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What citation style to use for science [Updated 2023]

What citation style should you use for a science paper? In this post, we explore the most frequently used citation styles for science. We cover APA, IEEE, ACS, and others and provide examples of each style.

APA (American Psychological Association) style is a citation format used in the social sciences, education, and engineering, as well as in the sciences. APA consists of two elements: in-text citations and a reference list.

It uses an author-date system, in which the author’s last name and year of publication are put in parentheses (e.g. Smith 2003). These parenthetical citations refer the reader to a list at the end of the paper, which includes information about each source.

APA style resources

🌐 Official APA style guidelines

🗂 APA style guide

📝 APA citation generator

APA style examples

Here is an example of an in-text citation in APA style:

In recent years, much debate has been stirred regarding volcanic soil (Avşar et al., 2018) .

Here is a bibliography entry in APA style:

Avşar, E., Ulusay, R., Aydan, Ö., & Mutlutürk, M . ( 2015 ). On the Difficulties of Geotechnical Sampling and practical Estimates of the Strength of a weakly bonded Volcanic Soil . Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment , 74 ( 4 ), 1375–1394 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0710-9

Chicago style is another form of citation used for science papers and journals. It has two formats: a notes and bibliography system and an author-date system.

The notes and bibliography system is mostly used for the humanities, whereas the author-date system is used in science and business. The latter uses in-text citations formed by the author's last name and date of publication. A bibliography at the end of the paper lists the full information for all references.

Chicago style resources

🌐 Official Chicago style guidelines

🗂 Chicago style guide

📝 Chicago citation generator

Chicago style examples

Here is an in-text citation in Chicago style:

However, a research proved this theory right (Hofman and Rick 2018, 65-115) .

Here is a bibliography entry in Chicago style:

Hofman, Courtney A., and Torben C. Rick . “ Ancient Biological Invasions and Island Ecosystems: Tracking Translocations of Wild Plants and Animals .” Journal of Archaeological Research 26 , no. 1 ( 2018 ): 65–115 . doi.org/10.1007/s10814-017-9105-3 .

CSE style is the standard format used in the physical and life sciences. This style features three types of citation systems: citation-sequence, name-year, and citation-name.

• Name-Year : In-text citations of this type feature the author’s last name and the year of publication in brackets. A bibliography at the end lists all references in full.

• Citation-Sequence : Every source is assigned a superscript number that is used as an in-text reference. The bibliography at the end lists all numbers with their references in the order in which they appeared in the text.

• Citation-Name : The reference list is organized alphabetically by authors’ last names; each name is assigned a number which can be placed in superscript as an in-text reference.

CSE style resources

🌐 Official CSE style guidelines

📝 CSE citation generator

CSE style examples

Here is an example of an in-text citation in CSE name-year style:

Therefore, the translocation of wild plants was tracked (Hofman and Rick 2018) .

Here is a bibliography entry in CSE name-year style:

Hofman CA, Rick TC. 2018. Ancient Biological Invasions and Island Ecosystems: Tracking Translocations of Wild Plants and Animals. J. Archaeol. [accessed 2019 Mar 11]; 26(1): 65–11. doi.org/10.1007/s10814-017-9105-3.

AIP style, as its title suggests, is commonly applied in physics and astronomy papers. This style has a numbered citation system , which uses superscript numbers to show in-text citations. These numbers correspond to a list of sources at the end of the paper.

AIP style resources

🌐 Official AIP style guidelines

🗂 AIP style guide

📝 AIP citation generator

AIP style examples

Here is an in-text citation in AIP style:

A similar study was carried out in 2015 ¹ .

Here is a bibliography entry in AIP style:

¹ H.D. Young and R.A. Freedman, Sears & Zemansky's University Physics (Addison-Wesley, San Francisco, CA, 2015) p. 160

ACS style is the standard citation style for chemistry. This style uses both numeric and author-date citations systems. The numbered in-text citations can have either a superscript number or a number in italics. Full references for each source are listed at the end of the paper.

ACS style resources

🌐 Official ACS style guidelines

🗂 ACS style guide

📝 ACS citation generator

ACS style examples

Here is an in-text citation in ACS author-date style:

The opposing side was given first (Brown et al., 2017) .

Here is a bibliography entry in ACS author-date style:

Brown, T.E.; LeMay H.E.; Bursten, B.E.; Murphy, C.; Woodward, P.; Stoltzfus M.E. Chemistry: The Central Science in SI Units . Pearson: New York, 2017.

IEEE style is used for engineering and science papers. This style uses a numeric, in-text citation format, with a number in square brackets. This number corresponds to a reference list entry at the end of the paper.

IEEE style resources

🌐 Official IEEE style guidelines

🗂 IEEE style guide

📝 IEEE citation generator

IEEE style examples

Here is an example of an in-text citation in IEEE style:

As seen in a multi-camera study [1] ...

Here is a bibliography entry in IEEE style:

[1] E. Nuger and B. Benhabib, “Multi-Camera Active-Vision for Markerless Shape Recovery of Unknown Deforming Objects,” J. Intell. Rob. Syst. , vol. 92, no. 2, pp. 223–264, Oct. 2018.

Frequently Asked Questions about citation styles used in science

The most frequently used citation style in the sciences is APA (American Psychological Association) style.

There are two major types of citation systems you can use: author-date or numeric. Numeric citation styles tend to be preferred for science disciplines.

Yes, you have to add a bibliography or reference list citing all sources mentioned in your scientific paper.

Some of the most popular scientific journals are: Science Magazine , Nature , and The Lancet .

Title pages for science papers must follow the format of the citation style that you’re using. For example, in APA style you need to include a title, running head, a name, and other details. Visit our guide on title pages to learn more.

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For students and teachers.

The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers

• MANUSCRIPT PREPARATION
• MANUSCRIPT AND PROOF MARKUP
• SAMPLE CORRESPONDENCE
• EDITORIAL OFFICE PRACTICES (PDF)
• PROMOTING INTEGRITY IN SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL PUBLICATIONS
• SCIENTIFIC STYLE AND FORMAT CITATION QUICK GUIDE

Scientific Style and Format Citation Quick Guide

Scientific Style and Format presents three systems for referring to references (also known as citations) within the text of a journal article, book, or other scientific publication: 1) citation–sequence; 2) name–year; and 3) citation–name. These abbreviated references are called in-text references. They refer to a list of references at the end of the document.

The system of in-text references that you use will determine the order of references at the end of your document. These end references have essentially the same format in all three systems, except for the placement of the date of publication in the name–year system.

Though Scientific Style and Format now uses citation–sequence for its own references, each system is widely used in scientific publishing. Consult your publisher to determine which system you will need to follow.

Click on the tabs below for more information and to see some common examples of materials cited in each style, including examples of electronic sources. For numerous specific examples, see Chapter 29 of the 8th edition of Scientific Style and Format .

Citation–Sequence and Citation–Name

The following examples illustrate the citation–sequence and citation–name systems. The two systems are identical except for the order of references. In both systems, numbers within the text refer to the end references.

