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How to Write a Perfect Discussion Chapter for a PhD Thesis

Discussion chapter of a PhD thesis focuses on explaining and analyzing what you have researched, presenting how it is associated with the existing literature. It is also a place for argument supporting your entire discussion. We often find that people seek thesis writing help from experienced editing and proofreading services to prepare a flawless PhD discussion chapter. However, following 9 essential tips can help you design a perfect PhD thesis with an excellent discussion chapter.

This article provides 9 effective tips for writing a flawless discussion chapter for a PhD thesis. To give you an opportunity to practice proofreading, we have left a few spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors in the text. See if you can spot them! If you spot the errors correctly, you will be entitled to a 10% discount.

Writing a flawless PhD thesis requires much more than only subject matter expertise. It requires expertise, experience, and in-depth thinking, along with sharp intelligence. Though most students add a discussion chapter in their thesis or dissertation, many of them end up messing up the essay or missing out the central issues.

A discussion chapter in a PhD thesis is a place where you have the chance to delving into the analysis, importance, and relevance of your research. This section focuses on explaining and analyzing what you have researched, presenting how it is associated with the existing literature. It is also a place for argument supporting your entire discussion. We often find that people seek thesis writing help from experienced editing and proofreading services to prepare a flawless PhD discussion chapter. However, the following 9 essential tips can help you design a perfect PhD thesis with an excellent discussion chapter.

1. Understand the objective of your PhD thesis

Before setting out to conduct a PhD thesis, researchers design and plan a study with objective(s) in mind. Such objectives inform how the dissertation is conducted. For example, no researcher would just commence by administering questionnaires or setting up laboratory equipment without an objective. It also informs the questions and necessary procedures to undertake. To write a well-conveyed discussion section in PhD thesis, the author must review and ascertain whether the conducted study addressed these objectives. It takes the understanding of the objective to assess the achievement of the objective clearly. Based on the assessment, the author finds the direction of his discussion. The comprehension of this objective is critical to crafting a focused discussion section in scholarly writing.

2. Determine a clear structure

The first step in organizing a perfect discussion chapter for a PhD thesis is to divide them into separate sections that move from a particular result to implications. However, depending on your PhD thesis topics, you may utilize the followings:

Analyze and summarize your main findings.

Evaluate how the results reflect the literature review.

Show if the discussion impacts the original hypothesis and, if yes, how it affects your hypothesis.

3. Usage of grammar and tense

The proper usage of grammar and tense is a key to a seamless PhD thesis. The improper use of grammar and tense can have the worst impact on the entire dissertation, along with the discussion chapter . Depending on the context, the usage of past and present tense should be made. When you are referring to specific data, the present tense can be used. For instance, when the light increases, speed decreases. However, while summarizing the result or concluding something, past tense can be used. For example, between 2013 and 2016, the number of car accidents decreased visibly. However, depending on the context, you can combine two tenses. Also, bear in mind that different manuals might require different tenses.

The tense adopted by the study should be uniform. Try to write the discussion chapter of your PhD thesis in the required tense format of your guideline. For instance, The APA Publication Manual provides suggestions on which verb tense is appropriate for various sections of a thesis:

Past tense or present perfect tense for the literature review and "the description of the procedure if the discussion is of past events."

"Use past tense to describe the "

"Use the present tense to discuss the implications of the results and to present the conclusions. By reporting conclusions in the present tense, you allow all readers to join you in deliberating the matter at hand."

As much as possible, try to be consistent with your chosen verb tense within a section as doing so "can help ensure smooth expression."

It is always best to check with your manual to get their opinion on the best approach for your thesis.

4. Referring to hypotheses and literature review

The primary purpose of referring to the literature review is to contextualize your discussion chapter as a part of the debate. For instance, suppose you introduce a theory claiming that speed cameras have zero effect on a road’s fatalities. You need to describe how your findings relate to this assumption. The same applies while making a hypothesis. Never forget this fact while discussing your results.

5. Evaluate your results and compare them with existing studies

While writing the discussion chapter of your PhD thesis, you need to analyze your results rather than just simplifying it. Don’t forget to do complete research on if your results agree or conflict with the previous studies. You need to evaluate if there are any differences and, if yes, what the differences are. Comparing the development with existing studies helps your research to connect any existing debate. It also offers a solid base of conclusions.

In a well-written discussion chapter of a PhD thesis, an author should compare his/her findings with those of other studies reported in the literature. This aspect is different from a literature review in the sense that the author has data at hand to compare, as against the general overview made about a thesis’s objectives prior to the investigation. In comparing, the author is able to pronounce the authenticity of the results, especially when similar procedures were used in other studies. Any differences in findings can be explained using the different peculiarities between the author’s study and others. If this consideration is carefully made and implemented, the author may likely find evidence-based explanations for his/her findings. Even for novel findings, an author may still find relevant literature that formed the rudiments of the present study to discuss the progress, contribution, and novel dimension of the study.

6. Why should the findings of your PhD thesis matter?

After discussing the study results, the author, as part of his goal, must propose the impact of the study’s findings on the problem that informed the idea of the thesis. The reader will be better served if the author describes a roadmap for solving the problem based on the findings. Depending on the nature of the problem, an author may propose solutions to affect policy, behavioral change, or conventional practice. Only after making this contribution will a discussion section expose readers to the specific and general impacts of a PhD thesis.

7. Understand the limitation of your research

It is one of the most important things to evaluate when writing a discussion chapter for your PhD thesis. The discussion chapter of your research paper should involve some acknowledgment of the study limitations. Suppose you have critically assessed similar studies in the literature review; you are free to compare your work against their weakness or strength.

8. Don’t be afraid to be unique

The focus on research may change and evolve with time if you are working on a long-term project. The key to adjusting the focus on the literature review is to reflect these changes. Suppose you may find that specific themes are more prominent than others; it is helpful if you review your literature review and tweak them to emphasize the themes. Never be afraid to be unique to bring the changes.

9. Don’t forget to avail a professional thesis editing and proofreading service

Last but not least, you can seek assistance from professional editing and proofreading services. Taking PhD thesis help from professional editing and proofreading services doesn’t only facilitate the writing process but also helps you execute a flawless PhD thesis with a well-formed and informative discussion chapter. When highly qualified writers take responsibility for your research paper, you don’t need to worry about structure, consistency, flow, tone, grammar, and accuracy.

Writing a PhD thesis is not an easy task. However, systematic thinking and structure can make the process easier. From the introduction to the demonstration of your argument, literature review, and analysis of the result, everything is vital to prepare an outstanding PhD thesis. However, if you want to seek assistance from a professional editing and proofreading service provider to write a seamless discussion chapter and thesis, feel free to contact us. We will be happy to help you.

How to Write a Perfect Discussion Chapter for a PhD Thesis

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How to Write a Dissertation Discussion Chapter – A Quick Guide with Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 12th, 2021 , Revised On September 20, 2023

Dissertation discussion is the chapter where you explore the relevance, significance, and meanings of your findings – allowing you to showcase your talents in describing and analyzing the results of your study.

Here, you will be expected to demonstrate how your research findings answer the research questions established or test the hypothesis .

The arguments you assert in the dissertation analysis and discussions chapter lay the foundations of your conclusion . It is critically important to discuss the results in a precise manner.

To help you understand how to write a dissertation discussion chapter, here is the list of the main elements of this section so you stay on the right track when writing:

Summary: Start by providing a summary of your key research findings
Interpretations: What is the significance of your findings?
Implications: Why are your findings important to academic and scientific communities, and what purpose would they serve?
Limitations: When and where will your results have no implications?
Future Recommendations : Advice for other researchers and scientists who explore the topic further in future.

The dissertation discussion chapter should be carefully drafted to ensure that the results mentioned in your research align with your research question, aims, and objectives.

Considering the importance of this chapter for all students working on their dissertations, we have comprehensive guidelines on how to write a dissertation discussion chapter.

The discussion and conclusion chapters often overlap. Depending on your university, you may be asked to group these two sections in one chapter – Discussion and Conclusion.

In some cases, the results and discussion are put together under the Results and Discussion chapter. Here are some dissertation examples of working out the best structure for your dissertation.

Alternatively, you can look for the required dissertation structure in your handbook or consult your supervisor.

Steps of How to Write Dissertation Discussion Chapter

1. provide a summary of your findings.

Start your discussion by summarising the key findings of your research questions. Avoid repeating the information you have already stated in the previous chapters.

You will be expected to clearly express your interpretation of results to answer the research questions established initially in one or two paragraphs.

Here are some examples of how to present the summary of your findings ;

“The data suggests that”,
“The results confirm that”,
“The analysis indicates that”,
“The research shows a relationship between”, etc.

2. Interpretations of Results

Your audience will expect you to provide meanings of the results, although they might seem obvious to you. The results and their interpretations should be linked to the research questions so the reader can understand the value your research has added to the literature.

There are many ways of interpreting the data, but your chosen approach to interpreting the data will depend on the type of research involved . Some of the most common strategies employed include;

Describing how and why you ended up with unexpected findings and explaining their importance in detail
Relating your findings with previous studies conducted
Explaining your position with logical arguments when/if any alternative explanations are suggested
An in-depth discussion around whether or not the findings answered your research questions and successfully tested the hypothesis

Examples of how you can start your interpretation in the Discussion chapter are –

“Findings of this study contradict those of Allen et al. (2014) that”,
“Contrary to the hypothesized association,” “Confirming the hypothesis…”,
“The findings confirm that A is….. even though Allen et al. (2014) and Michael (2012) suggested B was …..”

3. Implications of your Study

What practical and theoretical implications will your study have for other researchers and the scientific community as a whole?

It is vital to relate your results to the knowledge in the existing literature so the readers can establish how your research will contribute to the existing data.

When thinking of the possible consequences of your findings, you should ask yourself these;

Are your findings in line with previous studies? What contribution did your research make to them?
Why are your results entirely different from other studies on the same topic?
Did your findings approve or contradict existing knowledge?
What are the practical implications of your study?

Remember that as the researcher, you should aim to let your readers know why your study will contribute to the existing literature. Possible ways of starting this particular section are;

“The findings show that A….. whereas Lee (2017) and John (2013) suggested that B”, “The results of this study completely contradict the claims made in theories”,
“These results are not in line with the theoretical perspectives”,
“The statistical analysis provides a new understanding of the relationship between A and B”,
“Future studies should take into consideration the findings of this study because”

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4. Recognise the Limitations of your Research

Almost every academic research has some limitations. Acknowledging them will only add to your credibility as a scientific researcher.

In addition to the possible human errors, it’s important to take into account other factors that might have influenced the results of your study, including but not limited to unexpected research obstacles, specific methodological choices , and the overall research design.

Avoid mentioning any limitations that may not be relevant to your research aim, but clearly state the limitations that may have affected your results.

For example, if you used a sample size that included a tiny population, you may not generalise your results.

Similarly, obstacles faced in collecting data from the participants can influence the findings of your study. Make a note of all such research limitations , but explain to the reader why your results are still authentic.

The small sample size limited the generalisability of the results.
The authenticity of the findings may have been influenced by….
The obstacles in collecting data resulted in…
It is beyond the framework of this research…

5. Provide Recommendations for Future Research

The limitations of your research work directly result in future recommendations. However, it should be noted that your recommendations for future research work should include the areas that your own work could not report so other researchers can build on them.

Sometimes the recommendations are a part of the conclusion chapter . Some examples;

More research is needed to be performed….

The Purpose of Dissertation Discussion Chapter

Remember that the discussion section of a dissertation is the heart of your research because a) it will indicate your stance on the topic of research, and b) it answers the research questions initially established in the Introduction chapter .

Every piece of information you present here will add value to the existing literature within your field of study. How you structured your findings in the preceding chapter will help you determine the best structure for your dissertation discussion section.

