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Health Law Research Guide: Suggested Topics in Health Law

Suggested Topics in Health Law
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Making the Case for Laws That Improve Health: A Framework for Public Health Law Research

Context: Public health law has received considerable attention in recent years and has become an essential field in public health. Public health law research , however, has received less attention.

Methods: Expert commentary.

Findings: This article explores public health law research, defined as the scientific study of the relation of law and legal practices to population health. The article offers a logic model of public health law research and a typology of approaches to studying the effects of law on public health. Research on the content and prevalence of public health laws, processes of adopting and implementing laws, and the extent to which and mechanisms through which law affects health outcomes can use methods drawn from epidemiology, economics, sociology, and other disciplines. The maturation of public health law research as a field depends on methodological rigor, adequate research funding, access to appropriate data sources, and policymakers’ use of research findings.

Conclusions: Public health law research is a young field but holds great promise for supporting evidence-based policymaking that will improve population health.

Law is an important discipline within public health ( Gostin, Burris, and Lazzarini 1999 ). Legal “powers, duties and restraints” structure the mission of public health agencies and shape how it is carried out ( Gostin 2008 ). Law is a prominent intervention tool to achieve particular public health goals. Laws and their implementation also have important unintended effects, both positive and negative, on population health. Although public health law has a long history in the United States ( Tobey 1939 ), it was one of the fields of public health that fell into neglect when public health was thought to have conquered infectious disease. Over the past two decades, though, the reemergence of infectious disease as a major public health concern and a growing awareness of the complexity of health regulation at the local, national, and global levels have restored law to importance in public health and academic law. No longer confined to end-of-the-day conference panels on “legal and ethical issues,” public health law now has its own office at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, academic centers, journals, national and international professional societies, and a shelf of important treatises ( Larkin and McGowan 2008 ).

Notwithstanding all the writing and commentary on public health law, there has been little discussion of public health law research and its place in the fields of law and public health. The evidence produced by empirical research is important to both public health law practice and scholarship. It constitutes the “facts” justifying regulatory action and supporting normative arguments about what policies are most desirable, effective, or consistent with human rights or other legal standards. To be sure, law legitimately serves as a site for the articulation and clash of values, and lawmaking often necessitates decisions that cannot await full information. Furthermore, not all law is or can be “evidence based,” even in public health. At the same time, empirical research is not just an ammunition dump for adversarial legal battle. The responsible use of law as a tool for improving public health requires a commitment to the pursuit and consideration of scientific evidence when possible. In public health, just as in health care ( Sox and Greenfield 2009 ), evidence should inform the investment in and implementation of policy, and a consciousness of data and the scientific method can improve the decisions of policymakers and practitioners even in the absence of data. This is the promise of public health law research. At a time when empirical health law has emerged from a general flowering of empirical legal research as a distinct scholarly field ( Mello and Zeiler 2008 ), scientific research is a tie that can now bind law to public health. In this article, we describe and chart a future for public health law research. Our discussion was occasioned by the launch of a major initiative by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) to sponsor public health law research and expand the field ( RWJF Public Health Law Research Program 2009 ). It thus is an opportune time to reflect on the field: its definition and boundaries, the types of research that a robust field of public health law research should include, and the challenges to be faced in growing and strengthening the field. (Although we are participating in the RWJF initiative as the leaders of its National Program Office, this article concerns the field of public health law research generally, not the specific priorities or funding areas of the Public Health Law Research program.)

Defining Public Health Law Research

We define public health law research (PHLR) as “the scientific study of the relation of law and legal practices to population health.” This includes both direct relationships between law and health, and relationships mediated through the effects of law on health behaviors and other processes and structures that affect population health. In this section, we elaborate on this definition in order to distinguish PHLR from other fields and forms of public health law knowledge.

