healthy child development essay

Towards a Strong Foundation: Social and Emotional Development in Young Children

Nurturing relationships provide the context for human development and are an essential source of resilience for children and adults (e.g., Luthar, 2006; Rutter, 1987). Resilience refers to the capacity to weather and bounce back from both everyday challenges and significant adversity and trauma -- like that we’ve all experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is influenced by foundational social and emotional skills and competencies (e.g., Masten, 2009).

In this short essay we describe children’s early social and emotional skills, show how they are linked to early caregiving and are influenced by stress and vulnerability, and highlight some programs, practices, and strategies that foster them. 

Social and Emotional Development and Foundational Relationships

Social and emotional development refers to the processes whereby children learn to identify and express emotions, focus attention and manage impulses, successfully navigate relationships with peers and adults, develop a positive self-concept, make responsible decisions, and solve problems (e.g., Jones, McGarrah, & Kahn, 2019). 

Over many decades researchers from an array of disciplines, e.g. human development and psychology, neuroscience, education and economics, have described how these essential skills are deeply intertwined with other areas of development, such as cognitive and physical. These developments in the brain and in behavior all work together to influence school and life outcomes, including higher education, physical and mental health, economic well-being, and civic engagement (Jones & Kahn, 2018). 

During development, social and emotional skills grow and change like building blocks. Early skills lay the foundation for more complex skills that emerge later in life. For example, during early childhood, children learn and grow in the context of relationships with parents and other caregivers at home and in childcare and preschool settings. Through responsive, nurturing interactions these relationships shape the growth of basic executive functions, self-regulation and emotional competencies, which are the salient social and emotional skills of early childhood. 

These skills encompass young children’s emerging capacity to:

Understand their emotions, communicate about them, and read those of others around them. For example, use feeling words when frustrated, angry, or excited. 

Be aware of and begin to manage impulses and behavior. For example, wait for a snack or dinner when hungry or for the chance to share news in the classroom, or remember and follow the routines of bedtime. 

Focus and shift attention in explicit ways and imagine the perspectives of another person. For example, move from one activity to another in the classroom, or engage in basic social back and forth and play. 

Basic skills like these set the stage for more complex skills later in life such as planning and problem solving, critical thinking and decision making, forming and maintaining sophisticated friendships, and coping skills, among others (Bailey & Jones, 2019). 

The Role of Experience and Context Including Stress and Vulnerability

Importantly, these early skills are highly susceptible to stress and vulnerability. Research shows that the prefrontal cortex – which is responsible for executive function and self-regulation -- is closely linked to other brain regions that signal emotions like fear, anger, and anxiety. 

These brain regions are connected through the stress response system, which alerts the body to react in times of danger (e.g., Arnsten, 1998). But responding and adapting to stress can come at a cost. When stress is chronic or takes over, it can inhibit children’s early social and emotional skills, resulting in dysregulated, reactive, and sometimes withdrawn behavior, and this is true for young children and adults (e.g., Arnsten, Mazure & Sinha, 2012). 

Critical to this dynamic is that predictable, nurturing relationships are protective. They operate as a buffer between stress and strain on the one hand, and children’s healthy development on the other (Center on the Developing Child, 2014). 

Research on children’s wellbeing during the pandemic illustrates how these processes can play out. For example, Harvard education researcher Emily Hanno (2021) examined data about a sample of young children and families before and after COVID-19 shut down U.S. childcare centers and preschools in 2020. They found that as parents experienced more stress, households grew more chaotic, and parent-child conflict increased, children displayed more challenging behaviors and fewer adaptive ones. 

Another large-scale study, the Rapid Assessment of Pandemic Impact on Development–Early Childhood (RAPID)https://rapidsurveyproject.com/), documented that high levels of material hardship that families experienced in the first year of the pandemic, coupled with ongoing week-to-week unpredictability, had detrimental effects on both caregivers’ and children’s well-being (Liu, et al 2022). Studies on how poverty, disasters, bereavement, armed conflict, and displacement affect children and adults have produced similar findings.

Supporting Family Well-Being and Social and Emotional Development

Supporting children’s social and emotional development demands coordinated child, family, and education-based efforts. Some examples of these are described here.

As noted above, social and emotional development, indeed successful early childhood development more generally, requires nurturing care. This has been defined as health, nutrition, security and safety, responsive caregiving, and opportunities for early learning (Black, et al, 2016). 

Globally, this concept has been advanced through The Nurturing Care Framework for Early Childhood Development ( https://nurturing-care.org/ ) .

The Nurturing Care Framework was developed by WHO, UNICEF, the World Bank Group, in collaboration with the Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health, the Early Childhood Development Action Network and many other partners, and launched alongside the 71st World Health Assembly in May, 2018. It takes a comprehensive approach by outlining important strategies to address the integrated needs of the developing child.

The wellbeing of caregivers is the enabling environment for responsive care. The promotion of social emotional development depends on policies and practices that take a whole family approach, assuring that those who care for young children have the support they need to be successful as caregivers, including adequate housing, income, childcare, education, health, and mental health supports.

A relevant and recently launched innovation focused on parents is the Global Initiative to Support Parents ( https://ecdan.org/global-initiative-to-support-parents/ ) . This unique partnership launched by the Early Childhood Development Action Network, WHO, UNICEF, End Violence Against Children, and Parenting for Lifelong Health includes the ultimate vision that all families worldwide have universal access to evidence-based parenting support.

Early childhood services designed for parents and children have for decades been understood to play an important role in offsetting the impact of vulnerability and adversity on healthy growth and development and to be an important setting for cultivating emerging social and emotional skills. A hallmark of these efforts is that they provide families with information, resources, and support that enables those nurturing, connected interactions, and helps all parents navigate the stress that inevitably comes with raising young children (Jones, Bailey & Partee, 2017). 

In the early classroom context, there are a large number of curricular and strategy-based approaches that educators can embed in their instructional and caregiving routines. The most effective of these programs typically combine direct teaching of social and emotional skills with structures and routines that provide young children with lots of opportunities to practice emerging skills, as well as support for adult caregivers to proactively manage young children’s behavior (e.g., Jones, Bailey & Jacob, 2014).

As noted above, children across the world have been impacted by the uncertainty, isolation and stress caused by the pandemic. In response, The LEGO Foundation teamed up with HundredED, to identify education innovations from across the world focused on improving social and emotional learning. In 2021, they published Spotlight Social and Emotional Learning which presented 13 innovations from 10 countries. These inspiring examples provide promising solutions that can help respond to the needs of children and offer ideas about how to foster caring and nurturing relationships. Some of these innovations can be found here: https://hundred.org/en/collections/social-emotional-learning-sel .

In summary, research and practice focused on children’s early social and emotional development tells us that these skills: 

Develop in the context of primary relationships and interactions. 

Are foundational to early learning, as well as important developmental milestones throughout life. 

Are optimized when children feel safe, secure, and supported.

Are influenced and shaped by experience, culture, and beliefs. 

Effective approaches to fostering and supporting these important skills are situated in families, leverage nurturing relationships and interactions at home and in early learning settings, and are rooted in community and family support.

Stephanie Jones

Gerald S. Lesser Professor in Child Development and Education, Harvard Graduate School of Education

Co-Director, Saul Zaentz Early Education Initiative

Joan Lombardi

Senior Fellow, Collaborative on Global Children’s Issues, Georgetown University

Senior Advisor, Graduate School of Education, Stanford Center on Early Childhood

Arnsten, A. (1998). The biology of being frazzled. Science , 280 (5370), 1711-1712, DOI: 10.1126/science.280.5370.1711

Arnsten, A. Mazure. C.M. & Sinha, R. (2012). This Is Your Brain in Meltdown. Scientific American 306, 4, 48-53. DOI: 10.1038/scientificamerican0412-48

Bailey, R., & Jones, S. M. (2019). An Integrated Model of Regulation for Applied Settings. Clinical Child & Family Psychology Review , 22 (1), 2–23. DOI: 10.1007/s10567-019-00288-y

Black, M. M. et al. (2016). for the Lancet Early Childhood Development Series Steering Committee. Advancing Early Childhood Development: from science to scale 1 , Early Childhood development coming of age: Science through the life course . www.thelancet.com , published online October 4, 2016

Center on the Developing Child (2014). Building adult capacities to improve child outcomes: A theory of change. Center on the Developing Child, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

Hanno, E.C., Cuartas, J., Miratrix, L.W., Jones, S.M., & Lesaux, N.K. (2021). Changes in children’s behavioral health and family well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. DOI: 10.1097/DBP.0000000000001010

Jones, S.M., Bailey, R. & Jacob, R. (2014). Social-emotional learning as a platform for effective classroom management. Phi Delta Kappan . https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721714553405

Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., & Partee, A. (2017). SECURe Families: Interrupting Intergenerational Cycles of Stress and Poverty , The Aspen Journal of Ideas , Aspen Institute.

Jones, S. M., & Kahn, J. (2018). The Evidence Base for How Learning Happens: A Consensus on Social, Emotional, and Academic Development. American Educator , 41 (4), 16-21.

Jones, S.M., McGarrah, M. & Kahn, J. (2019). Social and emotional learning: A principled science of human development in context. Educational Psychologist .

Liu, S., Zalewski, M.,Lengua,L., Gunnar, M., Giuliani, N., Fisher, P. A. (2022) Material hardship level and unpredictability in relation to U.S. Households’, family interactions and emotional well-being: Insights from the C0VID-19 pandemic . Social Science & Medicine, 115173 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953622004798?dgcid=author

Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.),  Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation  (2nd ed., pp. 739–795). New York: Wiley.

Masten, A. S., & Wright, M. O’. D. (2009). Resilience over the lifespan: Developmental perspectives on resistance, recovery, and transformation. In J. W. Reich, A. J. Zautra, & J. S. Hall (Eds.),  Handbook of adult resilience  (pp. 213–237). New York: Guilford Press.

Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American journal of Orthopsychiatry , 57, 316—331.

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118 Child Development Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Child development is a fascinating field of study that examines the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth and changes that occur in individuals from birth through adolescence. Whether you are a student studying child development or a parent interested in understanding your child's development better, writing an essay on this topic can provide valuable insights. To help you get started, here are 118 child development essay topic ideas and examples:

Physical Development:

• The importance of physical activity in promoting healthy child development.
• The effects of nutrition on a child's physical development.
• The role of genetics in determining physical characteristics in children.
• The impact of technology on children's physical development.
• The influence of cultural practices on physical development.
• The benefits and risks of sports participation for children.
• The impact of sleep on physical development in children.
• The effects of early motor skills development on later physical abilities.
• The role of play in promoting physical development.
• The effects of environmental pollutants on children's physical health.

Cognitive Development:

• Piaget's theory of cognitive development and its relevance today.
• The impact of language development on cognitive abilities in children.
• The effects of media exposure on cognitive development in children.
• The role of memory in cognitive development.
• The influence of socio-economic status on cognitive development.
• The effects of technology on children's cognitive abilities.
• The importance of early literacy development for cognitive growth.
• The impact of cultural factors on cognitive development.
• The role of attention in cognitive development.
• The effects of sleep on cognitive functioning in children.

Social Development:

• The role of attachment in social development.
• The impact of parenting styles on children's social skills.
• The effects of peer relationships on social development.
• The influence of media on children's social development.
• The importance of empathy in social development.
• The role of play in promoting social skills.
• The effects of bullying on children's social development.
• The impact of cultural factors on socialization.
• The role of gender in social development.
• The effects of divorce on children's social development.

Emotional Development:

• The importance of emotional regulation in child development.
• The impact of parenting practices on emotional development.
• The effects of trauma on emotional development in children.
• The influence of temperament on emotional development.
• The role of self-esteem in emotional growth.
• The effects of media on children's emotional well-being.
• The importance of empathy in emotional development.
• The impact of cultural factors on emotional development.
• The role of play in promoting emotional expression.
• The effects of divorce on children's emotional development.

Parenting and Family Influences:

• The impact of parenting styles on child development.
• The effects of divorce on children's development.
• The role of siblings in child development.
• The influence of family structure on child development.
• The effects of parental involvement on child outcomes.
• The impact of parental stress on child development.
• The role of grandparents in children's development.
• The effects of parenting programs on child outcomes.
• The influence of cultural factors on parenting practices.
• The role of fathers in child development.

Education and Learning:

• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success.
• The effects of standardized testing on children's learning.
• The role of play in promoting learning in young children.
• The influence of technology on children's learning.
• The importance of early literacy development for school readiness.
• The effects of teacher quality on student achievement.
• The impact of school climate on children's learning.
• The role of motivation in student learning.
• The effects of school transitions on children's academic performance.
• The influence of cultural factors on educational outcomes.

Language and Communication:

• The importance of early language development for later academic success.
• The effects of bilingualism on children's language development.
• The role of technology in promoting language and communication skills.
• The impact of socio-economic status on language development.
• The effects of media exposure on children's language skills.
• The influence of cultural factors on language development.
• The role of play in promoting language and communication.
• The effects of language disorders on children's communication abilities.
• The impact of parent-child interactions on language development.
• The role of early intervention in supporting language development.

Special Needs and Inclusion:

• The importance of inclusive education for children with disabilities.
• The effects of early intervention programs for children with special needs.
• The impact of stigma on children with disabilities.
• The influence of cultural factors on the inclusion of children with special needs.
• The effects of assistive technology on children's independence.
• The role of peer relationships in supporting children with special needs.
• The impact of family involvement on the well-being of children with disabilities.
• The effects of inclusive recreational programs on social skills development.
• The importance of person-centered planning for individuals with disabilities.
• The influence of policy and legislation on the inclusion of children with special needs.

Media and Technology:

• The effects of media violence on children's behavior.
• The impact of social media on adolescents' self-esteem.
• The role of technology in promoting learning and creativity.
• The influence of media on children's body image.
• The effects of screen time on children's development.
• The importance of media literacy education for children.
• The impact of advertising on children's consumer behavior.
• The role of media in shaping children's gender stereotypes.
• The effects of cyberbullying on children's mental health.
• The influence of cultural factors on media use and its impact on children.

Adolescence and Identity:

• The impact of puberty on adolescents' physical and emotional development.
• The effects of peer pressure on adolescent behavior.
• The role of identity formation in adolescent development.
• The influence of media on adolescents' self-image.
• The effects of adolescent romantic relationships on development.
• The importance of parental involvement in supporting adolescents' well-being.
• The impact of cultural factors on adolescent identity formation.
• The role of school climate in promoting positive adolescent development.
• The effects of substance abuse on adolescent brain development.
• The influence of social media on adolescents' self-concept.

Mental Health and Resilience:

• The importance of promoting mental health in children.
• The effects of trauma on children's mental health.
• The impact of bullying on children's psychological well-being.
• The role of resilience in promoting positive development.
• The influence of cultural factors on mental health outcomes.
• The effects of stress on children's mental health.
• The importance of early intervention in supporting children's mental health.
• The impact of family functioning on children's emotional well-being.
• The role of play therapy in promoting children's mental health.
• The effects of social support on children's resilience.

Gender and Development:

• The impact of gender stereotypes on children's development.
• The effects of gender socialization on children's behavior.
• The role of media in shaping children's gender roles.
• The influence of cultural factors on gender development.
• The effects of gender identity on children's well-being.
• The importance of gender-equitable parenting in supporting children's development.
• The impact of gender bias in educational settings.
• The role of gender in shaping children's career aspirations.

These essay topics provide a wide range of ideas for exploring different aspects of child development. Remember to choose a topic that interests you and aligns with your research or personal interests. Good luck with your essay!

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230 Child Development Essay Topics & Examples

Welcome to our list of child development topics to write about! Here, you will find only the best and most current child development essay topics for argumentative papers, research ideas, and even presentation titles.

🔝 Top 10 Child Development Topics to Write About

🏆 best child development topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on child development, 📌 simple & easy child development essay titles, 💡 most interesting child development topics to write about, ✍️ child development essay topics for college, ❓ child development essay questions, ✅ argumentative essay topics about child development, 🔥 child psychology essay topics, 🤩 child development topics to write about: benefits.

