story writing vs essay writing

Narrative Writing: A Complete Guide for Teachers and Students

MASTERING THE CRAFT OF NARRATIVE WRITING

Narratives build on and encourage the development of the fundamentals of writing. They also require developing an additional skill set: the ability to tell a good yarn, and storytelling is as old as humanity.

We see and hear stories everywhere and daily, from having good gossip on the doorstep with a neighbor in the morning to the dramas that fill our screens in the evening.

Good narrative writing skills are hard-won by students even though it is an area of writing that most enjoy due to the creativity and freedom it offers.

Here we will explore some of the main elements of a good story: plot, setting, characters, conflict, climax, and resolution . And we will look too at how best we can help our students understand these elements, both in isolation and how they mesh together as a whole.

WHAT IS A NARRATIVE?

A narrative is a story that shares a sequence of events , characters, and themes. It expresses experiences, ideas, and perspectives that should aspire to engage and inspire an audience.

A narrative can spark emotion, encourage reflection, and convey meaning when done well.

Narratives are a popular genre for students and teachers as they allow the writer to share their imagination, creativity, skill, and understanding of nearly all elements of writing.  We occasionally refer to a narrative as ‘creative writing’ or story writing.

The purpose of a narrative is simple, to tell the audience a story.  It can be written to motivate, educate, or entertain and can be fact or fiction.

A COMPLETE UNIT ON TEACHING NARRATIVE WRITING

Teach your students to become skilled story writers with this HUGE   NARRATIVE & CREATIVE STORY WRITING UNIT . Offering a  COMPLETE SOLUTION  to teaching students how to craft  CREATIVE CHARACTERS, SUPERB SETTINGS, and PERFECT PLOTS .

Over 192 PAGES of materials, including:

TYPES OF NARRATIVE WRITING

There are many narrative writing genres and sub-genres such as these.

We have a complete guide to writing a personal narrative that differs from the traditional story-based narrative covered in this guide. It includes personal narrative writing prompts, resources, and examples and can be found here.

As we can see, narratives are an open-ended form of writing that allows you to showcase creativity in many directions. However, all narratives share a common set of features and structure known as “Story Elements”, which are briefly covered in this guide.

Don’t overlook the importance of understanding story elements and the value this adds to you as a writer who can dissect and create grand narratives. We also have an in-depth guide to understanding story elements here .

CHARACTERISTICS OF NARRATIVE WRITING

Narrative structure.

ORIENTATION (BEGINNING) Set the scene by introducing your characters, setting and time of the story. Establish your who, when and where in this part of your narrative

COMPLICATION AND EVENTS (MIDDLE) In this section activities and events involving your main characters are expanded upon. These events are written in a cohesive and fluent sequence.

RESOLUTION (ENDING) Your complication is resolved in this section. It does not have to be a happy outcome, however.

EXTRAS: Whilst orientation, complication and resolution are the agreed norms for a narrative, there are numerous examples of popular texts that did not explicitly follow this path exactly.

NARRATIVE FEATURES

LANGUAGE: Use descriptive and figurative language to paint images inside your audience’s minds as they read.

PERSPECTIVE Narratives can be written from any perspective but are most commonly written in first or third person.

DIALOGUE Narratives frequently switch from narrator to first-person dialogue. Always use speech marks when writing dialogue.

TENSE If you change tense, make it perfectly clear to your audience what is happening. Flashbacks might work well in your mind but make sure they translate to your audience.

THE PLOT MAP

This graphic is known as a plot map, and nearly all narratives fit this structure in one way or another, whether romance novels, science fiction or otherwise.

It is a simple tool that helps you understand and organise a story’s events. Think of it as a roadmap that outlines the journey of your characters and the events that unfold. It outlines the different stops along the way, such as the introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution, that help you to see how the story builds and develops.

Using a plot map, you can see how each event fits into the larger picture and how the different parts of the story work together to create meaning. It’s a great way to visualize and analyze a story.

Be sure to refer to a plot map when planning a story, as it has all the essential elements of a great story.

THE 5 KEY STORY ELEMENTS OF A GREAT NARRATIVE (6-MINUTE TUTORIAL VIDEO)

This video we created provides an excellent overview of these elements and demonstrates them in action in stories we all know and love.

HOW TO WRITE A NARRATIVE

Now that we understand the story elements and how they come together to form stories, it’s time to start planning and writing your narrative.

In many cases, the template and guide below will provide enough details on how to craft a great story. However, if you still need assistance with the fundamentals of writing, such as sentence structure, paragraphs and using correct grammar, we have some excellent guides on those here.

USE YOUR WRITING TIME EFFECTIVELY: Maximize your narrative writing sessions by spending approximately 20 per cent of your time planning and preparing.  This ensures greater productivity during your writing time and keeps you focused and on task.

Use tools such as graphic organizers to logically sequence your narrative if you are not a confident story writer.  If you are working with reluctant writers, try using narrative writing prompts to get their creative juices flowing.

Spend most of your writing hour on the task at hand, don’t get too side-tracked editing during this time and leave some time for editing. When editing a  narrative, examine it for these three elements.

• Spelling and grammar ( Is it readable?)
• Story structure and continuity ( Does it make sense, and does it flow? )
• Character and plot analysis. (Are your characters engaging? Does your problem/resolution work? )

1. SETTING THE SCENE: THE WHERE AND THE WHEN

The story’s setting often answers two of the central questions in the story, namely, the where and the when. The answers to these two crucial questions will often be informed by the type of story the student is writing.

The story’s setting can be chosen to quickly orient the reader to the type of story they are reading. For example, a fictional narrative writing piece such as a horror story will often begin with a description of a haunted house on a hill or an abandoned asylum in the middle of the woods. If we start our story on a rocket ship hurtling through the cosmos on its space voyage to the Alpha Centauri star system, we can be reasonably sure that the story we are embarking on is a work of science fiction.

Such conventions are well-worn clichés true, but they can be helpful starting points for our novice novelists to make a start.

Having students choose an appropriate setting for the type of story they wish to write is an excellent exercise for our younger students. It leads naturally onto the next stage of story writing, which is creating suitable characters to populate this fictional world they have created. However, older or more advanced students may wish to play with the expectations of appropriate settings for their story. They may wish to do this for comic effect or in the interest of creating a more original story. For example, opening a story with a children’s birthday party does not usually set up the expectation of a horror story. Indeed, it may even lure the reader into a happy reverie as they remember their own happy birthday parties. This leaves them more vulnerable to the surprise element of the shocking action that lies ahead.

Once the students have chosen a setting for their story, they need to start writing. Little can be more terrifying to English students than the blank page and its bare whiteness stretching before them on the table like a merciless desert they must cross. Give them the kick-start they need by offering support through word banks or writing prompts. If the class is all writing a story based on the same theme, you may wish to compile a common word bank on the whiteboard as a prewriting activity. Write the central theme or genre in the middle of the board. Have students suggest words or phrases related to the theme and list them on the board.

You may wish to provide students with a copy of various writing prompts to get them started. While this may mean that many students’ stories will have the same beginning, they will most likely arrive at dramatically different endings via dramatically different routes.

A bargain is at the centre of the relationship between the writer and the reader. That bargain is that the reader promises to suspend their disbelief as long as the writer creates a consistent and convincing fictional reality. Creating a believable world for the fictional characters to inhabit requires the student to draw on convincing details. The best way of doing this is through writing that appeals to the senses. Have your student reflect deeply on the world that they are creating. What does it look like? Sound like? What does the food taste like there? How does it feel like to walk those imaginary streets, and what aromas beguile the nose as the main character winds their way through that conjured market?

Also, Consider the when; or the time period. Is it a future world where things are cleaner and more antiseptic? Or is it an overcrowded 16th-century London with human waste stinking up the streets? If students can create a multi-sensory installation in the reader’s mind, then they have done this part of their job well.

Popular Settings from Children’s Literature and Storytelling

• Fairytale Kingdom
• Magical Forest
• Village/town
• Underwater world
• Space/Alien planet

2. CASTING THE CHARACTERS: THE WHO

Now that your student has created a believable world, it is time to populate it with believable characters.

In short stories, these worlds mustn’t be overpopulated beyond what the student’s skill level can manage. Short stories usually only require one main character and a few secondary ones. Think of the short story more as a small-scale dramatic production in an intimate local theater than a Hollywood blockbuster on a grand scale. Too many characters will only confuse and become unwieldy with a canvas this size. Keep it simple!

Creating believable characters is often one of the most challenging aspects of narrative writing for students. Fortunately, we can do a few things to help students here. Sometimes it is helpful for students to model their characters on actual people they know. This can make things a little less daunting and taxing on the imagination. However, whether or not this is the case, writing brief background bios or descriptions of characters’ physical personality characteristics can be a beneficial prewriting activity. Students should give some in-depth consideration to the details of who their character is: How do they walk? What do they look like? Do they have any distinguishing features? A crooked nose? A limp? Bad breath? Small details such as these bring life and, therefore, believability to characters. Students can even cut pictures from magazines to put a face to their character and allow their imaginations to fill in the rest of the details.

Younger students will often dictate to the reader the nature of their characters. To improve their writing craft, students must know when to switch from story-telling mode to story-showing mode. This is particularly true when it comes to character. Encourage students to reveal their character’s personality through what they do rather than merely by lecturing the reader on the faults and virtues of the character’s personality. It might be a small relayed detail in the way they walk that reveals a core characteristic. For example, a character who walks with their head hanging low and shoulders hunched while avoiding eye contact has been revealed to be timid without the word once being mentioned. This is a much more artistic and well-crafted way of doing things and is less irritating for the reader. A character who sits down at the family dinner table immediately snatches up his fork and starts stuffing roast potatoes into his mouth before anyone else has even managed to sit down has revealed a tendency towards greed or gluttony.

Understanding Character Traits

Again, there is room here for some fun and profitable prewriting activities. Give students a list of character traits and have them describe a character doing something that reveals that trait without ever employing the word itself.

It is also essential to avoid adjective stuffing here. When looking at students’ early drafts, adjective stuffing is often apparent. To train the student out of this habit, choose an adjective and have the student rewrite the sentence to express this adjective through action rather than telling.

When writing a story, it is vital to consider the character’s traits and how they will impact the story’s events. For example, a character with a strong trait of determination may be more likely to overcome obstacles and persevere. In contrast, a character with a tendency towards laziness may struggle to achieve their goals. In short, character traits add realism, depth, and meaning to a story, making it more engaging and memorable for the reader.

Popular Character Traits in Children’s Stories

• Determination
• Imagination
• Perseverance
• Responsibility

We have an in-depth guide to creating great characters here , but most students should be fine to move on to planning their conflict and resolution.

3. NO PROBLEM? NO STORY! HOW CONFLICT DRIVES A NARRATIVE

This is often the area apprentice writers have the most difficulty with. Students must understand that without a problem or conflict, there is no story. The problem is the driving force of the action. Usually, in a short story, the problem will center around what the primary character wants to happen or, indeed, wants not to happen. It is the hurdle that must be overcome. It is in the struggle to overcome this hurdle that events happen.

Often when a student understands the need for a problem in a story, their completed work will still not be successful. This is because, often in life, problems remain unsolved. Hurdles are not always successfully overcome. Students pick up on this.

We often discuss problems with friends that will never be satisfactorily resolved one way or the other, and we accept this as a part of life. This is not usually the case with writing a story. Whether a character successfully overcomes his or her problem or is decidedly crushed in the process of trying is not as important as the fact that it will finally be resolved one way or the other.

A good practical exercise for students to get to grips with this is to provide copies of stories and have them identify the central problem or conflict in each through discussion. Familiar fables or fairy tales such as Three Little Pigs, The Boy Who Cried Wolf, Cinderella, etc., are great for this.

While it is true that stories often have more than one problem or that the hero or heroine is unsuccessful in their first attempt to solve a central problem, for beginning students and intermediate students, it is best to focus on a single problem, especially given the scope of story writing at this level. Over time students will develop their abilities to handle more complex plots and write accordingly.

Popular Conflicts found in Children’s Storytelling.

• Good vs evil
• Individual vs society
• Nature vs nurture
• Self vs others
• Man vs self
• Man vs nature
• Man vs technology
• Individual vs fate
• Self vs destiny

Conflict is the heart and soul of any good story. It’s what makes a story compelling and drives the plot forward. Without conflict, there is no story. Every great story has a struggle or a problem that needs to be solved, and that’s where conflict comes in. Conflict is what makes a story exciting and keeps the reader engaged. It creates tension and suspense and makes the reader care about the outcome.

Like in real life, conflict in a story is an opportunity for a character’s growth and transformation. It’s a chance for them to learn and evolve, making a story great. So next time stories are written in the classroom, remember that conflict is an essential ingredient, and without it, your story will lack the energy, excitement, and meaning that makes it truly memorable.

4. THE NARRATIVE CLIMAX: HOW THINGS COME TO A HEAD!

The climax of the story is the dramatic high point of the action. It is also when the struggles kicked off by the problem come to a head. The climax will ultimately decide whether the story will have a happy or tragic ending. In the climax, two opposing forces duke things out until the bitter (or sweet!) end. One force ultimately emerges triumphant. As the action builds throughout the story, suspense increases as the reader wonders which of these forces will win out. The climax is the release of this suspense.

Much of the success of the climax depends on how well the other elements of the story have been achieved. If the student has created a well-drawn and believable character that the reader can identify with and feel for, then the climax will be more powerful.

The nature of the problem is also essential as it determines what’s at stake in the climax. The problem must matter dearly to the main character if it matters at all to the reader.

Have students engage in discussions about their favorite movies and books. Have them think about the storyline and decide the most exciting parts. What was at stake at these moments? What happened in your body as you read or watched? Did you breathe faster? Or grip the cushion hard? Did your heart rate increase, or did you start to sweat? This is what a good climax does and what our students should strive to do in their stories.