In citation–sequence, the end references are listed in the sequence in which they first appear within the text. For example, if a reference by Smith is the first one mentioned in the text, then the complete reference to the Smith work will be number 1 in the end references. The same number is used for subsequent in-text references to the same document.

In citation–name, the end references are listed alphabetically by author. Multiple works by the same author are listed alphabetically by title. The references are numbered in that sequence, such that a work authored by Adam is number 1, Brown is number 2, and so on. Numbers assigned to the end references are used for the in-text references regardless of the sequence in which they appear in the text of the work. For example, if a work by Zielinski is number 56 in the reference list, each in-text reference to Zielinski will be number 56 also.

List authors in the order in which they appear in the original text, followed by a period. Periods also follow article and journal title and volume or issue information. Separate the date from volume and issue by a semicolon. The location (usually the page range for the article) is preceded by a colon.

Author(s). Article title. Journal title. Date;volume(issue):location.

Journal titles are generally abbreviated according to the List of Title Word Abbreviations maintained by the ISSN International Centre. See Appendix 29.1 in Scientific Style and Format for more information.

For articles with more than 1 author, names are separated by a comma.

Smart N, Fang ZY, Marwick TH. A practical guide to exercise training for heart failure patients. J Card Fail. 2003;9(1):49–58.

For articles with more than 10 authors, list the first 10 followed by “et al.”

Pizzi C, Caraglia M, Cianciulli M, Fabbrocini A, Libroia A, Matano E, Contegiacomo A, Del Prete S, Abbruzzese A, Martignetti A, et al. Low-dose recombinant IL-2 induces psychological changes: monitoring by Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Anticancer Res. 2002;22(2A):727–732.

Volume with no issue or other subdivision

Laskowski DA. Physical and chemical properties of pyrethroids. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 2002;174:49–170.

Volume with issue and supplement

Gardos G, Cole JO, Haskell D, Marby D, Paine SS, Moore P. The natural history of tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Pharmacol. 1988;8(4 Suppl):31S–37S

Volume with supplement but no issue

Heemskerk J, Tobin AJ, Ravina B. From chemical to drug: neurodegeneration drug screening and the ethics of clinical trials. Nat Neurosci. 2002;5 Suppl:1027–1029.

Multiple issue numbers

Ramstrom O, Bunyapaiboonsri T, Lohmann S, Lehn JM. Chemical biology of dynamic combinatorial libraries. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2002;1572(2–3):178–186.

Issue with no volume

Sabatier R. Reorienting health and social services. AIDS STD Health Promot Exch. 1995;(4):1–3.

Separate information about author(s), title, edition, and publication by periods. The basic format is as follows:

Author(s). Title. Edition. Place of publication: publisher; date. Extent. Notes.

Extent can include information about pagination or number of volumes and is considered optional. Notes can include information of interest to the reader, such as language of publication other than English; such notes are optional.

Essential notes provide information about location, such as a URL for online works. See Chapter 29 for more information.

For books with more than 1 author, names are separated by a comma.

Ferrozzi F, Garlaschi G, Bova D. CT of metastases. New York (NY): Springer; 2000.

For books with more than 10 authors, list the first 10 followed by “et al.”

Wenger NK, Sivarajan Froelicher E, Smith LK, Ades PA, Berra K, Blumenthal JA, Certo CME, Dattilo AM, Davis D, DeBusk RF, et al. Cardiac rehabilitation. Rockville (MD): Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (US); 1995.

Organization as author

Advanced Life Support Group. Acute medical emergencies: the practical approach. London (England): BMJ Books; 2001.

Author(s) plus editor(s) or translator(s)

Klarsfeld A, Revah F. The biology of death: origins of mortality. Brady L, translator. Ithaca (NY): Cornell University Press; 2003.

Luzikov VN. Mitochondrial biogenesis and breakdown. Galkin AV, translator; Roodyn DB, editor. New York (NY): Consultants Bureau; 1985.

Chapter or other part of a book, same author(s)

Gawande A. The checklist manifesto: how to get things right. New York (NY): Metropolitan Books; 2010. Chapter 3, The end of the master builder; p. 48–71.

Chapter or other part of a book, different authors

Rapley R. Recombinant DNA and genetic analysis. In: Wilson K, Walker J, editors. Principles and techniques of biochemistry and molecular biology. 7th ed. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press; 2010. p. 195–262.

Multivolume work as a whole

Alkire LG, editor. Periodical title abbreviations. 16th ed. Detroit (MI): Thompson Gale; 2006. 2 vol. Vol. 1, By abbreviation; vol. 2, By title.

Dissertations and Theses

Lutz M. 1903: American nervousness and the economy of cultural change [dissertation]. [Stanford (CA)]: Stanford University; 1989.

Blanco EE, Meade JC, Richards WD, inventors; Ophthalmic Ventures, assignee. Surgical stapling system. United States patent US 4,969,591. 1990 Nov 13.

Weiss R. Study shows problems in cloning people: researchers find replicating primates will be harder than other mammals. Washington Post (Home Ed.). 2003 Apr 11;Sect. A:12 (col. 1).

Indicate a copyright date with a lowercase “c”.

Johnson D, editor. Surgical techniques in orthopaedics: anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction [DVD]. Rosemont (IL): American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; c2002. 1 DVD.

Websites and Other Online Formats

References to websites and other online formats follow the same general principles as for printed references, with the addition of a date of update/revision (if available) along with an access date and a URL.

Title of Homepage. Edition. Place of publication: publisher; date of publication [date updated; date accessed]. Notes.

If no date of publication can be determined, use a copyright date (if available), preceded by “c”. Include the URL in the notes.

APSnet: plant pathology. St Paul (MN): American Phytopathological Association; c1994–2005 [accessed 2005 Jun 20]. http://www.apsnet.org/.

Online journal article

Author(s) of article. Title of article. Title of journal (edition). Date of publication [date updated; date accessed];volume(issue):location. Notes.

A DOI (Digital Object Identifier) may be included in the notes in addition to a URL, if available:

Savage E, Ramsay M, White J, Beard S, Lawson H, Hunjan R, Brown D. Mumps outbreaks across England and Wales in 2004: observational study. BMJ. 2005 [accessed 2005 May 31];330(7500):1119–1120. http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/reprint/330/7500/1119. doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7500.1119.

Author(s). Title of book. Edition. Place of publication: publisher; date of publication [date updated; date accessed]. Notes.

Brogden KA, Guthmille JM, editors. Polymicrobial diseases. Washington (DC): ASM Press; 2002 [accessed February 28, 2014]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2475/.

Author’s name. Title of post [descriptive word]. Title of blog. Date of publication. [accessed date]. URL.

Fogarty M. Formatting titles on Twitter and Facebook [blog]. Grammar Girl: Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing. 2012 Aug 14. [accessed 2012 Oct 19]. http://grammar.quickanddirtytips.com/formatting-titles-on-twitter-and-facebook.aspx.

Forthcoming or Unpublished Material

Not all forthcoming or unpublished sources are suitable for inclusion in reference lists. Check with your publisher if in doubt.

Forthcoming journal article or book

Journal article:

Farley T, Galves A, Dickinson LM, Perez MJ. Stress, coping, and health: a comparison of Mexican immigrants, Mexican-Americans, and non-Hispanic whites. J Immigr Health. Forthcoming 2005 Jul.