• Emotional Regulation in Adolescence
• Types of Play in Child Development
• Attachment Theory and Its Effects
• Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
• Socialization’s Impact on Child Development
• Cross-Cultural Influences on Child Development
• Language Development from Babbling to First Words
• Parenting Styles’ Influence on Child Behavior
• Motor Skills Development: Fine and Gross Milestones
• The Impact of Prolonged Screen Time on a Child
• Parents’ Influence on a Child Essay: How Parents Affect Behavior and Development Education level of the parents If the parents are well educated, they ought to understand the importance of education and will encourage their child to study better and up to high levels.
• Compare and Contrast Child Developmental Theories The source of the drive is peculiar to each stage and is called the erogenous zone and shifts with time. The ego is the seat of intelligence and rationality since it checks and controls the […]
• External and Internal Factors of Child Development Therefore, it is of vital importance to raise awareness of the influence that various factors have on child behaviour and study the role of behavioural theories and childcare educators.
• Importance of Play in a Child’s Social Development Towards Adulthood Childhood friends give children more than just a playmate, learning to make friends and maintaining them are crucial aspects of a child’s development skills that help them not only in their personal lives but also […]
• Child Development: What are the Influencing Factors? It is therefore very important for parents to prepare themselves for the arrival of the newborn in the family irrespective of the cost they may incur.
• A Child’s Developmental Milestones To understand developmental issues, one must first review the goals that need to be achieved by a child at a certain age.
• A Child’s Developmental History and Assessment The question of why it is important is answered comprehensively by pediatric perspectives concerning the same, that, the value of a child’s early milestones serves as a prognostic parameter and provides a viewpoint of how […]
• Child Development Observation and Self-Reflection She has a nanny to care for her in the absence of her parents, and her maternal grandparents also visit and stay with her most of the week.
• Child Development: Humanism and Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy One of the most prominent advocates of the humanistic theory was Maslow who introduced a hierarchy of human needs and motivations.
• Theoretical Perspectives in Relation to the Child Developmental Areas In the early years, the baby’s brain is developing rapidly, resulting in a significant improvement in cognitive abilities.
• Early Childhood Development: Teacher’s Responsibilities Moreover, the teacher should motivate students to be tolerant towards opinions of others. In addition, the teacher is responsible for social and emotional development of the students.
• The Impact of Ecological Factors on Child Development In the process of child development, there are various factors that determine the cognitive and psychological development of an individual. In the process of development, there are various factors that determine the rate of development […]
• Child’s Emotional Development in Caillou TV Show The main conclusion of the article is as follows: it is critical to make an effort to establish secure attachment between parents and children in order to avoid the development of RAD.
• Children Development List of the possible exercises aimed at developing reading and writing in different age groups Therefore, it may be concluded that language skills, reading and writing development differ greatly at various stages of children development. […]
• Child Behaviour Development With the emotional attachment, the child is likely to take up behaviour of the person whom he is emotionally connected. For example, id the child is attached to the mother, he is likely to have […]
• Conservation and Child’s Cognitive Development The water in one of the glasses was poured into a thinner and longer glass and the children were then asked to point out which contained a larger volume than the other.
• Development Theories in Child Development According to the theory, the mental representation of the initial mother-child relationship is stored in one’s memory and serves as a filter in all future relationships that the child has.
• Middle Childhood and Adolescent Development Given the environment that surrounds them, their ideologies, and their characters, adolescents usually face a number of pressures in the process of development and transition into adulthood.
• Bullying and Child Development Bullying is one of the common vices in schools that influences a lot of growth and development of children. Bullying also affects the ability of children to concentrate in school because they are always on […]
• Social Development in Children It is based on this that it can be seen that instilling proper social-emotional learning early on in a child’s life is of paramount importance in ensuring that they develop the necessary social and emotional […]
• Poverty Effects on Child Development and Schooling To help children from low-income families cope with poverty, interventions touching in the child’s development and educational outcomes are essential. Those programs campaign against the effects of poverty among children by providing basic nutritional, academic, […]
• Children’s Growth and Development It means that along with the evolution of muscles, systems, and parts of the body, a young person acquires new thinking patterns that will be critical in the future.”During middle and late childhood children make […]
• Child Development: A Letter to the Parents The process of identification of the knowledge, skills, and abilities of a child according to the required minimum and norms correlates to the evaluation of the student’s readiness.
• Impact of Operant Conditioning on Child Development Operant conditioning plays a role in behavior therapy strategy that enables the use of reinforcements to teach children with the syndrome socially favored behaviors.
• Single Parent and Child Language Development The first-born child in a family is more likely to have a higher chance of better language development than the remaining children that follow him.
• The Toilet Training Process in Child Development A parent, especially the mother is the initial and most important educator of a child and thus must have acquired the qualities and knowledge necessary for the upbringing of a child.
• A Child and Society; the Role of the Society in Enhancing Sustainable Development Through Childhood Education As Dewey indicates, this is the only way children can heighten their intellectual and reasoning abilities to become adults with a good moral standing or persons who can understand and address the needs of the […]
• Environmental Psychology: The Impact of Interior Spaces on Childhood Development Nevertheless, with regards to children and their physical and cognitive development, environmental psychology addresses how experiences and exposures to various socio-environmental components affect children’s brain structure and their ability to control their emotions and behaviors.
• Child Development in Toddlerhood During the age of 1-3yrs;toddler, much growth is achieved and great changes also take place, the child also have opinions and can solve problems and important of all is that the child learns to be […]
• Child Development as a Continuous Process This research will explore the concept of child development basing the arguments on the thesis that, experiences children engage in early life and the environments they are exposed to become vital in shaping their brains […]
• Child Development: Non-Directive Play Therapy Children choose the play location and toys during the non-directive play therapy session. Non-directive play therapy gives children the autonomy to choose the activities they wish to engage in, allowing the therapist to identify the […]
• Child Development Under Informal Observation It is useful to observe the behavior in natural conditions when a person is not aware of being an observation object.
• Drawing Ability Development as a Reflection of the Overall Psychological Development of a Child I pertain to the second group which is the first peculiarity of my drawing abilities development. In conclusion, it is possible to point out that my drawing ability development proves the major theories of child’s […]
• Family Influences on the Development of a Child’s Behavior Objectives of the study: The general aim of the study is to determine how the organization of the family has a direct effect on the development of the child’s behavior.
• Early Childhood Development: Implementing Cognitive, Behavioral, and Social Theories Child development theories explain the ways children grow and change, providing a framework for learning strategies.
• Family and Child Development Milestones Peter is the decision-maker and plays the role of the primary breadwinner. Cathy is the person who looks after the health of the children and family members.
• Child’s Cognitive and Socio-Emotional Development She is able to recognize the voice of the caregiver in the midst of other sounds in the room. She is very eager to respond to every sound that the caregiver makes and the composure […]
• Jean Piaget’s Theory of Child Development The website also describes Piaget’s four stages of child development. The website also explains why Piaget managed to present the best ideas and arguments.
• Comparison of Preschool and Middle School Child Development In this context, the child interpersonal and communication skills are not typical to that of five year old preschooler. From this perspective, the child ability in relating to ideas and problems is evidenced by attentiveness […]
• Child Development Field Observation The project seeks to make an observation of four-year-old and a seven-year-old child to unveil the conformance of the widely anticipated developments at the stages with the actual field observations.
• Effects of TV and Other Medias on Child Development The study will therefore highlight some of the effects that accompany the use of televisions and other forms of media in homes and other areas of resident.
• Understanding Child Developmental Milestones The appearance of the child in the family is a joyful event, which, however, is continuously accompanied by the excitement of parents about the normality of the child’s development.
• Developmental Delay in the Child Development. According to Kail, he says that the age related term are; the newborn that are the age of zero to one month, the infant who are the age of one month to one year, the […]
• Jean Piaget’s Child Development Theory The framework provides a detailed description of the processes associated with the development of specific knowledge in children and relies heavily on the importance of sensory experiences.
• Effects of Domestic Violence on Children’s Social and Emotional Development In the case of wife-husband violence, always, one parent will be the offender and the other one the victim; in an ideal situation, a child needs the love of a both parents. When brought up […]
• Temperament in Child Development Early socialization of caregivers and their children and especially the use of the affective tone in these relationships have a very profound effect on the child’s developmental process.
• Piaget’s Child Development Theory Piaget’s theoretical framework serves as the tool for developing a better understanding of how children acquire knowledge and skills.
• Group Toy Project: Children Development Parents and educators should use special tools like books and toys to enhance the cognitive and linguistic development of children.
• Oral Language Development and Child’s Interactions In conclusion, it is necessary to note that oral language development has a significant effect on the way children interact with peers and adults.
• Neuroscience and Child Development – Psychology In this regard, the adoption of neuroscience findings in the development of new childhood theories and policies could lead to enhanced interventions for improved life outcomes.
• Environmental Influences on Child Development in “Mulan” Movie To achieve the stated objective, the paper will review two articles based on the topic to highlight the role of the environment in the development of a child.
• The Essential Needs for Child Development The family setting should offer a comfortable and relaxing environment to the child; this will grow the self-esteem of the child.
• Childhood Development: Language and Non-Verbal Cognitive Abilities The consensus is that a healthy meal routine provides children with important nutrition and energy to support their growth and development.
• Child and Adolescent Development in Classroom: Article Analysis Lastly, Bergin looks at the role of symbolic thinking in the development of adolescents, as it permits them to create a personal narrative to make sense of their experiences and to form a better understanding […]
• COVID-19 & Early Childhood Cognitive Development Children who play and have the opportunity to completely involve themselves in their activities grow more intelligent and sophisticated. Both attention span and memory abilities are improved when children have the chance to play for […]
• Child Development in Classroom: Chronological Approach The key ideas in the chapter are the different stages in which children develop, and how we can create effective, mental developing and appropriate classrooms that are involved in all the stages of a child’s […]
• How Children Learn Deception: Developmental Science The number of children that participated in the study was 84, and the proportion of boys to girls was almost equal.
• ADHD and Its Effects on the Development of a Child In particular, this research study’s focus is the investigation of the impact of household chaos on the development and behavior of children with ADHD.
• How Divorce Influences Children’s Social Development The purpose of the “Parental divorce is associated with an increased risk to develop mental disorders in women” study by Schaan, Schulz, Schachinger, and Vogele was to determine whether mental health issues are more prevalent […]
• Children’s Developmental Stages It will help children to deepen their social abilities and shift the center towards learning through the comfortable surrounding of peers.
• Early Childhood Development: Fostering Cognitive Growth Sleep and nutrition are integral to a child’s cognitive growth. Caregivers should therefore regulate screen time to ensure nutrition and sleep Sleep is a vital factor affecting a child’s cognitive and language development.
• The Development of a Child’s Brain The basic physiological and physical skills that a child should have by school age include the ability to control impulses, concentrate, and the development of gross and fine motor skills.
• Chapters 8-9 of “Child and Adolescent Development…” by Bergin & Crosbergin According to the book, children tend to comprehend the need to control their emotions when they are young, starting to show signs of self-awareness in response to their environment.
• Child Growth and Development Observation Because it may seem a simple chore, the observer was struck by how difficult it was for the youngster to grip scissors and how hard she struggled.
• Physical Activities for Children’s Development The most significant learning issue in the chapter is how physical development can affect the learning ability and mental development of kids.
• Piaget’s Theory of Children’s Cognitive Development The biggest lesson from this theory is that the mind is fluid and develops as it engages with its surroundings. The most interesting thing about this theory and prior knowledge is the environment’s role in […]
• Children’s Cognitive Development Areas Knowledge and problem-solving are aspects of cognitive development that help children think and understand the world around them. They are the basis of all the skills of reading, writing, and solving problems that children will […]
• Nurse’s Advice on a Child’s Developmental Markers A generally good practice is to go over the infant’s feeding routine and schedule, also inquiring about breastfeeding. Providing proper nutrition and care for the child is crucial to maintaining general health and well-being.
• Children’s Development and Its Main Stages Deductive reasoning, according to Piaget, is part of the finalized stage of intellectual development. An imaginary audience is a psychological idea familiar to the teenage stage of human development.
• Instagram Influence on Child Development The current paper studies the impact of Instagram on brain functioning and physical and social development. Social media are used as a tool in the struggle for popularity, and children consider the number of subscribers […]
• The Influence of Improper Nutrition on Children’s Development The main recommendations that can be given to parents include proper nutrition, physical activity, and the establishment of a regime for the child.
• Diet Quality and Late Childhood Development The analytics of the children with low diet quality brain functioning shows the regression leading to the mental health deviation. Thus, the dieting quality is an essential factor in developing the physical and psychological health […]
• Child Development and Interest in Human Faces Particular attention is paid to the juxtaposition of visual and auditory information: for example, by 4 months of age, infants can associate the speaker’s voice with the speaker’s face. Its changes are related to the […]
• Gender Identity Reflection: Child and Adolescent Development Gender stereotyping kicks in when they can tell the difference between the toys that are supposed to be for girls and boys. In my opinion, their gender stereotyping is solid at this point, and they […]
• The Impact of “Quality” in Children’s Development Typically, quality is the underlying indicator of the level of success in the development of the child evaluated against cognition, the ability of the child to communicate using language appropriately, the ability of the child […]
• Child Development and Family Resources This essay sets to examine the lifestyle of Paul, a character in the short story “Paul’s Case” and how some environmental issues impact on his development; explaining the pro and counter arguments espoused by various […]
• Developmental Observations Middle School Aged Child Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model of Child Development presupposes the analysis of the development in the context of the environmental factors and, in order to undermine any likelihood of misunderstanding, only the environment, where a child spends […]
• Child Development: Psychological Factors and Theories However, the contribution of the psychodynamic theories in the general awareness of the child development stages and processes and their scope for practical and scientific application make these preferable to other theories.
• Literature for Children’s Development This biography gives children a chance to understand the roots and background of their country, how it fought for independence, and the men who sacrificed their lives for the sake of the country. The book […]
• A Child’s Psychological Development It also contains an analysis of a research paper on the development of children and their reaction to fear and how to handle the emotions involved.
• Childhood Development: Naturalistic Assessment The five year old child in the school going age group was free and interactive with the rest of the peers.
• Childhood Development and Cardiovascular Disease Cardiovascular diseases are not as prevalent among children as they are among adults; however, a number of factors that children are exposed to during their development predispose them to the diseases in adulthood.
• “Stakeholder Engagement in the Department” Department of Education and Early Childhood Development The practice will benefit both the organization and its stakeholders. The stakeholders will also ensure their organization is on the right track.
• The Use of Sleephormone in Children With Neuro-Developmental Disorders For the better management of the data that are planned to be retrieved from the clinical trial procedures, the following list of the definitions and acronyms used in the trial process is given.
• The Challenges of Teen Parenting: Socioeconomic Consequences and Child Development Risks This paper aims to evaluate the risks associated with teen parenting to determine whether they have a significant impact on the quality of life of parents and children.
• Socioeconomic Status and Child Development In the article on socioeconomic status and child development, the concept of emotional behavior disorders is obvious. The author further expounds that emotional behavior disorder to the children of low socioeconomic status originates right from […]
• Child Development: Comprehensive Multidisciplinary Assessment Next, the problem-solving model as the basis for the design of the assessment should be viewed as the most important element of the multidisciplinary assessment.
• Child Development and Evolutionary Psychology Judging from the point of view of fitness the authors analyze the evolved psychological mechanisms in the perspective of their adaptivity, apply functional analysis to it, and deal with such mechanisms as pregnancy-related sickness.
• The Process of a Prenatal Child’s Development A zygote is developed as a result of the fusion of two sex cells the sperm and ovum. The basic element of a chromosome is DNA and gene is the major component of the DNA.
• Stages of Biological Child Development Recent studies were discussed with the help of information processing, Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory, which discuss the influence of the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and an ever-changing system in […]
• Effects of Augmentin Maternal Income on Child Development Standardization of achievement/cognitive and behavioral outcomes could have gone a long way towards the reliability of the meta-analysis were it not for the fact that the five programs employed a varying range of survey instruments: […]
• Child Development in Non-Western Cultures In the LANCY DAVID book, the main theme regards how the modern westerners perceive and handle their children in a different way compared to the annals of culture.
• Children’s Development in Five Year Old The last reason for the unusual nature of Carlos as compared to other five year olds is the child’s underdeveloped thinking skills.
• Children’s Needs, Development, and Assessment This paper will explain how physical examination needs to be adjusted to better meet the needs of children between the ages of five and 12 and describe the case of a child patient in relation […]
• Books for Children’s Cognitive & Language Development Every animal has a dissimilar sound that happens to be a part of the peek-a-boo game: Guess who? “Peek-a-moo!” says the cow.”Peek-a-squeak!” says the mouse.
• Children’s Emotional Development and Media Influence The emotional development of a person is one of the fundamental aspects of human growth as it impacts his/her life, relations with other people, and the ability to cooperate with peers or colleagues.
• Child Development From Birth to Eight Years Old The evaluation of information will help to highlight the main ideas proposed by the author and assess the importance of the study from the point of view of everyday life and the upbringing of children […]
• Child-Rearing Styles and Effects on Development In the country of the rising sun, the symbolic type of upbringing through games is encouraged when children are taught the interactive ways of studying the world.
• Child Development Web, ThinkersBox, and Parents Action Resources What is more, the information presented touches upon the topics that are the most significant for parents: the stages of development of a child and signs that may indicate various problems related to the mental […]
• Parenting, Child Development, and Socialization Relationships in the family, as it is known, are formed largely due to the participation of parents and their desire to lay the foundations of morality and social values in the process of raising children.
• 3-Year-Old Child’s Behavior and Development His smile talks about the kind and appropriate treatment of his mother to him. He understands the talks of other people and responds to the questions while watching TV.
• Child-At-Risk’s Developmental Assessment Thus, it is difficult to see the establishment of unhealthy relationships that are causing tremendous harm to the child’s social, physical, and emotional development.
• Authentic Arts Education for Child Development This is also a good opportunity to make children revise material and try to look at it from different perspectives, which is one of the major aims of authentic arts education, and education on the […]
• Child Development in the Ecological Context It is stated that the number and the quality of different connections play the significant role and determine children’s success or failure, and contradictions between two systems are likely to confuse a child.
• Middle Childhood and Adolescence Development Children and adolescents need to be accepted by the peers, and the positive relations in groups contribute to increasing the children’s self-esteem and self-confidence.
• Deaf Child Development Specialist’s Portfolio The most important thing that I have learned in the area of the development of infants, toddlers, and young children with varied hearing abilities is that initial hearing screening is the first step in a […]
• Barbie Dolls in Child Development and Society Formation Thus, it is easy to understand that the Barbie doll is a symbol not only of what a perfect toy should be but of how to become a woman, Kuther and McDonald would reiterate.
• Child Upbringing and Communication Skills Development The issues I want to analyze are related to the impact of upbringing on children’s comprehension of the reality and the development of their communication skills.
• Saudi Arabian Children’s Behaviour and Language Development The choice was quite correct as I had a set of questions and I could see the reaction to this or that question, which enabled me to adjust my enquiry and maintain the friendly atmosphere.
• Villamar Child Development Center The mission of the center is to offer a child-focused educational system in a safe, secure, serene, and friendly environment that prepares the children for after preschool endeavors and that endears them to the learning […]
• Child Learning Factors: Brain Development and Culture The presented materials discuss the impact of the brain on child development and learning, but they also indicate the reciprocal nature of this relationship.
• Domestic Violence and Child’s Brain Development The video “First Impressions: Exposure to Violence and a Child’s Developing Brain” answers some questions of the dependence of exposure to domestic violence and the development of brain structures of children. At the beginning of […]
• Exploring Lifespan Development: Child Perspectives Mesman, van Ijzendoorn, and Bakermans-Kranenburg are the authors of the article about parental sensitivity and its role in the establishment of family relationships and child development.
• Child Development Observation: Alfred Huang’ Case In this report, the author is going to document the findings of an observation conducted on a child from a Cantonese background.
• Working Mothers and Child Development Although most mothers who participated in full-time employment showed a high degree of sensitivity to their children, it is evident that they failed to provide ample care to their children because of depression. According to […]
• Nursery and Non-Nursery Children’s Development The purpose of the project is to analyze if there are positive effects among the children going to nursery. This will be imperative because the information obtained can be used to inform the parents and […]
• Children’s Lexical Development Mechanisms Language learning is one of the most powerful factors and incentives in the development of the child, the child discovers the access to all the achievements of human culture, forms the identity of the person […]
• Concept of the Children Developmental Assessment The choice of the most accurate tool for use in the assessment process depends on the developmental components evaluated, as well as on the age of the child.
• Autistic Children Behavior in Developmental Context The time that the therapist and the patient spent working was not enough to encourage the child to express his emotions freely.
• Child Development Research Issues Despite the fact that other children in the school frequently complains about this behavior, and in spite of the fact that the teacher has taken time to talk to the African child about this behavior, […]
• Psychological Complications in a Child He did things by impulse and at his own pleasure as opposed to what was expected of him at the preschool.
• Deaf Children’s Education and Social Skills Development The topic of special education interventions is of crucial importance due to the fact that children with HI commonly have additional trouble developing their social skills, perhaps due to the lack of early exposure to […]
• Child Development and Its Age Characteristics The participants of the interview were the members of one family. The aim of the project was to compare the age peculiarities of the children and differences in their development.
• Child Development and Socialization Recognition and cognitive processing of information is learned through participation in various activities, and the more social interaction there is, the better a child will adjust to the environment.
• Child Development: Social Categories and Gender Closely related to the above findings are the works of Banaji & Gelman which investigated the influence of social categories for induction change by analysing the behaviours of children aged between three and six years […]
• Young Child’s Language and Literacy Development In addition, a work of literature on any social issue may influence how children respond to the demands of their learning environments. Taken together, the growing importance of literature in learning and children’s linguistic development […]
• Child Development and Education It is also acknowledged that children need specific support of their close ones and they expect a parent to devote him/herself to their needs.
• John Locke vs. Gottfried Leibniz: Child Development Views In this light, the nature aspect refers to the genetic and hereditary elements that determine the traits of an individual. The following is a debate between Locke and Leibniz on the background of the nature […]
• Integrated Spaces for Children Development It should be easy for the parents and guardians to easily monitor the activities going in the facility as a way of getting an assurance that their young children are in safe hands.
• Childhood Developmental Stages in Psychology Social Development of this skill means that a child is capable of interacting with people and understanding the meaning of relationships.
• Family Formation and Child Development The shift in the role of women from a homemaker to a wage earner has contributed to raising socially exclusive and emotionally detached children in the society since they spend less time with their children.
• Birth Complications and Child Development This paper incorporates the aforementioned factors to discuss the normative development of a baby by examining the typical changes that are believed to alter the early experiences of a child.
• How Effective Teachers Support the Youngest Children’s Literacy Development? The effective teachers should be aware of the most common issues the youngest learners may face and understand the methods to address the issues.
• Parents’ Involvement and Factors Important for Children’s Growth and Development The concentration on the elements which should be associated with the start of the children’s life is essential because each parent should choose the ideal combination of factors to provide a child with the harmonious […]
• How Poverty Affects Children Development? The fact is that as much as it is the responsibility of parents and guardians to ensure that children get their needs, the inability of the parents and guardians to provide these basic needs to […]
• Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Development In cases where children are exposed to such violence, then they become emotionally troubled: In the above, case them the dependent variable is children emotions while the independent variable is domestic violence: Emotions = f […]
• Early Childhood Education and Development in the US According to the early childhood care and education unit of the UNESCO, early childhood refers to the first eight years of a child.
• Childhood and Development This study as it would be when learning a real language; will offer an opportunity to learn the effects of experiencing exemplars in implicit knowledge and teaching of the rules of artificial grammar common in […]
• Child Development Major Issues From Birth to 12 Years Of the eight stages identified by Erickson, four of them account for personality development for the first 12 years of existence, highlighting the significance of the psychology of child development.
• Socio- Affective Characteristics and Personalogical Development of the Gifted Child It archives this through looking at the socio- affective characteristics and personalogical development of the gifted child, and how they interact to assist or hinder the development of talents by the gifted children.
• Child Psychology Development The reason is because, this data are consistent with the intuition model of judgments and that such subjects generated a pattern of moral judgments that was considered to be parallel with intuition principles.
• “Nature” Versus “Nurture”: Effects on Child Development Consequently, a child’s behavior cannot be viewed as solely attributable to the genetic composition of the parents and the hereditary characteristics.
• Child Development in a Bi-Racial Family There are several aspects involved in development of children in bi-racial family due to the impact of culture and history of the family.
• Children’s Personal and Social Development The theorists argue that the outcomes of kids’ development come because of the incessant dynamic interplay amid the environmental variables, the caregivers’ response and the children behaviours which might influence both the caregiver and the […]
• Supporting Children’s Care Learning and Development For this reason, he is in the best position to inform the teacher and the teaching assistant some peculiar behavior of the child or some important information that would help the teacher and the teaching […]
• “Farm Girl” and Child Development The style of the essay is rather interesting and compelling, as it describes the life of a small girl but is written by an adult.
• Maternal Depressive Symptoms Timing: Child Cognitive Development The early environment, a child is exposed to, especially the maternal care environment influences the brain and affects the cognitive functioning of the child.
• Theory of Child Development Some of these behaviors include the cry of a child due to hunger or cold; the cry alerts the mother who responds to the infant’s distress.
• Child and Adolescent Development: Love, Hate, and Reparation Love, hate and reparation: the fundamentals Of course, it is obvious that love seems to be a good feeling or an emotional response.
• Intervention Strategies in Children Development The main aspect engrained in the process of intervention is based on the fact that to intervene is to enter into an existing system, with a structured and planned activity, directed at a targeted person, […]
• Childhood Development and Sexual Behavior The infantile sexual stage of a child is marked by tender curiosity and inquisitiveness about the uniqueness of their bodily physique, the wonder of noticing the sexual difference between males and females in the social […]
• Socialization Skills Role in the Child Development When he was done, I observed the three shapes that he had made; two of them looked like two people but I could not identify the last one so I decided to ask him what […]
• The Neo-Vygotskian Approach to Child Development The Neo-Vygotskian approach to child development is positive stratagems of education, which are resource-oriented and presents the society with the view of the child as an empowered individual with a will, apparent ability, and unique […]
• How Can Adoption Affect a Child’s Development?
• Does Child Care Availability Play a Role in Maternal Employment and Children’s Development?
• How Do Animals Benefit Child Development?
• Does Child Development Matter if It Occurs at a Home or a Daycare Center?
• How Does Art Affect Child Development?
• Does Early Child Care Affect Children’s Development?
• How Can Transitions Affect a Child Development?
• Does Early Child Care Attendance Influence Children’s Cognitive and Non-cognitive Skill Development?
• How Do Classroom Environments Affect Child Development?
• Does Early Child Care Help or Hurt Children’s Development?
• How Do Developmental Psychologists Think About Family Process and Child Development in Low-Income Families?
• Does Early Maternal Employment Harm Child Development?
• How Can Disability Effect Child Development?
• Does Maternal Involvement Harm Child Development?
• How Does Autism Affect the Development of a Child?
• Does the Environment Have a Positive, Negative, or Any Effect at All on Child Development?
• How Does Early Childhood Attachment Affect Child Development?
• What Are the Three Stages of Child Development?
• How Does Media Affect a Child’s Development?
• How Do Family Dynamics Affect the Growth of a Child?
• What Contribution Did Jean Piaget Make to the Understanding of Child Development?
• How Does Parenting Styles Influence a Child’s Development?
• Why Playing Is an Important Part of Development in Child?
• How Does Stress Affect Child Development?
• Why Do Psychologists Conduct Research on Child Development?
• How Can Drugs Affect the Health and Physical Development of a Child?
• Does Social Inequality Affect Child Development?
• How Do Genetics Affect Child Development?
• Does Excess Television Viewing Affect Child Development?
• How Can Sexual Child Abuse Effect the Child’s Psychological Development?
• Coping Mechanisms for Children during a Divorce
• Cognitive Advantages of Growing up Multilingual
• Gender-Neutral Perspectives on Child Development
• The Importance of Outdoor Play in Children’s Health
• Adverse Effects of Childhood Trauma on Brain Development
• The Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Child Development
• Genetic Predisposition vs. Environmental Factors in Child Development
• The Impact of Early Childhood Education on Cognitive and Social Development
• How different Parenting Styles Influence Children’s Emotional Intelligence
• How Early Intervention Programs Promote Positive Child Development Outcomes
• Understanding Child-Parent Relationships through Attachment Theory
• How Early Childhood Experiences Impact Emotional Development
• Effective Treatment Approaches for Child Anxiety and Depression
• Applications of Play Therapy in Child Psychology
• Five Perspectives of Children’s Development Child development is the process that continues from the child’s birth to early adulthood and includes the formation of the human psyche in general.
• The Influence of Peer Relationships on Social Development in Children
• Language Development in Infants and Toddlers
• Bullying and its Psychological Effects on Children
• The Effects of Technology on Child Development
• Implications Nature and Nurture on Child Temperament
• The Role of Play in Supporting Children’s Emotional Growth