For example, it might be logical to structure your analysis/discussions by theme if you chose the pattern in your findings section.

But generally, discussion based on research questions is the more widely used structure in academia because this pattern clearly indicates how you have addressed the aim of your research.

Most UK universities require the supervisor or committee members to comment on the extent to which each research question has been answered. You will be doing them a great favour if you structure your discussion so that each research question is laid out separately.

Irrespective of whether you are writing an essay, dissertation, or chapter of a dissertation , all pieces of writing should start with an introduction .

Once your readers have read through your study results, you might want to highlight the contents of the subsequent discussion as an introduction paragraph (summary of your results – as explained above).

Likewise, the discussion chapter is expected to end with a concluding paragraph – allowing you the opportunity to summarise your interpretations.

The dissertation analysis & discussion chapter is usually very long, so it will make sense to emphasise the critical points in a concluding paragraph so the reader can grasp the essential information. This will also help to make sure the reader understands your analysis.

Also Read: Research Discussion Of Findings

Useful Tips

Presentation of graphs, tables, and figures.

In the 1990s and early 2000s, students spent days creating graphs and charts for their statistical analysis work . Thanks to technology, you can produce even more accurate graphs and figures today in a shorter period.

Using Microsoft Word, STATA, SPSS, Microsoft Excel and other statistical analysis software, we can now draw beautiful-looking figures, tables , and graphs with just a few clicks and make them appear in our document at the desired place. But there are downsides to being too dependent on technology.

Many students make the common mistake of using colours to represent variables when really they have to print their dissertation paper final copy in black and white.

Any colours on graphs and figures will eventually be viewed in the grayscale presentation. Recognizing different shades of grey on the same chart or graph can sometimes be a little confusing.

For example, green and purple appear as pretty much the same shade of grey on a line chat, meaning your chart will become unreadable to the marker.

Another trap you may fall into is the unintentional stuffing of the dissertation chapter with graphs and figures. Even though it is essential to show numbers and statistics, you don’t want to overwhelm your readers with too many.

It may not be necessary to have a graph/table under each sub-heading. Only you can best judge whether or not you need to have a graph/table under a particular sub-heading as the writer.

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Relating to Previous Chapters

As a student, it can be challenging to develop your own analysis and discussion of results. One of the excellent discussion chapter requirements is to showcase your ability to relate previous research to your research results.

Avoid repeating the same information over and over. Many students fall into this trap which negatively affects the mark of their overall dissertation paper .

Concise and to-the-point information will help you effectively convey your point to the readers.

Although you must demonstrate how your findings relate to previous research, it is equally important to ensure you are not simply rewriting what has already been said in the introduction and literature review chapters.

The best strategy is to use examples from previous sections to postulate an argument.

Hyperlinks are recommended to take the reader from one section to another. This is especially important for submitting electronic documents as .word or .pdf files. Hyperlinking is tedious and time-consuming, so you should allow for this in your dissertation timeline to avoid rushing in the closing stages.

Also read: How to Write the Abstract for the Dissertation.

Using Subsections and Subheadings

You might want to reflect on the structure of the discussion in your organizstion of the dissertation discussion chapter, and for that, you will need to create sub-sections.

It is essential to keep subsections to the point and as short as possible. Use a layer of subheadings if possible.

For example

Subsection 4.1 of Chapter 4- Discussion can be further divided into sections 4.1.1 and 4.2.2. After three numerical layers (4.1.1, 4.2.2, and 4.2.3), any subheadings need not appear in the contents table.

The titles of all subsections will appear on your table of contents so choose the wordings carefully. A title too long or too short might confuse the reader. A one or two-word subheading will not give the reader enough information to understand the section.

Likewise, using a research question or long sentences in the subheading is not recommended. It might help to examine how other researchers and writers create these subheadings.

Critical Thinking

Your critical thinking skills are the crux of your dissertation discussion chapter. You will do yourself a great disservice if you fail to put the critical thinking element into the equation.

After all, this exercise aims to showcase clarity in your thoughts and arguments. Markers of the dissertation give more importance to the analysis and discussion chapter. But you could be marked negatively if this particular chapter lacks critical thinking.

Many students struggle to distinguish between fundamental descriptive analysis and critical thinking with their opinions on the research topic.

Critical thinking is a skill developed over time, and it might be daunting for you to come to terms with the idea of critical thinking and its use in your analysis. But even if you are no expert, you must try your best.

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With our custom writing service , you are guaranteed to have all your dissertation paper elements put into the right place. Our expert academics can help you with your full dissertation paper or a part of it. Click here to learn more about our dissertation services.

Duplication of Content

Another critical error students make reaffirming the point the graph/chart was supposed to make. Writing out the same information as presented in the graph defeats the whole purpose of having them in the first place.

You will be expected to form your opinions and arguments based on the findings (as presented by the graphs), so keep an eye on this mistake. Finally, avoid simply inserting a graph without any explanation whatsoever.

It should be noted that there is no correct or incorrect number of charts/figures one can use in the dissertation findings and discussion chapter. A balance must be struck.

Avoid Over Interpretation

This is a major no-no when writing a dissertation discussion. Do not make an argument that isn’t backed by your collected data.

The results and interpretations that cannot be supported should not be mentioned. Your research will be deemed unauthentic and will also be questioned by your supervisor if you do so. Results should be interpreted without any bias.

How to Write the Findings of a Dissertation.

Do not Speculate

Speculation in the discussion chapter of your dissertation is discouraged. Your dissertation’s discussion is based on your collected data and how it relates to your research questions. Thus, speculating here will undoubtedly undermine your research’s credibility.

Also, try not to generalise your findings. If your research is based on a specific population, do not state that the same findings might apply in every case. As indicated previously, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations of your research.

On the other hand, if you think your discussion needs to address other populations as well, start your sentence like this ‘We speculate that..’ or ‘It is speculated that..’ This will keep you from getting into any trouble.

What are the elements of the Dissertation Discussion?

The list of the main elements of the discussion chapter are:

Implications : Why are your findings important to academic and scientific communities, and what purpose would they serve?
Future Recommendations: Advice for other researchers and scientists who explore the topic further in future.

What are the steps of writing a Dissertation Discussion Chapter?

Write a summary of the findings
Provide a summary of your findings
Interpretations of Results
Recognise the Limitations of your research
Provide Recommendations for Future Research.

Can we use graphs and charts in the Dissertation Discussion Chapter?

Yes, using graphs to aid your statistical results and enhance presentation is essential, but do not overwhelm it with a lot of graphs in multiple colours.

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How to Write a Discussion Section | Tips & Examples

How to Write a Discussion Section | Tips & Examples

Published on 21 August 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 25 October 2022.

The discussion section is where you delve into the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results .

It should focus on explaining and evaluating what you found, showing how it relates to your literature review , and making an argument in support of your overall conclusion . It should not be a second results section .

There are different ways to write this section, but you can focus your writing around these key elements:

Summary: A brief recap of your key results
Interpretations: What do your results mean?
Implications: Why do your results matter?
Limitations: What can’t your results tell us?
Recommendations: Avenues for further studies or analyses

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What not to include in your discussion section, step 1: summarise your key findings, step 2: give your interpretations, step 3: discuss the implications, step 4: acknowledge the limitations, step 5: share your recommendations, discussion section example.

There are a few common mistakes to avoid when writing the discussion section of your paper.

Don’t introduce new results: You should only discuss the data that you have already reported in your results section .
Don’t make inflated claims: Avoid overinterpretation and speculation that isn’t directly supported by your data.
Don’t undermine your research: The discussion of limitations should aim to strengthen your credibility, not emphasise weaknesses or failures.

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Start this section by reiterating your research problem and concisely summarising your major findings. Don’t just repeat all the data you have already reported – aim for a clear statement of the overall result that directly answers your main research question . This should be no more than one paragraph.

Many students struggle with the differences between a discussion section and a results section . The crux of the matter is that your results sections should present your results, and your discussion section should subjectively evaluate them. Try not to blend elements of these two sections, in order to keep your paper sharp.

The results indicate that …
The study demonstrates a correlation between …
This analysis supports the theory that …
The data suggest that …

The meaning of your results may seem obvious to you, but it’s important to spell out their significance for your reader, showing exactly how they answer your research question.

The form of your interpretations will depend on the type of research, but some typical approaches to interpreting the data include:

Identifying correlations , patterns, and relationships among the data
Discussing whether the results met your expectations or supported your hypotheses
Contextualising your findings within previous research and theory
Explaining unexpected results and evaluating their significance
Considering possible alternative explanations and making an argument for your position

You can organise your discussion around key themes, hypotheses, or research questions, following the same structure as your results section. Alternatively, you can also begin by highlighting the most significant or unexpected results.

In line with the hypothesis …
Contrary to the hypothesised association …
The results contradict the claims of Smith (2007) that …
The results might suggest that x . However, based on the findings of similar studies, a more plausible explanation is x .

As well as giving your own interpretations, make sure to relate your results back to the scholarly work that you surveyed in the literature review . The discussion should show how your findings fit with existing knowledge, what new insights they contribute, and what consequences they have for theory or practice.

Ask yourself these questions:

Do your results support or challenge existing theories? If they support existing theories, what new information do they contribute? If they challenge existing theories, why do you think that is?
Are there any practical implications?

Your overall aim is to show the reader exactly what your research has contributed, and why they should care.

These results build on existing evidence of …
The results do not fit with the theory that …
The experiment provides a new insight into the relationship between …
These results should be taken into account when considering how to …
The data contribute a clearer understanding of …
While previous research has focused on x , these results demonstrate that y .

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Even the best research has its limitations. Acknowledging these is important to demonstrate your credibility. Limitations aren’t about listing your errors, but about providing an accurate picture of what can and cannot be concluded from your study.

Limitations might be due to your overall research design, specific methodological choices , or unanticipated obstacles that emerged during your research process.

Here are a few common possibilities:

If your sample size was small or limited to a specific group of people, explain how generalisability is limited.
If you encountered problems when gathering or analysing data, explain how these influenced the results.
If there are potential confounding variables that you were unable to control, acknowledge the effect these may have had.

After noting the limitations, you can reiterate why the results are nonetheless valid for the purpose of answering your research question.

The generalisability of the results is limited by …
The reliability of these data is impacted by …
Due to the lack of data on x , the results cannot confirm …
The methodological choices were constrained by …
It is beyond the scope of this study to …

Based on the discussion of your results, you can make recommendations for practical implementation or further research. Sometimes, the recommendations are saved for the conclusion .

Suggestions for further research can lead directly from the limitations. Don’t just state that more studies should be done – give concrete ideas for how future work can build on areas that your own research was unable to address.

Further research is needed to establish …
Future studies should take into account …
Avenues for future research include …

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How To Structure A PhD Thesis

Struggling to understand what goes where? Let us walk you through a non-nonsense guide that’ll teach you how to structure a PhD thesis.

The difference between empirical and discussion chapters (and how to write them)

There is a very important distinction that needs to be made between the empirical and discussion sections/chapters. It is a common misconception that the empirical chapters are the place for your analysis. Often this confuses the reader.

Five tips to improve your PhD thesis

Regardless of what stage of the writing process you are at, there are five overarching tips you need to keep in mind if you want to improve your PhD thesis.

What are you doing and how are you doing it? Articulating your aims and objectives.

How long does it take the person reading your thesis to understand what you’re doing and how you’re doing it? If the answer is anything other than ’in the the opening lines of the thesis’, keep reading.

Learn how to write a PhD proposal that will stand out from the rest

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Easily understand how to write a PhD thesis introduction

Get the introduction right and the rest of your dissertation will follow. Mess it up and you’ll be struggling to catch up. The introduction is the place to factually recount what it is you will be discussing in the thesis. Learn more in this detailed guide.