Goldstein DS. Adrenaline and the inner world: an introduction to scientific integrative medicine. Baltimore (MD): Johns Hopkins University Press. Forthcoming 2006.

Paper or poster presented at meeting

Unpublished presentations are cited as follows:

Antani S, Long LR, Thoma GR, Lee DJ. Anatomical shape representation in spine x-ray images. Paper presented at: VIIP 2003. Proceedings of the 3rd IASTED International Conference on Visualization, Imaging and Image Processing; 2003 Sep 8–10; Benalmadena, Spain.

Charles L, Gordner R. Analysis of MedlinePlus en Español customer service requests. Poster session presented at: Futuro magnifico! Celebrating our diversity. MLA ’05: Medical Library Association Annual Meeting; 2005 May 14–19; San Antonio, TX.

References to published presentations are cited much like contributions to books, with the addition of information about the date and place of the conference. See Chapter 29 for more information.

Personal communication

References to personal communication are placed in running text rather than as formal end references.

Permission is usually required and should be acknowledged in an “Acknowledgment” or “Notes” section at the end of the document.

. . . and most of these meningiomas proved to be inoperable (2003 letter from RS Grant to me; unreferenced, see “Notes”) while a few were not.

Name–Year

The following examples illustrate the name–year system. In this system (sometimes called the Harvard system), in-text references consist of the surname of the author or authors and the year of publication of the document. End references are unnumbered and appear in alphabetical order by author and year of publication, with multiple works by the same author listed in chronological order.

Each example of an end reference is accompanied here by an example of a corresponding in-text reference. For more details and many more examples, see Chapter 29 of Scientific Style and Format .

For the end reference, list authors in the order in which they appear in the original text. The year of publication follows the author list. Use periods to separate each element, including author(s), date of publication, article and journal title, and volume or issue information. Location (usually the page range for the article) is preceded by a colon.

Author(s). Date. Article title. Journal title. Volume(issue):location.

For the in-text reference, use parentheses and list author(s) by surname followed by year of publication.

(Author(s) Year)

For articles with 2 authors, names are separated by a comma in the end reference but by “and” in the in-text reference.

Mazan MR, Hoffman AM. 2001. Effects of aerosolized albuterol on physiologic responses to exercise in standardbreds. Am J Vet Res. 62(11):1812–1817.

(Mazan and Hoffman 2001)

For articles with 3 to 10 authors, list all authors in the end reference; in the in-text reference, list only the first, followed by “et al.”

Smart N, Fang ZY, Marwick TH. 2003. A practical guide to exercise training for heart failure patients. J Card Fail. 9(1):49–58.

(Smart et al. 2003)

For articles with more than 10 authors, list the first 10 in the end reference, followed by “et al.”

Pizzi C, Caraglia M, Cianciulli M, Fabbrocini A, Libroia A, Matano E, Contegiacomo A, Del Prete S, Abbruzzese A, Martignetti A, et al. 2002. Low-dose recombinant IL-2 induces psychological changes: monitoring by Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Anticancer Res. 22(2A):727–732.

(Pizzi et al. 2002)

Laskowski DA. 2002. Physical and chemical properties of pyrethroids. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 174:49–170.

(Laskowski 2002)

Gardos G, Cole JO, Haskell D, Marby D, Paine SS, Moore P. 1988. The natural history of tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Pharmacol. 8(4 Suppl):31S–37S.

(Gardos et al. 1988)

Heemskerk J, Tobin AJ, Ravina B. 2002. From chemical to drug: neurodegeneration drug screening and the ethics of clinical trials. Nat Neurosci. 5 Suppl:1027–1029.

(Heemskerk et al. 2002)

Ramstrom O, Bunyapaiboonsri T, Lohmann S, Lehn JM. 2002. Chemical biology of dynamic combinatorial libraries. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1572(2–3):178–186.

(Ramstrom et al. 2002)

Sabatier R. 1995. Reorienting health and social services. AIDS STD Health Promot Exch. (4):1–3.

(Sabatier 1995)

In the end reference, separate information about author(s), date, title, edition, and publication by periods. The basic format is as follows:

Author(s). Date. Title. Edition. Place of publication: publisher. Extent. Notes.

Extent can include information about pagination or number of volumes and is considered optional. Notes can include information of interest to the reader, such as language of publication other than English; such notes are optional. Essential notes provide information about location, such as a URL for online works. See Chapter 29 for more information.

For books with 2 authors, names are separated by a comma in the end reference but by “and” in the in-text reference.

Leboffe MJ, Pierce BE. 2010. Microbiology: laboratory theory and application. Englewood (CO): Morton Publishing Company.

(Leboffe and Pierce 2010)

For books with 3 to 10 authors, list all authors in the end reference; in the in-text reference, list only the first, followed by “et al.”

Ferrozzi F, Garlaschi G, Bova D. 2000. CT of metastases. New York (NY): Springer.

(Ferrozzi et al. 2000)

For books with more than 10 authors, list the first 10 in the end reference, followed by “et al.”

Wenger NK, Sivarajan Froelicher E, Smith LK, Ades PA, Berra K, Blumenthal JA, Certo CME, Dattilo AM, Davis D, DeBusk RF, et al. 1995. Cardiac rehabilitation. Rockville (MD): Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (US).

(Wenger et al. 1995)

[ALSG] Advanced Life Support Group. 2001. Acute medical emergencies: the practical approach. London (England): BMJ Books.

(ALSG 2001)

Klarsfeld A, Revah F. 2003. The biology of death: origins of mortality. Brady L, translator. Ithaca (NY): Cornell University Press.

Luzikov VN. 1985. Mitochondrial biogenesis and breakdown. Galkin AV, translator; Roodyn DB, editor. New York (NY): Consultants Bureau.

(Klarsfeld and Revah 2003)

(Luzikov 1985)

Gawande A. 2010. The checklist manifesto: how to get things right. New York (NY): Metropolitan Books. Chapter 3, The end of the master builder; p. 48–71.

(Gawande 2010)

Rapley R. 2010. Recombinant DNA and genetic analysis. In: Wilson K, Walker J, editors. Principles and techniques of biochemistry and molecular biology. 7th ed. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press. p. 195–262.

(Rapley 2010)

Alkire LG, editor. 2006. Periodical title abbreviations. 16th ed. Detroit (MI): Thompson Gale. 2 vol. Vol. 1, By abbreviation; vol. 2, By title.

(Alkire 2006)

Lutz M. 1989. 1903: American nervousness and the economy of cultural change [dissertation]. [Stanford (CA)]: Stanford University.

(Lutz 1989)

Blanco EE, Meade JC, Richards WD, inventors; Ophthalmic Ventures, assignee. 1990 Nov 13. Surgical stapling system. United States patent US 4,969,591.

(Blanco et al. 1990)

Weiss R. 2003 Apr 11. Study shows problems in cloning people: researchers find replicating primates will be harder than other mammals. Washington Post (Home Ed.). Sect. A:12 (col. 1).

