teenager may be smoking because of pressure exerted to them by their sisters, brothers or friends around them or because they see older people smoking.

The media encourages teenagers to use marijuana. Characters in various television programs like movies smoke marijuana openly, contributing to the fact that the youth, spending most of their time in front of TVs, regards it as a normal issue.

Its use is seen as a way of relieving stress and, therefore, a gateway to escaping problems arising at schools, in families and the way to solve conflicts with friends. Out of curiosity, many teenagers are tempted to smoke to know how it feels to be under the influence of drugs. Whatever the reasons, my child will have behind marijuana use, I will advise him/her to avoid it completely because of the following five reasons (Joy, 1999).

Use of marijuana has been banned not only in the United States of America where its use originated but also in most other countries. This is mainly because of the effects it has been found to have on its users and the society in general. According to Iversen (2001), the use of marijuana is a health hazard. Once smoked, marijuana is absorbed in the blood stream.

It lowers the pressure of the blood and at the same time, it increases the rate at which the heart beats. Pulse rate may go up to 20 to 50 times beyond the normal rate or even more if it is used in combination with other drugs. Researchers have found that low blood pressure and high pulse rate puts marijuana users at a greater risk of heart attack, which is likely to take place within the first hour of smoking than normal people.

There are high chances of conducting chest illnesses like heavy coughing and lung infections. Its users may develop a stinging mouth. Studies have also shown that tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) compound contained in the drug lowers down the immune system of the body making the body weak to resist diseases. This makes its users vulnerable to other diseases.

Chances of giving birth to abnormal children are high for pregnant mothers if they take marijuana. Miscarriages and premature births are also common. It is costly to treat diseases associated with smoking. In severe cases, these diseases cause death leading to reduction of the population. Mental disorders are also associated with marijuana. Once absorbed in the blood stream, it distorts the normal functioning of the brain. There are reported cases in which excessive use of marijuana leads to insanity (Joy, 1999).

According to Joy (1999), marijuana is associated with risky sexual behaviors that put an individual at risk of conducting sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhea and HIV aids.

Drug users fall as victims of rape where they force other people into sex. Drug consumption increases rate among students. Mainly, drug users perform poorly at schools, which they often decide to quit. This lowers the status of education in the society. Finally, marijuana users tend to be violent. Some do not carry out their roles in the family like provision of basic needs.

Wife battering is very common among drug users. This leads to family breakages. Marijuana and other illegal drugs are expensive. Because of the above negative effects associated with marijuana use, there should be some control over the marijuana use. Consumption of marijuana in large contents should be avoided. If it has to be used, people should follow doctor’s prescriptions on how and when to take it to avoid its negative effects on the user and the whole society as well.

Iversen, L. (2001). The science of marijuana , London: Oxford University Press.

Joy, E. (1999). Marijuana and medicine: assessing the science base , New York, NY: National Academies Press.

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IvyPanda. (2018, October 31). Use of Marijuana and Its Consequences. https://ivypanda.com/essays/marijuana-2/

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• Marijuana Causes and the Effect Essay

Marijuana Causes And The Effect Essay

It may not be as dangerous as cocaine or heroin , but it can lead to those types of drugs, and it can bring out addictive behavior that can lead to other addictions. While some see it as recreational, even alcohol , which is legal, can lead to dangerous and deadly behavior, and marijuana is no different. It is an addictive drug, it alters behavior, and it can lead to poor decision making, such as driving stoned, which can have deadly consequences. It is a drug, it changes behavior, and it can lead to all types of complications. It may be seen as harmless, but it reality, it is harmful, and it should remain regulated and illegal. There are many people who believe it should be decriminalized, especially for tax reasons in a down economy . However, that would only lead to additional legal and court costs when stoned people commit crimes. Marijuana has a negative effect on people, and there is no way that making it legal would change those effects.

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The state currently spends a great deal of money on detaining people on marijuana related offenses. Legalization could help to free up some of these resources which could then be used on more important programs throughout the state. When examining the economic benefits of marijuana legalization it is important to weigh the social costs related to outlawing access to goods, because such restrictions create black markets. Black markets are associated

Marijuana the Recent Election Resulted

They were simply caught up in the lawlessness and anarchy that the prohibition on marijuana causes. Laws and policies in the United States that are theoretically intending to protect the social order are causing chaos and disorder in Mexico, and for some reason the U.S. government thinks dead Mexicans are not a big problem. To have no soul or compassion for the victims of this prohibition is simply evil. The

Causes of Depression O in Preschoolers

Depression Among Preschoolers Depression is an illness where one gets bad feelings that hang on for weeks or even longer. The feelings don't go away that easily just like the way bad feelings do after a day or few hours, it hangs on a bit longer and could as well lead to a disease which ought to be treated. When you one is depressed one feel sad, angry, hopeless and discouraged.