Last impressions count – writing your PhD thesis conclusion

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What is a dissertation abstract and how do I write one for my PhD?

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Russian (dolls) to the rescue – how to structure an argument in your PhD

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Drowning in a sea of authors – How to be critical in a PhD literature review.

Don’t get lost in a sea of authors when you write your PhD literature review. Instead be critical. In this guide we explain how.

Wrestling an elephant into a cupboard: how to write a PhD literature review in nine easy steps

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A Template To Help You Structure Your PhD’s Theoretical Framework Chapter

In this guide, I explain how to use the theory framework template. The focus is on the practical things to consider when you’re working with the template and how you can give your theory framework the rockstar treatment.

How To Structure A PhD With Our PhD Writing Template

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Explore Other PhD Knowledge Base Collections

Eight collections of free resources to help you along the phd journey.

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How to structure and write every chapter of the PhD

How to stay motivated and productive

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Advice on maintaining good mental health

Resources designed for non-native English speakers

Explore our back-catalogue of motivational advice

Each week we send out a short, motivational email to over 4,000 students. Here you can sign up and access the archive.

A free one-page PhD structure template

What’s Included: Discussion Template

This template covers all the core components required in the discussion/analysis chapter of a typical dissertation or thesis, including:

The opening/overview section
Overview of key findings
Interpretation of the findings
Concluding summary

The purpose of each section is explained in plain language, followed by an overview of the key elements that you need to cover. The template also includes practical examples to help you understand exactly what’s required, along with links to additional free resources (articles, videos, etc.) to help you along your research journey.

The cleanly formatted Google Doc can be downloaded as a fully editable MS Word Document (DOCX format), so you can use it as-is or convert it to LaTeX.

PS – if you’d like a high-level template for the entire thesis, you can we’ve got that too .

FAQ: Thesis Discussion Template

What types of dissertations/theses can this template be used for.

The discussion chapter template follows the standard format for academic research projects, which means it will be suitable for the majority of dissertations, theses and research projects (especially those within the sciences).

Keep in mind that the exact requirements for the discussion chapter/section will vary between universities and degree programs. For example, your university may require that the discussion chapter and conclusion chapter are merged into one, or that the results and discussion are covered together (this is often the case with qualitative research). So, be sure to double-check your university’s requirements before you finalise your structure.

Is this template for an undergrad, Master or PhD-level thesis?

This template can be used for a dissertation, thesis or research project at any level of study. Doctoral-level projects typically require the discussion chapter to be more extensive/comprehensive, but the structure will typically remain the same. Again, be sure to check your university’s requirements and norms in terms of document structure.

How long should the discussion chapter be?

This can vary a fair deal, depending on the level of study (undergrad, Master or Doctoral), the field of research, as well as your university’s specific requirements. Therefore, it’s best to check with your university or review past dissertations from your program to get an accurate estimate.

Can I share this template with my friends/colleagues?

Yes, you’re welcome to share this template in its original format (no editing allowed). If you want to post about it on your blog or social media, please reference this page as your source.

What format is the template (DOC, PDF, PPT, etc.)?

The dissertation discussion chapter template is provided as a Google Doc. You can download it in MS Word format or make a copy to your Google Drive. You’re also welcome to convert it to whatever format works best for you, such as LaTeX or PDF.

Do you have templates for the other chapters?

Yes, we do. We are constantly developing our collection of free resources to help students complete their dissertations and theses. You can view all of our template resources here .

Can Grad Coach help me with my discussion/analysis?

Yes, we can provide coaching-based assistance with your discussion chapter (or any other chapter). If you’re interested, get in touch to discuss our private coaching services .

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How to Write a Dissertation Discussion Chapter: Guide & Examples

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Dissertation discussion section is a chapter that interprets the results obtained from research and offers an in-depth analysis of findings. In this section, students need to analyze the outcomes, evaluate their significance, and compare them to previous research. The discussion section may also explore the limitations of the study and suggest further research perspectives.

If you are stuck with your thesis or dissertation discussion chapter, you are in the right place to complete this section successfully. This article will outline our best solutions and methods on how to write the discussion of a dissertation or thesis. We also will share advanced dissertation discussion examples to help you finalize your PhD work. Feel like academic writing gives you hassles? Remember that you can always rely on academic experts qualified in your field to get professional dissertation help online .

What Is a Dissertation Discussion?

First and foremost, students need to have a clear understanding of what dissertation discussion is. This is not the same as your results section , where you share data from your research. You are going deeper into the explanation of the existing data in your thesis or dissertation discussion section. In other words, you illustrate practical implications of your research and how the data can be used, researched further, or limited. What will make your discussion section of a dissertation excellent:

clear structure
practical implication
elaboration on future work on this topic.

This section should go after research methodology and before the dissertation conclusion . It should be directly relevant to questions posed in your introduction. The biggest mistake you can make is to rewrite your result chapter with other words and add some limitations and recommendation paragraphs. However, this is an entirely different type of writing you need to complete.

Purpose of a Dissertation Discussion Chapter

A dissertation discussion section is critical to explaining students’ findings and the application of data to real-life cases. As we mentioned before, this section will often be read right after the dissertation methods . It evaluates and elaborates on findings and helps to understand the importance of your performed thesis research. A dissertation discussion opens a new perspective on further research on the same field or topic. It also outlines critical data to consider in subsequent studies. In a nutshell, this is the section where you explain your work to a broad audience.

Structure of a Dissertation Discussion Section

Let’s start your writing journey of this research part with a clear delineation of what it should include and then briefly discuss each component. Here are some basic things you need to consider for an excellent discussion chapter of dissertation :

Brief summary It does not mean copying an introduction section. However, the first few paragraphs will make an overview of your findings and topic.
Interpretations This is a critical component of your work — elaborate on your results and explain possible ways of using them.
Implication Research work is not just 100+ pages of text. Students should explain and illustrate how it could be used for solving practical problems.
Constraints This is where you outline your limitations. For instance, your research was done only on students, and it may have different results with elderly people.
Recommendations You can also define possible ways of future research on the exact topic when writing a discussion for your thesis or dissertation. Tell readers, for example, that it would be helpful to run similar research in other specific circumstances.

How to Write a Dissertation Discussion Chapter?

One of the most commonly asked questions for our experts is how to write the discussion section of a dissertation or thesis. We understand why it can be complicated to get a clear answer. Students often think that this section is similar to the result chapter and just retells it in other words. But it is not so. Let’s go through all steps to writing a discussion in a dissertation, and share our best examples from academic papers.

1. Remind Your Research Questions & Objectives

Writing the discussion chapter of a dissertation is not a big deal if you understand its aim and each component in a text structure. First of all, you need to evaluate how your results help to answer research questions you defined in the beginning. It is not about repeating the result, you did it in previous paragraphs. However, dissertation or thesis discussion should underline how your findings help to answer the research problem. Start writing from a brief intro by recalling research questions or hypotheses . Then, show how your results answer them or support a hypothesis in your work.

2. Sum Up Key Findings

Next part of your discussion for dissertation is to provide a short summary of previous data. But do not respite the same summary paragraphs from results or introduction of a dissertation . Here researchers should be more thoughtful and go deeper into the work’s aims. Try to explain in a few sentences what you get from running research. For instance, starters usually write the statement that “our data proves that…” or “survey results illustrate a clear correlation between a and b that is critical for proving our working hypothesis…”. A discussion chapter of your dissertation is not just a fixation on results but a more profound summary connected to research goals and purpose. Here is an example: Summary of Findings Example

3. Interpret the Results

The most critical part of a discussion section is to explain and enact the results you’ve got. It is the most significant part of any text. Students should be clear about what to include in these paragraphs. Here is some advice to make this elaboration structured:

Identify correlations or patterns in the data for dissertation discussion.
Underline how results can answer research questions or prove your hypothesis.
Emphasize how your findings are connected to the previous topic studies.
Point out essential statements you can use in future research.
Evaluate the significance of your results and any unexpected data you have.
What others can learn from your research and how this work contributes to the field.
Consider any possible additional or unique explanation of your findings.
Go deeper with options of how results can be applied in practice.

Writing a dissertation discussion chapter can be tough, but here is a great sample to learn from. Example of Interpretations in Disssertation Discussion

4. Discuss How Your Findings Relate to the Literature

Here we came to the implications of your findings for the dissertation discussion. In other words, this is a few sentences on how your work is connected to other studies on the same research topic or what literature gap you are going to fill with the data and research you launched. Remember to mention how your study address the limitations you have discovered while writing a literature review . First, outline how your hypothesis relates to theories or previous works in the field. Maybe, you challenged some theories or tried to define your own. Be specific in this section. Second, define a practical implementation of your work. Maybe, it can support recommendations or change legislation. Discussion chapter of a thesis is a place where you explain your work, make it valuable, and incorporate additional meaning for some specific data. Example of Implications in Disssertation Discussion

5. Mention Possible Limitations

It is pretty tricky to conduct research without limitations. You will always have some, which does not mean that your work is not good. When you write a discussion chapter in a thesis or dissertation, focus on what may influence your results and how changing independent variables can affect your data collection methods and final outcomes. Here are some points to consider when you structure your dissertation discussion limitation part:

If results can change in case you change the reference group?
What will happen with data if it changes circumstances?
What could influence results?

Critical thinking and analysis can help you to outline possible limitations. It can be the age of the reference group, change of questionnaire in a survey, or specific use of data extraction equipment. Be transparent about what could affect your results. Example of Complications

6. Provide Recommendations for Further Research

Writing a dissertation discussion also makes a connection to possible future research. So, other scientists may complete that. While elaborating on possible implementations of your study, you may also estimate future approaches in topic research. Here are some points to consider while your discussion in thesis writing:

Outline questions related to your topic that you did not answer in defined study or did not outline as research questions. There are other possible gaps to research.
Suggest future research based on limitations. For example, if you define surveyed people’s age as a limitation, recommend running another survey for older or younger recipients.

Example of Recommendations

7. Conclude Your Thesis/ Dissertation Discussion

You are almost done, the last step is to provide a brief summary of a section. It is not the same as a conclusion for whole research. However, you need to briefly outline key points from the dissertation discussion. To finalize writing the discussion section of a dissertation, go through the text and check if there is no unimportant information. Do not overload the text with relevant data you did not present in the result section. Be specific in your summary paragraphs. It is a holistic view of everything you pointed out. Provide a few sentences to systemize all you outlined in the text. Example of a Concluding Summary in a Dissertation Discussion Section

Dissertation Discussion Example

If we need to share one piece of practical advice, it would be to use thesis or dissertation discussion examples when writing your own copy. StudyCrumb provides the best samples from real students' work to help you understand the stylistic and possible structure of this part. It does not mean you need to copy and paste them into your work. However, you can use a dissertation discussion example for inspiration and brainstorming ideas for breaking writing blocks. Here’s a doctoral thesis discussion chapter example.

Dissertation Discussion Writing Tips

Before reading this blog, you should already know how to write a thesis discussion. However, we would share some essential tips you need to have in mind while working on the document.

Be consistent Your dissertation discussion chapter is a part of bigger research, and it should be in line with your whole work.
Understand your reader You are writing an academic text that will be analyzed by professionals and experts in the same field. Be sure that you are not trying to simplify your discussion.
Be logical Do not jump into a new line of discussion if you did not delineate it as a research question at the beginning.
Be clear Do not include any data that was not presented in the result section.
Consider word choice Use such terms as “our data indicate…” or “our data suggests…” instead of “the data proves.”
Use proper format Follow the formatting rules specified by a specific paper style (e.g., APA style format , MLA format , or Chicago format ) or provided by your instructor.