(Weiss 2003)

Johnson D, editor. c2002. Surgical techniques in orthopaedics: anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction [DVD]. Rosemont (IL): American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 1 DVD.

(Johnson c2002)

Format for end reference:

Title of Homepage. Date of publication. Edition. Place of publication: publisher; [date updated; date accessed]. Notes.

APSnet: plant pathology online. c1994–2005. St Paul (MN): American Phytopathological Association; [accessed 2005 Jun 20]. http://www.apsnet.org/.

For the in-text reference, include only the first word or two of the title (enough to distinguish it from other titles in the reference list), followed by an ellipsis.

(APSnet . . . c1994–2005)

Author(s) of article. Date of publication. Title of article. Title of journal (edition). [date updated; date accessed];Volume(issue):location. Notes.

Savage E, Ramsay M, White J, Beard S, Lawson H, Hunjan R, Brown D. 2005. Mumps outbreaks across England and Wales in 2004: observational study. BMJ. [accessed 2005 May 31];330(7500):1119–1120. http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/reprint/330/7500/1119. doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7500.1119.

(Savage et al. 2005)

Author(s). Date of publication. Title of book. Edition. Place of publication: publisher; [date updated; date accessed]. Notes.

Brogden KA, Guthmille JM, editors. 2002. Polymicrobial diseases. Washington (DC): ASM Press; [accessed February 28, 2014]. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2475/.

(Brogden and Guthmille 2002)

Author’s name. Date of publication. Title of post [descriptive word]. Title of blog. [accessed date]. URL.

Fogarty M. 2012 Aug 14. Formatting titles on Twitter and Facebook [blog]. Grammar Girl: Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing. [accessed 2012 Oct 19]. http://grammar.quickanddirtytips.com/formatting-titles-on-twitter-and-facebook.aspx.

(Fogarty 2012)

Farley T, Galves A, Dickinson LM, Perez MJ. Forthcoming 2005 Jul. Stress, coping, and health: a comparison of Mexican immigrants, Mexican-Americans, and non-Hispanic whites. J Immigr Health.

(Farley et al. 2005)

Goldstein DS. Forthcoming 2006. Adrenaline and the inner world: an introduction to scientific integrative medicine. Baltimore (MD): Johns Hopkins University Press.

(Goldstein 2006)

Antani S, Long LR, Thoma GR, Lee DJ. 2003. Anatomical shape representation in spine x-ray images. Paper presented at: VIIP 2003. Proceedings of the 3rd IASTED International Conference on Visualization, Imaging and Image Processing; Benalmadena, Spain.

Charles L, Gordner R. 2005. Analysis of MedlinePlus en Español customer service requests. Poster session presented at: Futuro magnifico! Celebrating our diversity. MLA ’05: Medical Library Association Annual Meeting; San Antonio, TX.

(Atani et al. 2003)

(Charles and Gordner 2005)

References to personal communication are placed in running text rather than as formal end references. Permission is usually required and should be acknowledged in an “Acknowledgment” or “Notes” section at the end of the document.

Scientific Style and Format, 8th Edition text © 2014 by the Council of Science Editors. Scientific Style and Format Online © 2014 by the Council of Science Editors.

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• What are citations and why should I use them?
• When should I use a citation?
• Why are there so many citation styles?

Which citation style should I use?

• Chicago Notes Style
• Chicago Author-Date Style
• AMA Style (medicine)
• Bluebook (law)
• Additional Citation Styles
• Built-in Citation Tools
• Quick Citation Generators
• Citation Management Software
• Start Your Research
• Research Guides
• University of Washington Libraries
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• Citing Sources

Citing Sources: Which citation style should I use?

The citation style you choose will largely be dictated by the discipline in which you're writing. For many assignments your instructor will suggest or require a certain style. If you're not sure which one to use, it's always best to check with your instructor or, if you are submitting a manuscript, the publisher to see if they require a certain style. In many cases, you may not be required to use any particular style as long as you pick one and use it consistently. If you have some flexibility, use the guide below to help you decide.

Disciplinary Citation Styles

• Social Sciences
• Sciences & Medicine
• Engineering

When in doubt, try: Chicago Notes

• Architecture & Landscape Architecture → try Chicago Notes or Chicago Author-Date
• Art → try Chicago Notes
• Art History → use  Chicago Notes
• Dance → try Chicago Notes or MLA
• Drama → try Chicago Notes or MLA
• Ethnomusicology → try Chicago Notes
• Music → try Chicago Notes
• Music History → use  Chicago Notes
• Urban Design & Planning → try Chicago Notes or Chicago Author-Date

When in doubt, try: MLA

• Cinema Studies → try MLA
• Classics → try Chicago Notes
• English → use  MLA
• History → use   Chicago Notes
• Linguistics → try MLA
• Languages → try MLA
• Literatures → use  MLA
• Philosophy → try MLA
• Religion → try Chicago Notes

When in doubt, try: APA or Chicago Notes

• Anthropology → try Chicago Author-Date
• Business → try APA (see also Citing Business Information from Foster Library)
• Communication → try APA
• Criminology & Criminal Justice → try Chicago Author-Date
• Economics → try APA
• Education → try APA
• Geography → try APA
• Government & Law (for non-law students) → try Chicago Notes
• History → try Chicago Notes
• Informatics → try APA
• Law (for law students) → use Bluebook
• Library & Information Science → try APA
• Museology → try Chicago Notes
• Political Science → try Chicago Notes
• Psychology → use  APA
• Social Work → try APA
• Sociology → use  ASA or Chicago Author-Date

When in doubt, try: CSE Name-Year or CSE Citation-Sequence

• Aquatic & Fisheries Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Astronomy → try AIP or CSE Citation-Sequence
• Biology & Life Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Chemistry → try ACS
• Earth & Space Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Environmental Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Forest Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Health Sciences: Public Health, Medicine, & Nursing → use AMA or NLM
• Marine Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Mathematics → try AMS or CSE Citation-Sequence
• Oceanography → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Physics → try AIP or CSE Citation-Sequence
• Psychology  → use  APA

When in doubt, try: CSE Name-Year or IEEE

• Aeronautics and Astronautics → try CSE Citation-Sequence
• Bioengineering → try AMA or NLM
• Chemical Engineering → try ACS
• Civil and Environmental Engineering → try CSE Name-Year
• Computational Linguistics → try CSE Citation-Sequence
• Computer Science & Engineering → try IEEE
• Electrical and Computer Engineering → try IEEE
• Engineering (general) → try IEEE or CSE Name-Year
• Human Centered Design & Engineering → try IEEE
• Human-Computer Interaction + Design → try IEEE
• Industrial and Systems Engineering → try CSE Name-Yea r
• Mechanical Engineering → try Chicago Notes or Chicago Author-Date

See also: Additional Citation Styles , for styles used by specific engineering associations.

Pro Tip: Citation Tools Save Time & Stress!

If you’re enrolled in classes that each require a different citation style, it can get confusing really fast! The tools on the Quick Citation Generators section can help you format citations quickly in many different styles.