Marijuana Legalization, or Decriminalization for

The relationship between marijuana and harder drugs changes over time as different drugs become more or less popular. Because marijuana is the most popular illegal drug in the U.S. today, people who have used less popular drugs (heroin, cocaine, LSD) are also likely to have used marijuana. Most marijuana users have never used any other illegal drugs (Morral 2002, Kandel and Davies, 1992). Opponents also argue that marijuana can cause

What Are The Causes And Effects Of Legalizing Marijuana

Lauren Ferguson English 1101 Robertson 1 December 2016 Cause and Effects of Legalizing Marijuana Legalizing marijuana, or known as weed, can produce an abundant number of pros and cons. Associating the legalization of marijuana to tobacco may generate verbal and physical arguments between many individuals. Observations from a source the NYLN Youth Leader Blog reports, “the legalization of marijuana can regulate crimes, protect law enforcement, provide medical benefits, and boost income” (“19 Primary Pros and Cons of Legalizing Weed” n.p.). Although weed may benefit its seller, it can cause treacherous dangers for handlers and non-users. According to the NYLN Youth Leader Blog, “even though marijuana has its pros, it contains risks such as, …show more content…

Many people disagree, but recent studies from an article posted on WebMD.com states, “current research shows your body naturally produces marijuana-like chemicals which can ease pain such as, muscle spasms caused by multiple sclerosis, nausea from cancer chemotherapy, seizure disorders, and more” (Anne Harding n.p.). Medical personnel believe marijuana cannot cure, but aid countless quantities of patients with sicknesses. Although the substance cannot only help with medical issues, but it can serve as a safety net for law enforcement while allowing officers to focus on increasing criminal rates. Regarding the NYLN Youth Leader Blog, “legalizing advocates claim the transformation will permit law enforcement additional time catching convicts committing other crimes, and will theoretically allow judges along with prosecutors to focus on resolving cases dealing with violence” (“19 Primary Pros and Cons of Legalizing Weed” n.p.). The legalization will grant law enforcement with protection as well as decrease crime rates, so many publics plan to support the ratification of …show more content…

Many people seem to push for the legalization while others not so much. Marijuana is believed to help ease painful illnesses as well as provide safety for law enforcement along with their attention to deal with more serious crimes. With that being sad there are endangerments that come with using marijuana such as the potential for a dealer to sell you synthetic weed with harmful chemicals. Another con is the alteration in one’s awareness when the drug is present in the body such as, the risk of getting behind the car and causing a fatal accident meaning death for yourself or another individual. Anyone can argue the pros and cons on marijuana, but the ratification may turn out to only harm more people than what it is sought out to be. Along with the legalization of weed, many people are on the big topic of tobacco use compared to marijuana. Tobacco is believed to have worse outcomes on your body than weed, and allow you to have addiction issues as well as health issues. The use of tobacco in avid smokers can cause damage to your heart, lungs, blood vessels, etc. Although tobacco is said to be worse, some of the outcomes have similarities in both substances and are being investigated in hope for more answers in the

The Pros And Cons Of Legalizing Marijuana

The question of whether or not marijuana should be legalized for recreational and medicinal use has been a three decade long conversation. There are many pros and cons to legalizing marijuana. There are many different ideas about the effects of marijuana, but as with any drug answers are going to vary depending on the person you survey. Age, health, and mental stability are all factors to consider how a drug can positively or negatively affect you, and marijuana is no different. To be legal or not to be legal is the million dollar question up for debate.

Legalizing Marijuana Research Paper

The legalization of recreational marijuana is an important debate, one that could really cause drastic changes in societies. Marijuana has entered a dark stage in the pathway of legalization, and it is correlating with the prohibition stage that alcohol rested in. The debate can often reach a nasty level between individuals taking sides with the topic. Legalization of marijuana can be very beneficial under regulated circumstances, therefore making all of the negative views less important.

Marijuana Legalized: How It Can Positively Effect Our Society

The dispute over the legalization of cannabis sativa, more commonly known as marijuana, is one of the most controversial issues ever to take place in the United States. Its use as a medicine has existed for thousands of years in many countries across the globe. Legalization should be considered despite efforts made by groups who say marijuana is a harmful drug that will increase crime rates and lead users to other more dangerous substances. The legalization of marijuana can improve our society by helping with our economy, freeing legal resources, and benefiting the overall health of the nation though medical uses.