The climax puts it all on the line and rolls the dice. Let the chips fall where the writer may…

Popular Climax themes in Children’s Stories

• A battle between good and evil
• The character’s bravery saves the day
• Character faces their fears and overcomes them
• The character solves a mystery or puzzle.
• The character stands up for what is right.
• Character reaches their goal or dream.
• The character learns a valuable lesson.
• The character makes a selfless sacrifice.
• The character makes a difficult decision.
• The character reunites with loved ones or finds true friendship.

5. RESOLUTION: TYING UP LOOSE ENDS

After the climactic action, a few questions will often remain unresolved for the reader, even if all the conflict has been resolved. The resolution is where those lingering questions will be answered. The resolution in a short story may only be a brief paragraph or two. But, in most cases, it will still be necessary to include an ending immediately after the climax can feel too abrupt and leave the reader feeling unfulfilled.

An easy way to explain resolution to students struggling to grasp the concept is to point to the traditional resolution of fairy tales, the “And they all lived happily ever after” ending. This weather forecast for the future allows the reader to take their leave. Have the student consider the emotions they want to leave the reader with when crafting their resolution.

While the action is usually complete by the end of the climax, it is in the resolution that if there is a twist to be found, it will appear – think of movies such as The Usual Suspects. Pulling this off convincingly usually requires considerable skill from a student writer. Still, it may well form a challenging extension exercise for those more gifted storytellers among your students.

Popular Resolutions in Children’s Stories

• Our hero achieves their goal
• The character learns a valuable lesson
• A character finds happiness or inner peace.
• The character reunites with loved ones.
• Character restores balance to the world.
• The character discovers their true identity.
• Character changes for the better.
• The character gains wisdom or understanding.
• Character makes amends with others.
• The character learns to appreciate what they have.

Once students have completed their story, they can edit for grammar, vocabulary choice, spelling, etc., but not before!

As mentioned, there is a craft to storytelling, as well as an art. When accurate grammar, perfect spelling, and immaculate sentence structures are pushed at the outset, they can cause storytelling paralysis. For this reason, it is essential that when we encourage the students to write a story, we give them license to make mechanical mistakes in their use of language that they can work on and fix later.

Good narrative writing is a very complex skill to develop and will take the student years to become competent. It challenges not only the student’s technical abilities with language but also her creative faculties. Writing frames, word banks, mind maps, and visual prompts can all give valuable support as students develop the wide-ranging and challenging skills required to produce a successful narrative writing piece. But, at the end of it all, as with any craft, practice and more practice is at the heart of the matter.

TIPS FOR WRITING A GREAT NARRATIVE

• Start your story with a clear purpose: If you can determine the theme or message you want to convey in your narrative before starting it will make the writing process so much simpler.
• Choose a compelling storyline and sell it through great characters, setting and plot: Consider a unique or interesting story that captures the reader’s attention, then build the world and characters around it.
• Develop vivid characters that are not all the same: Make your characters relatable and memorable by giving them distinct personalities and traits you can draw upon in the plot.
• Use descriptive language to hook your audience into your story: Use sensory language to paint vivid images and sequences in the reader’s mind.
• Show, don’t tell your audience: Use actions, thoughts, and dialogue to reveal character motivations and emotions through storytelling.
• Create a vivid setting that is clear to your audience before getting too far into the plot: Describe the time and place of your story to immerse the reader fully.
• Build tension: Refer to the story map earlier in this article and use conflict, obstacles, and suspense to keep the audience engaged and invested in your narrative.
• Use figurative language such as metaphors, similes, and other literary devices to add depth and meaning to your narrative.
• Edit, revise, and refine: Take the time to refine and polish your writing for clarity and impact.
• Stay true to your voice: Maintain your unique perspective and style in your writing to make it your own.

NARRATIVE WRITING EXAMPLES (Student Writing Samples)

Below are a collection of student writing samples of narratives.  Click on the image to enlarge and explore them in greater detail.  Please take a moment to read these creative stories in detail and the teacher and student guides which highlight some of the critical elements of narratives to consider before writing.

Please understand these student writing samples are not intended to be perfect examples for each age or grade level but a piece of writing for students and teachers to explore together to critically analyze to improve student writing skills and deepen their understanding of story writing.

We recommend reading the example either a year above or below, as well as the grade you are currently working with, to gain a broader appreciation of this text type.

NARRATIVE WRITING PROMPTS (Journal Prompts)

When students have a great journal prompt, it can help them focus on the task at hand, so be sure to view our vast collection of visual writing prompts for various text types here or use some of these.

• On a recent European trip, you find your travel group booked into the stunning and mysterious Castle Frankenfurter for a single night…  As night falls, the massive castle of over one hundred rooms seems to creak and groan as a series of unexplained events begin to make you wonder who or what else is spending the evening with you. Write a narrative that tells the story of your evening.
• You are a famous adventurer who has discovered new lands; keep a travel log over a period of time in which you encounter new and exciting adventures and challenges to overcome.  Ensure your travel journal tells a story and has a definite introduction, conflict and resolution.
• You create an incredible piece of technology that has the capacity to change the world.  As you sit back and marvel at your innovation and the endless possibilities ahead of you, it becomes apparent there are a few problems you didn’t really consider. You might not even be able to control them.  Write a narrative in which you ride the highs and lows of your world-changing creation with a clear introduction, conflict and resolution.
• As the final door shuts on the Megamall, you realise you have done it…  You and your best friend have managed to sneak into the largest shopping centre in town and have the entire place to yourselves until 7 am tomorrow.  There is literally everything and anything a child would dream of entertaining themselves for the next 12 hours.  What amazing adventures await you?  What might go wrong?  And how will you get out of there scot-free?
• A stranger walks into town…  Whilst appearing similar to almost all those around you, you get a sense that this person is from another time, space or dimension… Are they friends or foes?  What makes you sense something very strange is going on?   Suddenly they stand up and walk toward you with purpose extending their hand… It’s almost as if they were reading your mind.

NARRATIVE WRITING VIDEO TUTORIAL

Teaching Resources

Use our resources and tools to improve your student’s writing skills through proven teaching strategies.

When teaching narrative writing, it is essential that you have a range of tools, strategies and resources at your disposal to ensure you get the most out of your writing time.  You can find some examples below, which are free and paid premium resources you can use instantly without any preparation.

FREE Narrative Graphic Organizer

THE STORY TELLERS BUNDLE OF TEACHING RESOURCES

A MASSIVE COLLECTION of resources for narratives and story writing in the classroom covering all elements of crafting amazing stories. MONTHS WORTH OF WRITING LESSONS AND RESOURCES, including:

NARRATIVE WRITING CHECKLIST BUNDLE

⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ (92 Reviews)

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Essay vs. Short Story

What's the difference.

Essays and short stories are both forms of written expression, but they differ in their purpose and structure. Essays are typically non-fiction pieces that aim to inform or persuade the reader about a specific topic. They often follow a formal structure with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. On the other hand, short stories are fictional narratives that focus on character development and plot. They can be written in various genres and styles, allowing for more creativity and imagination. While essays prioritize facts and logical arguments, short stories prioritize storytelling and evoking emotions in the reader.

Further Detail

Introduction.

When it comes to literary forms, essays and short stories are two popular choices that captivate readers with their unique attributes. While both share the goal of conveying a message or exploring a theme, they differ in various aspects, including structure, length, and narrative techniques. In this article, we will delve into the characteristics of essays and short stories, highlighting their similarities and differences.

One of the primary distinctions between essays and short stories lies in their structure. Essays typically follow a more formal and structured format, often consisting of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction sets the stage by presenting the topic and thesis statement, while the body paragraphs provide supporting evidence and analysis. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the main points and offers a closing thought.

On the other hand, short stories have a more flexible structure. They often begin with an exposition, introducing the characters, setting, and conflict. The plot then unfolds through rising action, climax, and resolution. Unlike essays, short stories allow for more creative freedom in terms of narrative structure, with authors employing various techniques such as flashbacks, foreshadowing, or nonlinear storytelling to engage readers.

Another significant difference between essays and short stories is their length. Essays are typically shorter in length, ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand words. The brevity of essays allows writers to present their ideas concisely and directly, making them suitable for conveying arguments or exploring specific topics in a focused manner.

On the contrary, short stories are longer and more expansive in nature. They can range from a few pages to several dozen pages, providing authors with ample space to develop characters, build suspense, and create intricate plotlines. The extended length of short stories allows for a deeper exploration of themes and emotions, often leaving readers with a more immersive and satisfying reading experience.

Narrative Techniques

While both essays and short stories employ narrative techniques to engage readers, they differ in their approach. Essays primarily rely on logical reasoning, evidence, and analysis to convey their message. Writers use persuasive techniques, such as ethos, pathos, and logos, to appeal to the reader's intellect and emotions. The narrative in essays is often more straightforward and focused on presenting a coherent argument or viewpoint.

In contrast, short stories utilize a wide range of narrative techniques to create a captivating and immersive experience. Authors employ descriptive language, dialogue, and vivid imagery to bring characters and settings to life. They can experiment with different points of view, shifting perspectives, and unreliable narrators to add depth and complexity to the story. The narrative in short stories is often more imaginative and allows for a greater exploration of the human experience.

Themes and Messages

Both essays and short stories aim to convey themes and messages to their readers, but they do so in distinct ways. Essays often focus on presenting an argument or discussing a specific topic, aiming to inform, persuade, or provoke thought. The themes in essays are typically more explicit and directly related to the subject matter being discussed.

On the other hand, short stories explore themes and messages through storytelling and the experiences of characters. They often delve into complex human emotions, moral dilemmas, or societal issues, allowing readers to reflect on the deeper meaning behind the narrative. The themes in short stories are often more implicit, requiring readers to analyze the story's events and characters to uncover the underlying messages.

In conclusion, while essays and short stories share the common goal of conveying a message or exploring a theme, they differ significantly in terms of structure, length, narrative techniques, and the way they approach themes. Essays offer a more formal and structured approach, focusing on presenting arguments and analysis concisely. On the other hand, short stories provide a more immersive and imaginative experience, allowing for the exploration of complex characters, plotlines, and themes. Both forms of writing have their unique merits and appeal, catering to different reading preferences and purposes.

Comparisons may contain inaccurate information about people, places, or facts. Please report any issues.

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Narrative Essays

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What is a narrative essay?

When writing a narrative essay, one might think of it as telling a story. These essays are often anecdotal, experiential, and personal—allowing students to express themselves in a creative and, quite often, moving ways.

Here are some guidelines for writing a narrative essay.

• If written as a story, the essay should include all the parts of a story.

This means that you must include an introduction, plot, characters, setting, climax, and conclusion.

• When would a narrative essay not be written as a story?

A good example of this is when an instructor asks a student to write a book report. Obviously, this would not necessarily follow the pattern of a story and would focus on providing an informative narrative for the reader.

• The essay should have a purpose.

Make a point! Think of this as the thesis of your story. If there is no point to what you are narrating, why narrate it at all?

• The essay should be written from a clear point of view.

It is quite common for narrative essays to be written from the standpoint of the author; however, this is not the sole perspective to be considered. Creativity in narrative essays oftentimes manifests itself in the form of authorial perspective.

• Use clear and concise language throughout the essay.

Much like the descriptive essay, narrative essays are effective when the language is carefully, particularly, and artfully chosen. Use specific language to evoke specific emotions and senses in the reader.

• The use of the first person pronoun ‘I’ is welcomed.

Do not abuse this guideline! Though it is welcomed it is not necessary—nor should it be overused for lack of clearer diction.

• As always, be organized!

Have a clear introduction that sets the tone for the remainder of the essay. Do not leave the reader guessing about the purpose of your narrative. Remember, you are in control of the essay, so guide it where you desire (just make sure your audience can follow your lead).

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How to write a narrative essay [Updated 2023]

A narrative essay is an opportunity to flex your creative muscles and craft a compelling story. In this blog post, we define what a narrative essay is and provide strategies and examples for writing one.

What is a narrative essay?

Similarly to a descriptive essay or a reflective essay, a narrative essay asks you to tell a story, rather than make an argument and present evidence. Most narrative essays describe a real, personal experience from your own life (for example, the story of your first big success).

Alternately, your narrative essay might focus on an imagined experience (for example, how your life would be if you had been born into different circumstances). While you don’t need to present a thesis statement or scholarly evidence, a narrative essay still needs to be well-structured and clearly organized so that the reader can follow your story.

When you might be asked to write a narrative essay

Although less popular than argumentative essays or expository essays, narrative essays are relatively common in high school and college writing classes.

The same techniques that you would use to write a college essay as part of a college or scholarship application are applicable to narrative essays, as well. In fact, the Common App that many students use to apply to multiple colleges asks you to submit a narrative essay.

How to choose a topic for a narrative essay

When you are asked to write a narrative essay, a topic may be assigned to you or you may be able to choose your own. With an assigned topic, the prompt will likely fall into one of two categories: specific or open-ended.

Examples of specific prompts:

• Write about the last vacation you took.
• Write about your final year of middle school.

Examples of open-ended prompts:

• Write about a time when you felt all hope was lost.
• Write about a brief, seemingly insignificant event that ended up having a big impact on your life.

A narrative essay tells a story and all good stories are centered on a conflict of some sort. Experiences with unexpected obstacles, twists, or turns make for much more compelling essays and reveal more about your character and views on life.

If you’re writing a narrative essay as part of an admissions application, remember that the people reviewing your essay will be looking at it to gain a sense of not just your writing ability, but who you are as a person.

In these cases, it’s wise to choose a topic and experience from your life that demonstrates the qualities that the prompt is looking for, such as resilience, perseverance, the ability to stay calm under pressure, etc.

It’s also important to remember that your choice of topic is just a starting point. Many students find that they arrive at new ideas and insights as they write their first draft, so the final form of your essay may have a different focus than the one you started with.

How to outline and format a narrative essay

Even though you’re not advancing an argument or proving a point of view, a narrative essay still needs to have a coherent structure. Your reader has to be able to follow you as you tell the story and to figure out the larger point that you’re making.