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Citation Guide

• AMA 10th ed.
• AMA, 11th ed
• APA, 6th ed.
• APA, 7th ed
• Council of Science Editors (CSE)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• American Mathematical Society
• American Institute of Physics (AIP)
• American Chemical Society (ACS)
• Other Styles

The Science & Engineering Citation Style Guide is to help students find the right citation styles for their research. The list on the left presents a variety of citation style guides used across the science and engineering disciplines.

Also, here are some good resources for writing in the science and engineering disciplines:

• IEEE English for Engineering Enhance technical communication skills when speaking, reading, and writing English. IEEE, in partnership with Cambridge University Press, has developed a program of online English communication instruction for engineers and other technical professionals.
• Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students This site prepared by contributors from five universities provides guidelines for students learning to communicate technical work. It includes samples and exercises.

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• Next: Council of Science Editors (CSE) >>
• Last Updated: Jul 25, 2023 12:12 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/citation

Citation Styles by Discipline: Getting Started

• Getting Started
• Arts and Humanities
• Social Sciences
• Health Sciences
• Citation Tools

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This resource provides guidance on the major citation styles used in different disciplines:

• Arts and humanities
• Social sciences
• Health sciences

The guide also includes useful information about citation tools that can help you create accurate citations.

Always consult your instructor, or a librarian, to find out which style you should use for individual assignments.

Digital Object Identifiers (DOI)

Also known as a permalink, a DOI, or  digital object identifier , is an article's permanent online location. DOIs are used for a variety of academic and non-academic sources that are located online. 

Different citation styles have distinct rules for when to use DOIs. In most cases, you should include a DOI for all works that have a DOI, regardless of whether you used the online version or the print version. If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI; if the source only has a URL, include the URL.

Different disciplines use distinct rules for research papers and publications. Correct citation ensures academic integrity and consistency across various publications and formats. 

You must cite sources that you have paraphrased, quoted, or consulted to write your research paper. Cite your sources in two places:

• In the body of your paper (in-text citation).
• In the reference list or bibliography at the end of your paper (full bibliographic reference).
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• Last Updated: May 17, 2022 12:26 PM
• URL: https://paperpile.libguides.com/citation-styles

ScienceDirect Support Center

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How do I cite a ScienceDirect article?

An article citation is typically made up of the author(s), article title, publication title, date of publication, and page numbers (or article number). Consult the journal’s reference style for the exact appearance of the article citation elements, abbreviation of the journal name, and the use of punctuation.

General principles for citing articles

There are some general principles for citing articles:

• Regardless of reference style, always include the article number where the page number (or page range) would otherwise go.
• Never cite the internal page numbering starting at ‘1’.
• Include the DOI if known.

Citing articles which are not final

Articles which are not final (e.g., a journal pre-proof) or do not contain all the typical elements of an article citation can be cited using the year of online publication and the DOI, as follows: author(s), article title, publication (year), DOI. For more information on creating and citing DOI links, visit the DOI website .

• A.U. Thor, Title of article, Favorite Journal (2020), https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/doi-suffix, or
• A.U. Thor, Title of article, Favorite Journal, https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/doi-suffix.
• A.U. Thor, Title of article, Favorite Journal 5 (1) (2020) 37-65, https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/doi-suffix.
• A.U. Thor, Title of article, Favorite Journal 5 (1) (2020) 101357, https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/doi-suffix.

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Best Science Citation Formats for Research Papers

When choosing the best citation format or style for a research paper, it is easy to get confused.

One of the most important  sections in a research proposal  or scientific paper is the bibliography or  references section . Even though it is often listed as one of the last parts of a  research proposal checklist , leaving it to the end would cause you a lot more time and effort.

In this article, we will explore the best citation style or format for a scientific research paper, academic manuscript, or Ph.D./Master’s thesis or dissertation. 

Our new Wordvice APA Citation Generator , MLA Citation Generator , Chicago Citation Generator , and Vancouver Citation Generator automatically generate citations for your specific academic formatting style for FREE. Be sure to check out the citation style you need after reading this article. And get professional proofreading services from Wordvice before submitting your paper to journals or professors to make sure your work is polished and free of errors.

Science Citation Style Guide Overview

If you have ever written any type of research document, then chances are you have come across an academic style guide. 

What is an academic style guide?  

A style guide or manual explains how to cite your sources properly. But that’s not all it does. It also tells you how to format your citations, bibliography (if you’re using one), headings, footnotes, and endnotes—all the things you need to know to avoid academic dishonesty or plagiarism and make sure your work is clear and accurate.

Besides attribution, citation style guides are also used to clarify your writing process, identify elements as points of emphasis, and give credibility to your research arguments. This is especially important when it comes to passing the  peer review process , where your research will be closely scrutinized by other researchers in your field.

In general, citation style guides are used to ensure that all references within a document are formatted consistently. This helps make the document easier to read and less prone to errors that can be confusing to the reader.

Factors to Consider When Choosing A Citation Style

There are numerous citation formats and styles for science papers, academic research, and PhD/Master’s dissertations and theses, but which one should you use?

There are a number of factors to consider when choosing a citation style. At the most basic level, the style you choose should reflect your discipline or field of study, the type of academic or research institution or organization you work for, the guidelines of your target journal, the type of source you are citing, and the nature of your readership.

Related Article:  Complete Introduction to Citation Style Guides

Best Citation Format to Use for Science Papers

So, you have finally completed your research project or dissertation and are ready to submit it to a scientific journal. 

Your next step should be to check your target journal’s submission guidelines–If you haven’t decided on your target journal yet, be sure to check out the following resources:

• How to Choose the Right Journal for My Manuscript
• How Do I Know If My Manuscript Matches a Journal’s Aim and Scope?
• How to Increase my Manuscript’s Chance of Acceptance
• Journal Manuscript Editing Services
• Thesis Editing Services
• Dissertation Editing Services

Ensure that the field, scope, and purpose of your research match your target journal. Another factor you must consider is your budget. Publishing in high-impact science journals is not cheap, so be sure to align your strategy with your professor or lab director.

Second, you want to consider the source of your citation. Is it a book, journal article, or even a website? For science research papers, your sources will almost always be limited to journal articles and other primary research texts.

Regardless, the  Wordvice APA Citation Generator  has books, journal articles, and websites covered. In addition, APA, MLA, Chicago, and Vancouver citation formats can be automatically generated.

APA (American Psychological Association) style  is a citation format used primarily in the social sciences, education, behavioral sciences, business, and nursing. However, APA is also seen in a variety of fields, including basic sciences.

In-text Citation Example – APA 7th style

“The current work assesses the demographic, social, and economic states of the southern half of the Korean peninsula…” (Schwekendiek, 2014, pp. v)

Reference List Citation Example – APA 7th style

Schwekendiek, D. J. (2014).  The Data Atlas of South Korea: Demography, Society, Economic Activity  (First Edition; A. Brennfoerder, Ed.). Seoul, Republic of Korea: Jimoondang.

APA in-text citations follow the Author-Date style in parenthetical format, which consists of the last name of the author and the year of publication within parentheses. To cite a source directly, include the page number using the abbreviation “p/pp”.