Distinguishing PHLR from Public Health Law

Lawrence Gostin's widely cited definition of public health law is

the study of the legal powers and duties of the state to ensure the conditions for people to be healthy (e.g., to identify, prevent, and ameliorate risks to health and safety in the population), and the limitations on the power of the state to constrain the autonomy, privacy, liberty, proprietary, or other legally protected interests of individuals for protection or promotion of community health. ( Gostin 2000 , 4)

Using this power/duty/restraint formula, Gostin succeeds in focusing the field on the state's role in managing collective action to protect the population's health while still encompassing a diverse range of cooperating actors and related functions, including private actors and the health care system. His claims for public health law are broad enough to earn libertarian criticism: scholars have argued from diverse standpoints that Gostin and his colleagues in public health are expanding the jurisdiction of public health beyond its legitimate mission and into a realm of wrongful—and counterproductive—meddling in the autonomy of citizens ( Epstein 2003 ; Hall 2003 ; Rothstein 2002 ). Yet for others, Gostin's definition may be too narrow. Regulatory researchers, for example, question the importance of distinguishing between public and private actors in health governance ( Black 2008 ; Lobel 2004 ; Trubek 2006 ). Other commentators insist that public health law must include the role of law as a determinant and mechanism for the health effects of social and physical environments ( Burris, Kawachi, and Sarat 2002 ; Magnusson 2007 ; Mariner 2009 ).

Debate over the boundaries of public health law plays out differently in the realm of public health law research . In defining PHLR, we are concerned not with what is right, proper, or legitimate to include within the jurisdiction of public health law but with whether law can be empirically shown to have an impact on the health of the population. Commentators might disagree on whether equality, for example, ought to be considered a public health issue, but that question is different from whether it is possible to empirically identify the ways in which law affects health inequalities. Empirical data can be highly salient to disputes about normative concepts and positions but cannot themselves resolve disputes about the legitimate scope of public health or public health law or the extent to which health promotion should be traded off against other social goods, such as civil liberties. PHLR, then, is distinguished from public health law by its focus on description, explanation, and prediction—that is, its focus on empirical investigation.

Research versus Scholarship

When we refer to “research,” we intend a particular meaning: the use of systematic methods within an explicit theoretical framework to collect and analyze data. PHLR seeks methodological rigor in all phases of research, from the careful articulation and operationalization of theory through thoughtful and innovative study design to analysis, interpretation, and dissemination.

PHLR includes both qualitative and quantitative studies using experimental, quasi-experimental, observational, or participatory designs. It ranges from health impact assessments gathering limited data on legal effects in order to inform policymaking in real time, to complex experiments and quasi experiments studying the effects of law on health over extended periods of time. Formal decision analyses, simulations, econometric analyses, laboratory and social experiments, survey, interview, and focus-group studies, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses are included, as is legal research to systematically and reproducibly collect, classify, and quantify laws and judicial decisions for analytic purposes ( Hall and Wright 2008 ; Tremper, Thomas, and Wagenaar 2010 ).

Theory and methods may be drawn from a variety of disciplines in the social sciences, including epidemiology, biostatistics, law, sociology, history, political science, economics, anthropology, and psychology. From the natural sciences, PHLR imports the scientific method, approaching research questions with a hypothesis to be tested rather than a position to be defended; gathering data for the purpose of proving or disproving the hypothesis (or disproving a null hypothesis); and reaching conclusions based on a careful and restrained analysis and interpretation of all relevant data.

As we define it, public health law research is thus distinguishable from public health law scholarship. “Scholarship” embraces a range of nonempirical but no less valid and useful work on public health law, ranging from work grounded in philosophy or ethics ( Ruger 2006 ), to doctrinal exegesis ( Lazzarini and Rosales 2002 ), to the crafting of model laws, and to legal analysis arguing how the law ought to be applied in various situations ( Ruhl, Stephens, and Locke 2003 ). What we call PHLR does not exhaust all forms of knowledge gathering or analysis concerning public health law. Indeed, public health law scholarship includes many outstanding and influential works that have shaped the field of public health law but do not fall within our definition of PHLR.