Here’s what makes our essay topics list stand out:

• Lifespan Development Essay Titles
• Attachment Theory Essay Topics
• Moral Development Essay Topics
• Personality Development Ideas
• Adolescence Questions
• Down Syndrome Topics
• Childhood Obesity Research Ideas
• Infant Research Topics
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 23). 230 Child Development Essay Topics & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/child-development-essay-topics/

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Child Growth and Development

(13 reviews)

Jennifer Paris

Antoinette Ricardo

Dawn Rymond

Alexa Johnson

Copyright Year: 2018

Last Update: 2019

Publisher: College of the Canyons

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Joanne Leary, adjunct faculty, North Shore Community College on 6/9/24

Child Growth and Development is a text that can be seamlessly used to accompany any Child Development Course Pre-birth through Adolescence. The material lays the foundation for understanding development along with the many theorists that paved... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Child Growth and Development is a text that can be seamlessly used to accompany any Child Development Course Pre-birth through Adolescence. The material lays the foundation for understanding development along with the many theorists that paved the way to notice how genetics, environment, culture, family and experience impact growth and development.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

This text has an emphasis on object and sound development and best practices to support development.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Content includes the latest research and best practices in the field. It gives the reader a sense of what is current in the field and notices current trends.

Clarity rating: 5

The Chapters begin with objectives and an introduction and end with a conclusion of key concepts addressed. Within the Chapters are found material bringing the theory and best practice to life.

Consistency rating: 5

The Chapters begin with objectives and an introduction and end with a conclusion of key concepts addressed. Physical Development, Cognitive Development and Social Emotional Development are covered in-depth for each age group. The format becomes predictable and familiar as the Chapters are read.

Modularity rating: 5

Each Chapter follows a familiar pattern. Each developmental domain within each age category has easy to follow information. The book also includes mini-lectures and powerpoint presentations to support the reading material.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The early Chapters are outlined to give background information about the history of Child Development and factors effecting the family before birth. From Chapter 3 through the remainder of the text attention is given chronologically to each age group and developmental domain within each age category through Adolescence.

Interface rating: 5

The organization of the text is both linear and spiraling. Material covered in one Chapter is often seen again in later Chapters with more in-depth information.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

Throughout the text an effort is clearly made to limit educational jargon and keep the language accessible to all readers.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The Chapters include relevant information about current topics, resources and pictures representing the diverse backgrounds of children and families that are in our classrooms and communities.

Child Growth and Development is a text that can be seamlessly used to accompany any Child Development Course Pre-birth through Adolescence. The material lays the foundation for understanding development along with the many theorists that paved the way to notice how genetics, environment, culture, family and experience impact growth and development. The organization of the text is both linear and spiraling. The early Chapters are outlined to give background information about the history of Child Development and factors effecting the family before birth. From Chapter 3 through the remainder of the text attention is given chronologically to each age group and developmental domain within each age category through Adolescence. Physical Development, Cognitive Development and Social Emotional Development are covered in-depth for each age group. The Chapters begin with objectives and an introduction and end with a conclusion of key concepts addressed. Each Chapters also include relevant information about current topics, resources and pictures representing the diverse backgrounds of children and families that are in our classrooms and communities.

Reviewed by Mistie Potts, Assistant Professor, Manchester University on 11/22/22

This text covers some topics with more detail than necessary (e.g., detailing infant urination) yet it lacks comprehensiveness in a few areas that may need revision. For example, the text discusses issues with vaccines and offers a 2018 vaccine... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This text covers some topics with more detail than necessary (e.g., detailing infant urination) yet it lacks comprehensiveness in a few areas that may need revision. For example, the text discusses issues with vaccines and offers a 2018 vaccine schedule for infants. The text brushes over “commonly circulated concerns” regarding vaccines and dispels these with statements about the small number of antigens a body receives through vaccines versus the numerous antigens the body normally encounters. With changes in vaccines currently offered, shifting CDC viewpoints on recommendations, and changing requirements for vaccine regulations among vaccine producers, the authors will need to revisit this information to comprehensively address all recommended vaccines, potential risks, and side effects among other topics in the current zeitgeist of our world.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

At face level, the content shared within this book appears accurate. It would be a great task to individually check each in-text citation and determine relevance, credibility and accuracy. It is notable that many of the citations, although this text was updated in 2019, remain outdated. Authors could update many of the in-text citations for current references. For example, multiple in-text citations refer to the March of Dimes and many are dated from 2012 or 2015. To increase content accuracy, authors should consider revisiting their content and current citations to determine if these continue to be the most relevant sources or if revisions are necessary. Finally, readers could benefit from a reference list in this textbook. With multiple in-text citations throughout the book, it is surprising no reference list is provided.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

This text would be ideal for an introduction to child development course and could possibly be used in a high school dual credit or beginning undergraduate course or certificate program such as a CDA. The outdated citations and formatting in APA 6th edition cry out for updating. Putting those aside, the content provides a solid base for learners interested in pursuing educational domains/careers relevant to child development. Certain issues (i.e., romantic relationships in adolescence, sexual orientation, and vaccination) may need to be revisited and updated, or instructors using this text will need to include supplemental information to provide students with current research findings and changes in these areas.

Clarity rating: 4

The text reads like an encyclopedia entry. It provides bold print headers and brief definitions with a few examples. Sprinkled throughout the text are helpful photographs with captions describing the images. The words chosen in the text are relatable to most high school or undergraduate level readers and do not burden the reader with expert level academic vocabulary. The layout of the text and images is simple and repetitive with photographs complementing the text entries. This allows the reader to focus their concentration on comprehension rather than deciphering a more confusing format. An index where readers could go back and search for certain terms within the textbook would be helpful. Additionally, a glossary of key terms would add clarity to this textbook.

Chapters appear in a similar layout throughout the textbook. The reader can anticipate the flow of the text and easily identify important terms. Authors utilized familiar headings in each chapter providing consistency to the reader.

Modularity rating: 4

Given the repetitive structure and the layout of the topics by developmental issues (physical, social emotional) the book could be divided into sections or modules. It would be easier if infancy and fetal development were more clearly distinct and stages of infant development more clearly defined, however the book could still be approached in sections or modules.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The text is organized in a logical way when we consider our own developmental trajectories. For this reason, readers learning about these topics can easily relate to the flow of topics as they are presented throughout the book. However, when attempting to find certain topics, the reader must consider what part of development that topic may inhabit and then turn to the portion of the book aligned with that developmental issue. To ease the organization and improve readability as a reference book, authors could implement an index in the back of the book. With an index by topic, readers could quickly turn to pages covering specific topics of interest. Additionally, the text structure could be improved by providing some guiding questions or reflection prompts for readers. This would provide signals for readers to stop and think about their comprehension of the material and would also benefit instructors using this textbook in classroom settings.