APA Style Resources

• Official APA Style Guidebook
• Wordvice APA Citation Guide
• Wordvice APA Citation Generator

Chicago Style

The  Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS)  is used primarily for works in the arts, humanities, and social sciences. Chicago style adds a layer of complexity in the form of two variations: Notes-Bibliography (NB) and author-date. The NB style is widely used in the arts and humanities, while author-date is more favored‌ ‌in‌ ‌the‌ ‌social‌ ‌sciences.

Author-Date Citation Example – Chicago 17th Style

“The current work assesses the demographic, social, and economic states of the southern half of the Korean peninsula…” (Schwekendiek, 2014, v)

Footnote Citation Example – Chicago 17th Style

1. Schwekendiek, “ The Data Atlas of South Korea: Demography, Society, Economic Activity ,” v..

Similar to the APA system, the Author-Date system for Chicago style is composed of in-text citations that match the reference list at the end of the document.

Chicago Style Resources

• Official Chicago Style Guidebook
• Wordvice Chicago Style Guide
• Wordvice Chicago 17th Citation Generator

Vancouver Style

Vancouver style  uses a strict author-number system and has been adopted by many journals and institutions in the medical field, including the  IEEE  (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and  MEDLINE . Vancouver style is different from the above styles in that it features a number encompassed within square brackets  [ ]  when using in-text citations. This bracketed number corresponds to the relevant source cited in the reference list at the end of the paper.

In-text Citation Example – Vancouver style

“According to Schwekendiek (1), the current work assesses the demographic, social, and economic states of the southern half of the Korean peninsula…” 

Reference List Citation Example – Vancouver style

(1) Schwekendiek DJ. The Data Atlas of South Korea: Demography, Society, Economic Activity. First Edition. Brennfoerder A, editor. Seoul, Republic of Korea: Jimoondang; 2014.

Similar to the APA system, the author-date system for Chicago style is composed of in-text citations that match the reference list at the end of the document.

Vancouver Style Resources

• Official Vancouver Style Guidebook  
• Wordvice Vancouver Style Guide
• Wordvice Vancouver Style Citation Generator

MLA ( Modern Language Association ) style  is commonly used by students and writers preparing manuscripts in humanities disciplines ‌such‌ ‌ as‌ ‌cultural‌ ‌studies,‌ ‌English,‌ ‌literature,‌ ‌and‌ ‌critical‌ ‌theory. 

MLA style is rarely (if ever) used as a style guide for scientific papers. However, there are cases, especially for the social sciences and humanities, in which you may find yourself reading articles or books cited in MLA format. For that reason, it’s good to be familiar with MLA style. 

In-text Citation Example – MLA 8th style

“The current work assesses the demographic, social, and economic states of the southern half of the Korean peninsula…” (Schwekendiek v)

Reference List Citation Example – MLA 8th style

Schwekendiek, Daniel J.  The Data Atlas of South Korea: Demography, Society, Economic Activity . Ed. Andrew Brennfoerder. First Edition. Seoul, Republic of Korea: Jimoondang, 2014. Print.

MLA citations are based on the  author-page  format consisting of the author’s name and page number(s). Although your sentence may include the author’s name, any page number(s) should be included in‌ parentheses.

MLA Style Resources

• Official MLA Style Guidebook
• Wordvice MLA Style Guide
• Wordvice MLA 8th Citation Generator

Frequently Asked Questions about Citation Styles

Which citation style should you use.

The citation style you use for your science paper or academic research document is dependent on various factors, including your research scope, target journal for publication, readership/audience, and type of cited source.

Which citation style is most commonly ‌used‌ ‌in‌ ‌science?

The most frequently used citation style used in science is  APA Style  (American Psychological Association) style or  Vancouver Style , created by the  IEEE  (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). 

What citation system is the best to use for science?

There are two types of citation systems:  author-date  and  numeric . The author-date System is most used by those working in the social and basic sciences. Whereas those working in literature, history, and the arts should apply the NB System.

What is the author-date system?

With the author-date system, the author’s last name and publication year are included in an in-text citation. For example: (Schwekendiek, 2014, p. v).

What is an in-text or parenthetical citation?

There are two formats for in-text citations:‌ ‌‌parenthetical‌ ‌‌and‌ ‌narrative. Parenthetical citations include information about the publication date and the author’s name. When a narrative citation is used, the author’s name is incorporated into the sentence and the year follows in parentheses.

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Cited Reference Search

Search for records that have cited a published work, and discover how a known idea or innovation has been confirmed, applied, improved, extended, or corrected. Find out who’s citing your research and the impact your work is having on other researchers in the world.

In the Arts & Humanities Citation Index, you can use cited reference search to find articles that refer to or include an illustration of a work of art or a music score; these references are called implicit citations .

• You may also search on Cited Year(s), Cited Volume, Cited Issue, Cited Pages, Cited Title, or Cited DOI
• Click Search; results from the cited reference index that include the work you’re searching appears on a table. Every reference on the cited reference index has been cited by at least one article indexed in the Web of Science. The first author of a cited work always displays in the Cited Author column. If the cited author you specified in step 1 is not the primary author, then the name of author you specified follows the name of the first author (click Show all authors). If you retrieve too many hits, return to the cited reference search page and add criteria for Cited Year, Cited Volume, Cited Issue, or Cited Page.
• cited reference is not a source article in the Web of Science
• reference may contain incomplete or inaccurate information, and can’t be linked to a source article
• reference may refer to a document from a publication outside the timespan of your subscription; for example, if the article was published in 1992, but your subscription only gives you access to 20 years of data
• cited item may refer to a document from a publication not covered by a database in your subscription
• Click Search to view your results.

Click View abbreviation list to see the abbreviations of journal and conference proceedings titles used as cited works; this list will open in a new browser tab.

When you complete a cited reference search, the number of citing items you retrieve may be smaller than the number listed in the Citing Articles column if your institution's subscription does not include all years of the database. In other words, the count in the Citing Articles column is not limited by your institution's subscription. However, your access to records in the product is limited by your institution's subscription.

• Enter the name of the first author of a multi-authored article or book
• Enter an abbreviated journal title followed by an asterisk or the first one or two significant words of a book title followed by an asterisk.
• Try searching for the cited reference without entering a cited year in order to retrieve variations of the same cited reference. You can always return to the Cited Reference Search page and enter a cited year if you get too many references.
• When searching for biblical references, enter Bible in the Cited Author field and the name of the book ( Corinthinans* , Matthew* Leviticus *, etc.) in the Cited Work field. Ensure that you use the asterisk (*) wildcard in your search.

Follow these steps to find articles that have cited Brown, M.E. and Calvin, W.M. Evidence for crystalline water and ammonia ices on Pluto's satellite Charon. Science . 287 (5450): 107-109. January 7, 2000:

• On the Cited Reference Search page, enter Brown M* in the Cited Author field.
• Enter Science* in the Cited Work field.
• Click Search to go to the Cited Reference Search table. This page shows all the results from the Web of Science cited reference index that matched the query.
• Page through the results to find this reference:

• Select the check box to the left of the reference.
• Click the See Results button to go to the Cited Reference Search Results page to see the list of articles that cite the article by Brown and Calvin.