“Law” and “Public Health”

A key challenge in defining PHLR arises from the potential breadth of the definitions of “law” and “public health” ( Magnusson 2007 ). In linking the two in PHLR, we take a broad sociological stance, encompassing not simply written laws on one side and morbidity and mortality on the other, but the whole range of institutions, practices, and beliefs through which laws influence health and the determinants of health. This is particularly important given that the timelines for law to influence health may be long and data on key outcome variables scarce; it may be important to examine the effects of law on mediating factors such as health behaviors. From the perspective of whether it is properly classified as PHLR, the key aspect of such a study is that it examines the relationship between a law variable and a public health variable.

Social epidemiology, the branch of epidemiology aimed at understanding social determinants of health ( Berkman and Kawachi 2000 ), provides a theoretical framework into which PHLR can readily fit ( Burris, Kawachi, and Sarat 2002 ). Most things human beings do, and most characteristics of our environments, have some impact on the level and distribution of health in a population. Whether styled as health inequities or health disparities, differences in health among identifiable subpopulations have become a major concern in health and policy ( Commission on Social Determinants of Health 2008 ). Health law scholars, too, increasingly recognize the need to examine individual interests and choices through the lens of population health, recognizing that “the choices individuals exercise and the health risks they face are determined, to a large degree, by the environments they experience and the populations they comprise” ( Parmet 2009 , 268; Sage 2008 ). PHLR, however, does not encompass the full scope of social epidemiology. That is, we confine our definition of PHLR to the study of law and regulatory practices and not the full spectrum of contributing factors.

Another distinctive aspect of PHLR's conception of “law” is that it is not confined to “law on the books”: constitutions, statutes, judicial opinions, and so on. The mainstream of empirical legal research over the past thirty years has acknowledged the salience of law as it is implemented in practice and experienced by those it targets. Studies of legality or legal consciousness ( Ewick and Silbey 1998 ), behavioral law and economics research ( Jolls 2006 ), scholarship on compliance theory ( Tyler 1990 ), scholarship on deterrence theory and tort law ( Mello and Brennan 2002 ), and regulation and governance studies ( Braithwaite, Coglianese, and Levi-Faur 2007 ) all explore this theme. PHLR is necessarily interested in the psychosocial mechanisms through which compliance is achieved ( Tyler 1990 ), the range of regulatory techniques that may be deployed ( Braithwaite, Coglianese, and Levi-Faur 2007 ), and how law “operates through social life as persons and groups deliberately interpret and invoke law's language, authority and procedures to organize their lives and manage their relationships” ( Ewick and Silbey 1998 , 20). Law is fundamentally a social practice embedded in institutions and implemented by agents. It is part of, not distinct from, the social environment whose influence on health is the focus of social epidemiology.

PHLR also properly encompasses both laws that were intended to affect population health and laws that have unintended health effects. What has been referred to as “interventional public health law” is law or legal practices that are intended to influence health outcomes or mediators directly. Likewise, “infrastructural public health law” establishes the powers, duties, and institutions of public health ( Moulton et al. 2009 ). But much of the law that influences population health was not adopted for that purpose and may on its face seem to have no connection to health at all. For example, criminal laws aimed at controlling illicit drug use may increase the risk of users acquiring HIV ( Friedman et al. 2006 ). Research that investigates the relationship of law and legal practices to population health falls within PHLR when it investigates health effects or otherwise deploys an explicit population health framework, whether or not the law on its face is oriented toward health. We label this important category of PHLR “incidental public health law.”

Finally, PHLR is distinguishable from other kinds of public health research in that it evaluates not merely the effectiveness of a public health intervention but also the effectiveness of law as the tool used to implement or facilitate the intervention. For example, research on whether abstinence-only education reduces teenage pregnancy is not PHLR merely because abstinence-only education happens to be required by law. PHLR does, however, encompass research on how abstinence-only education rules are implemented ( Sonfield and Gold 2001 ) and whether the existence of state-level, abstinence-only legal mandates is associated with differences in states’ reproductive health outcomes.