Bottom Line on Writing a Dissertation Discussion Chapter

At this stage, it should not be a question for you on how to write a discussion chapter in a PhD thesis or dissertation. Let’s make it clear. It is not a result section but still a place to elaborate on data and go deeper with explanations. Dissertation discussion section includes some intro, result interpretations, limitations, and recommendations for future research. Our team encourages you to use examples before starting your own piece of writing. It will help you to realize the purpose and structure of this chapter and inspire better texts! If you have other questions regarding the PhD writing process, check our blog for more insights. From detailed instruction on how to write a dissertation or guide on formatting a dissertation appendix , we’ve got you covered.

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FAQ About Dissertation Discussion Chapter

1. where does a discussion section go in a dissertation.

Dissertation discussion section is used to go right after the result chapter. The logic is simple — you share your data and then go to the elaboration and explanation of it. Check the sample thesis we provide to students for details on structure.

2. How long should a dissertation discussion chapter be?

It is not a surprise that dissertation discussion chapter is extremely significant for the research. Here you will go into the details of your study and interpret results to prove or not your hypothesis. It should take almost 25% of your work.

3. What tense should I use in a dissertation discussion?

Thesis or dissertation discussion used to have some rules on using tenses. You need to use the present tense when referring to established facts and use the past tense when referring to previous studies. And check your text before submission to ensure that you did not miss something.

4. What not to include in a dissertation discussion section?

The answer is easy. Discussion section of a dissertation should not include any new findings or describe some unsupported claims. Also, do not try to feel all possible gaps with one research. It may be better to outline your ideas for future studies in recommendations.

How To Write A Discussion Chapter In Your PhD Discussion

If you’re here, you probably got to the part in your thesis or dissertation where you have to work on the discussion chapter. Don’t worry; we’re here to help! In this article, we’ll break down the discussion chapter in simple language and give you lots of examples to make it easier to understand.”

What is the discussion chapter?

The discussion chapter plays a vital role in your thesis or dissertation.

Unlike the results chapter, which presents your analysis findings, whether they are qualitative or quantitative, this chapter is where you really dig into your results.

Here, you’ll interpret and explain your research findings, exploring their significance and implications.

In this section, you’ll connect your research findings with your research questions or hypotheses and link them back to previous studies and literature, as you did in your literature review chapter.

You’ll also assess the relevance and importance of your findings to your field of study and make a persuasive argument for the conclusions you’ve drawn from your analysis.

In essence, the discussion chapter is your opportunity to engage with and elucidate your research findings in a comprehensive and cohesive manner.

What to Incorporate in the Discussion Chapter?

Let’s start with the basics: in certain studies, the results and discussion chapters are merged into a single chapter.

Whether this applies to your work depends on the type of study you conducted, including its nature and chosen methodology, as well as the guidelines set by your university.

In essence, your discussion chapter’s primary purpose is to dissect, delve into the meaning of, and establish the significance of the data you presented in the results chapter. Here, you will infuse your results with significance by critically evaluating and interpreting them.

This process aids in addressing your research questions, achieving your research objectives, and bolstering your overall conclusions. Therefore, your discussion chapter should squarely focus on findings that are directly relevant to your research objectives and questions.

Since this chapter mirrors your results chapter, it’s imperative that you refrain from introducing any new findings.

In simpler terms, you should avoid making claims in this section if you haven’t already presented the pertinent data in the results chapter.

Hence, ensure that each discussion point you raise in this chapter corresponds to the data analysis covered in the results chapter.

Crafting the Discussion Chapter: A Step-by-Step Guide

Now that you’ve grasped the essence of the discussion chapter and its essential elements let’s delve into structuring this pivotal chapter. In a broad sense, you can break down this chapter into six key components, which serve as sequential steps in the chapter-writing journey.

Step 1: Reiterate Your Research Problem and Questions

When you begin writing your discussion chapter, the first thing to do is remind your reader about what your research is all about, like the main problem you’re trying to solve and what questions you’re trying to answer. This reminder is important because, after reading a bunch of stuff, your reader might forget what your research was really about or get distracted by other things.

Step 2: Sum Up The Main Discoveries

Moving ahead, it’s time to sum up the most important thing you found in your results chapter. Now, this might look different if you did qualitative or quantitative research. Qualitative research could be all about themes and connections, while quantitative research might talk about things like correlations and reasons behind everything happening.

Usually, this part doesn’t need to be long, just a paragraph or two, depending on how many research questions you had. Try to keep it short because you’ll go into more detail later on in the chapter.

Here are some examples of what you might say:

The analysed data suggest that…

The data support/oppose the defined theory that…

The detailed analysis identifies…

Remember, these are just examples. What you say here depends on the questions you were trying to answer in your research, so make sure you address them correctly.

Step 3: Interpret your results

Once you’ve started your research problem and questions and given a quick rundown of what you found, it’s time to explain your discoveries by looking at your results more closely.

But remember, only talk about what you already told them in the results part – don’t bring in new information.

From a structure point of view, it might be a good idea to organise this chapter, kind of like how you did the results one. This makes it easier for your reader to follow along and understand your points better.

Here are a few things to think about while you’re explaining your findings:

How do your results match up with what other studies found?
If your results are different from other studies, why do you think that happened?
What do your results add to your field of research?
Are there any other reasons your findings could be the way they are?

When you’re explaining your findings, make sure not to say anything that doesn’t have proof. Every idea you put out there should have something to back it up, like data or facts (and you already put that in the results chapter).

Step 4: Admit the Flaws in Your Research

Now, in the fourth step of making your discussion chapter, it’s time to fess up about the things that didn’t go so well in your study. These could be problems in any part of your study, like how big or small it was, the theories you used, how you did your analysis or even the group of people you studied.

Some folks might feel like talking about what went wrong is like shooting themselves in the foot. But that’s not true! Actually, one of the signs of doing really good research is being honest about what didn’t work out. So, saying what went wrong is actually a strong move, not a weak one.

Step 5: Offer Some Suggestions for What Comes Next

Now, after you’ve talked about your findings and owned up to what didn’t go perfectly, it’s time to think about two important things:

How can other students use your findings in real life? Basically, what good can come out of your research in the field or industry? Where can people put this info to use, and how would they do it?
What about future research? How can other researchers take what you’ve done and build on it? Maybe they can make your findings even better by dealing with the issues you mentioned earlier. While you’re at it, check if your results match up with what other studies have found, and if not, figure out why.

Final Words

By adhering to these fundamental principles, you will not only construct a well-organised discussion chapter but also contribute significantly to the ongoing discourse in your field. This, in turn, elevates the impact and relevance of your research within the broader academic community.

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The Final Chapter(s): Discussion, Conclusion, Limitations and Implications

Posted by Rene Tetzner | Oct 21, 2021 | PhD Success | 0 |

4.5 The Final Chapter(s): Discussion, Conclusion, Limitations and Implications

In some theses, the discussion of the study, its results and any concluding thoughts will fill more than one chapter: there may be, for instance, a chapter dedicated to discussion and a shorter conclusion chapter, or perhaps two chapters dedicated to discussing the results of different methodologies and a final chapter on relationships between those different results. In many theses, however, a single chapter will suffice for both. This final part of your thesis is a vital one: it tends to synthesise and analyse all elements of the thesis in order to evaluate and explain the overall significance of the research, and readers will often turn to the discussion (or conclusion) chapter first to obtain an overall picture of a study. The structure of this all-important final material varies considerably from thesis to thesis, yet it is essential that it be designed in a way that allows you to move through a great deal of potentially complicated, analytical and speculative information in an orderly fashion. Considerable reflection is therefore necessary before beginning to write, and not only to get the structure right. That structure depends, of course, on exactly what you intend to include in your discussion chapter(s), and deciding on exactly what to say will take some deep reflective thought on your part.

You may wish to address your plans for your discussion and conclusion chapter(s) with your supervisor and other committee members, and it is also a good idea to see if your department has any guidelines for this part of the thesis, especially if you are feeling unsure about how to proceed and could use some practical advice. In the final analysis, however, you are better acquainted with your research and thus better able to make sense of it than anyone else can be, so you are the only person truly qualified not only to write, but also to design the discussion and conclusion for that research. Besides, this final part of the thesis is your opportunity to express your own perspective and opinions on the significance of your doctoral research, based firmly, of course, on the topic, problem or phenomenon you investigated, your aims and objectives, the methods you used and the results you achieved.

Unfortunately, you may well feel rather exhausted by the experience of drafting your thesis by the time you arrive at your discussion chapter(s), but detailed analysis, intellectual vigour and creative connections are absolutely necessary for discussing and concluding your thesis, and a little passion never hurts either. Doing less than your best at this point would compromise all the effort you have already invested, so take a deep breath and dive into what can in fact be the most challenging and pleasurable part of writing a thesis. There is no simple or universal recipe for successfully discussing and concluding a doctoral thesis and its research, but, generally speaking, an inversion of your opening chapters takes place: in those chapters, you moved your reader from the more general background and scholarship associated with the topic, problem or phenomenon to focus on your particular perspective and approach; in your final chapter(s), you need to use the specific focus you adopted and the results you achieved to move your reader back out to the more general interpretations and implications of your research. In order to achieve this, there are a number of practical approaches and standard expectations that are worthy of serious consideration before forging your own unique path through the forest of possibilities.

Discussing and concluding a thesis effectively might and generally should involve:

A brief introduction outlining the structure and content of the chapter(s). This can take the form of a single short paragraph, but because the discussion section of a thesis tends to be creative and is always unique, and it is essential that readers understand exactly what you intend, an opening paragraph of this sort can be extremely helpful for clarifying your approach and raising appropriate expectations.
A brief but informative summary of the study or thesis as a whole. This need only highlight the major issues and can be done efficiently by moving through the individual chapters as outlined in the following four points.
A return to the introduction of the thesis to restate the most important material introduced there. The research topic, problem or phenomenon should certainly be emphasised, as should its significance, your aims and objectives, and any research questions and hypotheses you introduced and used as guiding factors in your research. You will need to analyse how your research and results answer, resolve and contribute to knowledge in relation to these elements, so any or all of them can effectively be used to structure the chapter, especially if you have used them to organise your report of the results. You may also want to return to the essential aspects of the background and context of your research as discussed in the introduction chapter, but this tends to be necessary only if that background and context is immediately relevant to your discussion and concluding thoughts.
A return to the literature review to highlight the most important aspects of previous research on your topic and any key theories related to your work in the thesis. Any gaps, misconceptions and limitations that you identified in the scholarship in your earlier literature review should be restated with the goal being to explain exactly how your research and its results have provided what was lacking, established new ways of looking at the problem(s) and thus moved beyond the traditional views and limitations. Your thesis should make an original contribution to knowledge and discussing it in relation to previous scholarship in the area is one of the most effective ways to identify, emphasise and explain that contribution.