Every cited reference in the Cited Reference Index contains enough information to uniquely identify the document. Because only essential bibliographic information is captured, and because author names and source publication titles are unified as much as possible, the same reference cited in two different records should appear the same way in the database. This unification is what makes possible the Times Cited number on the Full Record page.

However, not all references to the same publication can be unified. As a consequence, a cited reference may have variations in the product.

For example, consider these variations of a reference to an article by A.J. Bard published in volume 374 of Nature:

The first reference contains the correct volume number and other bibliographic information. The View Record link takes you to the Full Record, which has a Times Cited count of 31.

The second reference contains a different volume number and it does not have a View Record link. Because a journal cannot have two different volume numbers in the same publication year, it is obvious that this is an incorrect reference to the same article.

Click Export at the top of the Cited Reference Search table to export the cited reference search results to Excel.

Articles indexed in the Science Citation Index Expanded cite books, patents, and other types of publications in addition to other articles. You can do a cited reference search for a patent to find journal articles that have cited it.

If you know the patent number, enter it in the Cited Work field. If you do not know the patent number, try entering the name of the first listed inventor or patent assignee in the Cited Author field. For example, to find references to U.S. patent 4096196-A, enter 4096196 in the Cited Work field. If you also subscribe to Derwent Innovations Index and the patent is included in the Derwent database, the patents you find in the citation index will be linked to the corresponding full patent records in Derwent Innovations Index.

Self-citations refer to cited references that contain an author name that matches the name of the author of a citing article.

You may want to eliminate self-citations from the results of a Cited Reference Search by combining a Cited Reference Search with a search by the source author.

• Perform a Cited Reference Search to find items that cite the works of a particular author. Ensure that you complete both steps of a Cited Reference Search.
• Go to the search page. Enter the name of the same author in the Author field. Click the Search button.
• Go to the advanced search page.
• Combine the two searches you just completed in a Boolean NOT expression (for example, #1 NOT #2 ). The results of the Search (the items written by the author) should be the set on the right-hand side of the operator.

Articles indexed in the product cite books, patents, and other types of publications in addition to other articles. You can do a cited reference search on a book to find journal articles that have cited it.

You should identify a book by entering the name of the first listed author in the Cited Author field and the first word or words of the title in the Cited Work field. Many cited works are abbreviated. If you are not sure how a word has been spelled or abbreviated, enter the first few letters of the word, followed by an asterisk. For example, to search for records of articles that cite Edith Hamilton's book Mythology , you would enter Hamilton E* in the Cited Author field and Myth* in the Cited Work field.

Do not enter a year in the Cited Year field. Authors often cite a particular edition of a book, and the cited year is the year of the edition they are citing. Generally, you want to find all articles that cite a book, regardless of the particular edition cited.

For example, enter the following data on the Cited Reference Search page, and then click Search .

CITED AUTHOR Tuchman BW

CITED WORK Guns*

CITED YEAR 1962

Note the number of references that are retrieved. Now repeat the search using the following data:

CITED AUTHOR Tuchman B*

See how many more references you retrieved? Notice that the author has been cited as Tuchman B as well as Tuchman BW. Also, notice how many different cited years and cited page numbers there are for the same work.

Mla Vs. Apa Format: Which Citation Style Should You Use For Science Writing?

When writing a science paper or lab report, using the correct formatting style is critical for properly citing sources and presenting your scientific ideas. The two most common formatting styles are MLA and APA, but which one should you use for science writing?

If you’re short on time, here’s a quick answer to your question: APA format is generally preferred over MLA for science writing . APA provides guidelines optimized for scholarly scientific communications and publications.

In this comprehensive guide, we compare MLA versus APA format for science writing. You’ll learn when to use each style, key formatting differences, and tips for consistently applying the right citations in your science papers.

When to Use MLA vs. APA for Science Writing

Types of science writing.

Science writing encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science. It can take various forms, such as research papers, lab reports, literature reviews, and scientific articles.

Each type of science writing has its own requirements when it comes to formatting and citation styles.

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is commonly used in the humanities, including literature, art, and language studies. While it is not the most common citation style for science writing, there are situations where MLA may be appropriate.

For example, if you are writing a science paper that focuses on the historical or cultural aspects of a scientific topic, MLA style may be more suitable.

MLA format typically uses in-text citations with the author’s last name and page number, and a Works Cited page at the end of the document. It is important to provide accurate and complete citations to give credit to the original authors and allow readers to locate the sources you used for your research.

APA (American Psychological Association) style is widely used in the social sciences, including psychology, sociology, and education. It is also commonly used in scientific research papers and articles.

APA style provides a clear and concise way to present scientific information and ensure consistency in citations.

In APA format, in-text citations include the author’s last name and the year of publication. A reference list is also included at the end of the document, providing detailed information about each source cited. This allows readers to easily find and verify the sources you used in your research.

When writing scientific papers, it is crucial to follow APA guidelines for citing sources, as it helps maintain the integrity of the research and allows other researchers to build upon your work.

Key Differences Between MLA and APA Format

In-text citations.

One of the key differences between MLA and APA format lies in how in-text citations are handled. In MLA format, the author’s last name and the page number are typically used to cite sources within the text. For example, (Smith 42).

On the other hand, APA format uses the author’s last name and the publication year. For instance, (Smith, 2019). This difference in formatting is important to keep in mind when writing scientific papers, as it ensures proper attribution of sources and allows readers to easily locate the full reference in the bibliography.

Reference Lists

Another significant difference between MLA and APA format is how the reference lists are structured. In MLA format, the reference list is called the Works Cited page, and it is placed at the end of the document.

Each entry is listed alphabetically by the author’s last name and includes the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the medium of publication. In contrast, APA format uses a reference list, which is also placed at the end of the document.

Each entry is organized alphabetically by the author’s last name and includes the author’s name, the publication year, the title of the work, and other publication information.

The use of headings in MLA and APA format also differs. In MLA format, headings are not typically used, as the focus is more on the content and structure of the paper. However, APA format requires the use of headings to organize the content and provide clarity to the reader.

APA format has specific guidelines for the formatting of headings, including the use of different levels (e.g., Heading 1, Heading 2) to indicate the hierarchy of information.

Figures and Tables

MLA and APA format also have different guidelines for the inclusion of figures and tables in scientific writing. In MLA format, figures and tables are often placed within the text, close to where they are mentioned. They are typically labeled as “Fig.” and “Table” followed by a number.

APA format, on the other hand, requires figures and tables to be placed in separate sections at the end of the document. Each figure and table should have a caption that describes the content and a number that corresponds to its order of appearance in the text.

It’s important to familiarize yourself with the specific formatting requirements of MLA and APA format when writing scientific papers. Adhering to the correct citation style ensures that your work is professional, consistent, and easily understandable to your readers.

APA Guidelines for Science Writing

Formatting research papers.

When it comes to formatting research papers in APA style for science writing, there are a few key guidelines to keep in mind. First and foremost, it is important to use 1-inch margins on all sides of the paper. Additionally, the font should be Times New Roman and set to a 12-point size.

The paper should be double-spaced throughout, including the title page, abstract, main body, and references. It is also crucial to include a running head and page numbers on each page.