Health Services Research and Public Health Systems and Services Research

Relationships between PHLR and several contiguous domains of empirical research are useful to delineate. Access to health care is an important determinant of population health, and health care is widely acknowledged to be a key component of the public health system ( IOM 2003 ). The study of how law affects population health through the mediating structure of the health care system falls squarely within the definition of PHLR. PHLR therefore overlaps with the field of health services research (HSR), “the multidisciplinary field of scientific investigation that studies how social factors, financing systems, organizational structures and processes, health technologies, and personal behaviors affect access to health care, the quality and cost of health care, and ultimately our health and well-being” ( Academy Health 2009 ). The impact of law on racial disparities in cardiac care outcomes, for example, is an important question for both HSR and PHLR.

The area of overlap, however, is limited to research that focuses on law as an independent variable and on population health (or an intermediate outcome with a well-demonstrated relationship to population health) as the outcome of interest. Research is not PHLR if it examines only the impact of some element of health care organization, financing, or delivery on health, without an important connection to law—for example, a study of the effect of capitated reimbursement in private managed care plans on the use of branded drugs.

Public health systems and services research (PHSSR) is an emerging field of study that “examines the organization, financing, and delivery of public health services within communities and the impact of those services on public health” ( Scutchfield 2009 , 169). PHLR overlaps with PHSSR to the extent that law is an important factor in the organization of public health systems and agencies and the delivery of public health services ( Henry, Scutchfield, and Pérez 2008 ; Pérez and Larkin 2009 ). A study of racial disparities in the use of involuntary civil commitment, an important legal tool for public health, could be considered both PHSSR and PHLR to the extent it focuses on how the organization or operation of civil commitment influences the outcomes the system produces ( Swanson et al. 2009 ). Conversely, PHSSR that examines the flow of resources to and within the public health system ( Mays and Smith 2009 ), although it might well inform PHLR on the implementation of a legal intervention, would not itself be PHLR.

One feature of PHLR not shared by PHSSR or HSR is its consideration of incidental public health law, that is, the effects on population health of law, agencies, and private actors not commonly understood to be pursuing a public health mission. For instance, a growing body of cross-disciplinary research centers on the effects of criminal laws and the practices of criminal justice agencies, such as the police, on the spread of communicable disease ( Burris et al. 2004 ). Research on this topic would fall under PHLR but not HSR or PHSSR.

A Logic Model of PHLR

A wide range of laws and legal practices affects the health of the population in cities, counties, states, and nations. Cataloging all such possible effects of law is impossible, and any schema for organizing such effects is characterized by trade-offs and simplifications. Nevertheless, the field of PHLR is advanced by a shared understanding of the range of possible effects of laws, and potential mechanisms for such effects, encompassed within the field.

The range of studies that empirically evaluate the effects of law on population health is depicted in figure 1 . Generally, the independent variable in PHLR is some aspect of lawmaking, laws, or the activities of legal agents. These will be studied in relation to dependent variables that can be arrayed along the presumed causal chain that includes key mediators as well as the distal or ultimate outcomes of interest: population morbidity and mortality.

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Logic Model of Public Health Law Research.

First are studies of policymaking, the factors that influence which laws are enacted and that shape the specific characteristics of the statutes and regulations adopted (path A in figure 1 ). In these studies, public health laws (or judicial decisions) themselves are the outcome variables, and political and other jurisdictional characteristics are often the main explanatory variables tested.