How Does Legalizing Marijuana Affect The Economy

There will always be pros and cons in every situation, but marijuana actually has many pros. Marijuana may affect the development of the brain and behaviors if used at a young age, but it also helps with many disorders. “The panel said cannabinoids stimulate the appetite, combat nausea, and might also control pain. The drug also acts as a sedative and reduces anxiety, which may itself have a therapeutic effect, they added” (Ault, 1). Marijuana could be very helpful for those who are ill. It is a step at discovering new ways to cure diseases and help with the symptoms of different disorders. If we already know that marijuana could help with pain, sickness, and mental health, then why not legalize it? Many physicians have prescribed medical marijuana to those who are undergoing pain due to cancer. Most of the feedback the physicians get are

Legalizing marijuana has always been an interesting topic for many people to dispute about. Some people say it is good, while others say it is bad. No matter what topic you speak about, it has its pros and cons. For example, marijuana can be used in great ways if legalized. Through money given from dispensaries to the crime rate lowered because of the ability to acquire marijuana in legal ways. Some bad examples are that it can be a gateway drug and can cause one to want a “better high” to people thinking it affects people's lives. Legalizing marijuana (medical and recreational) will help the United States with money, crime, and other numerous ways.

A Brief View Of The History Of Marijuana Legalization Essay

The legalization of marijuana is, and has been a heavily disputed issue for decades. On one hand, marijuana could lead to a medical breakthrough, or at least provide relief to cancer and AIDS patients. On the other hand, legalizing a drug could expose it to too broad an audience. As a drug, marijuana has never proven to be anywhere near as harmful as cigarettes or alcohol. Each year in the United States, 400,000 people die from tobacco, 50,000 from alcohol, and from marijuana, zero. Regardless of what side one may take to this argument, there are some causes to this marijuana debate that everyone should know. Marijuana was not always illegal, and the reasons behind the history of narcotic regulation are interesting when viewed from

Positive Effects on The Legalization of Marijuana

The legalization of marijuana will bring in much needed revenue to the US economy through tax revenue, the creation of jobs, decrease in the number of those incarcerated for marijuana possession, and help treat various health conditions that would otherwise cause an enormous amount of pain. Although marijuana is often looked down upon as a Schedule I illegal drug, this medicinal plant has been around for more than a decade and has been used for more than the "get high" purpose. Marijuana is non-toxic compared to multiple types of medications now on the market and it has never caused an over dose. It is also less expensive, if legalized than most of the overly priced medications provided by

Should Weed Be Legalized Essay

To start off, many people think weed should not be legal. One reason some may say it is not safe to legalize weed is public safety. “Marijuana use, like the use of alcohol, can cause impairment in the user. This means if a person is driving whilst under the influence, they may be more prone to having a collision and potentially harming a pedestrian or fellow road user.” (10 Reasons Marijuana Should Remain Illegal). Also, some think the use or marijuana will lower the quality of life. “

Legalizing Weed Research Paper

Legalizing marijuana has been a dispute in American for several years now, yet should not be considered. Marijuana also referred to as cannabis or weed is one of the most controversial drugs in the world and especially in the United States. Many people believe that it should be legalized because of medical reasons but on the contrary this substance does more harm than good. Society has been negatively affected in many different ways through this hallucinogenic drug. Crime rate has increased because of marijuana and legalizing marijuana would only increase this rate. Also through the legalization of marijuana our society is at harm of many risks. Our youth

The Bill to Legaliza Marijuana Around the United States Essay

Marijuana does not sound as harmful as people have said it, and it’s misleading the public. For example, the U.S federal government data has shown that the average THC in marijuana is less than five percent. Compare to Alcohol and tobacco, Marijuana does not cause strong addiction, cancer, heart problems, birth defect, emphysema, liver damages and ect. A recent 2009 populations case-control study found marijuana smoker that had smoked for over a 20 years period of time has shown a reduced risk of head and neck cancer. Without the effects of marijuana, the consumer is free from all memory issues but only cause short-term memory while under the influence of marijuana. Marijuana can reduce respiratory health hazard or spread of second hand smoking, since it can be consumed in non-smoking way and still have the same effect. Non-smoking hazard ways include using it as a spice for baking, flavor for drinking and etc. According to a 1997 UCLA school of Medicine study, volume 155 of the American Journal of Respiratory of Critical care Medicine, stated that both the continuing or the intermittent marijuana smoker showed any significantly different rates decline in lung function as compared to non-smoker. If marijuana were legalized, it will reduces health care cost by accidental injection of unsafe drug usage and reduce the possibility of overdose.

Marijuana Argument Essay

There are many things that have been debated on for years and the people still haven’t come close to a decision. Among these topics is the legalization of marijuana. Marijuana also referred to as cannabis has become this big controversy topic dividing the nation into two. One side is all for the legalization of marijuana, others are very against it. I for one am all for the legalization of marijuana because it can be used to better one’s medical and mental state.