Interface rating: 4

The online interface for this textbook did not hinder readability or comprehension of the text. All information including photographs, charts, and diagrams appeared to be clearly depicted within this interface. To ease reading this text online authors should create a live table of contents with bookmarks to the beginning of chapters. This book does not offer such links and therefore the reader must scroll through the pdf to find each chapter or topic.

No grammatical errors were found in reviewing this textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

Cultural diversity is represented throughout this text by way of the topics described and the images selected. The authors provide various perspectives that individuals or groups from multiple cultures may resonate with including parenting styles, developmental trajectories, sexuality, approaches to feeding infants, and the social emotional development of children. This text could expand in the realm of cultural diversity by addressing current issues regarding many of the hot topics in our society. Additionally, this textbook could include other types of cultural diversity aside from geographical location (e.g., religion-based or ability-based differences).

While this text lacks some of the features I would appreciate as an instructor (e.g., study guides, review questions, prompts for critical thinking/reflection) and it does not contain an index or glossary, it would be appropriate as an accessible resource for an introduction to child development. Students could easily access this text and find reliable and easily readable information to build basic content knowledge in this domain.

Reviewed by Caroline Taylor, Instructor, Virginia Tech on 12/30/21

Each chapter is comprehensively described and organized by the period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped together, they are logically organized and discussed within each chapter. One helpful addition that would largely... read more

Each chapter is comprehensively described and organized by the period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped together, they are logically organized and discussed within each chapter. One helpful addition that would largely contribute to the comprehensiveness is a glossary of terms at the end of the text.

From my reading, the content is accurate and unbiased. However, it is difficult to confidently respond due to a lack of references. It is sometimes clear where the information came from, but when I followed one link to a citation the link was to another textbook. There are many citations embedded within the text, but it would be beneficial (and helpful for further reading) to have a list of references at the end of each chapter. The references used within the text are also older, so implementing updated references would also enhance accuracy. If used for a course, instructors will need to supplement the textbook readings with other materials.

This text can be implemented for many semesters to come, though as previously discussed, further readings and updated materials can be used to supplement this text. It provides a good foundation for students to read prior to lectures.

This text is unique in its writing style for a textbook. It is written in a way that is easily accessible to students and is also engaging. The text doesn't overly use jargon or provide complex, long-winded examples. The examples used are clear and concise. Many key terms are in bold which is helpful to the reader.

For the terms that are in bold, it would be helpful to have a definition of the term listed separately on the page within the side margins, as well as include the definition in a glossary at the end.

Each period of development is consistently described by first addressing physical development, cognitive development, and then social-emotional development.

This text is easily divisible to assign to students. There were few (if any) large blocks of texts without subheadings, graphs, or images. This feature not only improves modularity but also promotes engagement with the reading.

The organization of the text flows logically. I appreciate the order of the topics, which are clearly described in the first chapter by each period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped into one period of development, development is appropriately described for both infants and toddlers. Key theories are discussed for infants and toddlers and clearly presented for the appropriate age.

There were no significant interface issues. No images or charts were distorted.

It would be helpful to the reader if the table of contents included a navigation option, but this doesn't detract from the overall interface.

I did not see any grammatical errors.

This text includes some cultural examples across each area of development, such as differences in first words, parenting styles, personalities, and attachments styles (to list a few). The photos included throughout the text are inclusive of various family styles, races, and ethnicities. This text could implement more cultural components, but does include some cultural examples. Again, instructors can supplement more cultural examples to bolster the reading.

This text is a great introductory text for students. The text is written in a fun, approachable way for students. Though the text is not as interactive (e.g., further reading suggestions, list of references, discussion points at the end of each chapter, etc.), this is a great resource to cover development that is open access.

Reviewed by Charlotte Wilinsky, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Holyoke Community College on 6/29/21

This text is very thorough in its coverage of child and adolescent development. Important theories and frameworks in developmental psychology are discussed in appropriate depth. There is no glossary of terms at the end of the text, but I do not... read more

This text is very thorough in its coverage of child and adolescent development. Important theories and frameworks in developmental psychology are discussed in appropriate depth. There is no glossary of terms at the end of the text, but I do not think this really hurts its comprehensiveness.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The citations throughout the textbook help to ensure its accuracy. However, the text could benefit from additional references to recent empirical studies in the developmental field.

It seems as if updates to this textbook will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement given how well organized the text is and its numerous sections and subsections. For example, a recent narrative review was published on the effects of corporal punishment (Heilmann et al., 2021). The addition of a reference to this review, and other more recent work on spanking and other forms of corporal punishment, could serve to update the text's section on spanking (pp. 223-224; p. 418).

The text is very clear and easily understandable.

Consistency rating: 4

There do not appear to be any inconsistencies in the text. The lack of a glossary at the end of the text may be a limitation in this area, however, since glossaries can help with consistent use of language or clarify when different terms are used.

This textbook does an excellent job of dividing up and organizing its chapters. For example, chapters start with bulleted objectives and end with a bulleted conclusion section. Within each chapter, there are many headings and subheadings, making it easy for the reader to methodically read through the chapter or quickly identify a section of interest. This would also assist in assigning reading on specific topics. Additionally, the text is broken up by relevant photos, charts, graphs, and diagrams, depending on the topic being discussed.

This textbook takes a chronological approach. The broad developmental stages covered include, in order, birth and the newborn, infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Starting with the infancy and toddlerhood stage, physical, cognitive, and social emotional development are covered.

There are no interface issues with this textbook. It is easily accessible as a PDF file. Images are clear and there is no distortion apparent.

I did not notice any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

This text does a good job of including content relevant to different cultures and backgrounds. One example of this is in the "Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles" subsection (p. 222). Here the authors discuss how socioeconomic status and cultural background can affect parenting styles. Including references to specific studies could further strengthen this section, and, more broadly, additional specific examples grounded in research could help to fortify similar sections focused on cultural differences.

Overall, I think this is a terrific resource for a child and adolescent development course. It is user-friendly and comprehensive.

Reviewed by Lois Pribble, Lecturer, University of Oregon on 6/14/21

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains. read more

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains.

The book provides accurate information, emphasizes using data based on scientific research, and is stated in a non-biased fashion.

The book is relevant and provides up-to-date information. There are areas where updates will need to be made as research and practices change (e.g., autism information), but it is written in a way where updates should be easy to make as needed.

The book is clear and easy to read. It is well organized.

Good consistency in format and language.

It would be very easy to assign students certain chapters to read based on content such as theory, developmental stages, or developmental domains.

Very well organized.

Clear and easy to follow.

I did not find any grammatical errors.

General content related to culture was infused throughout the book. The pictures used were of children and families from a variety of cultures.

This book provides a very thorough introduction to child development, emphasizing child development theories, stages of development, and developmental domains.

Reviewed by Nancy Pynchon, Adjunct Faculty, Middlesex Community College on 4/14/21

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development . read more

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development .

Most of the information is accurately written, there is some outdated references, for example: Many adults can remember being spanked as a child. This method of discipline continues to be endorsed by the majority of parents (Smith, 2012). It seems as though there may be more current research on parent's methods of discipline as this information is 10 years old. (page 223).

The content was current with the terminology used.

Easy to follow the references made in the chapters.

Each chapter covers the different stages of development and includes the theories of each stage with guided information for each age group.

The formatting of the book makes it reader friendly and easy to follow the content.

Very consistent from chapter to chapter.

Provided a lot of charts and references within each chapter.

Formatted and written concisely.

Included several different references to diversity in the chapters.

There was no glossary at the end of the book and there were no vignettes or reflective thinking scenarios in the chapters. Overall it was a well written book on child development which covered infancy through adolescents.

Reviewed by Deborah Murphy, Full Time Instructor, Rogue Community College on 1/11/21

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided.

The material seems very accurate and current. It is well written. It is very professionally done and is accessible to students.

This text addresses topics that will serve this field in positive ways that should be able to address the needs of students and instructors for the next several years.

Complex concepts are delivered accurately and are still accessible for students . Figures and tables complement the text . Terms are explained and are embedded in the text, not in a glossary. I do think indices and glossaries are helpful tools. Terminology is highlighted with bold fonts to accentuate definitions.

Yes the text is consistent in its format. As this is a text on Child Development it consistently addresses each developmental domain and then repeats the sequence for each age group in childhood. It is very logically presented.

Yes this text is definitely divisible. This text addresses development from conception to adolescents. For the community college course that my department wants to use it is very adaptable. Our course ends at middle school age development; our courses are offered on a quarter system. This text is adaptable for the content and our term time schedule.

This text book flows very clearly from Basic principles to Conception. It then divides each stage of development into Physical, Cognitive and Social Emotional development. Those concepts and information are then repeated for each stage of development. e.g. Infants and Toddler-hood, Early Childhood, and Middle Childhood. It is very clearly presented.

It is very professionally presented. It is quite attractive in its presentation .

I saw no errors

The text appears to be aware of being diverse and inclusive both in its content and its graphics. It discusses culture and represents a variety of family structures representing contemporary society.

It is wonderfully researched. It will serve our students well. It is comprehensive and constructed very well. I have enjoyed getting familiar with this text and am looking forward to using it with my students in this upcoming term. The authors have presented a valuable, well written book that will be an addition to our field. Their scholarly efforts are very apparent. All of this text earns high grades in my evaluation. My only criticism is, as mentioned above, is that there is not a glossary or index provided. All citations are embedded in the text.

Reviewed by Ida Weldon, Adjunct Professor, Bunker Hill Community College on 6/30/20

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth read more

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth

Most of the information was accurate. However, I think more references should have been provided to support some claims made in the text.

The material appeared to be relevant. However, it did not provide guidance for teachers in addressing topics of social justice, equality that most children will ask as they try to make sense of their environment.

The information was presented (use of language) that added to its understand-ability. However, I think more discussions and examples would be helpful.

The text appeared to be consistent. The purpose and intent of the text was understandable throughout.

The text can easily be divided into smaller reading sections or restructured to meet the needs of the professor.

The organization of the text adds to its consistency. However, some sections can be included in others decreasing the length of the text.

Interface issues were not visible.

The text appears to be free of grammatical errors.

While cultural differences are mentioned, more time can be given to helping teachers understand and create a culturally and ethnically focused curriculum.

The textbook provides a comprehensive summary of curriculum planing for preschool age children. However, very few chapters address infant/toddlers.

Reviewed by Veronica Harris, Adjunct Faculty, Northern Essex Community College on 6/28/20

This text explores child development from genetics, prenatal development and birth through adolescence. The text does not contain a glossary. However, the Index is clear. The topics are sequential. The text addresses the domains of physical,... read more

This text explores child development from genetics, prenatal development and birth through adolescence. The text does not contain a glossary. However, the Index is clear. The topics are sequential. The text addresses the domains of physical, cognitive and social emotional development. It is thorough and easy to read. The theories of development are inclusive to give the reader a broader understanding on how the domains of development are intertwined. The content is comprehensive, well - researched and sequential. Each chapter begins with the learning outcomes for the upcoming material and closes with an outline of the topics covered. Furthermore, a look into the next chapter is discussed.

The content is accurate, well - researched and unbiased. An historical context is provided putting content into perspective for the student. It appears to be unbiased.

Updated and accurate research is evidenced in the text. The text is written and organized in such a way that updates can be easily implemented. The author provides theoretical approaches in the psychological domains with examples along with real - life scenarios providing meaningful references invoking understanding by the student.

The text is written with clarity and is easily understood. The topics are sequential, comprehensive and and inclusive to all students. This content is presented in a cohesive, engaging, scholarly manner. The terminology used is appropriate to students studying Developmental Psychology spanning from birth through adolescents.

The book's approach to the content is consistent and well organized. . Theoretical contexts are presented throughout the text.

The text contains subheadings chunking the reading sections which can be assigned at various points throughout the course. The content flows seamlessly from one idea to the next. Written chronologically and subdividing each age span into the domains of psychology provides clarity without overwhelming the reader.

The book begins with an overview of child development. Next, the text is divided logically into chapters which focus on each developmental age span. The domains of each age span are addressed separately in subsequent chapters. Each chapter outlines the chapter objectives and ends with an outline of the topics covered and share an idea of what is to follow.

Pages load clearly and consistently without distortion of text, charts and tables. Navigating through the pages is met with ease.

The text is written with no grammatical or spelling errors.

The text did not present with biases or insensitivity to cultural differences. Photos are inclusive of various cultures.

The thoroughness, clarity and comprehensiveness promote an approach to Developmental Psychology that stands alongside the best of texts in this area. I am confident that this text encompasses all the required elements in this area.

Reviewed by Kathryn Frazier, Assistant Professor, Worcester State University on 6/23/20

This is a highly comprehensive, chronological text that covers genetics and conception through adolescence. All major topics and developmental milestones in each age range are given adequate space and consideration. The authors take care to... read more

This is a highly comprehensive, chronological text that covers genetics and conception through adolescence. All major topics and developmental milestones in each age range are given adequate space and consideration. The authors take care to summarize debates and controversies, when relevant and include a large amount of applied / practical material. For example, beyond infant growth patterns and motor milestone, the infancy/toddler chapters spend several pages on the mechanics of car seat safety, best practices for introducing solid foods (and the rationale), and common concerns like diaper rash. In addition to being generally useful information for students who are parents, or who may go on to be parents, this text takes care to contextualize the psychological research in the lived experiences of children and their parents. This is an approach that I find highly valuable. While the text does not contain an index, the search & find capacity of OER to make an index a deal-breaker for me.

The text includes accurate information that is well-sourced. Relevant debates, controversies and historical context is also provided throughout which results in a rich, balanced text.

This text provides an excellent summary of classic and updated developmental work. While the majority of the text is skewed toward dated, classic work, some updated research is included. Instructors may wish to supplement this text with more recent work, particularly that which includes diverse samples and specifically addresses topics of class, race, gender and sexual orientation (see comment below regarding cultural aspects).

The text is written in highly accessible language, free of jargon. Of particular value are the many author-generated tables which clearly organize and display critical information. The authors have also included many excellent figures, which reinforce and visually organize the information presented.

This text is consistent in its use of terminology. Balanced discussion of multiple theoretical frameworks are included throughout, with adequate space provided to address controversies and debates.

The text is clearly organized and structured. Each chapter is self-contained. In places where the authors do refer to prior or future chapters (something that I find helps students contextualize their reading), a complete discussion of the topic is included. While this may result in repetition for students reading the text from cover to cover, the repetition of some content is not so egregious that it outweighs the benefit of a flexible, modular textbook.

Excellent, clear organization. This text closely follows the organization of published textbooks that I have used in the past for both lifespan and child development. As this text follows a chronological format, a discussion of theory and methods, and genetics and prenatal growth is followed by sections devoted to a specific age range: infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood (preschool), middle childhood and adolescence. Each age range is further split into three chapters that address each developmental domain: physical, cognitive and social emotional development.

All text appears clearly and all images, tables and figures are positioned correctly and free of distortion.

The text contains no spelling or grammatical errors.

While this text provides adequate discussion of gender and cross-cultural influences on development, it is not sufficient. This is not a problem unique to this text, and is indeed a critique I have of all developmental textbooks. In particular, in my view this text does not adequately address the role of race, class or sexual orientation on development.

All in all, this is a comprehensive and well-written textbook that very closely follows the format of standard chronologically-organized child development textbooks. This is a fantastic alternative for those standard texts, with the added benefit of language that is more accessible, and content that is skewed toward practical applications.

Reviewed by Tony Philcox, Professor, Valencia College on 6/4/20

The subject of this book is Child Growth and Development and as such covers all areas and ideas appropriate for this subject. This book has an appropriate index. The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the... read more

The subject of this book is Child Growth and Development and as such covers all areas and ideas appropriate for this subject. This book has an appropriate index. The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the Introduction. The principles of development were delineated and were thoroughly presented in a very understandable way. Nine theories were presented which gave the reader an understanding of the many authors who have contributed to Child Development. A good backdrop to start a conversation. This book discusses the early beginnings starting with Conception, Hereditary and Prenatal stages which provides a foundation for the future developmental stages such as infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence. The three domains of developmental psychology – physical, cognitive and social emotional are entertained with each stage of development. This book is thoroughly researched and is written in a way to not overwhelm. Language is concise and easily understood.

This book is a very comprehensive and detailed account of Child Growth and Development. The author leaves no stone unturned. It has the essential elements addressed in each of the developmental stages. Thoroughly researched and well thought out. The content covered was accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The content is very relevant to the subject of Child Growth and Development. It is comprehensive and thoroughly researched. The author has included a number of relevant subjects that highlight the three domains of developmental psychology, physical, cognitive and social emotional. Topics are included that help the student see the relevancy of the theories being discussed. Any necessary updates along the way will be very easy and straightforward to insert.