Writing With Precision

APA style emphasizes clear and concise writing in science papers. When writing in APA style, it is important to be precise and avoid using vague or ambiguous language. This means using specific terminology, providing detailed explanations, and avoiding unnecessary jargon.

Additionally, APA style encourages writers to use active voice, which helps to make the writing more direct and engaging. By using active voice, the writer clearly identifies the subject of the sentence and makes the writing more engaging for the reader.

Using Active Voice

One of the key aspects of APA style for science writing is the use of active voice. Active voice is when the subject of the sentence performs the action, rather than having the action done to it. For example, instead of saying “The experiment was conducted,” APA style encourages writers to say “We conducted the experiment.”

Using active voice not only makes the writing more engaging, but it also helps to clearly identify the responsible party for the action.

Reporting Statistics

When reporting statistics in APA style for science writing, it is important to provide clear and accurate information. This can be done by using appropriate statistical symbols and formatting, such as italicizing variables and using subscripts.

Additionally, APA style requires writers to include relevant information such as means, standard deviations, and sample sizes. It is also important to clearly label figures and tables and provide a thorough explanation of the statistical analysis performed.

This helps to ensure that the reader can easily understand and interpret the data being presented.

Tips for Applying APA Style in Science Writing

Use citation generators.

When it comes to applying APA style in scientific writing, using citation generators can be a great help. These online tools automatically generate citations in APA format for various sources such as books, journals, websites, and more.

They save you time and ensure that your citations are formatted correctly, following the guidelines set by the American Psychological Association. Some popular citation generators include Citation Machine , EasyBib , and BibMe .

By using these tools, you can focus more on your research and writing, knowing that your citations are accurate and properly formatted.

Adhere to APA Paper Structure

When writing scientific papers in APA style, it’s important to follow the prescribed paper structure. The APA format typically includes a title page, an abstract, an introduction, a methods section, a results section, a discussion section, and a references page.

Each section has specific formatting requirements, such as the use of headings, subheadings, and proper citation formats. It’s crucial to familiarize yourself with these requirements and apply them consistently throughout your paper.

This ensures that your work is organized and easy to navigate for readers.

Be Consistent Throughout

Consistency is key when it comes to applying APA style in science writing. This means using the same format and style for all citations and references throughout your paper. Make sure to use the correct punctuation, capitalization, and italics when citing different sources, such as books, articles, or websites.

Additionally, pay attention to the order and formatting of the elements within each citation, including authors’ names, publication dates, titles, and page numbers. Being consistent in your formatting not only enhances the readability of your paper but also shows your attention to detail and adherence to professional standards.

Proofread and Revise

Before submitting your scientific paper, it’s crucial to proofread and revise it for any errors or inconsistencies, including those related to APA style. Carefully review your citations and references to ensure they are complete, accurate, and formatted correctly.

Check for any inconsistencies in capitalization, italics, or punctuation. Additionally, make sure your paper adheres to the overall guidelines of APA style, such as the use of proper headings and subheadings.

Taking the time to proofread and revise your work will help you present a polished and professional scientific paper.

For most science writing, APA format is the preferred citation style over MLA. APA provides specific guidelines that optimize scientific communication and publications.

By understanding when to use APA, adhering to key formatting differences from MLA, following APA science writing tips, and proofreading your citations, you can expertly apply APA style for your research papers, lab reports, and other scientific documents.

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Hidden citations in physics may obscure true impact

by PNAS Nexus

In the scientific literature, a citation acts as a mechanism to signal prior knowledge, enhance credibility, and protect against plagiarism. But it also gives credit to the individual or team who established or discovered the knowledge in question, and citations have thus emerged as a metric to measure the impact of a work or researcher.

However, when a discovery or technique becomes common knowledge, scientists often stop bothering to cite it. Thus, the most impactful work is often undercited.

Albert-László Barabási and colleagues from Northeastern University attempted to detect hidden citations in the physics literature by using machine learning to automatically detect phrases representing in-text allusions to 343 specific discoveries that can each be traced back to a foundational paper.

The study is published in the journal PNAS Nexus .

For example, papers using the phrase "quantum discord" are almost certainly using concepts that derive from a 2001 paper by Harold Ollivier and Wojciech H. Zurek, but the ideas in that work have become so widespread that more than a third of papers that engage with quantum discord fail to cite the foundational paper.

In some cases, citations are diverted to other works, such as reviews or books on the topic. In general, papers tend to acquire hidden citations at the same rate as they acquire explicit citations, but there is considerable variation from paper to paper. For example, the 1981 paper by Alan H. Guth introducing the cosmological inflation theory has acquired 8.8 times more hidden citations than explicit citations.

Were these hidden citations made explicit, this paper would be the most cited paper on the pre-print database arXiv . According to the authors, hidden citations represent a "price" of success. The more influential an idea is, the more likely it is to become so familiar and well understood that researchers no longer feel the need to explicitly cite the source.

Journal information: PNAS Nexus , arXiv

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Another task from a professor made you devastated and lost? Of course, because it's something that no one likes to do. Especially a young student who obviously have dozens of other important things to do. What task we are talking about? The monotonous and long, time consuming and confusing one. Yes, it's all about writing a research paper! Why students don't like it? Well, let's see.

First, the job requires a lot of time necessary for searching, reading, comparing, analyzing and then put together. Finding a topic and the data to do a research is just 30% of the task. The major part is to put everything in a proper format. For example, create a suitable and captivating research paper introduction to arouse your professor interest.

Second, it's the efforts to make everything correct and according to requirements. You don't write make a composition with your thoughts and conclusions in chaotic way. You need to make APA research paper to show your knowledge and proficiency. It takes time as well.

Third, it's the amount of workload. Looking for data, then finding the necessary parts, trying to put everything in a proper order and format. Isn't it easier just to have someone doing it for you?

Research essay: 5 steps to success!

Everyone wants to be a great student. Taking major part in college life, getting straight As, being helpful and easy-going. But what if you need help yourself? For instance, with your research essay. How to get it done and not to be exhausted? Here are some tips to help you!

• Calculate you time right. You'll never be able to finish a task overnight, so don't attempt to make a worthy writing when the deadline is tomorrow. Usually the task to write a paper is given long before the actual deadline.
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Computer Science > Machine Learning

Title: kan: kolmogorov-arnold networks.

Abstract: Inspired by the Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem, we propose Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) as promising alternatives to Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLPs). While MLPs have fixed activation functions on nodes ("neurons"), KANs have learnable activation functions on edges ("weights"). KANs have no linear weights at all -- every weight parameter is replaced by a univariate function parametrized as a spline. We show that this seemingly simple change makes KANs outperform MLPs in terms of accuracy and interpretability. For accuracy, much smaller KANs can achieve comparable or better accuracy than much larger MLPs in data fitting and PDE solving. Theoretically and empirically, KANs possess faster neural scaling laws than MLPs. For interpretability, KANs can be intuitively visualized and can easily interact with human users. Through two examples in mathematics and physics, KANs are shown to be useful collaborators helping scientists (re)discover mathematical and physical laws. In summary, KANs are promising alternatives for MLPs, opening opportunities for further improving today's deep learning models which rely heavily on MLPs.

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