You’ll be evaluated on is your handling of the topic and how you structure your essay. Even though a narrative essay doesn’t use the same structure as other essay types, you should still sketch out a loose outline so you can tell your story in a clear and compelling way.

To outline a narrative essay, you’ll want to determine:

• how your story will start
• what points or specifics that you want to cover
• how your story will end
• what pace and tone you will use

In the vast majority of cases, a narrative essay should be written in the first-person, using “I.” Also, most narrative essays will follow typical formatting guidelines, so you should choose a readable font like Times New Roman in size 11 or 12. Double-space your paragraphs and use 1” margins.

To get your creative wheels turning, consider how your story compares to archetypes and famous historical and literary figures both past and present. Weave these comparisons into your essay to improve the quality of your writing and connect your personal experience to a larger context.

How to write a narrative essay

Writing a narrative essay can sometimes be a challenge for students who typically write argumentative essays or research papers in a formal, objective style. To give you a better sense of how you can write a narrative essay, here is a short example of an essay in response to the prompt, “Write about an experience that challenged your view of yourself.”

Narrative essay example

Even as a child, I always had what people might call a reserved personality. It was sometimes framed as a positive (“Sarah is a good listener”) and at other times it was put in less-than-admiring terms (“Sarah is withdrawn and not very talkative”). It was the latter kind of comments that caused me to see my introverted nature as a drawback and as something I should work to eliminate. That is, until I joined my high school’s student council.

The first paragraph, or introduction, sets up the context, establishing the situation and introducing the meaningful event upon which the essay will focus.

The other four students making up the council were very outspoken and enthusiastic. I enjoyed being around them, and I often agreed with their ideas. However, when it came to overhauling our school’s recycling plan, we butted heads. When I spoke up and offered a different point of view, one of my fellow student council members launched into a speech, advocating for her point of view. As her voice filled the room, I couldn’t get a word in edgewise. I wondered if I should try to match her tone, volume, and assertiveness as a way to be heard. But I just couldn’t do it—it’s not my way, and it never has been. For a fleeting moment, I felt defeated. But then, something in me shifted.

In this paragraph, the writer goes into greater depth about how her existing thinking brought her to this point.

I reminded myself that my view was valid and deserved to be heard. So I waited. I let my fellow council member speak her piece and when she was finished, I deliberately waited a few moments before calmly stating my case. I chose my words well, and I spoke them succinctly. Just because I’m not a big talker doesn’t mean I’m not a big thinker. I thought of the quotation “still waters run deep” and I tried to embody that. The effect on the room was palpable. People listened. And I hadn’t had to shout my point to be heard.

This paragraph demonstrates the turn in the story, the moment when everything changed. The use of the quotation “still waters run deep” imbues the story with a dash of poetry and emotion.

We eventually reached a compromise on the matter and concluded the student council meeting. Our council supervisor came to me afterward and said: “You handled that so well, with such grace and poise. I was very impressed.” Her words in that moment changed me. I realized that a bombastic nature isn't necessarily a powerful one. There is power in quiet, too. This experience taught me to view my reserved personality not as a character flaw, but as a strength.

The final paragraph, or conclusion, closes with a statement about the significance of this event and how it ended up changing the writer in a meaningful way.

Narrative essay writing tips

1. pick a meaningful story that has a conflict and a clear “moral.”.

If you’re able to choose your own topic, pick a story that has meaning and that reveals how you became the person your are today. In other words, write a narrative with a clear “moral” that you can connect with your main points.

2. Use an outline to arrange the structure of your story and organize your main points.

Although a narrative essay is different from argumentative essays, it’s still beneficial to construct an outline so that your story is well-structured and organized. Note how you want to start and end your story, and what points you want to make to tie everything together.

3. Be clear, concise, concrete, and correct in your writing.

You should use descriptive writing in your narrative essay, but don’t overdo it. Use clear, concise, and correct language and grammar throughout. Additionally, make concrete points that reinforce the main idea of your narrative.

4. Ask a friend or family member to proofread your essay.

No matter what kind of writing you’re doing, you should always plan to proofread and revise. To ensure that your narrative essay is coherent and interesting, ask a friend or family member to read over your paper. This is especially important if your essay is responding to a prompt. It helps to have another person check to make sure that you’ve fully responded to the prompt or question.

Frequently Asked Questions about narrative essays

A narrative essay, like any essay, has three main parts: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Structuring and outlining your essay before you start writing will help you write a clear story that your readers can follow.

The first paragraph of your essay, or introduction, sets up the context, establishing the situation and introducing the meaningful event upon which the essay will focus.

In the vast majority of cases, a narrative essay should be written in the first-person, using “I.”

The 4 main types of essays are the argumentative essay, narrative essay, exploratory essay, and expository essay. You may be asked to write different types of essays at different points in your education.

Most narrative essays will be around five paragraphs, or more, depending on the topic and requirements. Make sure to check in with your instructor about the guidelines for your essay. If you’re writing a narrative essay for a college application, pay close attention to word or page count requirements.

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Frequently asked questions

What’s the difference between a narrative essay and a descriptive essay.

The key difference is that a narrative essay is designed to tell a complete story, while a descriptive essay is meant to convey an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative and descriptive essays both allow you to write more personally and creatively than other kinds of essays , and similar writing skills can apply to both.

Frequently asked questions: Writing an essay

For a stronger conclusion paragraph, avoid including:

• Important evidence or analysis that wasn’t mentioned in the main body
• Generic concluding phrases (e.g. “In conclusion…”)
• Weak statements that undermine your argument (e.g. “There are good points on both sides of this issue.”)

Your conclusion should leave the reader with a strong, decisive impression of your work.

Your essay’s conclusion should contain:

• A rephrased version of your overall thesis
• A brief review of the key points you made in the main body
• An indication of why your argument matters

The conclusion may also reflect on the broader implications of your argument, showing how your ideas could applied to other contexts or debates.

The conclusion paragraph of an essay is usually shorter than the introduction . As a rule, it shouldn’t take up more than 10–15% of the text.

An essay is a focused piece of writing that explains, argues, describes, or narrates.

In high school, you may have to write many different types of essays to develop your writing skills.

Academic essays at college level are usually argumentative : you develop a clear thesis about your topic and make a case for your position using evidence, analysis and interpretation.

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

Let’s say you’re writing a five-paragraph  essay about the environmental impacts of dietary choices. Here are three examples of topic sentences you could use for each of the three body paragraphs :

• Research has shown that the meat industry has severe environmental impacts.
• However, many plant-based foods are also produced in environmentally damaging ways.
• It’s important to consider not only what type of diet we eat, but where our food comes from and how it is produced.

Each of these sentences expresses one main idea – by listing them in order, we can see the overall structure of the essay at a glance. Each paragraph will expand on the topic sentence with relevant detail, evidence, and arguments.

The topic sentence usually comes at the very start of the paragraph .

However, sometimes you might start with a transition sentence to summarize what was discussed in previous paragraphs, followed by the topic sentence that expresses the focus of the current paragraph.

Topic sentences help keep your writing focused and guide the reader through your argument.

In an essay or paper , each paragraph should focus on a single idea. By stating the main idea in the topic sentence, you clarify what the paragraph is about for both yourself and your reader.

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main point of a paragraph . Everything else in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarized in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

The vast majority of essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Almost all academic writing involves building up an argument, though other types of essay might be assigned in composition classes.

Essays can present arguments about all kinds of different topics. For example:

• In a literary analysis essay, you might make an argument for a specific interpretation of a text
• In a history essay, you might present an argument for the importance of a particular event
• In a politics essay, you might argue for the validity of a certain political theory

At high school and in composition classes at university, you’ll often be told to write a specific type of essay , but you might also just be given prompts.

Look for keywords in these prompts that suggest a certain approach: The word “explain” suggests you should write an expository essay , while the word “describe” implies a descriptive essay . An argumentative essay might be prompted with the word “assess” or “argue.”

In rhetorical analysis , a claim is something the author wants the audience to believe. A support is the evidence or appeal they use to convince the reader to believe the claim. A warrant is the (often implicit) assumption that links the support with the claim.

Logos appeals to the audience’s reason, building up logical arguments . Ethos appeals to the speaker’s status or authority, making the audience more likely to trust them. Pathos appeals to the emotions, trying to make the audience feel angry or sympathetic, for example.

Collectively, these three appeals are sometimes called the rhetorical triangle . They are central to rhetorical analysis , though a piece of rhetoric might not necessarily use all of them.

The term “text” in a rhetorical analysis essay refers to whatever object you’re analyzing. It’s frequently a piece of writing or a speech, but it doesn’t have to be. For example, you could also treat an advertisement or political cartoon as a text.

The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to explain the effect a piece of writing or oratory has on its audience, how successful it is, and the devices and appeals it uses to achieve its goals.

Unlike a standard argumentative essay , it’s less about taking a position on the arguments presented, and more about exploring how they are constructed.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

If you have to hand in your essay outline , you may be given specific guidelines stating whether you have to use full sentences. If you’re not sure, ask your supervisor.

When writing an essay outline for yourself, the choice is yours. Some students find it helpful to write out their ideas in full sentences, while others prefer to summarize them in short phrases.

You will sometimes be asked to hand in an essay outline before you start writing your essay . Your supervisor wants to see that you have a clear idea of your structure so that writing will go smoothly.

Even when you do not have to hand it in, writing an essay outline is an important part of the writing process . It’s a good idea to write one (as informally as you like) to clarify your structure for yourself whenever you are working on an essay.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

• The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
• The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

Your subjects might be very different or quite similar, but it’s important that there be meaningful grounds for comparison . You can probably describe many differences between a cat and a bicycle, but there isn’t really any connection between them to justify the comparison.

You’ll have to write a thesis statement explaining the central point you want to make in your essay , so be sure to know in advance what connects your subjects and makes them worth comparing.

Some essay prompts include the keywords “compare” and/or “contrast.” In these cases, an essay structured around comparing and contrasting is the appropriate response.

Comparing and contrasting is also a useful approach in all kinds of academic writing : You might compare different studies in a literature review , weigh up different arguments in an argumentative essay , or consider different theoretical approaches in a theoretical framework .

If you’re not given a specific prompt for your descriptive essay , think about places and objects you know well, that you can think of interesting ways to describe, or that have strong personal significance for you.

The best kind of object for a descriptive essay is one specific enough that you can describe its particular features in detail—don’t choose something too vague or general.

If you’re not given much guidance on what your narrative essay should be about, consider the context and scope of the assignment. What kind of story is relevant, interesting, and possible to tell within the word count?

The best kind of story for a narrative essay is one you can use to reflect on a particular theme or lesson, or that takes a surprising turn somewhere along the way.

Don’t worry too much if your topic seems unoriginal. The point of a narrative essay is how you tell the story and the point you make with it, not the subject of the story itself.

Narrative essays are usually assigned as writing exercises at high school or in university composition classes. They may also form part of a university application.

When you are prompted to tell a story about your own life or experiences, a narrative essay is usually the right response.

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

An expository essay is a common assignment in high-school and university composition classes. It might be assigned as coursework, in class, or as part of an exam.

Sometimes you might not be told explicitly to write an expository essay. Look out for prompts containing keywords like “explain” and “define.” An expository essay is usually the right response to these prompts.

An expository essay is a broad form that varies in length according to the scope of the assignment.

Expository essays are often assigned as a writing exercise or as part of an exam, in which case a five-paragraph essay of around 800 words may be appropriate.

You’ll usually be given guidelines regarding length; if you’re not sure, ask.

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The Difference between an Essay and a Story

There are several types of essays, and only a narrative essay resembles a story. The traditional length of a narrative essay would be comparable only to a short story in length.

A narrative essay is, in essence, a short version of a personal story from a writer's experience. In some ways, a narrative essay and a short story can feel similar to one another. Both require a certain amount of imaginative narrative from the writer and use descriptive words to convey emotions, lay out the scene, and place the reader inside the events.

However, there are quite a few differences, which is why you won't find a narrative essay in a compilation book of short stories.

Like all other forms of essays, a narrative essay needs a clear outline of ideas that organize the writer's thoughts. Essays will always include an introduction, a body of writing, and a conclusion that sums up the writer's points or describe what the writer learned from the experience they write about.

Short stories need no such structure. While there is technically a beginning, a middle, and an end, the linear structure of a narrative essay is often not followed in a short story. Some jump around in time and play with the reader's imagination to determine the sequence of events and how one event affects or leads to another.

Tell the Truth

One of the most notable differences between a narrative essay and a short story is that a short story does not always have to be true. A story can be fiction or non-fiction, as both fit the definition of a short story. A narrative essay, on the other hand, is expected by the reader to be an actual experience from the writer's life.

The intent of an essay is always to inform, so readers have an expectation that they will learn something by reading an essay regardless of its form. When reading a narrative essay, a reader expects to learn more on the topic being discussed through first-hand knowledge due to the lived experience of the writer.

The intent of a story is to entertain. Some short stories are fables, which include a moral that teaches a lesson. However, even the best lessons in short stories will not come across or even be remembered if the story itself isn't engaging and entertaining.

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What are the differences between narrative and descriptive writing?

What are the differences between narrative and descriptive writing? What should we keep in mind while writing it?

• 2 Can you clarify this question by telling us where you encountered these terms, and what the context is? This is difficult to answer otherwise. –  Goodbye Stack Exchange Commented Jun 9, 2014 at 5:45

7 Answers 7

Narrative writing tells a story or part of a story.

Descriptive writing vividly portrays a person, place, or thing in such a way that the reader can visualize the topic and enter into the writer’s experience.

See here and here .

So in narrative writing, the writer is perfectly capable of telling you the plot of the story, while in descriptive writing there does not have to be a plot, but something has to become very easy for the reader to visualize.