The text is easily understood. From the very beginning of this book, the author has given the reader a very clear message that does not overwhelm but pulls the reader in for more information. The very first chapter sets a tone for what is to come and entices the reader to learn more. Well organized and jargon appropriate for students in a Developmental Psychology class.

This book has all the ingredients necessary to address Child Growth and Development. Even at the very beginning of the book the backdrop is set for future discussions on the stages of development. Theorists are mentioned and embellished throughout the book. A very consistent and organized approach.

This book has all the features you would want. There are textbooks that try to cover too much in one chapter. In this book the sections are clearly identified and divided into smaller and digestible parts so the reader can easily comprehend the topic under discussion. This book easily flows from one subject to the next. Blocks of information are being built, one brick on top of another as you move through the domains of development and the stages of development.

This book starts out with a comprehensive overview in the introduction to child development. From that point forward it is organized into the various stages of development and flows well. As mentioned previously the information is organized into building blocks as you move from one stage to the next.

The text does not contain any significant interface issued. There are no navigation problems. There is nothing that was detected that would distract or confuse the reader.

There are no grammatical errors that were identified.

This book was not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

This book is clearly a very comprehensive approach to Child Growth and Development. It contains all the essential ingredients that you would expect in a discussion on this subject. At the very outset this book went into detail on the principles of development and included all relevant theories. I was never left with wondering why certain topics were left out. This is undoubtedly a well written, organized and systematic approach to the subject.

Reviewed by Eleni Makris, Associate Professor, Northeastern Illinois University on 5/6/20

This book is organized by developmental stages (infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence). The book begins with an overview of conception and prenatal human development. An entire chapter is devoted to birth and... read more

This book is organized by developmental stages (infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence). The book begins with an overview of conception and prenatal human development. An entire chapter is devoted to birth and expectations of newborns. In addition, there is a consistency to each developmental stage. For infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence, the textbook covers physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development for each stage. While some textbooks devote entire chapters to themes such as physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development and write about how children change developmentally in each stage this book focuses on human stages of development. The book is written in clear language and is easy to understand.

There is so much information in this book that it is a very good overview of child development. The content is error-free and unbiased. In some spots it briefly introduces multicultural traditions, beliefs, and attitudes. It is accurate for the citations that have been provided. However, it could benefit from updating to research that has been done recently. I believe that if the instructor supplements this text with current peer-reviewed research and organizations that are implementing what the book explains, this book will serve as a strong source of information.

While the book covers a very broad range of topics, many times the citations have not been updated and are often times dated. The content and information that is provided is correct and accurate, but this text can certainly benefit from having the latest research added. It does, however, include a great many topics that serve to inform students well.

The text is very easy to understand. It is written in a way that first and second year college students will find easy to understand. It also introduces students to current child and adolescent behavior that is important to be understood on an academic level. It does this in a comprehensive and clear manner.

This book is very consistent. The chapters are arranged by developmental stage. Even within each chapter there is a consistency of theorists. For example, each chapter begins with Piaget, then moves to Vygotsky, etc. This allows for great consistency among chapters. If I as the instructor decide to have students write about Piaget and his development theories throughout the life span, students will easily know that they can find this information in the first few pages of each chapter.

Certainly instructors will find the modularity of this book easy. Within each chapter the topics are self-contained and extensive. As I read the textbook, I envisioned myself perhaps not assigning entire chapters but assigning specific topics/modules and pages that students can read. I believe the modules can be used as a strong foundational reading to introduce students to concepts and then have students read supplemental information from primary sources or journals to reinforce what they have read in the chapter.

The organization of the book is clear and flows nicely. From the table of context students understand how the book is organized. The textbook would be even stronger if there was a more detailed table of context which highlights what topics are covered within each of the chapter. There is so much information contained within each chapter that it would be very beneficial to both students and instructor to quickly see what content and topics are covered in each chapter.

The interface is fine and works well.

The text is free from grammatical errors.

While the textbook does introduce some multicultural differences and similarities, it does not delve deeply into multiracial and multiethnic issues within America. It also offers very little comment on differences that occur among urban, rural, and suburban experiences. In addition, while it does talk about maturation and sexuality, LGBTQ issues could be more prominent.

Overall I enjoyed this text and will strongly consider using it in my course. The focus is clearly on human development and has very little emphasis on education. However, I intend to supplement this text with additional readings and videos that will show concrete examples of the concepts which are introduced in the text. It is a strong and worthy alternative to high-priced textbooks.

Reviewed by Mohsin Ahmed Shaikh, Assistant Professor, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania on 9/5/19

The content extensively discusses various aspects of emotional, cognitive, physical and social development. Examples and case studies are really informative. Some of the areas that can be elaborated more are speech-language and hearing... read more

The content extensively discusses various aspects of emotional, cognitive, physical and social development. Examples and case studies are really informative. Some of the areas that can be elaborated more are speech-language and hearing development. Because these components contribute significantly in development of communication abilities and self-image.

Content covered is pretty accurate. I think the details impressive.

The content is relevant and is based on the established knowledge of the field.

Easy to read and follow.

The terminology used is consistent and appropriate.

I think of using various sections of this book in some of undergraduate and graduate classes.

The flow of the book is logical and easy to follow.

There are no interface issues. Images, charts and diagram are clear and easy to understand.

Well written

The text appropriate and do not use any culturally insensitive language.

I really like that this is a book with really good information which is available in open text book library.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development
• Chapter 2: Conception, Heredity, & Prenatal Development
• Chapter 3: Birth and the Newborn
• Chapter 4: Physical Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood
• Chapter 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
• Chapter 6: Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
• Chapter 7: Physical Development in Early Childhood
• Chapter 8: Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
• Chapter 9: Social Emotional Development in Early Childhood
• Chapter 10: Middle Childhood - Physical Development
• Chapter 11: Middle Childhood – Cognitive Development
• Chapter 12: Middle Childhood - Social Emotional Development
• Chapter 13: Adolescence – Physical Development
• Chapter 14: Adolescence – Cognitive Development
• Chapter 15: Adolescence – Social Emotional Development

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn. We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence.

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Promoting Young Children’s Social and Emotional Health

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In a preschool classroom, some of the 3- and 4-year-old children smile, laugh, and giggle during free play; are curious about what happens next during story time; ask what and why questions while doing hands-on activities; and use words to express feelings and needs. In the toy area, Tom and Juan both reach for a small blue car. Tom says, “May I please have it first, then you have it later?” Juan replies, “You have it for five minutes and then I have it for five minutes.” Noticing this exchange, their teacher says, “Tom and Juan, you are talking about taking turns. What a great way to play together!”

Tom, Juan, and their classmates are a model of social and emotional health in preschool. Children who are socially and emotionally healthy tend to demonstrate, and continue to develop, several important behaviors and skills (adapted from McClellan & Katz 2001 and Bilmes 2012). They

• Are usually in a positive mood
• Listen and follow directions
• Have close relationships with caregivers and peers
• Care about friends and show interest in others
• Recognize, label, and manage their own emotions
• Understand others’ emotions and show empathy
• Express wishes and preferences clearly
• Gain access to ongoing play and group activities
• Are able to play, negotiate, and compromise with others

Why social and emotional health matters

Teachers can promote children’s social and emotional health in many ways, for example, by organizing a material-rich environment to stimulate social interactions among children. This article focuses on two of the most important practices: building trusting relationships and conducting intentional teaching.

Establish trusting relationships

Young children develop and learn in the context of relationships. A trusting and caring teacher–child relationship is essential for children’s optimum development (Raikes & Edwards 2009). Children who have trusting relationships with their teachers are, on average, more willing to ask questions, solve problems, try new tasks, and express their thinking than their peers without such relationships (O’Connor & McCartney 2007). In her work supervising student teachers, Ho (the first author) often sees children developing positive social and emotional health as a result of close relationships with their teachers. For example, children learn to use words to express their feelings—such as Amy saying to Emily, “I am sad when you use hurting words!”—and to show empathy—as when Arjun gently pats Brian’s head and says, “Are you okay? Do you want to hold the teddy bear?”

Children benefit socially, emotionally, and academically when teachers intentionally create close, trusting relationships (Palermo et al. 2007). But gaining the trust of every child is not as simple as being nice and engaging. How can teachers create trusting relationships with all of the children? Consistently offering warmth, affection, respect, and caring is essential.

Showing warmth and affection consistently

Warmth and affection—even on bad days and when children are misbehaving—are critical to children’s well-being in early education settings (Ostrosky & Jung 2005). They contribute to developing secure relationships between children and adults, provide models of gentle behavior, and are linked with children’s ability to interact positively with peers (Twardosz 2005). The preschoolers we observed used gentle hands and kind words and positively interacted with peers most of the time. Their social and emotional well-being was nourished by their teachers’ warmth and affection, which is shown in the following examples:

• Ms. Johnson displays a pleasant facial expression throughout the day. She smiles when greeting children in the morning, says goodbye in the afternoon, and acknowledges children’s appropriate behaviors.
• Mr. Logan uses the appropriate tone of voice at all times. His speech is at normal pitch and volume; his tone is relaxed and soft. Even when he has to redirect a child’s behavior, he remains calm and warm to convey that his concern is with the behavior—not the child.
• Ms. Aragon gives appropriate touches when necessary, such as a pat on the back, a handshake, hugs, and brief tickles.
• Ms. Lizama moves physically close to the children and bends or crouches to be at the children’s eye level while talking to them.
• Mr. Sharma often uses loving comments to show he cares: “I am so happy to see you this morning!,” “I missed you yesterday,” “I love seeing your smile!” And he is careful to make such comments to all of the children in his classroom.

Respecting and caring about every child

Showing respect is a key way to connect with children and strengthen positive relationships. It helps children feel more confident and competent to explore and learn (Dombro, Jablon, & Stetson 2011). Ms. Carnes establishes and maintains close personal bonds with every child in her classroom by consistently acting in respectful and caring ways. Specifically, she

• Listens with full attenti on and restates what children say (often also seizing the opportunity to expose the children to new vocabulary).  Jason, a 4-year-old, says, “Look, I made a truck with lots of Legos!” Ms. Carnes replies, “Oh, I see, Jason. You built a truck with dozens of Legos.” Jason adds, “I use this truck to deliver apples and bananas to the grocery store.” Ms. Carnes responds, “Using a truck to deliver nutritious fruits to the grocery store is helpful.” Listening to children attentively and reflectively enhances their self-worth and confidence. When teachers actively listen to children, they convey that they care about what the children have to say, and the children are more likely to share their thoughts, ideas, feelings, and stories.  
• Accepts and reflects children’s feel ings.  Frowning, Jasper says to the teacher, “Michael has all the big blocks!” Ms. Carnes responds, “Jasper, you seem upset that there are no more large blocks to build with right now. It is difficult to wait!” Amy says with enthusiasm, “We are about to go outside!” Ms. Carnes answers, “The sparkles in your eyes tell me you can hardly wait to go outside. You are excited.” When they accept and reflect children’s feelings, teachers exhibit sensitivity and caring in a way children understand. Teachers’ acknowledgments make children feel heard and accepted (Duffy 2008). As a result, children feel safe to express their emotions—and receive support in identifying, labeling, and better understanding their emotions.  
• Spends private, quality time with individual chi ldren through one-on-one activities, such  as story reading and game pla ying.  Emily is sad when her mom leaves. Ms. Carnes reads her a book in a cozy corner with soft pillows and stuffed animals. Afterward, Emily is ready to explore and play in the classroom. Judy complains that no one wants to play with her at the tactile table. Ms. Carnes sits at the table and plays with Judy until another child joins the play. In addition, Ms. Carnes spends quality time with individual children by putting aside other work, moving to the child’s level, and conversing openly with the child. Ms. Carnes keeps track to ensure that she speaks with each child regularly, which deepens their relationship and builds trust (Gartrell 2007). Ms. Carnes finds time for these conversations throughout the day, especially during greeting, free play, snack, lunch, and departure time.

Teach social and emotional skills intentionally

Helping children develop social and emotional skills is the heart and soul of any good program for young children (Gordon & Browne 2014). Teachers (and all caregivers) play key roles in helping children develop social and emotional competence (Kostelnik et al. 2015). Teachers can intentionally support children’s social and emotional health by using children’s books, planning activities, coaching on the spot, giving effective praise, modeling appropriate behaviors, and providing cues.

Warmth and affection—even on bad days and when children are misbehaving—are critical to children’s well-being in early education.

Using children’s books

To connect the characters and situations in the book with the children’s experiences, Ms. Coz plans to read the book at least twice and also add it to the classroom library. During the second reading, she asks meaningful questions: “What do you think the characters are feeling?,” “How would you solve the problem?,” “Can you use words from the story to explain how you feel when you . . .?,” “What could we do differently if this happens in our classroom?” These open-ended questions enable children to talk about their own experiences, learn new vocabulary words, and practice social and emotional skills.

Planning activities

To extend and apply what children learn from reading stories, Ms. Coz plans follow-up activities, such as hands-on crafts, games, and songs. She often uses Book Nook guides, created by the Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning ( http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/strategies.html#booknook ). These guides help her embed social and emotional development activities into daily routines, including read-alouds. (See “ Activities for Supporting Children’s Social and Emotional Learning ” for some ideas adapted from Book Nook guides.)

Coaching on the spot

When they coach children on the spot, teachers help children realize what they are doing, understand how their actions affect others, and choose positive alternatives (Riley et al. 2008). For example, when Ryan and Ethan build a firehouse in the block area, Ethan grabs the fire truck from Ryan, and Ryan cries. Ms. Coz crouches down at Ethan’s level to look into his eyes; calmly and warmly, she says, “Ryan was still using the truck. When you took it away from him, he got upset. What could you do to make Ryan feel better?” After Ethan says he is sorry and gives back the fire truck, Ms. Coz says, “Next time if you want to play with the toy Ryan is using, could you ask if he will share?” Ms. Coz follows up by observing Ethan and providing immediate positive feedback on his desirable behavior.

Giving effective praise

Meaningful feedback pertinent to the task at hand in the form of effective praise is a powerful strategy for fostering children’s social and emotional development (Kostelnik et al. 2015). To make praise effective, teachers describe specifically what they see—without generalizing, evaluating, or making comparisons. When Emily finishes her drawing, Ms. Coz notices her picture and her smile. Ms. Coz says, “I see a blue sky, a yellow sun, and green grass around the big brown tree. This picture makes you happy, doesn’t it?” This praise is effective because Ms. Coz offers detailed, positive comments immediately after desirable behavior occurs. Noticing Ethan asking Ryan politely for a policewoman figure, Ms. Coz says, “Ethan, you used the magic words  May I plea se?  to ask for that policewoman while you and Ryan were building the firehouse together. Great job!” Smiling, Ethan responds, “We are friends and we can share things.”

Modeling appropriate behavior

Children learn by observing other people, getting ideas about how new behaviors are formed, and using the ideas to guide their actions (Bandura 1977). Many studies have found that modeling—or demonstrating appropriate behaviors—teaches and enhances children’s social and emotional skills (Katz & McClellan 1997; Hyson 2004). This research-based conclusion is evidenced in Ms. Coz’s and Ms. Carnes’s classes. Both teachers implement several noninvasive strategies—including modeling—that their center administrators created to support teachers in promoting socially and emotionally healthy behaviors. They display the strategies on the classroom wall and put them into action by

• Moving closer to children, when needed, as a nonverbal cue to rethink behaviors
• Modeling appropriate warm and respectful behavior throughout the day and at specific moments when a gentle reminder is needed
• Using nonverbal gestures and contact (e.g., nodding the head, giving thumbs-up signs, and touching children gently on the shoulder) to send messages
• Employing simple language (e.g., “Walking feet, please” and “Use gentle hands”) to set expectations and give reminders
• Acknowledging a kind act on the spot or praising a group effort for a job well done
• Placing a hand—gently—on a child’s hand to redirect attention and behavior

When children see teachers demonstrate these noninvasive strategies, they often smile, use their gentle hands, say please and thank you, give hugs and high fives, and use words to express their feelings.

In addition to being role models, the teachers use the children’s appropriate behaviors to model social and emotional skills. They carefully observe and record details about how children apply the target skills, and they share their observations with the children through puppet shows during circle time. Using puppets to demonstrate children’s appropriate behaviors helps children learn social and emotional skills meaningfully.

Providing cues

Providing cues to engage children in appropriate social behavior has been shown over time to improve their social behavior with their peers (Bovey & Strain 2005). Ms. Coz and Ms. Carnes often provide verbal cues to help some children participate in activities. Before playtime, for example, Ms. Carnes asks, “James, who are you going to ask to play with you at center time?” During playtime, she suggests, “Saanvi, can you ask Anna to build an airplane with you?” To teach sharing and turn taking, Ms. Coz asks Steven, who has been waiting to play with a toy dolphin for a while, “What magic words could you use to have a turn with the dolphin John is using?”

Both Ms. Coz and Ms. Carnes prominently display visual cues in their classrooms to assist children’s social and emotional interactions. For example, they provide teacher-made hand puppets to guide children to use quiet voices, helping hands, and walking feet. To help children calm down, they also created a “push wall”—a designated spot on the wall to push anger out—and use puppets to demonstrate the strategy. These puppets, demonstrations, and explanations are essential for clarifying and modeling appropriate behavior—and the visual cues are essential for reminding the children to practice what they have learned. Long-term visual cues function like a third teacher in the sense that children use the cues to remind one another of solutions and appropriate actions.