A return to the description of your methodology. This need not be long or detailed, but it sometimes is, and reviewing your main methods and approaches with an eye to evaluating their reliability, limitations and overall effectiveness is an important part of assessing your research. Your understanding of the appropriateness of your methodology may have changed since you first designed your study, particularly as you analysed and reported your results. Your methods may have exceeded or failed to live up to your expectations, or they may have presented limitations or complications you had not envisioned. You may have made errors while putting your methods into practice. Whatever the reality of your methodology proved to be should be explained accurately and objectively, so this is a place for complete if sometimes painful honesty.
A return to the report of your results to summarise and highlight the key points. There is no need to go through your results in detail – the chapter(s) immediately preceding your discussion has already done that – but since you will need to use the results to discuss the implications and limitations of your research, mentioning the main trends is essential. You should focus particularly on the aspects of your results that you intend to discuss, but try not to leave out any significant or meaningful findings, including surprises, whether they support your research hypotheses or not. Focus and brevity can be achieved by making general statements about the nature of the results and following each statement with the most important examples and details to support it.
An analysis and interpretation of your research as a whole and its results. This can be included in a step-by-step manner along with the summaries mentioned in the last four points above, or it can be tackled separately after the relevant information from previous chapters has been highlighted. Your approach, like your ideas, for this part of your thesis will require a great deal of reflection and you may find that you have to begin more than once before finding the right direction. The essential question is ‘What does it all mean?’ and the answer can be notoriously difficult to identify and explain both thoughtfully and accurately. It is likely that your research and results will have many meanings, but this is your chance to express your own views and opinions. These should not be whimsical, erratic, biassed or overly subjective, however, but should be solidly and logically based upon your findings. Your interpretations and conclusions should be plausible, insightful and comprehensive, and whenever your ideas are tentative or speculative (as they will necessarily be at times when discussing matters such as causality), your language should clearly indicate that with phrasing such as ‘it seems that,’ ‘these results appear to suggest,’ ‘it is probable that’ and ‘the likely explanation is.’ It is also important to explain how your research and results have resolved the problem you explored, answered your research questions, tested your hypotheses, filled gaps in the scholarship on the topic, revealed the limitations of earlier theories, proved the validity of your methodology and achieved your aims and objectives. If you have not met with success in any of these areas, that, too, should be indicated.

An identification and analysis of the limitations of your study and its methodology. You may want to write this part along with the review of your main methods, but it can also work as a separate section of the chapter because limitations often extend beyond your methodology (to your findings, for instance). Identifying the limitations of your research and its results is a vital part of your thesis. You may prefer, of course, that there were no or very few limitations, but they are an inevitable aspect of any research, so recognising and discussing them not only demonstrates your intellectual maturity and critical skills, but also makes your research much more useful for future researchers in your area, including yourself. Limitations often stem from the nature of the research design and the exact qualities of the population or sample used, both of which might be called normal limitations that affect the generalisability of your research, but mistakes in controlling the relevant variables, defects in the instruments used or inadequate approaches to recording or analysing data will result in limitations (and perhaps unreliability) of a different kind. If any such limitations proved so significant that it was necessary to adjust your methods and/or repeat any of your research, a discussion of that process, the improvements you made and the ways in which the new results differed can be included as well, though you may want to consult your supervisor about this, as it might be more appropriate to discuss such changes in your methodology chapter(s) instead.
A discussion of the implications of your research and its results. This will tie into your comments about the significance of your research project as expressed in your introduction to the thesis, but your understanding of that significance may well have changed since you began writing, and you can provide further details as well as more certain conclusions in this chapter based on the results you have presented. Implications, whether for practical action or intellectual reflection, should obviously be directly related to the topic, problem or phenomenon you explored (it can be helpful to imagine what you would tell an audience affected by the problem or phenomenon if you had only enough time to emphasise a few major points), and good use can be made of your research questions and hypotheses as well as your aims and objectives as you construct your discussion. The implications you identify should be considered in relation to the background and context of your research as well as previous scholarship in the area, including both trials and studies of a more theoretical nature – ask yourself how your results build on the literature you reviewed and how your study integrates with or overturns current theories. You may also want to comment on the implications of your methodology, especially if it has been innovative, problematic or extraordinarily successful. You will have a great deal of freedom in expressing your thoughts about your work – the factual reporter of your results chapter has been left behind for the authoritative thinker of your discussion – but be sure that the implications you identify and explain are based firmly and logically upon your research and its results, and when you are theorising, generalising and speculating, ensure that your language accurately reflects those tentative modes.
One or more recommendations for future research in your area or discipline. Your recommendations for future research will be based to a large extent on the implications and limitations of your own research. It may be that some idealistic researchers start projects with the notion that their work will resolve all associated questions and problems, but this rarely (if ever) happens in reality, and often the answers that are derived from careful and extensive research complicate matters and open more doors on further research needs and possibilities. Your recommendations may involve repeating the kind of research you have done, but with changes that would eliminate the limitations you have identified (by adding controls, for instance, or choosing or developing different instruments, participants or means of analysis), or they may involve taking very different directions by conducting entirely different kinds of research (using entirely different methods perhaps, or focussing from a different perspective on the most unexpected or surprising trends of your results). Remember that your recommendations for future research can transform aspects of your work that may have proved disappointing into positive possibilities.
A brief conclusion. Since conclusions about your study are a major part of this chapter, a conclusion to it may seem somewhat redundant, but it is important to end on a bright clear note. Sometimes an academic or scientific author will dedicate pages of text to describing, interpreting and speculating upon all the sound and revealing results he or she obtained only to turn at the end of the final chapter to the limitations of the study, which can have the effect of dumping all the wind out of the sails he or she has so carefully and convincingly filled. It may be that the guidelines provided by your university or department call for limitations to be reported at the end of the thesis, and, as an essential aspect of valuable research, limitations need not be negative, especially if they are combined with or (if possible) followed by recommendations for future research. However, after discussing the limitations of your study, it can be useful to return to the unquestionably positive results and conclusions of your research. You might choose, for instance, three main concepts or conclusions that you would like to highlight as you close your text, and these can certainly be qualified with hints of limitations and recommendations while still emphasising the significant contributions of your research. Keep in mind that a doctoral thesis should make a significant and original contribution to knowledge, so highlighting the main ways in which it does so in your final thoughts is not out of place. If there was ever a time to blow your own horn a little, this is it.

Why PhD Success?

To Graduate Successfully

This article is part of a book called "PhD Success" which focuses on the writing process of a phd thesis, with its aim being to provide sound practices and principles for reporting and formatting in text the methods, results and discussion of even the most innovative and unique research in ways that are clear, correct, professional and persuasive.

The assumption of the book is that the doctoral candidate reading it is both eager to write and more than capable of doing so, but nonetheless requires information and guidance on exactly what he or she should be writing and how best to approach the task. The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples.

The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples. PhD Success provides guidance for students familiar with English and the procedures of English universities, but it also acknowledges that many theses in the English language are now written by candidates whose first language is not English, so it carefully explains the scholarly styles, conventions and standards expected of a successful doctoral thesis in the English language.

Individual chapters of this book address reflective and critical writing early in the thesis process; working successfully with thesis supervisors and benefiting from commentary and criticism; drafting and revising effective thesis chapters and developing an academic or scientific argument; writing and formatting a thesis in clear and correct scholarly English; citing, quoting and documenting sources thoroughly and accurately; and preparing for and excelling in thesis meetings and examinations.

Completing a doctoral thesis successfully requires long and penetrating thought, intellectual rigour and creativity, original research and sound methods (whether established or innovative), precision in recording detail and a wide-ranging thoroughness, as much perseverance and mental toughness as insight and brilliance, and, no matter how many helpful writing guides are consulted, a great deal of hard work over a significant period of time. Writing a thesis can be an enjoyable as well as a challenging experience, however, and even if it is not always so, the personal and professional rewards of achieving such an enormous goal are considerable, as all doctoral candidates no doubt realise, and will last a great deal longer than any problems that may be encountered during the process.

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Rene Tetzner

Rene Tetzner's blog posts dedicated to academic writing. Although the focus is on How To Write a Doctoral Thesis, many other important aspects of research-based writing, editing and publishing are addressed in helpful detail.

PhD Success – How To Write a Doctoral Thesis

October 1, 2021

Table of Contents – PhD Success

October 2, 2021

The Essential – Preliminary Matter

October 3, 2021

The Main Body of the Thesis

October 4, 2021

How to structure your PhD thesis

Organising your PhD thesis in a logical order is one of the crucial stages of your writing process. Here is a list of the individual components to include

Shama Prasada Kabekkodu

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The task of writing a PhD thesis is top of mind for many aspiring scholars. After all, completing one is no small task. And while these pieces of writing often share a standard format, this can differ slightly based on the requirements of your institution or subject. So what elements make up a PhD thesis?

A doctoral thesis usually contains:

A title page
Declarations from the candidate and supervisor
A certificate from the candidate and supervisor
A plagiarism report
Acknowledgements
A table of contents
Abbreviations
An abstract

Chapters typically cover:

A general introduction
Literature review
Analysis of the gap in research with aims and objectives
Materials and methods
Summary and conclusion
References or bibliography.

You should also include a list of papers you have published and any relevant achievements at the end.

An explanation of each of the components of a PhD dissertation

Title page: a PhD thesis starts with a title page that contains the complete title of the research work, the submitting university, names of the candidate and supervisor, affiliation and month and year of submission.

Abstract: this serves as a concise synopsis of the dissertation, covering the research context, purpose of the study or research questions, methodology, findings and conclusions. This section is usually one to two pages in length.

Table of contents: this page lists the thesis content and respective page numbers.

General introduction and literature review: this component is usually 20 to 40 pages long. It presents the readers with the primary material and discusses relevant published data. It provides an overview of pertinent literature related to the thesis such as texts that critically assess the existing literature to identify the gap in research and explain the need behind the study.

Aims and objectives: this section of the thesis is typically one to two pages long and describes the aims and objectives of the study. Structure them as three to four bullet points describing specific points that you will investigate. Approach this by thinking about what readers should understand by the end of the thesis. Ensure you:

Give a clear explanation of the purpose and goals of your study
Outline each aim concisely
Explain how you will measure your objectives
Ensure there is a clear connection between each aim
Use verbs such as investigate, evaluate, explore, analyse and demonstrate.

Materials and methods: this section briefly explains how you have conducted the study and should include all the materials you used and procedures you implemented. For example, if your research involves working with chemicals, list the chemicals and instruments used, along with their catalogue numbers and manufacturers’ names. This section should also explicitly explain the methodology you used, step-by-step. Use the past tense while writing this section and do not describe any results or findings of the study yet.

Results: this section is sometimes called the “findings report” or “the experimental findings” (referring to data collection and analysis). Write the results concisely and in the past tense. Include text, figure and table infographics created with tools such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Adobe Illustrator and BioRender to visualise your data .

Discussion: this is a chance to discuss the results and compare the findings of your study with the initial hypothesis and existing knowledge. Focus on discussing interpretations, implications, limitations and recommendations here.

Resources on academic writing for higher education staff
Tips for writing a PhD dissertation: FAQs answered
How to tackle the PhD dissertation

Summary and conclusion: this section should be shorter than the discussion and summarise your key findings. The summary and conclusion should be brief and engaging, allowing the reader to easily understand the major findings of the research work. Provide clear answers to the research questions, generate new knowledge and clarify the need for the study.

Future perspective: this section of the thesis (which is often combined with a summary or conclusion) talks about the study's limitations, if any, and indicates the directions for future studies based on your findings.

References or bibliography: the last section should include the list of articles, websites and other resources cited in the thesis.

Always remember that, depending on the department, university or field of study, you might have to follow specific guidelines on how to organise your PhD thesis. Ensure you consult your supervisor or academic department if you have any doubts.

Shama Prasada Kabekkodu is a professor and head of cell and molecular biology at Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, India.

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The difficult discussion chapter

The discussion chapter is the problem child of the thesis. The chapter most likely to provoke fear, uncertainty and doubt. Not everyone writes a chapter called “discussion”, but everyone has to do discussiony bits because, well – that’s where the creative magic of the PhD happens.

It’s important to get the discussion bits right. According to the seminal paper by Mullins and Kiley “ It’s a PhD, not a Nobel Prize “, examiners want to know if you would be an interesting future colleague. They will evaluate the quality, amount and – most importantly – the believability of your knowledge claims. If you are not sufficiently speculative there will not be not enough ‘philosophy’ in your thesis soup to justify the title of Dr. If you are too speculative you might tip over the believability cliff.