Let's look at the Lord of the Rings. The way J.R.R. Tolkien describes a hobbit is very descriptive, and the reason the movies were so successful was not only because the story was told correctly (the book being narrative writing also), but because the readers did not have to come up with their own imagination of a hobbit (or other figures, places, and such). They were described in detail, giving everybody a very precise framework of imagination to work from. Therefore everybody could relate to and agree upon the characters and the make-up of the artists.

• @malach how do I know, that I should stop description and go on narration? –  gaussblurinc Commented Apr 16, 2013 at 17:28
• 1 The 'here' and 'here' links a broken –  alan Commented Mar 16, 2017 at 17:35
• Descriptive Writing paints pictures with words or recreates a scene or experience for the reader.
• Narrative Writing on the other hand, relates a series of events either real or imaginary or chronologically arranged and from a particular point of view.

For short, the descriptive is to describe and the narrative is to tell information.

Narrative - is when the author is narrating a story or part of a story. Usually, it has introduction, body and its conclusion. It let readers create their own imagination. It may be exact as what the author wants to express or not.

Descriptive - describing what the author wants to impart. It expresses emotion about its certain topic. It leads the way and not letting you fall out of nowhere.

Differences Narration often employs first person point of view, using words like "I" and "me," while other modes including description do not. The biggest difference between the two is that a narrative essay includes action, but the descriptive essay does not. Narration follows a logical order, typically chronological. In contrast, description typically contains no time elements, so organize descriptive essays by some other reasonable means, such as how you physically move around in a space or with a paragraph for each of the senses you use to describe.

The core of narrative writing is strong verbs. Descriptive writing might have some verbs, usually weak ones, but the main tools are nouns and adjectives.

Narrative writing involves the writer's personal experience and he tells it in the form of story.. e.g my first day at college descriptive writing involves the characters observed by five senses and does not contain a plot

• 1 Can you add a contrast to what descriptive writing is? And maybe provide some links to support this? –  Nicole Commented May 12, 2015 at 18:42
• 2 Can you edit to expand this? We're looking for longer answers that explain why and how, not just one-liners. Thanks. –  Monica Cellio Commented Jan 13, 2016 at 23:39

Narrative is the experience of the narrator in his own words whereas descriptive story is analysis of any topic desired..

• 3 "descriptive story is analysis of any topic desired" By that logic, an academic essay or a political polemic would be descriptive writing. –  Goodbye Stack Exchange Commented Oct 27, 2014 at 2:49
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Narrative vs Descriptive Writing: Understanding the Key Differences

By: Author Paul Jenkins

Posted on May 13, 2023

Categories Storytelling , Writing

Narrative and descriptive writing are two of the most common writing styles used in literature. Both styles are used to convey a story, but they differ in their purpose and approach. Narrative writing is designed to tell a complete story, while descriptive writing conveys an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative writing involves telling a story with a beginning, middle, and end. It is often used in novels, short stories, and memoirs. Narrative writing can entertain, inform, or persuade the reader. It is a powerful tool for writers to convey their message and connect with their audience.

On the other hand, descriptive writing creates a vivid image in the reader’s mind. It is often used in poetry, descriptive essays, and travel writing. Descriptive writing allows the writer to use sensory details to create a picture in the reader’s mind. It is a powerful tool for writers to create a mood or atmosphere. Descriptive writing can entertain, inform, or persuade the reader.

Narrative Writing

Narrative writing is a style of writing that tells a story or describes an event. It can be fiction or non-fiction and is often written in the first-person point of view. The purpose of narrative writing is to entertain, inform or persuade the reader.

Narrative writing aims to engage the reader by telling a story that captures their attention. Narrative writing is often used in fiction writing, but it can also be used in non-fiction writing, such as memoirs or personal essays. The purpose of narrative writing is to create a vivid picture in the reader’s mind and make them feel like they are part of the story.

Narrative writing has several key elements that help to create a compelling story. These elements include characters, plot, point of view, narration, chronological order, action, setting, and theme. Characters are the people or animals that are involved in the story. The plot is the sequence of events that make up the story. Point of view is the perspective from which the story is told. Narration is how the story is told, such as first-person or third-person narration. Chronological order is the order in which events occur in the story. Action is the events that take place in the story. The setting is the time and place in which the story takes place. The theme is the underlying message or meaning of the story.

Examples of narrative writing include novels, short stories, and narrative essays. In fiction writing, the protagonist is the main character who drives the story forward. In a narrative essay, the writer tells a personal story that has a point or lesson to be learned. Narrative writing often uses first-person narration to create a more personal connection between the reader and the story.

In summary, narrative writing is a style of writing that tells a story or describes an event. It has several key elements that help to create a compelling story, including characters, plot, point of view, narration, chronological order, action, setting, and theme. Narrative writing can be used in fiction and non-fiction and is often used to entertain, inform, or persuade the reader.

Descriptive Writing

Descriptive writing is a type of writing that aims to provide a detailed description of a person, place, object, or event. It uses sensory details to create an image in the reader’s mind. The writer tries to make the reader feel like they are experiencing the scene.

Descriptive writing aims to create a vivid and detailed picture in the reader’s mind. It is often used to set the scene in a story or to provide a detailed description of a character or place. Descriptive writing can also create an emotional response in the reader.

Descriptive writing uses sensory details to create an image in the reader’s mind. It should be written in a logical order, so the reader can easily follow along. The following elements are commonly used in descriptive writing:

• Sensory detail (smell, taste, sight, sound, touch)
• Appearance and characteristics of the subject
• Description of the place or object
• Exposition of the subject
• Figurative language (metaphors, similes, onomatopoeia)

Here are a few examples of descriptive writing:

• The sun was setting over the mountains, casting a warm glow across the valley. The air was filled with the sweet scent of wildflowers and birds singing in the trees.
• The old house sat at the end of the street, its peeling paint and broken shutters a testament to its age. The front porch creaked as I stepped onto it, and the door groaned as I pushed it open.
• The chocolate cake was rich and decadent, with a moist crumb and a smooth, velvety frosting. Each bite was like a little slice of heaven, the flavors blending perfectly.

In conclusion, descriptive writing is a powerful tool for creating vivid and detailed images in the reader’s mind. The writer can transport the reader to another time and place using sensory details and logical order.

Narrative vs. Descriptive Writing

Differences.

Narrative writing and descriptive writing are two distinct forms of writing that have different purposes. Narrative writing is used to tell a story, while descriptive writing is used to describe something in detail. The following table summarizes some of the key differences between the two:

In narrative writing, the writer is trying to convey a specific message or theme through the story they are telling. In contrast, descriptive writing is more concerned with creating a sensory experience for the reader. Descriptive writing often uses figurative language, such as metaphors and similes, to create vivid images in the reader’s mind.

Similarities

Despite their differences, narrative writing and descriptive writing also share some similarities. Both forms of writing require the writer to use descriptive language to create a vivid picture in the reader’s mind. Both can also be used in both fiction and non-fiction writing.

Another similarity is that both forms of writing can create emotional connections with the reader. In narrative writing, this is achieved by creating relatable characters and situations. Descriptive writing is achieved by using sensory details to create a visceral experience for the reader.

In conclusion, while narrative writing and descriptive writing have different purposes, they require the writer to use descriptive language to create a vivid picture in the reader’s mind. Understanding the differences and similarities between these two forms of writing can help writers choose the appropriate style for their writing project.

Narrative Writing Techniques

Narrative writing is a form of storytelling that conveys a series of events or experiences through a particular perspective. This section will explore some of the key techniques used in narrative writing.

The narrator is the voice that tells the story. They can be a character within the story or an outside observer. The narrator’s perspective can greatly affect the reader’s interpretation of events. For example, a first-person narrator may provide a more personal and subjective account of events, while a third-person narrator may offer a more objective perspective.

Dialogue is the spoken or written words of characters within the story. It can reveal character traits, advance the plot, and provide insight into relationships between characters. Effective dialogue should sound natural and reflect the character’s personality and background.

Point of View

Point of view refers to the perspective from which the story is told. It can be first-person, third-person limited, or third-person omniscient. The choice of point of view can affect the reader’s understanding of the story and its characters.

The plot is the sequence of events that make up the story. It should have a clear beginning, middle, and end, with each event building upon the previous one. A well-crafted plot should be engaging and keep the reader interested.

Characterization

Characterization is the process of creating and developing characters within the story. This can be achieved through various techniques, including dialogue, actions, and inner thoughts. Effective characterization should create characters that are believable and relatable to the reader.

In conclusion, narrative writing techniques are essential for creating a compelling and engaging story. Using techniques such as a well-developed narrator, natural-sounding dialogue, and effective characterization, writers can create stories that captivate and entertain their readers.

Descriptive Writing Techniques

Sensory details.

One of the most critical aspects of descriptive writing is the use of sensory details. This means including information that appeals to the five senses: sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Sensory details help the reader experience the scene or object being described, making the writing more vivid and engaging.

For example, instead of simply stating that a flower is beautiful, a writer might describe the vibrant colors of its petals, the sweet fragrance it emits, and the soft texture of its petals. This level of detail allows the reader to fully imagine the flower and feel like they are experiencing it themselves.

Logical Order

Descriptive writing should also be organized in a logical order. This can mean starting with a general description and moving on to more specific details. For example, describing a room starts with an overview, then moves on to describe individual items.

It’s also important to consider the perspective of the reader. For example, if describing a landscape, the writer should consider the reader’s viewpoint and describe the scene from left to right, top to bottom, or in another logical order that makes sense for the reader.

Descriptive writing should create a clear mental image in the reader’s mind. This can be achieved through the use of vivid imagery and figurative language. For example, a writer might describe a sunset as a “golden blanket draped over the sky” or a forest as a “lush, green cathedral.”

It’s important to balance detailed descriptions and allow readers to use their imagination. The goal is to provide enough detail to create a mental image but not so much that the reader feels overwhelmed or bored.

Finally, descriptive writing should aim to evoke emotions in the reader. This can be achieved through descriptive language conveying a mood or feeling. For example, a writer might describe a storm as “fierce and unrelenting,” creating a sense of danger and foreboding.

It’s important to consider the emotions that the reader should feel based on the subject being described. For example, if describing a peaceful meadow, the writer should use language that conveys a sense of calm and relaxation.

By using these techniques, writers can create engaging and vivid descriptions that allow the reader to experience the scene or object being described fully.

Narrative vs. Descriptive Essays

When it comes to writing essays, there are two main types: narrative and descriptive. While they may seem similar, they have distinct differences in purpose, structure, and examples.

The purpose of a narrative essay is to tell a story. It typically includes characters, a plot, and a setting. It is meant to engage the reader and create an emotional response. Narrative essays can be based on real-life experiences or fictional stories.

On the other hand, the purpose of a descriptive essay is to provide a detailed description of a person, place, or thing. It is meant to paint a picture in the reader’s mind and create a sensory experience. Descriptive essays can be based on real-life experiences or imaginary scenarios.

Narrative essays typically have a chronological structure, meaning they follow a timeline. They often include dialogue and sensory details to create a vivid picture for the reader. The structure of a narrative essay can vary depending on the story being told.

On the other hand, descriptive essays typically have a spatial structure, meaning they describe something in a specific order. They often use sensory details and figurative language to create a vivid picture for the reader. The structure of a descriptive essay can vary depending on the topic being described.

A narrative essay example could be a personal experience, such as a memorable vacation or a life-changing event. It could also be a fictional story, such as a short story or novel.

A descriptive essay example could be describing a favorite place, such as a beach or a park. It could also be a description of a person, such as a family member or a celebrity.

In conclusion, narrative and descriptive essays have distinct differences in purpose, structure, and examples. It is important to understand these differences when deciding which type of essay to write.

Argumentative Essays

Argumentative essays are a type of writing that requires the writer to take a position on a topic and defend it using evidence and reasoning. This type of essay is often used in academic settings, such as in college courses or on standardized tests like the GRE or SAT.

An argumentative essay aims to persuade the reader to agree with the writer’s point of view. To do this, the writer must present a clear and compelling argument supported by evidence. The writer must also anticipate and address counterarguments to strengthen their argument.

An argumentative essay typically follows a five-paragraph structure, which includes an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction should include a clear thesis statement that states the writer’s position on the topic. Each body paragraph should focus on a single point that supports the thesis statement. The conclusion should summarize the essay’s main points and restate the thesis statement in a new way.

Rhetorical Analysis

To write an effective argumentative essay, it is important to consider the rhetorical situation. This includes the audience, purpose, and context of the essay. The writer should also consider using ethos, pathos, and logos in their argument. Ethos refers to the writer’s credibility, pathos refers to emotional appeals, and logos refers to logical appeals.

Thesis Statement

The thesis statement is the most important part of an argumentative essay. It should be clear, concise, and specific. The thesis statement should state the writer’s position on the topic and provide a roadmap for the rest of the essay. It should also be arguable, meaning there should be evidence and reasoning to support the writer’s position.

Expository Essays

Expository essays are a common type of academic writing that aims to inform or explain a topic to the reader. This section will discuss the purpose, structure, and examples of expository essays.

The purpose of an expository essay is to present a balanced analysis of a topic or issue. The writer aims to explain or clarify the topic to the reader, using evidence and facts to support their arguments. Unlike narrative or descriptive writing, expository writing is focused on presenting information clearly and concisely.

The structure of an expository essay typically follows a five-paragraph format. The first paragraph is the introduction, which includes a thesis statement that summarizes the essay’s main point. The following three paragraphs are the body, which presents the evidence and arguments to support the thesis. Finally, the last paragraph is the conclusion, which restates the thesis and summarizes the essay’s main points.

Here are some examples of topics that could be covered in an expository essay:

• The causes and effects of climate change
• The history and significance of a particular event or invention
• The benefits and drawbacks of a particular technology or practice
• The process of learning a new skill or language

In conclusion, expository essays are academic writing that aims to inform or explain a topic to the reader. They follow a five-paragraph structure and present a balanced analysis using evidence and facts.