Children’s Books for Teaching Social and Emotional Skills 

• Can You Be a Friend?,  by Nita Everly 
• Care Bears Caring Contest,  by Nancy Parent, illus. by  David Stein 
• Fox Makes Friends,  by Adam Relf 
• How Do Dinosaurs Play with Their Friends?,  by Jane Yolen and Mark Teague 
• How I Feel Frustrated,  by Marcia Leonard 
• I Can Do It Myself  (a Sesame Street Series), by Emily Perl Kingsley, illus. by Richard Brown 
• I’m in Charge of Me!,  by David Parker, illus. by Sylvia Walker 
• Mouse Was Mad,  by Linda Urban, illus. by Henry Cole 
• My Many Colored Days,  by Dr. Seuss, illus. by Steve Johnson and Lou Fancher 
• Sharing: How Kindness Grows,  by Fran Shaw, illus. by Miki Sakamoto 
• When I’m Feeling Sad,  by Trace Moroney 
• When Sophie Gets Angry—Really, Really Angry,  by Molly Bang

Activities for Supporting Children’s Social and Emotional Learning 

Helping hands chain : Trace and cut out multiple hands for each child. Place them in a pocket or baggie that is easily accessible. As you recognize a child’s helping hand behavior, have the child get a hand from their pocket and connect it to the class’s helping hand chain. The hands can be placed on the wall to wrap around the room. On a regular basis, celebrate how long the helping hand chain is getting! 

Hand puppets : Create character puppets by having children color or paint the pictures, cut them out, and glue them to craft sticks. Once dry, children can bring their puppets to circle time and act out the story while you read the story aloud. Later, they can take the puppets to the story area or puppet center. 

Moving to music : Choose songs with lyrics that encourage movement. Before you start, remind the children that they need to listen closely to the words so they know what actions to take. Classic songs like “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes” work well. Many children’s CDs have great songs that involve following directions (try “My Ups and Downs,” and “Hands Are for Clapping,” by Jim Gill). Do the motions with the children as you listen to the songs. After listening to each song several times, children will build confidence and know which motions to do on their own. Point out to the children that they know what to do because they are being such good listeners.

Pass the feeling bag : Place an assortment of scenario picture cards in a bag. As music plays, the children pass the bag. When the music stops, one child picks out a card and identifies it. Have the child talk about how each scenario or item makes him feel and why. Allow children to take turns pulling out picture cards. 

Feeling faces collage : Have children cut out different feeling faces from magazines. Mix nontoxic glue and water together in a small bowl. The children put the pictures on top of a piece of paper, take a paintbrush and dip it in glue solution, and paint over their pictures. They can hang their feeling faces collages on the wall. 

Share box : Create a special share box that is only introduced during circle time. Children can decorate the box with primary colors or with a bold pattern. Inside the box, place items that can be shared, such as musical instruments, a box of chunky sidewalk chalk, playdough, or several sensory bottles.

Singing : After a story about sharing with friends, sing “Share, share, share your toys; share them with a friend. Share, share, share your toys, let’s all play pretend,” to the tune of “Row, Row, Row Your Boat.” After a story about feelings, sing “If You’re Happy and You Know It” with a variety of emotions and body gestures. 

Note: Adapted with permission from Book Nook, created by the Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. To use Book Nook guides at no cost, visit http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/strategies.html#booknook .

Bandura, A. 1977.  Social Learning Theory . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bilmes, J. 2012.  Beyond Behavior Manage ment: The Six Life Skills Childre n Need,  2nd ed. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf.

Bovey, T., & P. Strain. 2005. “Strategies for Increasing Peer Social Interactions: Prompting and Acknowledgment.” Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. What Works Briefs. http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/briefs/wwb17.pdf .

Dombro, A.L., J. Jablon, & C. Stetson. 2011.  Powerful  Interactions: How to Connect with   Children to Extend Their Learning.  Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).

Duffy, R. 2008. “Are Feelings Fixable?”  Exchange  30 (6): 87–90.

Gartrell, D. 2007.  A Guidance Approach for the Encouraging Classroom,  4th ed. Florence, KY: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Gordon, A.M., & K.W. Browne. 2014.  Beginnings and Beyond: Foundati ons in Early   Childhood Education,  9th ed. Belmont, CA: Cengage.

Hyson, M. 2004 . The Emotional Development of Young Chil dren: Building an Emotion-Centered Curric ulum,  2nd ed .  New York: Teachers College Press.

Katz, L.G., & D.E. McClellan. 1997.  Fostering Children’s Social Competence: The Teacher’s Role.  Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Kostelnik, M.J., A.K. Soderman, A.P. Whiren, M.L. Rupiper, & K.M. Gregory. 2015.  Guiding Children’s Social Development and L earning: Theory and Skills,  8th ed. Stamford, CT: Cengage.

McClellan, D., & L.G. Katz. 2001. “Assessing Young Children’s Social Competence.” Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED450953.pdf .

O’Connor, E., & K. McCartney. 2007. “Examining Teacher–Child Relationships and Achievement as Part of an Ecological Model of Development.”  American Educational R esearch Journal  44 (2): 340–69.

Ostrosky, M.M., & E.Y. Jung. 2005. “Building Positive Teacher–Child Relationships.” Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. What Works Briefs. http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/briefs/wwb12.pdf .

Palermo, F., L.D. Hanish, C.L. Martin, R.A. Fabes, & M. Reiser. 2007. “Preschoolers’ Academic Readiness: What Role Does the Teacher–Child Relationship Play?”  Early Childhood Research Quarterly  22 (4): 407–22. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3856866 .

Raikes, H.H., & C.P. Edwards. 2009 . Exte nding the Dance in Infant and Toddler Caregiving: Enhancing Attachment and Relationships . Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Riley, D., R.R. San Juan, J. Klinkner, & A. Ramminger. 2008.  Social and Emotional   Developm ent: Connecting Science and Practice in Early Childhood Settings . St. Paul, MN: Redleaf; Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Roberts, S.K., & P.A. Crawford. 2008. “Real Life Calls for Real Books: Literature to Help Children Cope with Family Stressors.”  Young Children  63 (5): 12–17.

Twardosz, S. 2005. “Expressing Warmth and Affection to Children.” Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. What Works Briefs. http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/briefs/wwb20.pdf .

Photographs: © Getty Images; courtesy of Geneva Day School

Jeannie Ho , EdD, is a professor and early childhood education program coordinator at Montgomery College, in Rockville, Maryland. Her teaching and research focus is teaching practices and children’s social and emotional development.  [email protected]

Suzanne Funk , MSEd, is director of Geneva Day School, in Potomac, Maryland, and is an adjunct professor in early childhood education at Montgomery College. She works with local child center directors to enhance the quality of services available for young children.  [email protected]

Vol. 73, No. 1

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Parents and caregivers are essential to children’s healthy development

Parents, families, and caregivers ensure children are healthy and safe, equip them with skills and resources to succeed, and transmit basic cultural values

Parents and caregivers are the most important people in a child's life. They offer love, acceptance, appreciation, encouragement, and guidance, and provide the most intimate context for the nurturing and protection of children as they develop their personalities and identities and also as they mature physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially.

Infancy and childhood

Babies whose needs are met quickly and warmly (e.g., feeding, changing, holding/cradling, and soothing them) achieve a crucial developmental task— attachment . This bond of affection between parents and children is necessary for a healthy parent-child relationship, and also extends to relationships between children, their siblings, and other family members (e.g., grandparents, aunts/uncles, etc) and caregivers. When infants attach successfully to their parents and caregivers, they learn to trust that the outside world is a welcoming place and are more likely to explore and interact with their environment. This lays the groundwork for further social, emotional, and cognitive development.

Research has found that relationships between parents and caregivers and youth that:

are warm, open, and communicative;

include appropriate limits; and

provide reasoning for rules for behavior

are associated with higher self-esteem, better performance in school, and fewer negative outcomes such as depression or drug use in children and teenagers.

In addition, cross-cultural differences in parenting are strongly related to the attitudes, beliefs, traditions, and values of the particular culture or ethnic group within which the family belongs. These parenting practices are also related to the social and economic context in which these families are situated. For instance, a recent study comparing the parenting practices of immigrant Chinese-American parents with that of White American parents found that the Chinese-American parents exhibited greater control of their children’s behavior, which was linked to fewer behavior problems in their children.

Adolescence

As children reach adolescence, parents and caregivers face a whole new set of tasks that require new approaches to deal with the changing needs of children. Children are changing on a physical as well as cognitive and social basis. 

Parents and caregivers must prepare for the upcoming changes in the parent-child relationship; teens will begin to detach to a greater degree from existing family bonds and focus more on their peers and the outside world. This quest for greater independence and autonomy is a natural part of the developmental process in adolescence. Parents and caregivers must find the delicate balance between maintaining the familial bond and allowing teens increasing autonomy as they mature. Teenagers who feel connected to yet not constrained by their families tend to flourish. 

Research has found that parents and caregivers that maintain a warm, communicative, and reasoned style of parenting raise teenagers who have higher rates of socially competent behavior, take fewer drugs, and exhibit less anxiety or depression.

Coping with adversity

Parental, family, and caregiver support is very valuable in helping children and youth cope with adversity, especially if they encounter stigma or prejudice associated with factors such as their race/ethnicity, gender, disability, sexuality, weight or socioeconomic status.

For example, research has found protective outcomes for children of color when their parents and caregivers educate them about racism and prejudice and transmit positive cultural values and beliefs to them about their racial and cultural heritage. This process of racial socialization has been shown to boost self-esteem and academic achievement and reduce depression in ethnic minority youth.

In a similar manner, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth who receive caring and acceptance from family members and caregivers are more likely to exhibit healthy development in adolescence, e.g., participating actively with peers, showing personal autonomy, and looking forward to the future.

Grandparents

The role of grandparents in the rearing of healthy and happy children should not be overlooked. A recent study concluded that spending time with a grandparent is linked with better social skills and fewer behavior problems among teenagers, especially those living in single-parent or stepfamily households. This study found that children and teenagers whose parents have separated or divorced see their grandparents as confidants and sources of comfort. In fact, supportive relationships with other family members outside the immediate family may lead to better adjustment for all children and teenagers.

Family rituals

Family rituals are also instrumental in the healthy development of children and teenagers. Family routines and rituals are an important part of contemporary family life. In fact, there is emerging evidence that children’s health and wellbeing is compromised when family members spend less time with each other. For instance, good communication between family members at family mealtimes are associated with reduced anxiety symptoms and respiratory conditions. Family mealtimes may also provide the settings in which to strengthen emotional connections. Lastly, how the family conducts its mealtimes, the regularity of family mealtimes, and the value that the family places on regular family mealtimes may improve nutrition habits and healthy weight in youth.

Families are often the first to notice mental health problems in children due to their intimate involvement in and monitoring of their children’s lives. Parents and caregivers in particular serve as critical advocates and essential partners in the prevention and treatment of children’s mental health concerns. Psychologists treating behavioral problems in children and teenagers always make engagement of the family a priority as this has been shown to boost positive outcomes for children and families as a whole.

American Psychological Association. (2008). Answers to your questions: For a better understanding of sexual orientation and homosexuality (En español) . Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved May 29, 2009.

American Psychological Association Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice for Children and Adolescents. (2008). Disseminating evidence-based practice for children and adolescents: A systems approach to enhancing care . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Retrieved May 29, 2009.

American Psychological Association Task Force on Resilience and Strength in Black Children and Adolescents. (2008). Resilience in African American children and adolescents: A vision for optimal development . Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved May 29, 2009.

Attar-Schwartz, S., Tan, J., Buchanan, A., Griggs, J., & Flouri, E. (2009). Grandparenting and adolescent adjustment in two-parent biological, lone-parent, and step-families. Journal of Family Psychology , 23 (1), 67-75.

Fiese, B. H. (2006, Summer). Family mealtimes: Opportunities for child and family health and wellbeing. CYF News (pp. 2-4). Retrieved May 29, 2009.

Ho, C., Bluestein, D., & Jenkins, J. (2008). Cultural differences in the relationship between parenting and children’s behavior. Developmental Psychology , 44 (2), 507–522.

Huntsinger, C. & Jose, P. (2009). Relations among parental acceptance and control and children’s social adjustment in Chinese American and European American families. Journal of Family Psychology , 23 (3), 321–330.

Kreppner, K. (2000). Parent-child relationship: Adolescence. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed). Encyclopedia of psychology , Vol. 6. (pp. 50-55). Washington, DC; New York, NY: American Psychological Association; Oxford University Press.

Lerner, J. V., & Castellino, D. R. (2000). Parent-child relationship: Childhood. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed). Encyclopedia of psychology , Vol. 6. (pp. 46-50). Washington, DC; New York, NY: American Psychological Association; Oxford University Press.

Resources for parents and caregivers

How to help kids understand and manage their emotions

Helping kids cope with anger and frustration

What is child abuse and neglect? Understanding warning signs and getting help

Developing Adolescents (PDF, 800 KB)

Sexualization of Girls: What Parents Can Do

Lesbian and Gay Parenting

Recommendations for Working Families

Staying Connected: A Guide for Parents on Raising an Adolescent Daughter

Parenting: The Teen Years

How to help children and teens manage their stress

Families: Making Stepfamilies Work

Families: Single Parenting and Today's Family

Parenting That Works: Building Skills That Last a Lifetime

Wishing Wellness: A Workbook for Children of Parents with Mental Illness

Solving Your Problems Together: Family Therapy for the Whole Family

Homemade Books to Help Kids Cope: An Easy-to-Learn Technique for Parents and Professionals

Make-Believe: Games & Activities for Imaginative Play: A Book for Parents, Teachers, and the Young Children in Their Lives

• Children, Youth, and Families Office (CYFO)
• CYFO Resources

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Essay on Child Development

Students are often asked to write an essay on Child Development in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Child Development

Understanding child development.

Child development is about how children grow. It includes learning to walk, talk, think, and relate to others. From birth to adulthood, kids change a lot. They pick up new skills like reading and making friends. Parents, teachers, and friends all help kids develop.

Physical Growth

Children’s bodies grow quickly. They learn to crawl, stand, and walk. Playing sports helps them get stronger and healthier. Eating good food is important too. It gives them energy to grow and play.

Learning and Thinking

Kids learn by playing and going to school. They start to think, remember, and solve problems. Reading books and asking questions helps their brains develop.

Emotions and Social Skills

Children also learn about feelings. They feel happy, sad, or angry sometimes. Talking about feelings is good. Making friends teaches them to share and work together.

250 Words Essay on Child Development

What is child development.

As kids grow, their bodies change. They learn to crawl, walk, and play sports. Eating healthy food and playing outside helps their bodies become strong and healthy.

Kids also learn to think and solve problems. When they play with toys, they learn shapes and colors. Going to school teaches them to read, write, and do math. Their brains grow when they ask questions and get answers.

Feelings and Friends

Understanding emotions is a big part of growing up. Children learn to be happy, sad, or angry and how to deal with these feelings. Making friends is important too. It helps them learn to share and be kind to others.

Talking and Listening

Talking and listening are key skills. When kids learn words and how to make sentences, they can tell you what they think and feel. Listening to others is just as important to be good friends and learn from people around them.

Child development is a big journey with many steps. Parents, teachers, and friends all help children grow up to be healthy, smart, and kind people. It’s amazing to see how much kids can learn and change as they get older!

500 Words Essay on Child Development

The stages of growing up.

Children don’t grow up all at once. There are stages, like steps on a ladder. The first stage is being a baby. Babies learn to hold their heads up, smile, and grab things. The next stage is being a toddler. Toddlers learn to walk, say words, and play simple games. After being toddlers, they become preschoolers. Now they can run, speak in sentences, and make friends. Finally, they become school-aged kids, learning to read, write, and do math.

Each stage has important skills that kids learn. It’s like each stage has its own checklist, and when kids learn these skills, they can move to the next stage.

Learning Through Play

Healthy bodies, healthy minds.

For children to develop well, they need healthy food, exercise, and sleep. Healthy food helps their bodies grow and gives them energy. Exercise is important for strong muscles and bones. Sleep is like a charger for kids’ brains and bodies, helping them to grow and be ready for a new day.

Feelings Matter Too

Children also have feelings, just like grown-ups. They feel happy, sad, angry, or scared sometimes. It’s important for kids to understand their feelings and how to deal with them. When children learn about feelings, they can make better choices and get along with others.

Learning at Home and School

Every child is unique.

Every child grows and learns at their own pace. Some children walk or talk early, while others take a little more time. And that’s okay! Children are like different flowers in a garden; each one is special and grows in its own way.