There’s a lot of advice about why a discussion chapter is important and what it should contain, but relatively little on the mechanics of actually doing it. Years ago I wrote a post on how to start the discussion chapter . I gave a few suggestions for generating creative ideas, but not a detailed discussion of how to do any of them. The post was a useful starting point, but unfortunately not enough to actually help one of my students, Wendy, write her discussion chapters.

Like many thesis writers, Wendy has had a long slog with this project and is having trouble seeing the wood for the trees . Wendy is in the creative arts, so her findings are not in the form of formulas and graphs. The findings are really a series of observations which can be backed up with evidence.

We decided to use the ‘big list’ method described by Evans, Gruba and Zobel in “How to write a Better Thesis” but with extra Inger- style diagrams. I think we made good progress with a whiteboard in the last meeting and I asked her if I could share what we did with the world, she generously agreed (thanks Wendy!). Here’s what we did:

Step one: the mud map

How to write a Better Thesis suggests that you start the discussion by simply writing a huge list of everything you learned about your topic – these are your provisional conclusions, observations, interesting facts and statements. The book suggests that you write this list with the help of a sympathetic listener who knows the project, like a supervisor.

Wendy sat in a chair and just talked at me. I wrote what she said on the whiteboard, asking a question now and then to clarify or expand on a point. The whiteboard was an ideal medium for this task. We could both see it and it was easy to rub out stuff. At the end of about 20 minutes we had this ‘mud map’ of possible findings:

Step two: Assess the findings

The mud map enabled us to start sorting and organising the ideas. I put a little ‘O’ next to every finding I thought represented an original knowledge claim. Wendy still has one data collection round to run so some findings are more speculative than others. I put ticks next to statements I felt she had sufficient data to argue, question marks next to statements where we are waiting for data and 1/2 wher we weren’t sure. I added a few arrows and brackets to connect obviously related statements.

Step Three: Find themes

The next step is a similar method to so called ‘grounded theory’ coding which is a common method in social science. This is a creative process which involves reading over the mud map again and again, writing ideas for over arching themes under which the findings might fit. After about another 45 minutes of fiddling and arguing about it, we had this provisional list of four themes:

Step four: use a spider diagram to make connections explicit

This is where we diverted from How to write a better thesis and brought in my favourite thinking tool, the spider diagram . We put the overall aim of the thesis in the middle of the bubble and put the emergent themes in the first layer of bubbles around it:

The third layer of bubbles contained findings from our mud map (recorded in the photos on my phone) that we thought fell under these themes. As we wrote the findings into the bubbles we shifted the wording to find shorter ways of saying the same thing and started to blend some of the findings together.

This process enabled us to see how some findings from the mud map might fall under multiple themes, which suggested a satisfactory repetition was emerging. You know you have a thesis on your hands when you feel like you are saying the same thing over and over, but in a slightly different way every time.

A spider diagram is a great tool for this kind of work because it doesn’t commit you to a structure. Wendy might decide that ‘big data’ should be its own theme, or she might decide to sprinkle the ‘big data’ goodness throughout the other themes. This is a stylistic choice – there is no right or wrong way to do it, but the diagram lets you imagine different results and discuss the implications of the various choices. We took several photos as this diagram evolved and changed to present different options.

Step Five: Make a snowflake

At this point I was happy. I know I can work from a spider diagram, but Wendy was still not comfortable. She is a more creative person than me and was worried that she would muck around and just find more and more connections – a fair point. So I suggested we try using a matrix. While a spider diagram encourages you to see connections, a matrix forces you to think about hierarchy.

The snowflake method is a technique used by novel writers . It involves making a simple outline, which becomes more and more complex as the writing develops. We started by drawing a table like this:

In the row ‘shareability’ there are four provisional subheadings. Each of these subheads will have 500 words – a page of text. To further develop the snowflake, Wendy will write at least four points under each subhead, to make paragraph headings. With a little manipulation these paragraph headings become topic sentences for each paragraph. From a huge mess of ideas the writing task now looks much simpler – just a matter of picking off the paragraph you want to tackle and writing 200 – 300 words.

Of course, in practice writing is not that easy, but this process does help you see the wood instead of the trees. Wendy went away smiling from our meeting and that’s what matters to me most anyway.

How about you? Got any tips on the discussion chapter? Have you used any methods like the ones outlined here? What works well for you?

How do I start my discussion chapter?

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></center></p><p>How to Write the Discussion Chapter in PhD Thesis?</p><p><center><img style=

There are many rules and tips on how to write the discussion chapter in your PhD thesis. Here are a few of them: Structure of the discussion chapter, Analyzing new results and introducing claims about new knowledge, and using the grammatical first person. While writing your discussion chapter, try to follow these guidelines. They will help you write a strong discussion chapter that is well-received by your readers.

Structure of discussion chapter

The structure of your discussion chapter is critical to your PhD thesis. The chapter should be short, fully state your conclusions and support them, and avoid regurgitating previous research results. Avoid side issues that will only make your thesis look unprofessional. Focus on helping your reader decide whether your findings are factual or mere speculation. The structure of your discussion chapter should go from specific to general. The following are some tips to keep in mind when writing this section.

The first paragraph of your discussion chapter should explain the results. It should also include the limitations of the study. The literature review should provide evidence of the results of your study. The literature review should also explain how your findings relate to your hypothesis. In the conclusion, your findings should indicate what direction your research should take. It is important to acknowledge any limitations in your research, such as the sample size. A small sample may not have enough power to generalize the findings.

The next section in your PhD thesis is the results chapter. This chapter ties in your results to previous studies and literature. It looks at the significance of the data you’ve collected and helps to explain your research questions. It also supports your overall conclusions. You should focus on the findings that are directly related to your research questions, and avoid spending too much time on findings that aren’t relevant. If you want to include a discussion chapter in your PhD thesis, you should write it according to the guidelines outlined above.

Analyzing new results

The purpose of the discussion chapter is to interpret the results of research and relate them to the research questions and the literature. The discussion chapter provides the reader with the evidence to support the main argument. It is also important to evaluate the significance of the results and make concrete recommendations for further investigation. This section should be carefully thought out and should present a logical argument to support the research findings.

An excellent discussion chapter should begin with a literature review. This will help place the new research into context and set the discussion in the proper context. The previous research will greatly influence the general significance of the research, so it is important to compare the results of the new study with other research to help the reader draw conclusions. As with any research work, there are inherent limitations to the study. The researcher should acknowledge these limitations and contrast them to those of other studies.

The fourth step in writing the discussion chapter is to identify limitations. Consider whether the new results are based on a new theoretical framework or a general theory. The sample may be small or unique, which may limit the generalizability of the results. When writing the discussion chapter, consider the impact on the field as a whole. Your work should not be viewed as a novelty or a fluke, but rather as a genuine contribution to the field.

Introducing new knowledge claims

A PhD thesis’ discussion chapter is the problem child of the dissertation. It can provoke fear, uncertainty, and doubt, but it’s also where the creative magic of the PhD happens. It requires the introduction of new knowledge claims. These claims are like dumplings in the soup of a PhD thesis. They should be treated like chocolate chips, and the reader should be able to discern the relation between them and the main claims.

When writing a discussion chapter, it is important to acknowledge limitations and discuss the implications of your findings. Limitations can include the sample size, theoretical basis, or analysis methods used. For example, a study conducted on a very small sample may not be able to generalise its results. Likewise, a research study on a single subject may be limited by the nature of the sample.

In the discussion section of a PhD thesis, new knowledge claims are introduced by explaining the significance of your findings. Remember that the goal of social science research is to discover, not prove. In the discussion chapter, you should consider all possible explanations rather than only the ones that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions. Make sure you do this by following a general order. This way, your readers will understand the significance of your findings.

Using grammatical first person

The discussion chapter is an important part of the PhD thesis. Here are six key components of a good discussion chapter:

Use the first person to talk about yourself. While it is acceptable to use the first person in a PhD thesis, it is not appropriate in a dissertation. The discussion chapter is the most important part of the thesis. It is important to avoid using the first person too often. First-person is a powerful grammatical form, but it can come across as intrusive.

Second, a good discussion chapter will contextualize your research findings. You will be able to tie your findings back to literature and previous research, and make an argument for the conclusions you draw from your analysis. You can also make use of the first person to interact with your research findings. It is important to use a coherent explanation, and don’t forget to give your research questions a place in your chapter.

Length of section

The length of the Discussion chapter in a PhD thesis depends on the type of topic it covers. It should be brief, but should adequately state the results and support your conclusions. Avoid reiterating your findings as it can lead the reader to forget the main purpose of your research. Also, avoid rambling about side issues, as they may cloud the message. The discussion chapter should be structured from specific to general, to enable the reader to draw conclusions based on the results.

A good discussion chapter begins with a literature review, which presents the results of previous research. This is an essential step in any PhD thesis, as it gives readers a framework on which to build their own work. The length of this chapter is normally between 30 and 40 pages. Next, the discussion chapter explains the research methods used and relates the findings to the hypothesis. The literature review should be around 10 pages, and it should be relevant to the research question.

The main body of the PhD thesis is divided into several chapters, including the methods and the discussion. The first section contains the research findings and should be approximately 10 pages long. It should also contain the conclusion, refuted hypotheses, and methods. The second section, the discussion chapter, should be between 15 and 20 pages long, and should describe the implications of the research. It should diversify the current evidence base and acknowledge its limitations.

Including critical reflections

There are six core components of the discussion chapter in a PhD thesis. When writing the chapter, consider these components as steps in the writing process. These components will provide the reader with context for your research and provide a clear understanding of the purpose of your PhD thesis. Here are some tips to help you write a discussion chapter that demonstrates your critical thinking. You may want to include a bullet point list of the findings of your PhD thesis, so you can refer to it as you write the chapter.

The fourth step in writing a discussion chapter is acknowledging limitations. Limitations may include scope, theoretical basis, analysis methodology, and sample size. A sample that has a small number of unique characteristics may not be representative of the population. As such, you must explain how your research was constrained. And, if the results are too limited to be generalisable, acknowledge those limitations.

The final act of the thesis is to reflect on what you’ve learned. In some fields, this is a required step. When writing a PhD thesis, the discussion chapter itself becomes a look-back on what you’ve learned throughout your PhD. Some examiners also prefer learning-focused reflections. Some even ask candidates to share what they’ve learned during the process.

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The length of introductions vary depending on your disciplinary area and the nature of your project so before writing one, it may be wise to discuss length and expectations of content with your supervisor. It is also worth taking a look at a range of past theses in your area to see what is expected in your field.

The introduction to the whole thesis can make up roughly 10 per cent of the total word count. So if you are doing a PhD of 80,000 - 100,000 words, you may have a 8,000 - 10,000 word introduction. And if you are writing a Masters thesis of 15,000 - 20,000 words, your introduction could be 1,500 - 2,000 words long. Exegeses tend to be anywhere between seven to 12 pages in length (1.5 cm spacing) and include images and/or diagrams.

Theses that generally have longer introductions do so because they incorporate more substantial background information and/or an extended literature review section.

Theses that have shorter introductions, say eight to ten pages (1.5 spacing) or about 4000 words for a PhD, do so in order to give a broad overview of the research project which is typically followed by a longer background or literature review chapter.

Regardless of the type of project you are doing or thesis you are writing, the introduction to the thesis or exegesis should give a broad overview of the project, as discussed in the page on introductions.

Individual chapters should also have introductions. An introduction to a chapter that is 10,000 words long could be about two to three pages long, whereas in shorter theses the chapter introductions may only be a page or two, or even just a paragraph or two. The length varies depending on how much you need to establish for your reader to understand how the chapter contributes to your research and argument.

Case study
One supervisor rejected his PhD student's introduction of 30 plus pages, saying an introduction should be about 'eight pages and should cover context, issues and method in that order.' So the student re-wrote to those instructions. He initially established the context of his research by providing dense background information; he then identified the key issues in the process of defining his research objectives; finally he provided a conventional chapter-by-chapter description of the thesis procedure.