In conclusion, narrative and descriptive writing are two important styles of writing that serve different purposes. Narrative writing tells a story and conveys events, while descriptive writing paints a vivid picture of a person, place, or thing. Both styles can be used in various types of writing, such as fiction, poetry, biographies, and human interest stories.

When it comes to narrative writing, it is important to consider the basic elements of a story, such as the characters, plot, setting, and theme. Dialogue can also be used to add depth and realism to the story. On the other hand, descriptive writing focuses on sensory details, such as sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch, to create a vivid image in the reader’s mind.

It is important to note that narrative and descriptive writing are distinct styles, but they can also be used together to create a more engaging and compelling piece of writing. For example, a narrative essay can include descriptive elements to enhance the reader’s understanding and emotional connection to the story.

Overall, the key to effective narrative and descriptive writing is to use clear, concise, and engaging language. By mastering these styles, writers can create powerful and memorable works that resonate with readers long after they have finished reading.

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"Versus" versus "vs." in writing

In writing, when should one use the abbreviation vs. as opposed to the full versus ?

This abbreviation seems to have special status from common usage. What is the origin of that, and in what writing contexts is it important?

• differences
• abbreviations

5 Answers 5

In American legal documents, "v." is normally used as the abbreviation of "versus" when describing the parties in a case, like if Mr Jones sues the XYZ Corporation the case will be called "Jones v. XYZ Corp". Or if the government charges someone with a crime, it will be "The United States v. Fred Jones".

Outside of legal documents, "versus" is normally abbreviated "vs."

As to when to spell it out and when to use the abbreviation, this is a matter of the level of formality of the document. Some "standard" abbreviations are accepted in contexts where most abbreviations would not be, like "etc." and "et al.". I think "vs." would be one step less formal than those, but it would not be out of place to use "vs." in documents where, say, you wouldn't abbreviate "committee" to "cmte." and the like.

That's not a very definitive answer, but many of these language rules aren't.

• 8 is the fullstop necessary? –  Pacerier Commented May 12, 2012 at 13:56
• 2 @Pacerier By conventional rules, I would say yes. I believe legal documents routinely include the period. But to at least some extent that's a matter of style. Personally I often drop the periods after "Mr" and "Mrs", and my daughter routinely ridicules me for this. –  Jay Commented May 14, 2012 at 14:48
• 4 @Pacerier: According to the strict British style of writing, the full stop at the end ought to be dropped. Same goes with Mr and Mrs. Reference link –  Ébe Isaac Commented Sep 23, 2016 at 6:47

This is a matter of style; there is no universal rule.

The Guardian Style Guide says :

v for versus, not vs: England v Australia, Rochdale v Sheffield Wednesday, etc

What feels right to me is to use an abbreviation (v or vs; but be consistent) in the context above -- naming sports matches, court cases etc -- and spell the word versus in full for all other uses.

• 5 As per Jay's answer, to an American, "England v Australia" looks like a monster court battle :) –  Andrew Commented Dec 21, 2011 at 4:39
• v is very common for sport in the UK. We can find "England v Australia" from many UK sites: BBC, Sky Sports, Yorkshire Evening Post, the Telegraph, the Guardian, The Sun, The England and Wales Cricket Board, Durham County Cricket Club... –  Hugo Commented Dec 21, 2011 at 9:37
• @Andrew What about "England vs Australia" ? –  Pacerier Commented May 12, 2012 at 13:57
• @pacerier: "England vs Australia" to me sounds like a soccer match, or an olympic event, something of that sort. –  Andrew Commented May 13, 2012 at 3:53
• In my 1970s Welsh primary school, impromptu division into teams always used 'v'. A quick think about numbers, then "OK, football, Bow Street vee the rest". –  slim Commented Sep 17, 2018 at 14:25

Versus is first recorded in English, in a legal context, in the mid-fifteenth century. It is frequently abbreviated, as you say, to v. , but ver. and vs. are also found. In fact, vs. is the only abbreviation in the supporting citations in the Oxford English Dictionary. The extent to which it might be advisable to use the full form will depend on the formality of the document in which it appears, but v. should be appropriate in many cases. It is, for example, found in the titles of law suits.

I would suggest

v. in legal and related use, opposing sports teams, maybe political battles even

versus when it is expressly mandated or when you fall short of character count

vs. in all other cases, with or without italicization

This is not based on any style guide, only a quick and easy reference. The full form is rarely used, so much so most do not even recognize it for what it is.

Mr Pacerier says "by conventional rules" it's "vs." with a fullstop. I thought that if you had first and last letter of the word there was no need for the stop. The important thing though in v versus v. versus vs versus vs. and versus vs against is surely choosing one and being consistent in your text. On a lighter note, I've seen people write "verses" ... nice to think poetically about a rather prosaic matter.

Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged differences writing abbreviations or ask your own question .

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Literary Analysis and Research (ENGL 1302)

Differences between academic essays and narrative nonfiction, academic essays & narrative nonfiction, academic essays, narrative nonfiction, main differences and similarities  between academic essays and narrative nonfiction, licenses and attributions, cc licensed content, original.

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Narrative Vs. Descriptive Writing

Kristie sweet.

The most common types of writing assignments students encounter in composition classes are exposition, argument, narration and description. While all these modes allow a writer to explain an idea or event, they differ in the specific intent. A narrative tells a story about an event, while description creates a picture of a person, place, thing or event for the reader.

Explore this article

• A narrative often reflects your personal experience
• Description
• Description uses sensory detail
• Similarities
• Follow essay format
• Differences
• Employs first person point

1 Narration

2 a narrative often reflects your personal experience.

A narrative often reflects your personal experience, explaining what happened during some sort of experience. Stories are narrative, and narrative essays have a similar purpose of telling the events to a reader. Narrative essay topics include recounting an experience where you learned something significant, your first day at school, your first job interview, a frightening encounter, an experience that changed your life and two differing versions of the same event. Narration is not always a personal experience, though; a book report is narrative since it typically spells out the plot of the book or story.

3 Description

4 description uses sensory detail.

Description uses sensory detail (sights, sounds, tactile sensations, tastes and smells) to describe a scene, person or feeling to a reader. As you describe, you create a three-dimensional picture so your reader can experience the item, place, person or emotion along with the reading. Descriptive essay topics include your favorite place, your bedroom, your best friend, the most unusual object you own, an art exhibit, the best or worst teacher you ever had, your ideal job or dream home.

5 Similarities

6 follow essay format.

Both narrative and descriptive essays should follow essay format with an introductory paragraph, body paragraphs and a concluding paragraph. At the end of the introduction, place a thesis, a sentence that explains the overall purpose of your paper. You should give a reason for your narration or description in that thesis, explaining why this event, person, place or thing is important enough for you to write about. The thesis might express that you are telling a story because you learned something significant or that you are describing a place that creates a sense of calm in your life. In both narration and description, include specific details in the body paragraphs to support the idea set forth in your thesis.

7 Differences

8 employs first person point.

Narration often employs first person point of view, using words like "I" and "me," while other modes including description do not. The biggest difference between the two is that a narrative essay includes action, but the descriptive essay does not. Narration follows a logical order, typically chronological. In contrast, description typically contains no time elements, so organize descriptive essays by some other reasonable means, such as how you physically move around in a space or with a paragraph for each of the senses you use to describe.

• 1 Purdue Online Writing Lab: Narrative Essays
• 2 Purdue Online Writing Lab: Descriptive Essays
• 3 The Writing Center at McDaniel College: A Basic Essay Format

About the Author

Kristie Sweet has been writing professionally since 1982, most recently publishing for various websites on topics like health and wellness, and education. She holds a Master of Arts in English from the University of Northern Colorado.

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How to Write a Novel (Even if You’re a Software Engineer)

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Every writer has a story about how they became a novelist. Here's mine, in five acts.

Early life montage: boyhood in rural Wisconsin, convinced for absolutely no reason that I’m destined to be an actor; theater major at the local community college for two-thirds of a semester before discovering that I’m more interested in how the plays were written than in how to perform the roles (also, because it is 1977, and I’m a young male Midwesterner, I cannot bring myself, in Modern Dance class, to cross the gymnasium floor like a windblown tree); to my surprise, I become captivated (“entranced” may be a better word) by computer programming, which strikes me as some kind of high craft, maybe even an art. They’ll pay you to do this? Comp sci degree follows. For five years I weasel my way into one research lab after another; with only a bachelor’s degree, I don’t have ideal credentials, but I’m good at writing proof of concept computer programs, need minimal supervision, and am good at telling the story of why these programs are significant—what they mean . I’m into graphical user interface design, symbolic AI. Autonomous golf carts, for crying out loud. By 1985 I’m living in Austin, Texas, working day in and day out with people who wrote the textbooks I’ve studied. I’m publishing research papers with my buddies, sometimes even presenting at conferences alongside other researchers who’ve written other textbooks I’ve studied. I feel like I’m working in a well-funded playground for computer scientists. I can’t believe my good luck—and by all indications, it’s never going to run out. I’m happy as a clam.

One day I decide it might be interesting to try writing a novel.

Enthusiasm, naivete, and arrogance carry me along for three, maybe four, weekends before momentum drains away and I become the writerly equivalent of Wile E. Coyote as he looks down to discover only thin air beneath his feet.

This puzzles me, borderline pisses me off. I’d started with such certainty. I know my way around a sentence. I spend half my time writing memos, research reports, documentation. Novels are my favorite art form. I’ve read a thousand of the things. Surely I’ve absorbed some sense of how they are written. I had a Grand Theme, and three or four Riveting Moments teed up. I’d estimated it would take a year to finish the thing. Yet looking over what I’ve written, one fact is undeniable: Every. Single. Sentence. Is. Drivel. I can’t even say why. They just are. I have the disquieting sense that I know less about writing a novel than I did before I started. Suddenly it’s unclear why novels have all those sentences in the first place.

Luckily, I’ve told no one about embarking on this novel-writing nonsense, so no one is likely to ask how it’s going. But it’s going, all right: into my file cabinet. Floppy disk dropped into an unlabeled hanging folder, way in back. I may as well have thrown it in the trash. I will never look at it again, though there are certain awful sentences I can never completely forget.

A batch of years pass: new city, new state, new house, new research lab. I’ve been working with linguists, anthropologists, and cognitive scientists for well over a decade now, absorbing bits and pieces of their fields by osmosis. These are experts at observing how people live, work, think —an essential skill if you want to build tools that people will actually use. I’ve stood behind a two-way mirror watching people try to use a piece of software I’ve written. One user resorts to unplugging the computer because he can’t figure out how to exit the program.

I’ve also, from the very beginning, been working around phenomenally talented programmers. I understand that I’ve been witnessing craftsmanship in action—seen the patience that craft demands, the necessity of subordinating oneself to the half-made thing. Egoless programming is so thoroughly imprinted on me that I actually enjoy submitting my programs to hard-core code reviews, where a room full of expert programmers walk through every line, pointing out every clumsy formulation, every missed possibility. Oddly enough, this feels very much like a table read of a play.

Like all seasoned programmers, by now I’ve got an overdeveloped ability to hold large, multi-jointed ideas in my mind—ideas with many parts that connect and interact. I can run such an idea forward like film through a projector, imagine a change to the program, then roll the film forward again. This has immediate utility for programming, but there is also some connection to capital-D Design—something universal about what it means for a thing to be well made, and how, the better a thing gets, the more its maker must contend with trade-offs. I know I’ve gotten to the essence of an algorithm when I’m forced to sacrifice one desirable quality in order to improve another; if I can get something for nothing, design-wise, the thing is just sloppy. When I’m working well, every change is a tiny experiment, a question posed to the work in progress. If I pay close enough attention, the work will reply: It will demonstrate what it is likely to be good at—and what it will never be good at. I’m reminded, quite often, of the philosopher and social scientist Donald Schön and his notion that designers and problem-solvers don’t begin with grand solutions but, rather, find them, through a “reflective conversation with the materials of the situation.”

.css-meat1u:before{margin-bottom:1.2rem;height:2.25rem;content:'“';display:block;font-size:4.375rem;line-height:1.1;font-family:Juana,Juana-weight300-roboto,Juana-weight300-local,Georgia,Times,Serif;font-weight:300;} .css-mn32pc{font-family:Juana,Juana-weight300-upcase-roboto,Juana-weight300-upcase-local,Georgia,Times,Serif;font-size:1.625rem;font-weight:300;letter-spacing:0.0075rem;line-height:1.2;margin:0rem;text-transform:uppercase;}@media(max-width: 64rem){.css-mn32pc{font-size:2.25rem;line-height:1;}}@media(min-width: 48rem){.css-mn32pc{font-size:2.375rem;line-height:1;}}@media(min-width: 64rem){.css-mn32pc{font-size:2.75rem;line-height:1;}}.css-mn32pc b,.css-mn32pc strong{font-family:inherit;font-weight:bold;}.css-mn32pc em,.css-mn32pc i{font-style:italic;font-family:inherit;} Suddenly it’s unclear why novels have all those sentences in the first place.

I’ve also enrolled in a couple of creative writing classes: essays, short stories. My short-story teacher is Robert McBrearty , and he’s especially good. He has published stories that have been included in best-of anthologies. Robert explains to us the basics of how stories work: voice, point of view, plot. It’s interesting. I try writing a few stories. They keep expanding but never circling back on themselves for an ending. That’s okay. It makes me a better reader. I get the basic rules of the game.

One afternoon I’m working in my backyard when apropos of nothing an actual idea for a novel comes to me. The idea takes about 90 seconds to play out in my mind, like a little mental explosion. This idea is of a different order than the one I had back in Act II. That was just a concept. This has a beginning, middle, and end. It has a setting that is essential to the story, and characters that arise from, and belong in, that setting. I know, intuitively, some of these characters, though not all. That doesn’t worry me because, above all, I know how a reader should feel as they read along , and how that feeling should evolve.

I also know that writing such a novel is far, far beyond my ability.