Persuasive Essay On Legalization Of Marijuana

The legalization of Marijuana for recreational use has been a hot topic for quite some time. Arguments about why it should or should not be legal have been some of the highlights of many debates. Marijuana, which is usually wrongfully conveyed as a harmful drug that will only do harm to our society if it get legalized for recreational use. Skepticism aside, the history and facts about weed don't illustrate a dangerous drug that leads to the deterioration of the human body and mind, but the opposite excluding it's already proven pain tolerance .The legalization of Marijuana for recreational use is something that should be instated in every state in the country due to it already being legal in some states, people are gonna use it no matter what, and because its effects being less harmful compared to other substances that are legal.

Pros And Cons Of Legalizing Marijuana

The topic of marijuana use in today’s society is currently a hot topic in both politics as well is in social settings. There are many positives and negatives towards whether or not marijuana should be legalized, as well as medical and recreational pros and cons. This paper will cover the pros and cons of all topics and my personal viewpoint on the topic.

Should Marijuana Be Legalized? Essay examples

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Many people claim that there is no known case of people dying due to marijuana. This is a half truth since it’s not the marijuana itself that kills; it’s its side effects. Marijuana causes lung and throat cancer much like cigarettes. As a matter of fact, marijuana is worse for the lungs, since it contains three times as much tar as cigarettes and it’s usually smoked without a filter. They also claim there is not nearly as much crime due to marijuana use compared alcohol. This is also true but for one simple reason. Alcohol is legal and more easily accessible than marijuana. It’s the fact that marijuana is illegal that is keeping these numbers so low. Legalizing marijuana would be like adding fuel to a fire. If marijuana were to be legalized these number are sure to increase.

Essay about No to Legalization of Marijuana

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Marijuana should not be legalized because it will increase health issues, its use will rise rather than decline, and taxation will result in economic failure. In recent years, however, society has become very moderate, and this is why society’s views can be swayed by the benefits of legalization. Nowadays, legalizing marijuana is not that big of a deal as it was in the 60’s and 70’s when hippies and peace organizations were advocating for marijuana use. However, if marijuana is legalized it has been said that it might be the gateway drug to legalizing all illegal drugs.

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Short-Term Effects of Marijuana Use: what to Know

This essay about the short-term effects of marijuana explores how its use can lead to a range of immediate experiences. It highlights how marijuana can enhance sensory perceptions, making colors and sounds more vivid and altering one’s sense of time. The essay also addresses the increase in appetite known as the “munchies,” which can be beneficial or lead to unhealthy eating habits. Additionally, it discusses mood changes, including euphoria and potential anxiety, and notes the cognitive effects such as impaired memory, attention, and coordination. Overall, the essay underscores the variability of marijuana’s effects and emphasizes the importance of understanding and managing its impact for both recreational and medicinal users.

How it works

Marijuana, often touted for its relaxing effects and therapeutic potential, can also induce a range of short-term experiences. When consumed, the immediate effects of this plant can vary significantly from person to person, influenced by factors such as the method of consumption, dosage, and individual physiology. Understanding these short-term effects can provide valuable insights into both its recreational and medicinal uses.

Upon ingestion, whether through smoking, vaping, or edibles, users frequently report an altered state of consciousness. This alteration often manifests as an enhanced sensory experience, where colors seem more vibrant, sounds become more profound, and time may appear to slow down.

Such sensory distortions can be particularly intriguing, offering a heightened appreciation of music, art, or nature. However, they can also lead to disorientation or impaired judgment, which might pose risks, especially in situations requiring quick reflexes or clear thinking.

Another common short-term effect is an increase in appetite, often referred to as the “munchies.” This is a well-documented phenomenon where users experience a heightened sense of hunger, leading them to seek out and consume more food than usual. While this effect can be beneficial for individuals undergoing treatments that suppress appetite or for those with eating disorders, it can also contribute to unhealthy eating habits if not managed mindfully.

Marijuana also influences mood, with many users reporting feelings of euphoria and relaxation. This can be a significant draw for recreational users seeking stress relief or a mood boost. However, the mood-altering effects can be unpredictable. Some individuals might experience anxiety or paranoia, especially in higher doses or if they are not accustomed to the substance. This variability underscores the importance of understanding one’s own tolerance and the setting in which marijuana is consumed.

The cognitive effects of marijuana are notable as well. Short-term use can impact memory, attention, and coordination. Users might find it challenging to focus on tasks or recall recent events, which can affect productivity and safety, particularly when engaging in activities such as driving. These cognitive impairments are typically temporary, subsiding as the effects of the drug wear off. Nevertheless, they highlight the need for caution when using marijuana, especially in situations where mental clarity is crucial.

In summary, while marijuana can provide a range of enjoyable and therapeutic effects, its short-term impact is multifaceted. Enhanced sensory perception, increased appetite, mood changes, and cognitive alterations are all part of the experience. As with any substance, the key to a positive experience lies in understanding these effects and using the drug responsibly.

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