Paths B and C examine the principal mediators in the causal chain linking laws and health outcomes. Studies of legal practices (path B) focus on the implementation or enforcement of the law on the books, including how the law affects the structure or operation of various regulatory systems. Laws may vary considerably in how well they are implemented; for example, whether a legal mandate for health education in schools translates into all pupils receiving the education that legislators envisioned may depend critically on the appropriation attached to the bill. There are opportunities and resources for litigation in some matters and not others. Unfunded mandates, unclear statutory provisions, the failure to identify an administrative agency responsible for issuing implementing guidelines and overseeing the rollout of the new legal provisions, lack of political commitment, and many other factors may undermine implementation. Similarly, laws may induce varying levels of compliance by the regulated entities or population, depending on the degree of political resistance, the extent to which the administering agency is armed with effective enforcement mechanisms, the litigation environment, and many other factors. The completeness of implementation and the effectiveness of mechanisms for ensuring compliance with the law are critical elements influencing the law's effect on health outcomes. Legal practices studies explore these influences as mediators of the statute or regulation's impact on health.

Path C involves the study of the law's effects (as implemented through legal practices) on environments and health behaviors. We use the term environment broadly to refer to both the physical environment and social structures and institutions. Laws and their implementation affect social institutions and environments by creating or reducing opportunities, increasing or decreasing available resources, expanding or reducing rights and obligations, and creating incentives and penalties. Even private institutions, such as corporations or the family, are deeply influenced by law. Research in this area examines these mechanisms of influence and how they shape the conditions for people to be healthy.

Law may affect health behaviors both directly and by shifting the environmental conditions that make particular behavioral choices more or less attractive (path D). For example, land-use laws may determine where supermarkets and restaurants are located, affecting the availability of healthy food options and the healthfulness of the local residents’ diet. Ultimately, changes in environments and behaviors lead to changes in population-level morbidity and mortality (path E).

PHLR may examine health outcomes directly, or it may use mediating environmental and behavioral changes as proxy outcome variables. While directly measuring health effects is generally desirable because it provides more information to policymakers about the public health returns to lawmaking, a focus on mediating factors is often appropriate. For example, laws designed to improve rates of immunization with the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine might best be evaluated for their effects on the prevalence and burden of cervical cancer, but the time horizon for observing such effects is around forty years. Consequently, measuring rates of HPV vaccinations is a reasonable intermediate measure.

PHLR in Practice

The contours of PHLR as a distinct field are only beginning to emerge. Based on the existing scholarship in the field and the conceptual model we have described, table 1 shows a typology of the principal forms of PHLR studies. In this section, we describe the major methodological approaches relevant to studying each of the paths described.

Typology of Public Health Law Studies

Policymaking Studies

Studies of policymaking processes are a mainstay of political science and sociology. They explore issues such as the determinants of legislative, administrative, and judicial lawmaking ( Law 2005 ; McDougall 1997 ; Waters and Moore 1990 ); lawmaking processes ( Rosenberg 1991 ); and stakeholders’ use of law to achieve their goals ( McCann 1994 ). Although in broad terms, the policy process does not vary by topic area, health policymaking has generated a substantial research literature focusing on how generic policymaking processes unfold in a health context. This literature treats policymaking processes as among the legal practices affecting the potential for law to promote health.

Advocacy groups have traditionally been crucial instigators of health law, and researchers of “legal mobilization” have studied how advocates have integrated legislation and litigation into their strategies ( Ashe et al. 2003 ; Mamudu and Glantz 2009 ). The relative advantages of litigation versus legislative approaches have been investigated empirically and debated in public health law (PHL) scholarship ( Jacobson and Soliman 2002 ; Jacobson and Warner 1999 ; Parmet and Daynard 2000 ; Wagenaar 2007 ), as have the factors influencing legislative outcomes and the legislative process ( Backstrom and Robins 1995 ; Corrigan et al. 2005 ). Of particular interest to PHLR are studies examining how research evidence influences policymakers ( Cochrane Collaboration 2009 ; Innvaer et al. 2002 ; Jewell and Bero 2008 ; Lavis, Oxman, et al. 2008 ). Other work has looked at the behavior and strategies of policy actors, for example, how they use devices such as preemption and litigation to shift policy battles into forums where they have a greater chance of success ( Jacobson and Wasserman 1999 ), how community organizations may be brought more effectively into the lawmaking or law enforcement process ( Markell and Tyler 2008 ), and how consulting can be used to more effectively translate research knowledge for policymakers ( Jacobson, Butterill, and Goering 2005 ). There has been growing interest in the question of how model laws are developed for public health purposes, and whether and under what circumstances model legislation is more likely than other proposals to be enacted ( Hartsfield, Moulton, and McKie 2007 ).