It’s six years later. I’m two years post-MFA degree in creative writing from a well-regarded low residency program, which allowed me to continue working full time, except for one week of unpaid leave each January and July. I’d entered the program with one simple question: Why do novels have all those sentences ? What keeps a novel from atomizing, crumbling, as in my drafts? In one form or another, I asked this question of every writer I studied under. My graduate thesis consisted of the first half of the story that came to me in my backyard. Its working title is the main character’s name: Edgar Sawtelle .

One striking thing about that MFA program: The teachers, all working writers, give lectures that the other teachers attend. The sense is that the lectures are mostly the teachers discussing writing between themselves, and we are overhearing. Throughout the program, the emphasis is on craft, on skills. Publication is virtually never discussed—the implication being that publication is a side effect of craft well-executed. And oddly enough, critiquing stories in a creative writing workshop feels very much like a code review (though far less rigorous.)

I’ve made little progress on Edgar since graduating from the MFA program. My main character is up a tree, literally, and I have no idea what will happen when he climbs back down. I’ve stupidly been waiting for an answer to spontaneously arrive, but none has. Finally I admit that if I’m ever going to complete this novel, I’ll need to rewrite it from a different point of view, right from the beginning, page one. The thought of rewriting hundreds of manuscript pages is daunting, but by now my only objective is to complete the novel in some, any , fashion—to survive the draft, as the writer Ron Carlson puts it. The thought that the result might be publishable turns me to stone. I put that out of my mind.

All making is making.

Something else has happened, something curious: I no longer see much daylight between the work of programming and the work of writing fiction. The surface details differ in obvious ways, but not far below the surface, the feeling that I am engaged in a “reflective conversation with the materials” is almost identical. Every change I make, in code or in prose, is an opportunity for the half-made thing to demonstrate what it’s good at being and doing. Less and less do I feel that I am the source of much real creativity—the conversation produces what looks like creativity to anyone outside the conversation. Viewed that way, every moment I’ve spent watching gifted craftspeople in any discipline can be taken as a lesson about writing. I’m wary about saying this out loud. Without a chance to qualify and explain, I fear it may sound dopily reductionist: Writing a novel is the same as writing a computer program, eh? Riiiiight. Some novel that must be!

But my wife, Kimberly, says the following to me one day, and I know she’s captured the essence: All making is making .

In any case, it’s obvious that this novel will never be finished. Almost a decade has passed since the idea first came to me, and I’ve spent most of the intervening years vastly underestimating how close it is to completion. From here on out, my job is only to enter the conversation, attend to the conversation, learn from the conversation.

In this way, after three more years, I finish the novel—at least as far as I can finish it on my own.

This is the Ongoing Act, where I am and will always be a journeyman writer. It’s May 2024, and I’m in my writing room, making notes for a third book. The first novel was published in 2008, 14 years after the idea for it first struck me; my second novel will be published in a couple of weeks. Both have been chosen for Oprah’s Book Club , a stunning turn of events. But this is a story about the writer, not the books, and the question I want to address is, did the experience of writing The Story of Edgar Sawtelle make writing Familiaris any easier? Was I faster, more efficient, the second time around? Was I more confident in the process, more certain that the result would be any good?

Nope: no easier, no faster, no more confident. In fact, precious little of what I learned from writing Edgar seemed to apply to this second novel. And the biggest lessons of all (strive to be egoless; attend to the conversation with the materials; locate creativity outside yourself) served mainly to slow me down.

Except…that’s a half-truth at best. I was faster than I would otherwise have been; whatever I learned from writing Edgar made it possible for me to take risks that would otherwise have been unthinkable. I did trust that I would be able to feel the material pushing back, resisting, or encouraging. But after almost 30 years of practice, whatever I “know” is so deeply encoded, it’s almost a physical skill. It has the feeling of mundane practical knowledge: Do thus-and-such when this-or-that happens. Why? I can’t remember exactly, though if pushed, I could invent a plausible reason. The true reason for the way I work these days is that over time I’ve tried dozens of approaches to various writing problems, and I’ve developed some deep catalog of what has worked that’s only accessible to me while I’m actually working. This is not terribly confidence-inspiring, but then I think about the novelist Russell Banks saying, at a bookstore reading, that the main difference between how he felt as a beginning novelist and as the novelist he was then, after 50 years and 11 books, was that he was less uncomfortable not knowing what he was doing. Not that he was comfortable—merely less uncomfortable . And I recall a story, perhaps apocryphal, that long after he’d become a movie star and Hollywood royalty, Henry Fonda would vomit before going onstage for a performance of some play every time.

What is different for me, undeniably, is that vocation and avocation have swapped places: These days I write stories for a living and program for fun. Freed from the burden of paying the bills, writing code has become pure recreation, though I’ve lost some of my former deftness, and a good deal of the pleasure I took in programming involved reveling in that deftness. What agility remains is still profoundly satisfying. When the writing is going poorly, I’ll spend an afternoon writing code, just to remind myself that I used to be good at something . I write little programs to help me see what I’ve written through fresh eyes, or to help me choose between alternate versions of a passage. Or I just fool around with code. Sooner or later that knot of worry inside me relaxes, and I’m able to have a thought: “Maybe if I start the scene this way…” Then I switch to the text editor and hurriedly type out a sentence before the feeling fades. On good days that sentence suggests another, and another, and off I go, wondering what the big problem was, anyway.

Familiaris, by David Wroblewski

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Discussions about the writing craft.

[ESSAY] Story VS. Plot. Using External, Internal and Interpersonal components to understand the throughline of what makes a great story and dispelling common writing rules.

I remember, when trying to figure out what actually makes a great character, I would grab a bunch of different characters from different popular movies, books, shows, comics, etc, and I would try and find throughlines on how they're handled to understand a core idea of what makes a great character. I realised later, it doesn't exactly work, as I think now there are fundamentally two major components of stories, and a lot of popular forms of media don't necessarily make use of both. I do think, however that it's important to be aware of these two sides when creating your story, as to understand what you're trying to achieve. It also helps in really understanding simply the basics of storytelling I think.

A lot of people discuss this as " STORY VS. PLOT ". I'm going to use examples from different popular media to help realise my points but will leave out spoilers on plot beats, I'll simply just use them to explain how they fit in this framework. Lee Child explained in his NYT article on "A Simple Way to Create Suspense" that you want to give the reader a question or imply a question and delay the answer for as long as possible. This is the basic idea, you give them the setup in the form of questions and you give progression towards the answer over the course of the story.

THE 3 BIG STORY COMPONENTS

I've actually seen this idea pop up in a few places now. The idea of framing your story or thinking about any story in the form of questions. These components are...

EXTERNAL CHALLENGES

INTERNAL QUESTIONS

INTERPERSONAL CONNECTIONS

I saw Craig Mazin mention these 3 when discussing screenwriting but I think he was really vague on their application and didn't really go into depth about them. I personally got these 3 from a book called " The Compass of Character" By David Corbett . It's a book that's very specifically about exploring nuances about character motivation. These are the different components of a story, I mentioned, and the idea is that you can interweave them or even just focus on one or two. I did mention two major components before and while there are three, I believe interpersonal connections are shaped around the other two. So what does each really mean and how do these apply to a story exactly.

EXTERNAL CHALLENGE

These rely on a specific goal the character has. To kill the dragon, save the world, find the treasure, etc. Questions are thus framed around the goal (Can Character A defeat Character B, find the treasure, etc.)

External Challenge is best thought of as the PLOT in the STORY VS. PLOT argument

It creates curiosity about the characters' capabilities in achieving their goals

It will also reveal the characters capabilities in dramatic payoff moments

This curiosity naturally leads to suspense/tension as Lee Child put it "Give them a question and delay the answer for as long as possible"

Wish fulfilment characters work very well with these types of stories since you're seeing a unique skill set reacting to solving a challenge that requires their skills, creates admiration for a character instead of empathy (James Bond, Jack Reacher, Sherlock Holmes, etc.)

You can of course also have the "Wrong Person, Wrong Time" plots that rely on putting a normal person in a extremely challenging situation like North by Northwest

You can also have a sort of hybrid, you may have a character that is fundamentally a normal dude, they don't have a special skill set (that can be utilised) and thus struggle because of this with bad odds but they still possess more bravery, determination, wit, luck than an average person (Indiana Jones, MacReady and Co. from The Thing, Nostromo Crew from Alien, etc.)

As long as the tension of the story doesn't suffer, you can give your character whatever skills you want. The dramatic tension only suffers when the conflict can be easily resolved.

You may even need to give your characters extraordinary skills because the plot challenge puts them in such a disadvantage, and as we mentioned these wish fulfilment characters absolutely have the potential to be entertaining

Beloved characters from stories that just focus on External Challenge are beloved more so because the plot built for them is that captivating, their personalities can be charming but on a surface level, they stick in your mind because the plot that they inhabit is so thrilling

Character Arcs rely more on internal questions than external, however you may have an external arc of the character acquiring the skills, for example, they need to face the opposition. (Training Arcs in anime for example)

These are harder to pinpoint as they are so broad, but they generally reflect an inner emotional need the character is longing for or relate to how the character views themselves, asking questions of purpose, worth, integrity, dignity, meaning, etc.

Internal Questions usually create a different emotional reaction, these create empathy & intrigue in the characters, wanting to know more about them and how they'll react/change/refuse to change throughout their journey

The internal question is usually seen as the WHY for the character's goal, and is what I think is what depth in a character really is. For example, say a character's external goal is to find a notorious thief, the why may be is his deeply rooted belief system on justice & law

Internal Questions are the STORY side of STORY VS. PLOT

It's not enough for these internal sides of the character to be just inferred, they need to be emphasised to get the right emotional reaction from an audience, character arcs are usually how they are shown to the audience

You may just imply an internal question at the start, showing a character's die-hard loyalty, for example, but they're not exactly tested on it until Act 2, where the question of if the character's loyalty will win out is shown to the audience

The setup/act 1 phase of a story is all about showing the audience where the character is at the start of the story, their internal need/longing (Ned Stark's honour & love for his family, MacBeth's ambition, Captain America's loyalty & righteousness)

Act 2 is the bulk of their arc, a character may not change from Act 1/Act 3 but the only way you get a powerful emotional payoff to their arc/story is with Act 2. They are confronted & tested on their internal needs/longings their beliefs, values, longings, etc. You may have the rising opposition make it more difficult for the righteous hero to remain completely righteous, make the seemingly apathetic protagonist start losing people around him and bringing out a more emotionally caring side to them, etc.) You're not just getting them to their climax, you're building the pressure for them to get them ready for their ultimate climactic decision, all the while building emotional investment in your audience

Act 3, right from the crisis point is the ultimate answer to the character's internal question. A character may ultimately sink into their vices and abandon their virtues. A character may realise their wrongdoings but be doomed to still suffer for the external consequences but have changed still internally.

Internal Questions are, what I believe, to be the theme/meaning/point of the story. It's not enough to say the theme is a broad subject like Honour, Loyalty, Family, you have to phrase it in the form of an argument or question as it relates to your main characters' and their journey's. The theming of MacBeth is the corruption of unchecked ambition, or if phrased as a question would be "What is the consequence of unchecked ambition?"

Nobody is going to really care about a theme unless you use the character's and their journeys to embody that thematic question/argument. Good news being that you can get away with the most simple, repeated themes ever, as long as you use solid characters and you build their journeys right then you'll still create that emotionally powerful experience in the audience

Elements such as plot beats, setting, etc can hold symbolic meaning that relates to the theme however these still won't hold as much emotional weight as the character's embodying that theme in just who they are

Characters must embody that theme organically, you can't force a theme onto a pre-established character who doesn't fit it. You need that theme to come from that character's internal side, their values, longings, needs, beliefs, motivations, etc

These are common, and I'd imagine hard to avoid in any story, however I believe a story will use these in tandom with one or both of the other two components for a satisfying story

They relate to the character's and ALL of their connections, positive or negative

They also relate to if those connections are progressing positively or negatively

These connections will ultimately also relate to an internal question or external question

A skilled rival in a sports story may relate to the external question side as it raises the tension, making victory seem more difficult but that much more satisfying and may still relate to internal questions, as the main character may struggle with their feelings of worth/skill/confidence when confronted by a rival that outkills them. Maybe the rival is an old friend, and the emotional feelings tied to beating them are a lot more complex now but that much more emotionally engaging.

Interpersonal Questions, raise the stakes whether externally (damsel in distress for example) and/or internally (their connection with another person is directly related to their own internal arc)

If the story is ultimately built on an interpersonal question, they must have some external goal therefore (like winning the girl) and obstacles to overcome, and these may also exist internally for them (like gaining the confidence to ask them out)

Taking this question for it's most popular example: love. Think of your favourite love stories, or love subplots in fiction and I'm willing to bet they will relate to something internal for the characters involved. If they get together just to get together and it doesn't fulfil anything internally for either of them then chances are it's a dud relationship and I doubt anyone cares about it.

Even in stories not about them getting together but may just have a pre-existing relationship, you see their dynamics and how each one completes the other, like an actual relationship. The person is who they are because of their connections, if you took away that connection/dynamic then something would be different about them. Again this isn't just romantic, and don't forget that the internal sides of characters are what evoke empathy in an audience. Seeing a character's devotion and love for their family like Ned in ASOIAF or GOT, creates an empathetic connection between him and the audience as we naturally have concern for what will happen to him and them.

Simply seeing people start to grow more warm around each other in a long-form story is enough to create a strong empathetic connection, as we just see them organically grow closer together and importantly see each of them as being more complete because of those connections

DISPELLING COMMON WRITING RULES

There are a lot of story craft principles, I believe, get preached way too much as gospel and I wanted to use the question method I have mentioned to basically argue against some as I believe the popularity they get spread around is kind of dangerous to beginner writers or the rules have lost the intention of what they originally were meant for.