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Introductions

Chapter introductions

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Should each substantive chapter of a PhD dissertation be of similar length?

A professor told me once that the chapter sizes (measured in number of pages) in a PhD dissertation should be coherent. That is, the number of pages in each chapter should be somehow close to each other (to the average). Note: This does not include the Introduction and Conclusion chapters.

Is this really an important factor when writing a dissertation?

It's just a general guideline, don't worry about it too much. Aside from the fact that there are many ways to lay out a thesis, there are many reasons this would be violated. I would venture that a better way to state this rule would be, "A chapter should be of medium length." If a given chapter is too short, it's likely an indicator that it can be combined with some other section. If a single chapter is too long, split it up into parts (experiment 1, exp 2, discussion, etc).

In any event, you should first check into how your advisor wants the thesis laid out. Consider asking your advisor to see some dissertations of other previous students to get a feel for how he likes to have things laid out; that'll be a good way to get a feel for how to lay out your own.

2 I believe this is a general rule for any book, not just a thesis. – Jonathan E. Landrum Commented Oct 3, 2013 at 15:31

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Length of Methodology Chapter

Hiya, I am at that final stage of writing up... I was wondering how long methodology chapters should be. I know that the length varies. My chapter is around 4000 words at the moment... but people have been saying that theirs is around 10,000-20,000 words. I am going a social sciences type PhD but based in Engineering. Its a mixed method approach. My supervisors have said, whatever does the job is fine... but probably a big more guidance would do wonders! Many thanks in advance.

It probably depends how many chapters you've got in total and how it fits into your structure as a whole. I found Patrick Dunleavy's publication 'Authoring a PhD' helped me to plan my structure although according to him my chapters are too long (he suggest chapters of around 10,000 words +/- 2000 words I think). My methodology section is around 5,000 words but it forms part of the first chapter which also includes my literature review, research questions and some other bits (...I'm not suggesting this is necessarily a good idea for everyone though!)

Mine is also around 4000. It's about case study research. Did you include a discussion on the paradigm? that usually takes a good chunk of the chapter.

My Methodology is 19 pages/7000 words ish, but I'm in the sciences. My chapter is purely methodology, with some theory. But bigger questions I'm leaving to the relevant discussion chapter. 10 000 words per chapter average sounds very high to me, I have 10 chapters and a limit of 80 000 words, I suppose it depends on subject and University...

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PhD Study in Sweden – A Guide for 2024

Written by Mark Bennett

A PhD in Sweden is an opportunity to study in a country that combines a historic higher education system with a culture of ingenuity and invention. The country’s universities date back to the fifteenth century, whilst Swedish brands and technologies such as Spotify, IKEA and Bluetooth continue to shape the modern world.

This covers what you need to know about PhD study in Sweden , including information on applications, funding opportunities and doctoral fees (spoiler: there aren’t any).

PhD opportunities in Sweden – what’s on offer for 2024?

If the goal for your doctorate is to produce original and potentially innovative work (it should be) then a PhD in Sweden may well be the ideal choice.

Like its Scandinavian neighbours, Sweden is also a highly tolerant country, with progressive and inclusive laws that support LGBT rights and welcome international students and visitors.

Here's some reasons to consider a PhD in Sweden for international students:

Creativity and originality – You may not discover the next big music streaming solution (and even a PhD may not help you understand *that step* in those IKEA instructions) but your doctoral research will be right at home in a country that celebrates free-thinking and supports new ideas
Prize-winning research - Sweden's status as the home of the Nobel Prize (with 34 winners) reflects its proud history of recognising and rewarding research, excellence and innovation
No PhD fees – Swedish PhD programmes normally charge no tuition fees to their students (regardless of nationality)
Historic (and respected) universities – Higher education in Sweden dates back to the 1400s and the country’s universities are well placed in modern rankings, with particular specialisms in Medicine, Life Sciences and related subjects

We’ve studiously avoided making any ABBA references in this section, but if you want a university to take a chance on your research proposal and eventually give you, give you, give you a PhD without charging much money, money, money for fees*. . . well, there are worse destinations to choose than Sweden.

*We're sorry.

PhD Study in Sweden - Key Details
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Swedish universities

There are 39 state-funded universities and equivalent institutions in Sweden, alongside a smaller number of privately funded higher education providers.

Degrees are organised using a three-cycle system , in common with the wider European Higher Education Area . Your PhD in Sweden will be a third-cycle qualification , usually taking place after Bachelors (first cycle) and Masters (second cycle) study.

Universities and university colleges

Higher education providers in Sweden are divided into two types:

Universities ( universitet ) are large institutions awarding degrees in a broad range of subjects. They carry out original research alongside academic teaching and therefore have the capacity to support and train PhD students.
University colleges ( högskola ) focus on technical and professional training, often in applied sciences and related subjects. They are less likely to award PhDs but may do so in certain subject areas.

The distinction between these two categories isn’t always obvious or clear from an institution’s name (university colleges may simply refer to themselves as universities). The good news is that you don’t need to worry too much about it. As a PhD student you’re likely to end up studying at a university, but the smaller number of doctoral programmes offered by university colleges are equally rigorous and respected.

Swedish university rankings

Sweden is home to one of Europe’s top-performing higher education systems, at least so far as university rankings are concerned. Of the 38 universities in Sweden, 10 rank within the current Times Higher Education world top 400.

Top 10 Swedish Universities in 2024
University	THE 2024	QS 2024	ARWU 2023
Karolinska Institute	50	-	37
KTH Royal Institute of Technology	=97	=73	201-300
Lund University	=106	=85	151-200
Uppsala University	=140	105	82
Stockholm University	=185	118	98
Chalmers University of Technology	189	129	401-500
University of Gothenburg	201-250	187	101-150
Linköping University	251-300	=268	301-400
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences	301-350	-	301-400
Umeå University	401-500	=465	601-700
World University Rankings, and . Visit their websites for more information.

Do rankings matter for PhD study?

University rankings can help you choose a PhD project or programme, provided you know what to look at. Our guide explains how to use rankings as a prospective postgraduate.

PhD structure

A PhD in Sweden represents the highest level of academic achievement for students. As in other countries, the emphasis is on your independent research towards an original thesis that makes a new contribution to knowledge in your field.

Swedish doctoral degrees

Doctoral level study in Sweden takes one of two forms:

A standard PhD in Sweden requires a minimum of four years full-time work (equivalent to 240 ECTS credits ) and awards a full doctorate (along with the all-important title of ‘doctor’).

Alternatively, you may choose to study for a shorter licentiate degree. This generally only requires two years of full-time work towards a shorter and less ambitious thesis (equivalent to 120 ECTS credits ). The Swedish licentiate is similar to the Master of Philosophy (MPhil) offered in the UK or other countries and some students initially enrol for this qualification before upgrading to become full PhD candidates.

The academic year in Sweden runs from August to June with two teaching terms (August to January and January to June) separated by summer and winter holidays. As a PhD student you’ll normally work more flexibly throughout the year, but some additional courses and other activities may be linked to specific teaching periods.

Supervision

You’ll complete your PhD (or licentiate) with the support of two or more expert supervisors whose job it will be to guide your work. Their roles will vary slightly depending on your field:

Supervisors for Arts , Humanities and some Social Science projects will serve primarily as mentors. They won’t be directly involved in your research, but they will be able to advise on the direction your project is taking.
Supervisors for Science , Technology , Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) projects may also be carrying out similar research as the lead or principal investigator for the laboratory or research group your PhD is part of. This means they may also work alongside you or even collaborate on some experiments. However, your PhD thesis will still be an independent piece of work, based on your personal findings and analysis.

You’ll always have at least two PhD supervisors, one of whom will be the principal supervisor for your PhD. Some universities also appoint additional assistant supervisors with responsibility for specific tasks (such as training or pastoral care and support).

Your supervisors’ roles and expectations will be set by your university. As a minimum they’ll usually include arranging regular progress meetings, reviewing results and drafts and supporting you as you prepare to submit your thesis. Some additional responsibilities might include identifying and fulfilling training needs or assisting with other aspects of your professional and academic development.

PhD supervision

Our guides explain how to choose (and contact ) a PhD supervisor and introduce the working relationship you'll have with yours as a doctoral student.

Programme structure

Your main focus during a PhD in Sweden will be the original research required for your thesis. You’ll normally begin by assessing the scholarship in your subject (a literature review) before moving on to collecting sources or experimental data and eventually writing up your conclusions and results.

Some universities also offer more structured training alongside your research. This may involve attending short courses and / or attending short courses on research methods and other useful skills for your project.

It’s also common for PhD students at Swedish universities to serve as junior academic staff within their departments or faculties as part of their funding arrangements. If so, you’ll also have additional duties such as teaching or demonstrating.

Assessment and examinations

The assessment of a Swedish PhD is based on the quality of the doctoral thesis you submit at the end of your research. This needs to demonstrate that your work has been original, that it has made a significant contribution to your subject and that you have personally been responsible for designing and carrying out the research involved.

All of these qualities will be formally assessed during a final public defence of your thesis.

This is similar to the viva voce used in the UK and other countries but follows a slightly different procedure. Instead of being examined in private, you will present your thesis to an examining committee in front of an audience that may include other academics, fellow PhD students and your family and friends.

One of the committee will be an external expert (from outside your university) appointed to serve as your ‘opponent’. They will ask questions about your thesis and challenge you to explain your findings and conclusions. Other members of the committee (and audience) may also ask questions.

At the end of the examination your committee will decide whether or not you have successfully defended your thesis and can be awarded your PhD. This ‘live’ examination process may seem daunting, but you should think of it as an appropriate climax for your research, allowing you to assert your expertise and prove your qualification. It’s also quite rare for students to fail at this stage.

Masters study in Sweden

Looking to study a Masters in Sweden? We have all the information you need on our sister site, FindAMasters .

Fees and funding

There are no fees for PhD study in Sweden at state-funded universities (note that this doesn’t apply to Masters or Bachelors degrees). Doctoral programmes are free for EU, EEA and international (non EU) students.

The same applies to application fees – you don’t need to pay these for a PhD in Sweden.

You will need to cover your accommodation and living costs, but support may be available from your university to help with this.

Study grants

It’s common for PhD students in Sweden to also be recognised as staff, subject to an employment contract with their university. If applicable, this pays you to a salary known as a study grant ( utbildningsbidrag ) worth approximately €1,500 per month (but subject to tax).

Your employment status may vary during your PhD. For the first two years you will receive your study grant, but not be entitled to benefits and social security. For the final two years you will normally hold a full employment contract ( anställning ) and be entitled to support during illness, parental leave or other circumstances. More information will be available from your university.

In return for your study grant you will normally be required to carry out some responsibilities within your department, such as teaching undergraduates or assisting with administrative work.

PhD funding

Other scholarships and bursaries for PhD study in Sweden may also be available to help top up (or substitute for) a study grant.

The main source of PhD funding for international students in Sweden is the Swedish Institute (SI). They offer scholarships for students from specific regions including Turkey, the Balkans and the Baltic. More information is available on the official Study in Sweden website.

Other funding may be available from universities in Sweden, or from specific academic organisations and research charities relevant to your subject area. Our guides provide information on a range of PhD scholarships and other funding options .

Applying for a PhD in Sweden

You should apply directly to universities for PhD study in Sweden. How you do so will depend on the kind of project you are interested in:

PhDs in Science , Technology , Engineering and Mathematics will often be advertised as specific projects. You should view current opportunities and apply according to the guidelines set by specific adverts. This will often mean submitting a personal statement along with your academic CV and references .
Students in Arts , Humanities and Social Sciences are more likely to put forward their own project ideas. You’ll need to submit a strong research proposal , perhaps after contacting a potential supervisor for guidance and advice.