Child Development is a journey from being a tiny baby to becoming a young person ready to explore the world. Just like a seed needs water and sunlight to grow into a big tree, children need love, learning, and care to grow up healthy and strong.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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• Published: 26 August 2024

Defining child health in the 21st century

• Ruth E. K. Stein 1  

Pediatric Research ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The concept of child health has evolved over many decades and has gone from defining health as the absence of disease and disability to a much more sophisticated understanding of the ways in which a confluence of many factors leads to a healthy childhood and to producing the infrastructure for a healthy lifetime. We review the evolution of these ideas and endorse the definition featured in Children’s Health, the Nation’s Wealth , which states tha t child health is: “… the extent to which individual children or groups of children are able or enabled to: (a) develop and realize their potential, (b) satisfy their needs, and (c) develop the capacities that allow them to interact successfully with their biological, physical, and social environments.”

The definition of child health and the model presented form a framework for conducting and interpreting research in child health and understanding the ways in which influences affect child health.

They also demonstrate how child health is the foundation for life-long health.

Child health is dynamic and is always changing.

There are many influences affecting child health at any given time.

Because each child’s health is different, they may react in distinctive ways to a new health challenge.

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This model is best represented by a kaleidoscope of influences (biology, social and built environment, behavior, policies, and services) working together over a child’s life and developmental trajectory. The model has life-long implications for adult health and well-being and has far-reaching implications for promoting children’s health and for understanding research in child health. Pediatrics is a field devoted to improving the health of children, but what does that really mean? There are several aspects to this all-important question. How do we currently view and define child health? How do we understand the things that underpin a healthy childhood? What is the significance of child health for life-long health? The answers to these questions are important for all our endeavors as child-oriented clinicians and are key to our ongoing research efforts to improve child health.

Approaches to child health

The concept of child health has evolved over many decades and has gone from defining health as the absence of disease and disability to a much more sophisticated understanding of the ways in which a confluence of many factors leads to a healthy childhood and to producing the infrastructure for a healthy lifetime. While this is true in the United States and most of the upper income nations and the elite in many other communities, many low- and middle-income countries still experience high childhood morbidity and mortality and low rates of immunizations that protect children from many diseases. Thus, for many of them, the absence of disease continues to be a major marker of improvements in child health.

The recognition that health is more than the absence of disease was relatively novel when it was written into the constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1945. In April 7, 1948, the WHO Charter was adopted and definition was formally recognized. It stated “Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” ( https://www.who.int/about/accountability/governance/constitution ). There were several other rather revolutionary components to the constitution, including the notion that health was a human right, a call for equity in health, and the statement that governments had a responsibility for insuring health ( https://www.who.int/about/accountability/governance/constitution ). Unfortunately, the latter two elements are still not always accepted as fundamental in the United States.

An often-overlooked component of the WHO Charter is the principle that: “Healthy development of the child is of basic importance; the ability to live harmoniously in a changing total environment is essential to such development” ( https://www.who.int/about/accountability/governance/constitution ). This last principle is the only component that mentions development, something that is fundamental to childhood and yet was not incorporated into most people’s thinking about health at the time. It should be emphasized that there was little thought to differentiating the definitions of health for children and adults.

Over the next several decades, the focus was on the elimination of diseases, something that became possible with the explosion of new biomedical understanding of the causes and mechanisms for disease and the morbidity and mortality that they caused. This was a period during which there was development of a library of antibiotics and vaccines to treat and prevent many infectious diseases. The dominance of biomedical sciences resulted in a focus primarily on aspects of physical health, with emotional, cognitive, or social well-being being relatively ignored during that period. As a result, the notion that health was more than the absence of diseases got relatively little attention and a biomedical model of health dominated most discussions, whether focused on children or adults.

The mid 1970’s saw an explosion of new thoughts about child health and the key role of child development. Major elements of this new thinking were the increasing focus on differences in the biology of children and adults and in the appreciation of the extent to which factors outside of biology influenced health, especially among young children. In terms of appreciating differences between child and adult health, there was increasing recognition of the rapidly changing nature of children’s physical and behavioral characteristics; of their inherent dependency, especially early in life, and the differences in their exposure to environmental hazards and in the way that manifest poor health. The growing awareness of their biological differences led to recognition of such variations as their relative surface area, their play which placed them in closer proximity to ground level pollutants, and a myriad of metabolic differences that pediatric research had revealed.

Additionally, there was growing data on a variety of key factors other than the child’s vulnerability to infectious disease that were coming to the fore. One was the importance of infant attachment for healthy development; another was the recognition of how environmental factors such as lead were detracting from healthy development and well-being, and a third was recognition of child abuse and neglect by Henry Kempe. 1 In addition, the implementation of Medicaid and the Children and Youth projects had brought many underserved communities into traditional medical venues, where clinicians were increasingly recognizing the impact of poverty on child health. These ideas were crystalized in Robert Haggerty’s studies of Child Health and the Community , published in 1975, 2 which examined health care in Monroe country, a microcosm of the US population and focused on many factors in the lives of children beyond their biology and exposure to infectious diseases.

In response to these trends and to the increasing recognition of non-infectious causes of disease, three new broad models were put forward, each of which made major contributions to the conceptualization of child health.

The first of these was from George Engel, a psychiatrist at the University of Rochester, who proposed a revolutionary concept, which he called the “biopsychosocial” model of child health. 3 His thesis was that biological, psychological, and social components each contributed to health and that all these factors had to be considered. 3 The notion that the body and mind were connected was not entirely new and has been cited as going back at least to Descartes, but had been neglected during the focus on biology as the primary cause of illness. Engel reintroduced the concept that the social and psychological contributions to illness and well-being needed to be considered in medical science and health care, both as causes of disease and as important in their treatment. 4 Broadening the notion of health to include factors outside of biology required consideration of how these elements interacted. Engel’s model was a Venn diagram with overlap of the three types of factors: biological, social, and psychological factors. The interaction of these elements resulted in the manifestations of illness and the elements that needed to be considered in approaching care and understanding health.

At about the same time, a second set of ideas about how these factors affected one another came from a psychologist, Arnold Sameroff, 5 who developed the notion of factors relating to health affected one another in a transactional way. He proposed that the parent, child, and environment interact in ways in which each affects the other and it is the sum of those interactions that leads to the child’s development and affects the child’s health and well-being. The notion of reciprocity and interactions of multiple factors remains key in thinking today. 5

The third idea was the ecological model developed by Uri Bronfenbrenner, also a psychologist, who proposed a series of systems that influence one another and in total affect child health and development. 6 The five components ranged from the microsystem (the child’s relationship with his or her immediate environment, school, and family) to macrosystems (culture, economy, customs, and bodies of knowledge). Each layer of the environment was visualized as a concentric circle, with the child in the middle. To a large degree it was his thinking about the broader set of factors that impact child health that has stayed with us and has helped us to think beyond the child’s immediate context when considering influences on health. Bronfenbrenner’s view of the way that environment interacted with the child’s health and development dominated for many years. 6

After these three models were proposed, there was little innovative thinking about child health for a rather long period. During the ensuing decades most people accepted that the context in which a child was growing impacted his or her mental and physical health and contributed to well-being. An increasing number of studies focused on the broader issues affecting child health and on how these issues altered the manifestations of health and the outcomes of treatment. Yet none of this thinking led to a reformulation of how to define child health.

Current definition

In 2001, at Congress’s request the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion of the United States Department of Health and Human Services funded the Board of Children, Youth, and Families (BoCYF) of the National Research Council and the Institute of Medicine to do a study to assess the ways that child health was monitored in the United States and to make recommendations about ways to improve its measurement. 7 This Committee on the Evaluation of Children’s Health: Measures of Risk, Protective and Promotional Factors for Assessing Child Health in the Community was charged with examining what was known about child health, the risk and protective factors and how the assessment of child health could be improved. The BoCYF convened a multidisciplinary committee to conduct the study. The first step that the committee undertook was to define child health and to do so it looked at available definitions of health. The committee noted that in general definitions of child health were not distinct from those for adult health. The WHO definition, as modified by the Ottawa Convention was the primary definition available. In the Ottawa Convention the term health was viewed as “the extent to which a group or individual can fulfil their ambitions and needs, on the one hand, and evolve with or adapt to the environment, on the other” ( https://www.who.int/teams/health-promotion/enhanced-wellbeing/first-global-conference ). It further stated that “Health is thus seen as a resource for everyday life, not as the goal of life; it is a positive concept that emphasises [sic] social and individual resources as well as physical capabilities. Thus, health promotion is not just a health issue, but goes beyond healthy lifestyles to well-being” ( https://www.who.int/teams/health-promotion/enhanced-wellbeing/first-global-conference ). This was the first time promotion of health was specifically advocated by a large number of countries. 8

In examining the Ottawa Convention definition, the committee became aware that there were no clear references to the notion of development, which is such a critical component of child health and a fundamental concept in pediatrics. This is because using the WHO and Ottawa definitions, an individual who did not develop at all after birth might be considered entirely healthy–something most people would not agree with.

Based on the special characteristics of children’s health and the prior definitions, “the committee sought a comprehensive and integrative definition and conceptualization of health that reflects the dynamic nature of childhood, is conceptually sound, is based on the best scientific evidence, and provides a basis for both measuring and improving child health.” 7 (page 32) Further, it recognized “that health and well-being are a result of interactions of many biological, psychological, social, cultural, and physical factors.” 7 (pages 32 and 33)

The committee defined child health:

“… as the extent to which individual children or groups of children are able or enabled to: (a) develop and realize their potential, (b) satisfy their needs, and (c) develop the capacities that allow them to interact successfully with their biological, physical, and social environments.” 7 (pages 32 and 33)

Several features of this definition are noteworthy. First is the continued conceptualization of health as a positive construct – more than the absence of illness or disease. Second, it incorporates the special characteristics, particularly rapid development and continuous change throughout childhood, as essential components of health. It also considers all the many influences that interact over time in different ways as children develop and change, and it acknowledges the ways children interact with their specific environments and the long-term implications of these environmental factors. This definition underscores the long reach of child health into adulthood underscoring that the health of children has profound effects on the health of the adults they will become. It acknowledges that the manifestations of health may vary for different communities and cultures and encompasses all aspects of health: physical, emotional, cognitive, and social health.

Domains of health

So how did the committee conceptualize the measurement of child health? First, it should be acknowledged that most commonly used measures are actually proxies of health or measures of only one aspect of the more complex construct embodied in the definition. For example, we might use body mass index to define obesity, or measure only cognitive functioning on a psychological test.

The model also emphasized the importance of tracking data on children’s health or aspects of their health on trajectories in a manner that is like the ways weight, length, are tracked. One cannot know the meaning of most isolated measures without knowing their place on a trajectory. For example, it is impossible to know if 20 pounds is a healthy weight or not without knowing the child’s age and prior weights. Similarly, one would have trouble determining the developmental health of child who speaks in 3-word sentences without knowing his age and whether his language was previously more or less advanced. Assessing trajectories was viewed as an essential part of efforts to improve children’s health. This requires longitudinal data.

Nevertheless, the committee conceptualized three domains of health that should be the basis for measuring child health: Health conditions : disorders or illnesses of body systems; Functioning : manifestation of health on an individual’s daily life, and Health potential : development of assets and positive aspects of health, such as resilience, competence, capacity, and developmental potential.

In considering the measurement of health conditions, it is important to note that these conditions can either be acute or chronic. Health conditions are the most traditional way of measuring health –or its absence. These conditions are usually inventoried by clinician diagnoses or by questionnaires inquiring about specific conditions or diseases. Those that are chronic can be assessed using two major approaches. The first is using a list or inventory of individual conditions. However, the list of such conditions is extensive because of the large number of uncommon disorders, and no list can be complete and be feasible to administer. Unfortunately, evidence shows that the more examples that are provided on a list, the more likely people will respond to the option of “or any other condition.” This finding is clearly counterintuitive and limits the utility of a list approach.

Another method of inventorying chronic conditions depends on a non-categorical or generic approach. 9 , 10 , 11 This approach explores the consequences of conditions, as well as their duration, based on a noncategorical definition. 12 The definition includes having a condition that lasts or is expected to last a year and having at least one of three types of consequences of conditions: Increased use of health care beyond the usual for age; dependence on a compensatory mechanism or assistance to function in a typical way; or the presence of functional limitations. 12 Three instruments that operationalize that definition have been developed and are in use. 13 , 14 , 15 , 16

This approach allows the identification of children with ongoing conditions without having to name the condition. A non-categorical approach is now incorporated into several national surveys using the shortest of these instruments, the CSHCN Screener. 15 It is used to track both the number of children with conditions and disparities in the ways in which care is delivered to children both with and without ongoing conditions.

Functioning has been defined by the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health as “an umbrella term for body function, body structures, activities and participation. It denotes the positive or neutral aspects of the interaction between a person’s health condition(s) and that individual’s contextual factors (environmental and personal factors)” ( https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/icd/icfoverview_finalforwho10sept.pdf ). Functioning is viewed as the way in which an individual can do things and is the final expression of health of individuals. One strength of this type of measure is that it can assess the consequences of many coexisting conditions and both conditions and their treatment. This is not something that is possible to assess when considering conditions as proposed above. Even when multiple conditions are inventoried individually, it does not give any indication of their combined effect on the child’s health. Also, in some instances, there are more symptoms or impairments from the treatment than from the condition itself, such as when encountering serious side effects from chemotherapy, during treatment or when the original condition itself is in remission. There are few other ways in which to get the type of summative information that can be obtained by assessing functioning. 17

There are relatively few measures of functional limitations specifically developed for children. Many of the measures of functioning in the past have focused on gross motor functioning and some of them measure only one type of functioning, such as cognition, which is measured by a range of psychological tests. More recently there have been attempts to develop more comprehensive measures. Few of them work across populations, culture, levels of health/disability and ages. Some more comprehensive measures are age specific, such as measures of development or of school readiness. 18 In general, such measures assess a range of skills including independence, physical, social, cognitive, emotional, and language skills. Nevertheless, there are few functional measures that work across populations, cultures, levels of health/disability and ages. Among the range of measures that are broader and in use are FSII (R) 19 ; Wee FIM 20 and Functional Status Scale 21 and health quality of life measures. 22 Each of them has a different focus and measures different aspects of functioning.

There are even fewer measures of health potential, but this is an important area for future research. This domain is critical to improving understanding of why some children experiencing a major stress are able to bounce back and overcome the trauma, while others are stunted in their further development, or never rebound at all. Some areas that are included are resilience, problem solving ability, resistance to illness, immunization status, ability to develop positive peer relations, and physical fitness. How these factors fit together and become protective is an area worthy of exploration, but clearly some children differentiate themselves from others by their ability to rebound from adversity or illness, while others suffer long-term consequences of poor health and well-being.

Finally, it is important to acknowledge that the entire field of measurement is complicated by the fact that many children, especially younger ones cannot reliably respond to questionnaires on their own. As a result, most measures require responses from other individuals, typically caregivers. Others are completed by clinicians. Their biases and differences in their frames of reference may further complicate all these measures.

Factors influencing health

In exploring the issue of risk and protective factors that influence and affect health status, the committee realized that many known factors did not fall neatly into either category. In some cases, it was because they may be both risks and protective depending on the context (i.e: peer groups). In others, it’s effect was dependent on the level of exposure, as might be characterized by iron on iodine, both of which can cause problems if they are insufficient or be toxic if exposure is excessive.

Rather than think of them in terms of risk or protective factors, the committee chose to conceptualize the factors that affect child health as influences , since many may be both risks and protective, depending on the context and level of exposure.

The influences were grouped into six categories following the model of Healthy People 2010, which was the operant model at the time. 23 One objection to that model was that it was very linear, something that seemed at odds to the ways in which influences are understood to interact. However, the committee thought that the major categories or domains in the model that affected health were sound. These components were: biology, behavior, physical environment, social influences, services, and policy. Another significant modification of the Healthy People 2010 model was the considerable expansion of services and policy domains beyond those of health policy and health services, which was the original intent of the 2010 model. This is because the committee recognized that a wide range of services (e.g. education, welfare, and sanitation services) and policies (e.g. tax, law enforcement, road safety and environmental policies) have considerable impact on child health. Each of these categories was conceptualize as having many elements within them. A partial list of components of these domains is shown in Table  1 . Both within the groupings and across groupings these influences interact with one another and their relative importance changes over time and through development. Some of these changes are predictable and others depend on what the individual child experiences. For example, in early childhood the family is probably the most important social influence, while later in development other components, such as the community and the peer group, have greater impact. In terms of unique experiences, changes in the family composition or family dislocation, illness or toxic exposures may have great impact in one child’s development, in contrast with those who experience long term stability.

A new model

Altogether various influences interact over time and throughout development in a way that can be compared to and visualized as being like a kaleidoscope. That is to say, the patterns that emerge are partly determined by the initial constellation of factors at the time of the child’s birth. All prior exposures are embedded in his or her biology at birth and are incorporated into the initial template. But two individuals with different initial patterns will react differently to subsequent influences, even when they are exposed to the identical ones. Moreover, influences that are experienced by the individual at different stages of development will also have discrete effects, depending on when they are experienced. As a result, two children with different preexisting templates may react differently and their subsequent health will reflect those differences.

A picture of the component influences at any given time can be visualized as a Venn diagram (Fig.  1 ). Within each component, there are many subcomponents, as discussed in the section on influences, and each of those subcomponents may be of different importance at a given time and stage. They may be viewed as mini kaleidoscopes within the domain and are also similar to the whole domain in that they vary in their importance throughout development.

Multiple interacting influences.