Characters Must Change

Why? This can be said for a lot of these arguments however there exists a lot of stories that serve as living examples for why this doesn't apply. Sometimes people argue that a character, if they don't change, must at least grow but still I'd argue a character's refusal to change can be the catharsis of a story all the same as a character that undergoes change. A character that gets tested but ultimately stays steadfast in his values and integrity after a hellish conflict that tests and tries to bend them I think has the potential to be equally as emotionally compelling as a character who changes after their conflict. You may also have characters that inspire change in others, characters that possess a certain perspective in the story, and their interpersonal connections and action in the story will impact those around them.

Uncle Iroh in ATLA is one of the most beloved characters while being exactly this, and he still has emotional depth in the story, seeing his backstory for his current attitude, seeing his relationships change with those around him and how they impact each other emotionally while he still remains the same, the only internal change being an emotional one if anything.

Characters Need FLAWS, or flaws make a character more realised

This is a complex topic and I think mostly my issues come from how a lot of people use and apply the term "flaws". If a character is to undergo a positive change arc, then the character will need a "narrative flaw" to overcome to make that change possible. The existence of these flaws alone don't make a character compelling, it's the question on if the character can overcome this flaw that makes them compelling.

I've already mentioned the existence of external only stories, and characters that don't undergo any change arc at all but still have emotional depth. There are also characters that don't change but rather grow, not overcoming a flaw but adopting a new perspective or appreciation for an existing internal trait.

If the story is a tragedy, then the character may not even show he has a flaw, or may have a trait that at first seems positive, but may change into a more negative person by the end of the story. For example a character's earnest service to justice at first may twist over the story as we see in new context that it's a lot more sinister in just how devoted to that principle they are. Or the other way round, what appears to be an initial weakness may be recontextualised later in the story as a virtue.

I see a lot of people mention Indiana Jones as an example of a character with a flaw that makes him empathetic. I'd argue Indy is a character that just exists on the external side of a story. The interest coming from the plot and him overcoming the obstacles in it. His fear of snakes isn't a traditional narrative flaw since he doesn't exactly overcome it but the trait does help make the plot funnier (when it's introduced) and more tense (later on in the plot, adding suspense to the scene) I don't think the fear makes him more nuanced but it does make him more charming and the plot more fun.

Similar to Indy's snake fear, there are a flaws (or think of them as weaknesses, limitations and such) that aren't to be overcome but just add to the tension of the narrative. A normal dude that has been put in the wrong place at the wrong time in an action movie may not turn into a hardened badass by the end but just seeing someone like that in that situation adds tension to the plot.

Also be aware, that it seems a recent trend is to give a character a bunch of negative traits/ flaws however these aren't narrative flaws and aren't the basis of some arc or add to the plot in any way, they just exist because the writer thinks they will make the character seem more interesting and human. These negative traits, at worst, can lead to the writer invertedly rewarding action that is based on these negative traits to push the plot forward, these will heavily disconnect your audience from the characters and plot as the logical cause and effect makes no sense and the character no longer seems like a flawed character but an asshole that the audience should approve of. If a character is arrogant, for example, then make them suffer consequences in the plot for it, make it humorous just how cocky they get and let it backfire on them, they don't have to ever stop being arrogant but let them feel like a real person by actually utilising the negative trait in the story in some way. Don't just have the negative trait exist thinking it makes the character more 3-dimensional, acting in ways that make no sense and make them seem more confused than complex. You have to rely on the organic reactions of other characters and the world as well. If Character A is an egotistical asshole around Character B, don't just have Character B accept them, maybe Char A just supresses that side of them more and more around Char B as a reaction to Char B calling them out on being an asshole.

Depth = Number of Traits

A character doesn't need a set number of traits. You give them however many that makes sense for the story. As long as they have relevancy in the narrative then you're fine. If you add too many and the story never makes use of them then there's a disconnect with the audience and the character, this also usually happens when you have to tell the audience about the large list of traits your characters have. If you don't focus on a list of traits but rather the character's purpose in the story and their journey and you organically show them off in scenes, whatever traits will naturally be shown to the audience and feel more substantial. If a character's trait is utilised later in the story but doesn't show up in a while and you're afraid of it coming out of nowhere then find a way to organically fit it into the earlier stages of your story, the entire point of the Act 1/Early Act 2 is SETUP. So if you need your character to rely on a skill later, for the plot to make sense, then at least allude to this skill early on but don't just outright tell the audience and still try to make them seem consistent.

Some traits will add to the EXTERNAL/PLOT side, these may include skill sets, fears/limitations/weaknesses that aren't overcome as we discussed previously, virtues that are relevant to the plot like bravery, wit, etc. The important part being that the trait adds to the tension of the story in some way, it may act as an obstacle to make the external challenge seem more difficult, may add to the wish fulfilment of a character and be something they use to fight the external challenge, or may just evoke some charm/humour in the plot.

Some traits will rather add to the INTERNAL/STORY side, including a character's morality, value system, beliefs, perspective, emotions, longings, needs, fears (that aren't there for plot tension but for a character level). It's where the emotional depth of the story and the empathy for the character will come from. To clarify my distinction on fears for INTERNAL STORIES I mean fears that the story is about the character overcoming, coming to terms with or failing to overcome, that fear may manifest as an extension of some core issue the story is actually about like a fear of ghosts that's connected to the core internal question about the character's grief about losing several loved ones. The traits can seem surface level but may actually be a connection to something more deep and internal. A clumsy trait may be an extension of a character's anxiety (Or could just be for the sake of the plot to have a humour) just don't give them traits like clumsiness to make them seem more human when it adds nothing to the story, themes or plot even.

Characters must be likable

Just as we mentioned in the flaws section that you don't want to give a character a bunch of negative traits to make them seem complex as it can backfire, you also don't want to give them a bunch of positive virtues that aren't utilised properly otherwise the character can seem boring and fake. So this point is not only about arguing that characters don't have to be likable but in fact that forcing scenes or aspects of a character where the only purpose is audience sympathy can harm the emotional connection to the audience.

If this character isn't even remotely heroic, kind, compassionate and the story never utilises these aspects then don't have him save a cat at the start. Show them for what they are honestly. Nobody really cares for a virtuous protagonist unless the journey is about that aspect like Captain America and his stories that test his righteous values and loyalty. If they're an apathetic asshole but you want them to undergo an arc of gaining empathy then by all means show something that helps make that arc make sense early on, just don't have them do something that will gain audience sympathy if it is never used outside of that. There's plenty of pitfalls the forced sympathy aspect early can lead to like making it seem like you want the audience to approve of all the negative stuff the character does.

You want the audience to empathise not sympathise. You want them to understand the WHY behind their actions and journey not just like them early on to draw them in. Kindness in one character may seem like a boring aspect to them while for another character it may be incredibly resonate because the story actually focuses on exploring that trait.

Contradictions = Complexity

Sort of, but not exactly. Be aware of invertedly making your character seem confused instead of complex. The contradictions should feel organic and believable not just there to have a contradiction in itself. They may be incredibly xenophobic but love their family, this is believable and it's a organic complex aspect to their moral system. They may have a reputation for a good ruler, but in actuality, from an objective viewpoint, they may have been a cruel, vicious conqueror that treated only his people fairly (thus earning the positive reputation)

Don't make the character seem schizophrenic (unless that's the point), we need to understand the contradiction not just see a contradiction. It can work if the point of a setup scene is to show a contradiction and raise mystery. Have the audience question "Why are they x sometimes but y other times?" Giving clues to why that contradiction exists before actually revealing the why behind it. This aura of mystery around a character can add intrigue however I feel it doesn't work as well with protagonists. Especially if you're writing a book, the reader should be getting an insight to the character's mindset from the beginning.

A mysterious protagonist, when the story never really expands on their internal side and their motives until much later on is a boring protagonist, how are you supposed to feel emotionally connected if you have nothing to latch onto. A mysterious antagonist, side character or a protagonist who you have some sense of at first but gets expanded on throughout adds intrigue. You can have a protagonist who you empathise with for one reason but something is revealed later on that recontextualises their actions for example.

These were just some common rules I wanted to at least argue against, as I think they are harmful to a lot of beginners and especially since they're always broadly used in essays and such but never expanded upon.

CONCLUSION (Or what to take from this)

Hopefully you can understand the two different aspects of your story, the external plot side and the internal thematic side. The best stories will have strong sides in both but you can write a story with just one. (Though I find it hard to imagine a internal story without any plot at all, mostly you get boring slow plots in these) The Internal, External and Interpersonal components in your story should interweave, the external plot being a metaphor for the internal struggle for your character and such.

Of course, this doesn't go over how you actually make those individual sides as powerful as possible I just wanted to get this framework out there to anyone that may benefit from it. Learning this idea really helped me analyse and look at stories better. I would love to discuss this if people are interested and maybe expand on using actual examples more and applying this idea to see how stories work with it in mind.

This stuff may honestly seem really basic and obvious to a lot of people but it helped me at least and may help others. Also I heavily recommend the book I mentioned " The Compass of Character " by " David Corbett" he goes a lot more in-depth about interweaving these different levels.

Naveen Kumar named The Post’s theater critic

Kumar will tackle productions in Washington, on and off Broadway and across the country, writing reviews, essays, commentaries, features and whatever else he cooks up.

Announcement from Executive Features Editor Ben Williams, Deputy Features Editor Hank Stuever, Arts and Entertainment Editor Jonathan Fischer, and Senior Editor for Style Zachary Pincus-Roth:

We are thrilled to announce that The Washington Post has hired its next theater critic: Naveen Kumar.

Naveen is a journalist and culture critic who has contributed a series of sharp pieces for The Post this year. He has also reviewed theater for the New York Times and Variety, and his reporting has appeared in Town & Country, Vox, Broadway News and the Daily Beast. He has been a contributing editor since 2017 at Them, where he has written features and essays on film, TV and issues pertaining to LGBTQ+ culture, including nightlife and mental health. He has twice served on the jury for the Pulitzer Prize in drama. Naveen will continue his position as associate director of the Eugene O’Neill Theater Center's National Critics Institute, the leading arts-writing workshop for professional journalists.

Before becoming a journalist, Naveen worked on the agency side of the entertainment business, including in the theater department at CAA. He has a bachelor’s degree in English from Vassar College and a master’s degree in English and Comparative Literature from Columbia University.

Naveen will be based in New York but will be a frequent visitor to D.C. He’ll tackle productions in Washington, on and off Broadway and across the country, writing reviews, essays, commentaries, features and whatever else he cooks up. We are excited to have him work alongside his editors and our cadre of talented theater contributors as The Post redefines its theater coverage. He starts August 19.

Euro 2024: Yamal, Williams writing new chapter for Spain

Rodrigo Faez heaps praise on Nico Williams after his performance in Spain's 1-0 victory over Italy. (1:12)

GELSENKIRCHEN, Germany -- Somehow, a Riccardo Calafiori own goal was the only difference between Spain and Italy on a Thursday night when La Roja's exciting wingers Nico Williams and Lamine Yamal once again showed they will be a force to be reckoned with at Euro 2024 .

It was Williams' second-half cross, flicked on by Álvaro Morata , which Calafiori turned into his own net as Spain made it six points from six and booked their place in the round of 16 with a game to spare.

For Italy, their fate in the competition will go down to their last game against Croatia , but they will have few complaints about the result at the Arena AufSchalke. It could -- and should -- have been more. Spain ended the game with 21 shots to Italy's three. After losing possession in a competitive game for the first time in 136 matches against Croatia, they took the ball back here, but without losing the new directness that is increasingly characterising this side under coach Luis de la Fuente.

They look well balanced, with Rodri anchoring the midfield, but it is Williams and Yamal who have that ability to bring people to their feet. They are the youngsters who have sparked hope that a fourth European crown could arrive this summer.

To wander around Gelsenkirchen before the game was to take a walk down memory lane. Names of heroes from the past filled the back of the shirts of the fans of these two storied football nations. Spain supporters toasted Luis Enrique, Raúl González and Andres Iniesta. Roberto Baggio and Andrea Pirlo were popular names among the travelling Italy faithful.

Laced among them, though, were the names of those trying to write a new chapter in their country's history in Germany. Yamal's and Williams' names were omnipresent, especially among the younger generation. They were then omnipresent on the pitch.

If eyes had often been on Yamal so far, if only because of his age -- he became the youngest player to feature in the Euros at 16 years and 338 days old in Spain's opener -- then this time it was Williams' turn to step up. At 21, he is hardly a veteran himself. Within two minutes, the Athletic Club forward had turned Giovanni Di Lorenzo to set up Pedri , whose header was saved by Gianluigi Donnarumma .

The pattern was set. Another brilliant solo run followed, Di Lorenzo looking dizzy, and Williams then headed a Morata cross wide when he could have done better.

Not to be outdone, Yamal then dribbled in from the left, beating three Italian defenders before feeding Morata. Again, only the 6-foot-6 frame of Donnarumma kept the game goalless. By the break, Williams had completed four take-ons while Yamal had three. The other 20 players on the pitch had completed three between them.

Spanish football is in good hands 🇪🇸✨ pic.twitter.com/POofR9Qxb1 — ESPN FC (@ESPNFC) June 20, 2024

Speaking after the match, Williams said, "I think it's my most complete performance with Spain, and I hope to kick on and be able to help the team as much as possible. I've always dreamed of being involved at this level, playing in the Euros and winning Player of the Match."

The King of Spain, Felipe VI, had flown out to Gelsenkirchen for the game -- and he was suitably impressed.

"It's great to watch them play, we're just missing a goal," he told reporters at half-time. "But the sensations are good and the chances we have created ... It's been a great first half."

Spain's dominance forced Italy coach Luciano Spalletti into a double substitution before the second half, but it did nothing to change Williams and Yamal's impact. It was Williams' cross, nudged on by Morata, which led to Calafiori's own goal.

Once ahead, Spain didn't ease up. Yamal, coming inside again, whipped off a fine effort with his left foot which shaved the post. Williams then thumped the bar from the edge of the box. By now, "Nico" chants were filling the stadium, Spain's 12,000 supporters outnumbered but outsinging their Italian counterparts.