However you apply, make sure you check the specific requirements and procedure with your university.

Admissions requirements

Swedish universities are free to set their own entry requirements for PhD study . The minimum qualification will usually be a Bachelors degree in an appropriate subject, but a Masters is also desirable – particularly if you’re applying for funding.

Just as important as your previous qualifications will be your ability to demonstrate previous research experience . This could simply be the dissertation project for one or both of your previous degrees, but it’s important that you can show some preparation for the independent research you’ll be doing on your PhD.

The general eligibility criteria for PhD applications in Sweden is similar to most other countries in the EU.

Language requirements

A large proportion of teaching at Swedish universities takes place in English. This means you won’t necessarily need to know Swedish to study abroad in Sweden, but it’s worth checking with the specific university or department you plan to study within. Even if English isn’t required, picking up some language skills will help you settle in and enjoy your degree.

If English isn’t your first language you may need to submit a recognised test score . Exceptions might be made if you’ve completed a previous university degree taught in English.

Your university may invite you for an interview as part of the admissions process (in person, or online). This is a good sign! It means your application is suitably interesting and impressive and the university wants to hear more from you.

Student visas

Visa information for uk students in sweden.

UK students will no longer be EU citizens from the 2021-22 academic year onwards. This means you may be considered as an international student when studying in Sweden. You may be subject to different visa requirements and fee rates, unless otherwise stated.

You won’t need a visa to study in Sweden as a PhD student (student visas are required for visits of less than three months, but your PhD is guaranteed to take longer than this!).

EU, EEA and Nordic students

If you’re a citizen of an EU, EEA or Nordic country (a group that includes Finland, Denmark, Iceland and Norway as well as Sweden) you won’t need a residence permit to live in Sweden during your PhD. However, you will need to register with a local branch of the Swedish Tax Agency ( Skatteverket ).

You’ll need to bring your passport plus any marriage or birth certificates (if you are married and / or have children). You’ll also need to bring proof of admission to a Swedish university and a signed declaration that you have sufficient funds to live on during your PhD (the minimum requirement is €826 per month ).

Other international students

Students from countries outside the EU, EEA and Nordic group must formally apply for a residence permit in order to study in Sweden for longer than three months.

You can do this online. You’ll need to provide copies of your passport, along with proof that you have been admitted to a Swedish university, have paid the first instalment of your tuition fees and can support yourself financially during your PhD the minimum requirement is €826 per month ).

Health insurance

All students in Sweden will need full health insurance. If you already hold a European Health Insurance Card (EHIC) you will normally be automatically covered. Alternatively, your university may provide cover as part of your study grant, or offer an affordable policy for you to purchase.

Sweden is a multicultural and inclusive country with plenty of opportunities for talented PhD graduates to apply their skills and expertise. Who knows – your work could be part of the next great Swedish innovation.

Can I work in Sweden after my PhD?

EU, EEA and Nordic students can live and work in Sweden without restriction. Other international students will need to apply for a post-study residence permit , allowing you to stay in Sweden for another six months as you look for work. To obtain this you’ll need to have completed your degree, still be in Sweden and hold a valid passport.

If you are successful in finding a job within six months, you can go on toapply for a work permit. Further information is available from the Swedish Migration Office .

Find a PhD in Sweden

Ready to start browsing some current PhD opportunities in Sweden ? Alternatively, you can look at our other guides to PhD study abroad .

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IMAGES

Dissertation and Thesis Length by Major
How to Write Discussion Chapter of Thesis Research
Write a Dissertation Discussion Chapter in Twelve Easy Steps
Write a Dissertation Discussion Chapter in Twelve Easy Steps
How Long is a Thesis or Dissertation: College, Grad or PhD
How to emphasize the thesis introduction chapter from the rest of the

VIDEO

Writing That PhD Thesis
Thesis Discussion
Why Your Thesis Is Important
Differences Between Thesis Abstract and Research Article Abstract
Ph.D. Thesis chapter three Computational Methodology or Experimental Details| How to write
Dissertation discussion chapter

COMMENTS

How To Write A Dissertation Discussion Chapter
Step 4: Acknowledge the limitations of your study. The fourth step in writing up your discussion chapter is to acknowledge the limitations of the study. These limitations can cover any part of your study, from the scope or theoretical basis to the analysis method (s) or sample.
How to write your PhD thesis discussion and conclusion chapters
The discussion chapter digs into the details of your findings and how you got them. The conclusion chapter zooms out to look at the broader implications and what comes next. As you tackle these chapters, remember to keep things clear and straightforward. Take the time to really think about what your research means and why it matters.
PhD Discussion Chapter: What It Is And How To Write It
The PhD Discussion Chapter: What It Is & How To Write It. Sep 11, 2023. Your PhD discussion chapter is your thesis's intellectual epicenter. Think of it as the scholarly equivalent of a courtroom closing argument, where you summarise the evidence and make your case. Perhaps that's why it's so tricky - the skills you need in your ...
How to Write a Perfect Discussion Chapter for a PhD Thesis
2. Determine a clear structure. The first step in organizing a perfect discussion chapter for a PhD thesis is to divide them into separate sections that move from a particular result to implications. However, depending on your PhD thesis topics, you may utilize the followings: Analyze and summarize your main findings.
How to Write a Dissertation Discussion Chapter
Here are some examples of how to present the summary of your findings; "The data suggests that", "The results confirm that", "The analysis indicates that", "The research shows a relationship between", etc. 2. Interpretations of Results. Your audience will expect you to provide meanings of the results, although they might seem ...
How to write a discussion chapter for your masters degree or PhD thesis
The main body of your discussion chapter is where the depth of your analysis unfolds. Revisit the existing literature from your literature review, examining your findings in this context. Consider the shift from theory to contribution and develop new headings based on the major takeaways from your study.
Tips for writing a PhD dissertation: FAQs answered
A PhD thesis (or dissertation) is typically 60,000 to 120,000 words ( 100 to 300 pages in length) organised into chapters, divisions and subdivisions (with roughly 10,000 words per chapter) - from introduction (with clear aims and objectives) to conclusion. The structure of a dissertation will vary depending on discipline (humanities, social ...
How to Write a Discussion Section
Table of contents. What not to include in your discussion section. Step 1: Summarise your key findings. Step 2: Give your interpretations. Step 3: Discuss the implications. Step 4: Acknowledge the limitations. Step 5: Share your recommendations. Discussion section example.
How to plan, structure and write every chapter in your PhD
A Template To Help You Structure Your PhD's Theoretical Framework Chapter. In this guide, I explain how to use the theory framework template. The focus is on the practical things to consider when you're working with the template and how you can give your theory framework the rockstar treatment. Use our free tools, guides and templates to ...
Thesis Discussion Chapter Template (Word Doc + PDF)
What's Included: Discussion Template. This template covers all the core components required in the discussion/analysis chapter of a typical dissertation or thesis, including: The purpose of each section is explained in plain language, followed by an overview of the key elements that you need to cover. The template also includes practical ...
How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Discussion & Examples
But it is not so. Let's go through all steps to writing a discussion in a dissertation, and share our best examples from academic papers. 1. Remind Your Research Questions & Objectives. Writing the discussion chapter of a dissertation is not a big deal if you understand its aim and each component in a text structure.
How To Write A Discussion Chapter In Your PhD Discussion
Hence, ensure that each discussion point you raise in this chapter corresponds to the data analysis covered in the results chapter. Crafting the Discussion Chapter: A Step-by-Step Guide. Now that you've grasped the essence of the discussion chapter and its essential elements let's delve into structuring this pivotal chapter. In a broad ...
The Final PhD Chapter(s): Discussion, Conclusion, Limitations
Score 96% Score 96%. 4.5 The Final Chapter (s): Discussion, Conclusion, Limitations and Implications. In some theses, the discussion of the study, its results and any concluding thoughts will fill more than one chapter: there may be, for instance, a chapter dedicated to discussion and a shorter conclusion chapter, or perhaps two chapters ...
PDF Guidelines for The PhD Dissertation
Most dissertations are 100 to 300 pages in length. All dissertations should be divided into appropriate sections, and long dissertations may need chapters, main divisions, and even subdivisions. Students should keep in mind that GSAS and many departments deplore overlong and wordy dissertations.
A Guide to Writing a PhD Thesis
The length of a PhD thesis varies from subject to subject, but all are far longer than those for undergraduate or Masters degrees. Your university will usually set an upper limit - typically between 70,000 and 100,000 words, with most dissertations coming in at around 80,000 words.
How to structure your PhD thesis
Abstract: this serves as a concise synopsis of the dissertation, covering the research context, purpose of the study or research questions, methodology, findings and conclusions. This section is usually one to two pages in length. Table of contents: this page lists the thesis content and respective page numbers. General introduction and ...
The difficult discussion chapter
The discussion chapter is the problem child of the thesis. The chapter most likely to provoke fear, uncertainty and doubt. Not everyone writes a chapter called "discussion", but everyone has to do discussiony bits because, well - that's where the creative magic of the PhD happens. The discussion section is scary because you have to make ...
How to Write the Discussion Chapter in PhD Thesis?
A PhD thesis' discussion chapter is the problem child of the dissertation. It can provoke fear, uncertainty, and doubt, but it's also where the creative magic of the PhD happens. ... The length of the Discussion chapter in a PhD thesis depends on the type of topic it covers. It should be brief, but should adequately state the results and ...
Does the length of a PhD thesis matter?
6. John Nash's thesis was 26 pages long with only two references and he later won a Nobel prize. What matters is scientific quality not quantity, if your ideas are superior nobody will object the length (mine was less than 100 pages). Math is really special in this respect.
Length
So if you are doing a PhD of 80,000 - 100,000 words, you may have a 8,000 - 10,000 word introduction. And if you are writing a Masters thesis of 15,000 - 20,000 words, your introduction could be 1,500 - 2,000 words long. Exegeses tend to be anywhere between seven to 12 pages in length (1.5 cm spacing) and include images and/or diagrams.
Should each substantive chapter of a PhD dissertation be of similar length?
If a single chapter is too long, split it up into parts (experiment 1, exp 2, discussion, etc). In any event, you should first check into how your advisor wants the thesis laid out. Consider asking your advisor to see some dissertations of other previous students to get a feel for how he likes to have things laid out; that'll be a good way to ...
Chapter length/word-count issues on PostgraduateForum.com
Similarly our PhD regulations do not give a minimum/maximum wordcount. It rather says that it is expected to have an introduction, couple of chapters detailing experiments, discussion/conclusion and bibliography. So, personally I would say a 4500 word chapter should be absolutely fine but it really depends on what the convention for PhD theses ...
chapter length on PostgraduateForum.com
chapter length. As I am writing up my thesis, I have seen that my chapters are quite small. I have two literature chapters (7 and 8.000 words), a methodology of 5.000 words and an analysis of 8.000 words. plan on having 3 more analysis chapters and a discussion one (of course introduction and conclusion). I know it is so early to worry about ...
Length of Methodology Chapter on PostgraduateForum.com
My Methodology is 19 pages/7000 words ish, but I'm in the sciences. My chapter is purely methodology, with some theory. But bigger questions I'm leaving to the relevant discussion chapter. 10 000 words per chapter average sounds very high to me, I have 10 chapters and a limit of 80 000 words, I suppose it depends on subject and University...
PhD Study in Sweden
There are 39 state-funded universities and equivalent institutions in Sweden, alongside a smaller number of privately funded higher education providers.. Degrees are organised using a three-cycle system, in common with the wider European Higher Education Area.Your PhD in Sweden will be a third-cycle qualification, usually taking place after Bachelors (first cycle) and Masters (second cycle) study.