As things change during a child’s development and over time, the kaleidoscope changes, depending on how the influences affect the individual or group of children (Fig.  2 ). The ways in which influences of various types affect a given child will depend on the arrangements of the preexisting template at the time of the new experience. This is like giving a twist to the crystals in the kaleidoscope, in which different sets of crystals will produce differing patterns.

Model of children’s health and its influences.

Additionally, the committee also recognized that there are some periods of time that are critical or sensitive and have magnified impact on health and development. Critical periods are ones in which an influence has a determinative effect on health, such as early prenatal exposure to Thalidamide during a critical period of embryogenesis, while sensitive periods are ones in which there is increased vulnerability, but no absolute effect. During these periods, exposure to certain influences has a more significant impact. For example, children who are not exposed to language in early infancy, may not recoup that loss completely, while that same lack of exposure later in development may have a far smaller effect. Similarly, parental separation or death may have different consequences depending on both the child’s template at the time of the occurrence and the age at which the trauma is experienced.

Nature vs nurture

For many generations people have argued about the role of nature versus nurture in determining health outcomes. However, in the last several decades this debate finally has some important answers, and we are finally beginning to understand how environments “get under our skin.” Since the mapping of the human genome, we have learned that the environment affects and alters the expression of our genes mainly by upregulating and down regulating them through epigenetic mechanisms. At other times exposures to specific influences actually interfere with gene replication and expression in a more deterministic fashion, as when there is exposure to radiation that alters the genes themselves.

Moreover, we now understand that adverse childhood experiences produce toxic stress and that when the allostatic load becomes too great, it produces changes in gene expression through epigenetic mechanisms. The ensuing changes affect multiple body systems including the brain, autonomic, neuroendocrine, immune, cardiovascular, and gastro-intestinal systems. 24 , 25 These changes have been associated with chronic inflammation, something that may affect long-term health and survival and sometimes can even be passed to the next generation, as has been shown for the effects of racism. Epidemiologic studies have long supported that increasing numbers of childhood exposures to these forms of stress are associated with physical and mental illness and premature death in adulthood. 26 , 27

It is important to also acknowledge the critical role that caregivers play in nurturing children and in buffering them against the noxious effects of stresses. This nurturance and buffering effect is something that is critical in helping children to thrive in spite of influences that threaten their health. It is also likely that those buffers are of special importance at times of transition in growth and development.

Implications

The implications of the committee’s definition and model of health are far reaching. One inherent implication of the model is that we can never measure all the factors that influence child health in any single study. As a result, it brings a new perspective to some of our efforts to interpret research data. For example, if two studies of outcomes of very low birth weight infants come to somewhat different conclusions about predictors of outcome, our tendency has been to try to determine which study was flawed and which was more reliable. Perhaps, instead we should question whether the subjects differed in some unmeasured, but significant, way that influenced their outcome.

The model also emphasizes that health does not derive primarily from medical care. In doing so it brings into question the ways in which our society divides budgets for the many kinds of services and policies that contribute to health and healthy development. The effects of decisions in these domains often omit consideration of their impact on children’s health and well-being. Some have suggested that we should have a process like our consideration of environmental impact for projects that would consider child health impact when new projects or policies are put into effect.

Finally, the model underscores the long reach of childhood influences on adult health. This is far more appreciated now, than at the time of the committee report, because of several factors. First is the increased understanding of epigenetics and the long-term implications of changes in gene expression. Another factor is the growing literature on the effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACES). It is now unquestionable that these societal issues impact both child wellbeing and adult health and survival. Our awareness of these factors has also led to far more consideration of other social factors, and to the appreciation of the influence of social determinants of health. These include economic stability, education access and quality, health care access and quality, neighborhood and built environment, social and community context ( https://health.gov/healthypeople/priority-areas/social-determinants-health ) – a list quite like those in the Committee’s model.

The growing awareness of the long reach of child health is important for the field of pediatrics, which has long suffered from a lack of investment. This is a result of the degree to which finances have driven investment in health and health care. In general child health costs are so much lower than the costs of adult care, except for care of the very low birth weight infant and certain malignancies. As appreciation grows for the importance of environmental factors during childhood on ultimate health, we can hope that investments increase in relatively low-cost preventive measures that may alter longer term outcomes.

Future projections

Given our increased knowledge about the impact of environment and life events on children, we would be remiss if we did not highlight the changing nature of the world in which we live. The numerous wars around the world are massively disrupting children’s lives and causing mass migration. The COVID pandemic caused millions of deaths, including those of many caregivers, and world-wide disruption of daily life with loss of educational and social opportunities for countless numbers of children. Many of these losses appear to be having long-reaching impact on their education, development, and mental health. 28 Additionally, the direct and indirect effects of climate change, which is making some areas of the globe less habitable, and subjecting others to catastrophic weather event, fires, and floods, are producing massive dislocations. Many of these influences are affecting the children who are already most vulnerable.

When children experience these catastrophes, it has lasting effects on their health and developmental trajectories. In addition to the frequent events themselves, they are often accompanied by loss of caregivers, whose protection is so important to helping children deal with stresses, and to loss of routines, which provide stability and a sense of normalcy. Additionally, they often lose educational opportunities that would enable them to develop skills that would improve their future welfare. Even when there are no direct physical or observable injuries, all these factors increase children’s allostatic load and are embedded in their gene expression, causing inflammation and premature aging of many body systems, and setting them up for future poor health. It is important for the child health community to do all that it can to help buffer these effects and to help inform policy makers of their long impacts and costs to the individual and to society. The definition and model inform the child health community that our failure to do so is likely to be accompanied by a generation whose health and well-being is in peril.

Conclusions

We believe that the definition that the committee adopted and the model of how health evolves has had a major impact on thinking in the field. To some extent it forecast the CDC’s Health People 2020’s model of health “that recognized a life stages perspective. This approach recognizes that specific risk factors and determinants of health vary across the life span. Health and disease result from the accumulation (over time) of the effects of risk factors and determinants” ( https://wayback.archive-it.org/5774/20220413162937/https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/leading-health-indicators/Leading-Health-Indicators-Development-and-Framework ). The emphasis on child development may have had some role in helping other clinicians to focus on the fact that development does not stop when one reaches adulthood. It is entirely compatible with the Healthy People 2030’s goal to “Create social, physical, and economic environments that promote attaining the full potential for health and well-being for all” 29 and can serve as a guiding principle for pediatrics and our society. It suggests that society should want to invest in children because they are our nation’s most important resource. The definition of child health presented by the committee has many useful principles that can guide our research, clinical care, and policies to try to protect long-term thriving of the maximum number of children. It is one that can continue to guide our work for many decades to come.

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Stein, R.E.K. Defining child health in the 21st century. Pediatr Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-024-03423-w

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Dr. Murthy is the surgeon general.

One day when my daughter was a year old, she stopped moving her right leg. Tests found that she had a deep infection in her thigh that was dangerously close to her bone. She was rushed off to surgery. Thankfully, she’s now a healthy, spirited young girl, but the excruciating days we spent in the hospital were some of the hardest of my life. My wife, Alice, and I felt helpless and heartbroken. We got through it because of excellent medical care, understanding workplaces and loved ones who showed up and reminded us that we were not alone.

When I became a parent, a friend told me I was signing up for a lifetime of joy and worry. The joys are indeed abundant, but as fulfilling as parenting has been, the truth is it has also been more stressful than any job I’ve had. I’ve had many moments of feeling lost and exhausted. So many parents I encounter as I travel across America tell me they have the same experience: They feel lucky to be raising kids, but they are struggling, often in silence and alone.

The stress and mental health challenges faced by parents — just like loneliness , workplace well-being and the impact of social media on youth mental health — aren’t always visible, but they can take a steep toll. It’s time to recognize they constitute a serious public health concern for our country. Parents who feel pushed to the brink deserve more than platitudes. They need tangible support. That’s why I am issuing a surgeon general’s advisory to call attention to the stress and mental health concerns facing parents and caregivers and to lay out what we can do to address them.

A recent study by the American Psychological Association revealed that 48 percent of parents say most days their stress is completely overwhelming, compared with 26 percent of other adults who reported the same. They are navigating traditional hardships of parenting — worrying about money and safety, struggling to get enough sleep — as well as new stressors, including omnipresent screens, a youth mental health crisis and widespread fear about the future.

Stress is tougher to manage when you feel you’re on your own, which is why it’s particularly concerning that so many parents, single parents most of all, report feeling lonelier than other adults . Additionally, parents are stretched for time. Compared with just a few decades ago, mothers and fathers spend more time working and more time caring for their children , leaving them less time for rest, leisure and relationships. Stress, loneliness and exhaustion can easily affect people’s mental health and well-being. And we know that the mental health of parents has a direct impact on the mental health of children.

All of this is compounded by an intensifying culture of comparison, often amplified online, that promotes unrealistic expectations of what parents must do. Chasing these expectations while trying to wade through an endless stream of parenting advice has left many families feeling exhausted, burned out and perpetually behind.

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Resource Library

Reports & working papers.

A Cascade of Impacts: The Many Ways Water Affects Child Development

This working paper from the Early Childhood Scientific Council on Equity and the Environment explores how water affects children’s health, learning, and behavior, and how ensuring access to safe drinking water is necessary to support the healthy development of all children. It offers specific strategies to address disparities in access to clean water and resources to take action in your community.

Topics: child development , water , environment Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2024 View resource A World of Differences: The Science of Human Variation Can Drive Early Childhood Policies and Programs to Bigger Impacts

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child examines the role of within-group variation and between-group differences in how children develop, and it highlights the importance of addressing both kinds of variation in supporting the healthy development of young children.

Topics: lifelong health , child development , extreme heat Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2024 View resource Extreme Heat Affects Early Childhood Development and Health

This working paper from the Early Childhood Scientific Council on Equity and the Environment (ECSCEE) summarizes the current knowledge on how heat impacts the development of biological systems. It’s the first in a series from ECSCEE focusing on the ways that environmental conditions shape young children’s development.

Topics: lifelong health , child development , extreme heat Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2024 View resource O Lugar Importa: O Ambiente Molda as Bases do Desenvolvimento Saudável

O Lugar Importa: O Ambiente Molda as Bases do Desenvolvimento Saudável Descarregar o PDF para impressão

Topics: lifelong health , mental health , racism , child development Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2023 View resource El lugar es importante: El entorno que creamos define los pilares del desarrollo saludable

El lugar es importante: El entorno que creamos define los pilares del desarrollo saludable Descargar PDF en español

Topics: lifelong health , mental health , racism , child development Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2023 View resource Place Matters: The Environment We Create Shapes the Foundations of Healthy Development

The new working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explores the influence of the built and natural environments on child development and lifelong health.

Topics: lifelong health , mental health , racism , child development Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2023 View resource Connecting the Brain to the Rest of the Body: Early Childhood Development and Lifelong Health Are Deeply Intertwined

The rapidly advancing frontiers of 21st-century biological sciences now provide compelling evidence that the foundations of lifelong health are built early, with increasing evidence of the importance of the prenatal period and first few years after birth.

Topics: brain architecture , lifelong health , mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2020 View resource Understanding Motivation: Building the Brain Architecture That Supports Learning, Health, and Community Participation

A healthy, engaged community depends on people achieving to the best of their potential, contributing actively to the economy and public well-being, and helping the next generation to thrive. A complex set of intertwined social and biological factors influences people’s motivation to participate actively and productively in schools, jobs, and communities–and to persevere in the […]

Topics: executive function , resilience , adult capabilities , motivation Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2018 View resource Three Principles to Improve Outcomes for Children and Families

Understanding how the experiences children have starting at birth, even prenatally, affect lifelong outcomes—combined with new knowledge about the core capabilities adults need to thrive as parents and in the workplace—provides a strong foundation upon which policymakers and civic leaders can design a shared and more effective agenda.

Topics: lifelong health , serve and return , program effectiveness , adult capabilities Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2017 View resource Applying the Science of Child Development in Child Welfare Systems

This paper shows how the science of child development can be leveraged to strengthen and improve the public child welfare system so that it can better support the children, families, and communities it serves.

Topics: neglect Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2016 View resource From Best Practices to Breakthrough Impacts

This report synthesizes 15 years of dramatic advances in the science of early childhood and early brain development, analyzes evidence generated by 50 years of program evaluation research, and presents a framework for driving science-based innovation in early childhood policy and practice.

Topics: toxic stress , brain architecture , executive function , resilience , neglect , lifelong health , mental health , serve and return , program effectiveness , adult capabilities Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2016 View resource Building Core Capabilities for Life

This report identifies the core capabilities adults need to succeed in life and support the development of the next generation, how these capabilities develop, and what compromises them, and provides approaches for helping adults to build these core skills.

Topics: adult capabilities Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2016 View resource Supportive Relationships and Active Skill-Building Strengthen the Foundations of Resilience

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child  explains how supportive relationships with adults help children develop “ resilience ,” or the set of skills needed to respond to adversity and thrive.

Topics: resilience Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2015 View resource A Decade of Science Informing Policy: The Story of the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child

This retrospective report describes the history of how the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child  came to be, what its impact has been, how its members work, and why the Council has made a difference.

Topics: Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2014 View resource The Science of Neglect: The Persistent Absence of Responsive Care Disrupts the Developing Brain

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child  explains why young children who experience severe deprivation or neglect can experience a range of negative consequences.

Topics: toxic stress , neglect , serve and return Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2012 View resource Building the Brain’s “Air Traffic Control” System: How Early Experiences Shape the Development of Executive Function

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains how executive function  skills develop, what can disrupt their development, and how supporting them pays off in school and life.

Topics: executive function Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2011 View resource The Foundations of Lifelong Health Are Built in Early Childhood

This report explains how the earliest years lay the groundwork for lifelong health .

Topics: lifelong health , mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2010 View resource Early Experiences Can Alter Gene Expression and Affect Long-Term Development

Early experiences can affect how and if genes are expressed . This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child  explains how children’s early environmental influences shape their developing brain architecture.

Topics: brain architecture Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2010 View resource Persistent Fear and Anxiety Can Affect Young Children’s Learning and Development

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child  explains how early exposure to circumstances that produce persistent fear and chronic anxiety can have lifelong effects on physical and mental health .

Topics: toxic stress , neglect , lifelong health , mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2010 View resource Maternal Depression Can Undermine the Development of Young Children

This working paper from the  National Scientific Council on the Developing Child and the National Forum on Early Childhood Policy and Programs  examines why addressing the consequences of serious depression in parents and caregivers could support the future prosperity and well-being of both children and society as a whole.

Topics: mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2009 View resource Workforce Development, Welfare Reform, and Child Well-Being

This working paper from the National Forum on Early Childhood Policy and Programs summarizes evaluations of family self-sufficiency programs to show that policies can achieve both positive economic benefits for parents and positive educational effects for their children.

Topics: program effectiveness Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2008 View resource Establishing a Level Foundation for Life: Mental Health Begins in Early Childhood

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child  explains why sound mental health is the foundation that supports all other aspects of human development—from the formation of friendships to achievement in school.

Topics: mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2008 View resource The Science of Early Childhood Development: Closing the Gap Between What We Know and What We Do

This report outlines seven core concepts of development, and explains their implications for policies and programs that could significantly improve children’s lives.

Topics: toxic stress , brain architecture , lifelong health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2007 View resource A Science-Based Framework for Early Childhood Policy

This report provides a framework for using evidence to improve child outcomes in learning, behavior, and health.

Topics: toxic stress , brain architecture , lifelong health , program effectiveness Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2007 View resource The Timing and Quality of Early Experiences Combine to Shape Brain Architecture

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child explains key scientific advances in understanding why the early years matter for brain development, as well as the implications of those findings for policy.

Topics: brain architecture Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2007 View resource Early Exposure to Toxic Substances Damages Brain Architecture

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child  explains how exposure to toxins before birth or early in life can have a devastating and lifelong effect on the developing architecture of the brain .

Topics: brain architecture Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2006 View resource Excessive Stress Disrupts the Architecture of the Developing Brain

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child  defines the concept of toxic stress —what happens when children experience severe, prolonged adversity without adult support.

Topics: toxic stress Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2005 View resource Children’s Emotional Development Is Built into the Architecture of Their Brains

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child discusses how a child’s capacity to regulate emotions develops in a complex interaction with his or her environment and ongoing mental, physical, and social development. It also discusses the implications of this research for policies affecting young children, their caregivers, and service providers.

Topics: brain architecture , mental health Media type: Reports & Working Papers Published: 2004 View resource Young Children Develop in an Environment of Relationships

This working paper from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child  explains why an environment of relationships is crucial for the development of a child’s brain architecture , which lays the foundation for later developmental outcomes.

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The National Maternal Mental Health Hotline provides free, confidential mental health support. Pregnant people, moms, and new parents can call or text any time, every day.

Start a call: 1-833-TLC-MAMA (1-833-852-6262)

Text now: 1-833-TLC-MAMA (1-833-852-6262)

Use TTY: Use your preferred relay service or dial 711 , then 1-833-852-6262 .

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Biden-Harris Administration Awards Over $558 Million to Improve Maternal Health, including $440 Million to Support Pregnant and New Moms, Infants, and Children through Voluntary Home Visiting Programs Proven to Improve Maternal and Child Health, Child Development, and School Readiness

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