Spanish newspaper Marca had seen it coming. "Two Ferraris against Italy," was the headline on their front page on Thursday alongside a picture of Williams and Yamal, a nod to the Italian supercar. They may not yet be established at the top level like Rodri, who is widely seen as the one world-class player on this team, nor have the experience of Morata or the Golden Boy award of Pedri, but they are increasingly the poster boys of this Spain team.

That is because they offer something different to past Spain teams, who were more focused on touch and possession at times. They have diversified the ways in which De la Fuente's team can win a game. They also offer a glimpse into a more diverse Spain.

The story of Williams' parents coming to the country from Ghana is well known. Yamal, meanwhile, is the son of a Moroccan and an Equatorial Guinean who was born in Catalonia and grew up in the poor neighbourhood of Rocafonda, outside of Barcelona. His roots are stitched on his boots in the form of the national flags of his parents' homeland and the numbers 304 -- the zip code for Rocafonda.

Williams entered the dressing room to praise from teammates and family. "My teammates applauded me in the dressing room, and I'd like to thank them for helping me out with their ability on the pitch. When I grabbed my phone, the first message I saw was from my brother straight away, a voice message. He provides unconditional support for me. This is for him, my parents and the Williams family," he said.

The new-look Spain were too much for Italy. If Italy doubled up on the wingers, there was space inside for Pedri and Fabián Ruiz . In the end, they could not stop Spain, who must now be considered among the favourites to win Euro 2024.

The day had actually started with good-humoured food banter between the two sets of fans. "Aperol Spritz is better than Sangria," and "Pasta is better than Paella," were the handwritten sides held up by the fans of Italy, who remain holders of this competition. Food rivalries have been a theme of this tournament . One Spain fan responded by simply holding up his shirt which had "Lomo ibérico" (a cured, high-quality Spanish meat) scribbled on the back.

All that actually mattered in Gelsenkirchen, though, was that Williams and Yamal were better Italy's wide men Federico Chiesa and Davide Frattesi .

Middle East Crisis White House and Netanyahu Spar Over His Complaints About U.S. Support

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• A displaced Palestinian packing a tent before fleeing Rafah, southern Gaza. Bashar Taleb/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images
• Israeli police disperse Ultra-Orthodox Jews blocking a highway in Bnei Brak, Israel, during a protest against conscription into the Israeli military. Jack Guez/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images
• An Israeli military vehicle near the Israel-Gaza border. Amir Cohen/Reuters
• Palestinians receiving food aid in Jabaliya, northern Gaza. Mahmoud Issa/Reuters
• Israeli protesters blocking a highway in Tel Aviv, demanding the immediate release of all hostages held in Gaza. Eloisa Lopez/Reuters

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Netanyahu’s comments are ‘deeply disappointing,’ the White House says.

The White House and the Israeli prime minister traded barbs on Thursday over the support the United States is providing Israel for its military operations in Gaza, in the latest sign of tensions between the two allies over the conduct of the war.

John F. Kirby, a White House spokesman, said on Thursday that the Biden administration has expressed disappointment to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu after the Israeli leader lashed out on Tuesday at the United States for withholding some heavy munitions.

Mr. Kirby said that there was “no other country that’s done more, or will continue to do more, than the United States to help Israel defend itself,” adding that Mr. Netanyahu’s comments were “deeply disappointing and certainly vexing to us.”

In response, Mr. Netanyahu said on Thursday that he was “willing to absorb personal attacks if that is what it takes for Israel to get the arms and ammunition it needs in its war for survival.”

It was the latest back-and-forth between leaders of the two staunch allies that have increasingly diverged on how Israel is conducting the war, as both leaders face an avalanche of domestic and international pressure to change course.

Since the Hamas-led attack in Israel on Oct. 7, the United States has largely supported Israel, offering weapons and, for the most part, backing at the United Nations, but the relationship has frayed. Last month the Biden administration blocked a shipment of heavy bombs and artillery shells to Israel — while allowing other weapons to flow — and earlier this month the administration backed a U.N. resolution for a cease-fire over protests from Israel.

At particular issue for Mr. Netanyahu has been the continued weapons support, and this week he has ensured that the dispute remained in the public eye, describing White House actions and words as affronts to him and to Israel.

On Monday, President Biden overcame congressional opposition to one of the biggest arms sales ever to Israel, an $18 billion deal for F-15 jets .

On Tuesday, Mr. Netanyahu released a video statement calling it “inconceivable” that the Biden administration was withholding weapons from “America’s closest ally, fighting for its life.”

The administration said there were no new developments on that score and nothing had been withheld apart from the shipment 2,000 pound bombs , under review since early May over concerns about their use in densely populated parts of Gaza. A White House spokeswoman, Karine Jean-Pierre, said of Mr. Netanyahu, “We genuinely do not know what he is talking about.”

In his comments on Thursday, Mr. Kirby reiterated that no one had done more to help Israel defend itself than the United States.

“I mean, my goodness, this president put U.S. fighter aircrafts up in the air in the middle of April, to help shoot down several 100 drones and missiles, including ballistic missiles, that were fired from Iran proper at Israel,” he said, adding that Mr. Netanyahu’s remarks were disappointing “given the amount of support that we have, and will continue to provide Prime Minister Netanyahu.”

The spokesman for the State Department, Matthew Miller, echoed Mr. Kirby’s remarks, asserting the U.S. commitment to Israel was “sacrosanct.”

“We have proved that not just with words but with deeds,” Mr. Miller said. “I don’t think it is productive to engage in an intense public back and forth about this.”

Johnatan Reiss contributed reporting from Jerusalem.

— Daniel Victor and Erica L. Green

Key Developments

U.N. experts say arms makers supplying Israel may be violating international law, and other news.

A group of U.N. experts warned arms manufacturers, including Boeing, Caterpillar and Lockheed Martin, that transferring any weapons or weapon components to Israel could make them complicit in serious violations of international humanitarian law, even if those transfers are carried out under existing export licenses or indirectly through an intermediary country. In a statement on Thursday, the experts also warned financial institutions invested in those arms manufacturers, including Bank of America and JP Morgan Chase, that their business relationships could potentially move them from “being directly linked to human rights abuses to contributing to them, with repercussions for complicity in potential atrocity crimes.”

Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel demanded on Wednesday that his coalition partners “get a hold of themselves” and “put aside all extraneous interests” to focus on the war, as divisions within Israel’s government become sharper and more public. Mr. Netanyahu has clashed with members of his own party and with far-right and religious party leaders in his coalition. The wide-ranging conflicts include how far to go in requiring military service by ultra-Orthodox Jews, who controls the assignments of rabbis, leaks to the news media and how much of a voice the far right should have in setting war policy.

The troubled humanitarian pier built by the United States off the coast of Gaza is back up and running, Gen. Patrick S. Ryder, the Pentagon spokesman, said at a news briefing on Thursday. The pier was “re-anchored and reestablished” on Wednesday, he said, and “overnight, the transfer of humanitarian assistance from Cyprus to Gaza resumed,” with more than 1.4 million pounds being delivered to a marshaling area, where it is loaded onto trucks. General Ryder said the pier was always intended to be a temporary solution and added that, “contrary to some press reporting on the matter,” there was no end date established for the mission. Aid groups have said that they are hesitant to deliver aid from the marshaling area because of security concerns and that supplies are piling up there.

Cross-border aerial attacks between Israeli forces and Hezbollah continued across the border of Israel and Lebanon on Thursday, with dozens of rockets launched at Israeli towns and an Israeli strike on a Hezbollah commander, according to the Israeli military. Approximately 60 projectiles, including rockets and anti-tank missiles, hit open areas in northern Israel, according to an Israeli military spokesperson. No casualties were reported. The Israeli military also said it had killed Fadel Ibrahim, identified as a commander of Hezbollah’s ground forces, in an airstrike near Deir Kifa in the south of Lebanon. Tensions at the northern border have risen for months, and the prospect of a full-fledged war between the two forces looms.

U.S. lawmakers called for some Palestinians fleeing Gaza to be granted refugee status. In a letter to Secretary of State Antony J. Blinken and Department of Homeland Security Secretary Alejandro Mayorkas on Thursday, 70 members of Congress called for more pathways for relief for Palestinians affected by the war who are relatives of U.S. citizens and lawful permanent residents. “Historically, the U.S. has resettled very few Palestinian refugees,” the lawmakers noted, including just 56 refugees, or 0.09 percent of the total number of resettled refugees, in 2023, and 16 so far in 2024. “Given the dire conditions currently on the ground in Gaza, it is time for this to change,” said the lawmakers, who were led by Senate Majority Whip Dick Durbin, Democrat of Illinois.

Israel’s energy minister threatened a “power outage for months” in Lebanon if the Israeli electricity grid were hit and disabled for even a few hours by Hezbollah. The statement came from Eli Cohen, the energy minister, in a post on social media on Thursday. Earlier in the day, Shaul Goldstein, the chief executive of the government company responsible for managing the country’s electric grid, said that Hezbollah “could easily bring down the electricity grid in Israel.” Mr. Goldstein’s comments sparked outrage among right-wing media commentators, and Mr. Cohen’s response appeared to be designed to send a message that Israel could not be easily crippled.

Israel’s use of 2,000-pound bombs and other heavy weapons in densely populated areas of Gaza may have consistently violated international law and could constitute war crimes, the United Nations human rights office said on Wednesday. In a report that focused on six attacks last year, the office said Israeli forces “took an expansive approach to targeting” that apparently considered members of Gaza’s civilian administration and Hamas political structures, who were not directly involved in hostilities, as military targets, possibly violating the laws of war. Israel issued a 12-page rebuttal that said the U.N. report was legally unsound and revealed “numerous biases.”

A quiet administrative change advances a far-right Israeli minister’s effort to control the West Bank.

Israel is putting key responsibilities in the occupied West Bank under an administrator who answers to a hard-line government minister, Bezalel Smotrich, who favors annexation of the territory, in what analysts and human rights activists describe as the latest step toward the far right’s aim of expanding Israeli settlements there.

The administrative move has been a longtime goal of Mr. Smotrich, the finance minister and settler leader, and increases his formal authority over many areas of civilian life, including building and demolition permits, a crucial tool for settlers who view construction as a way to strengthen their grip on the West Bank.

It is the latest of several changes over the past two years that Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu’s government, the most right-wing in Israel’s history, has made to the way that the West Bank is ruled. Since early 2023, the government has eased the planning process for new settlements and gradually transferred more powers from the defense minister, Yoav Gallant, to Mr. Smotrich, a longtime settler activist who wants to prevent the possibility of creating a Palestinian state in the territory.

The moves stop short of fully placing the West Bank under civilian control, and they have limited effect in the 40 percent of the West Bank that is administered by the Palestinian Authority, a semi-autonomous Palestinian-run body. But critics say that they collectively take Israel a step closer to annexing the territory in all but name.

For decades, Israel has defended its control of the territory there by saying that it is a temporary military occupation since the 1967 war that complies with the international laws applicable to occupied territories, rather than a permanent annexation that places the West Bank under the sovereign control of Israel’s civilian authorities. But the empowerment of Mr. Smotrich, a civilian minister, tests that argument to its limits.

The latest move, which creates a civilian head of an area previously overseen only by the military, was finalized by the Israeli military on May 29, according to copies of two military orders seen by The New York Times. It names a deputy head of the civil administration in the West Bank who will answer to Mr. Smotrich, an ultranationalist member of Mr. Netanyahu’s coalition who has a broad portfolio in the West Bank.

Settlers like Mr. Smotrich want to build more Israeli settlements across the West Bank on land that Palestinians hoped would be the core of a future Palestinian state. While previous Israeli governments and generals have built and protected hundreds of settlements, the latest order would likely accelerate that process, analysts and activists said.

Critics have already accused the government of failing to clamp down on illegal settlement construction and violence committed by settlers, and of thwarting measures to enforce the law.

Since the war began in October, the government has cracked down on the territory with near-daily military raids it says are aimed at terrorists. The government has also emboldened settlers and enacted new regulations that have put additional economic pressure on Palestinians .

“We are speaking about a change with a very clear political dimension to permit all kinds of plans for building settlements very quickly and without any obstacles,” said Michael Milshtein, an author and expert in Palestinian studies at Tel Aviv University.

The military has for decades been responsible for civil administration in most of the West Bank as well as for security, and critics say the shift to civilian administration, a longstanding aim of Mr. Smotrich, ties decision-making more closely to Israeli domestic politics. Analysts noted, however, that Defense Minister Yoav Gallant would retain input and could block certain measures.

Aviv Tatarsky, a researcher at Ir Amim, an Israeli nongovernmental organization, said that the order was “historic,” because “for the first time you have in a formal way management in the West Bank that is not done through the army but through the Israeli civil political system.”

The civilian political influence over the military administration already existed to some extent, though it was hidden from view, he said, “but now it’s stopped playing the games.”

A spokesman for Mr. Smotrich did not respond to a request for comment.

The person named to fill the new administrative post, Hillel Roth, is a settler and a member of the religious nationalist community who will likely act to facilitate Mr. Smotrich’s agenda, analysts said.

Mr. Milshtein noted that Mr. Smotrich had separately aimed to weaken the Palestinian Authority, which administers some parts of the West Bank. Mr. Smotrich announced in May that Israel would withhold revenue from the authority, worsening its severe fiscal crisis. In June, Mr. Smotrich said that he had ordered about $35 million in tax revenue that Israel collected on behalf of the authority to be diverted to the families of Israeli victims of terrorism .

Since Israel occupied the West Bank, previously controlled by Jordan, in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, the government has encouraged Jews to settle there, providing land, military protection, electricity, water and roads. More than 500,000 settlers now live among 2.7 million Palestinians in the territory.

Most of the world considers the settlements illegal. Some Israeli Jews justify settlement on religious grounds, others on the basis of history — both ancient and modern — while some say Israel must control the territory to prevent armed Palestinian groups from taking power.

Patrick Kingsley contributed reporting.

— Matthew Mpoke Bigg

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