Both quantitative and qualitative methods may be appropriate for policymaking studies. Econometric analysis is useful for examining the extent to which various observable characteristics of a state or local government—such as the political party in control of the legislature and the health status of the population—predict the likelihood that a particular kind of law will pass. For example, researchers have used multivariate regression to examine predictors of state legislative action on childhood obesity ( Boehmer et al. 2008 ; Cawley and Liu 2008 ). Such research may make important contributions by identifying “friendly” venues for experimentation with new public health law approaches and suggesting strategies for spreading successful policies to other jurisdictions.

For obtaining a rich understanding of the policymaking process, qualitative methods are unmatched. Interview methods are commonly and effectively used to understand the factors that lead policymakers to take or fail to take particular actions. Researchers have, for instance, conducted interviews with state legislators and their staff to study those factors enabling and inhibiting the passage of obesity prevention laws ( Dodson et al. 2009 ). Content analysis is another useful method of exploring political deliberations that occur “on the record,” for example, legislative hearings and debate concerning particular public health issues or legislation, and the notice-and-comment process of administrative agency rule making. Researchers have used content analysis to explore, for example, the use of evidence and argumentation in debates over workplace smoking legislation ( Apollonio and Bero 2009 ; Bero et al. 2001 ). Although it may be difficult to generalize the results of qualitative studies across jurisdictions, the high-resolution picture of the policymaking environment that they provide can have great value in formulating strategies for advancing evidence-based public health law.

Mapping Studies

PHLR includes studies that gather purely legal data for empirical purposes: information about the prevalence and distribution of specific laws ( Gostin et al. 1996 ; Hodge et al. 2008 ), what levels of government have relevant authority ( Horlick, Beeler, and Linkins 2001 ), and variations in the characteristics of the law across jurisdictions and over time ( CDC 1999 ; Chriqui et al. 2008 ; Shaw et al. 2007 ; Wells, Williams, and Fields 1989 ). Methods may include content analysis of legal texts (laws, regulations, court decisions, etc.), qualitative research designed to elicit information from officials and others who are knowledgeable about the state of the law, or a combination of the two approaches ( Horlick, Beeler, and Linkins 2001 ). Although no independent/dependent variable relationship is studied, these studies can be scientific—and therefore fall within the field of PHLR—if they involve the systematic collection and analysis of data using replicable methods.

Mapping studies often contribute information that is useful in its own right—state and local policymakers are keen to know what other jurisdictions are doing and what they might consider borrowing or learning from policy experiments in other jurisdictions. Mapping studies, however, are typically an early phase of larger projects designed to evaluate the magnitude and nature of the effects of laws on health. Properly conducted, they provide for the reliable and valid measurement of the key explanatory variable(s) in such studies. Thus, a rigorously conducted mapping study follows a systematic review protocol. It specifies a definition of the type of law being investigated, perhaps with explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria; a search methodology that acknowledges the strengths and weaknesses of extant databases; and a coding scheme identifying the main features of the laws, such as the population covered and enforcement mechanisms specified ( Tremper, Thomas, and Wagenaar 2010 ). They may also characterize laws according to some overall scale of stringency, scope, or strength through transparent and reproducible means. For example, a recent mapping study of state laws regulating sales of sugar-sweetened beverages in schools coded laws according to seven substantive features and eight process features and then grouped the laws into “strong,” “moderate,” and “weak” categories ( Mello, Pomeranz, and Moran 2008 ). We stress that analysis of this kind, though essential to empirical legal research, does not exhaust legal scholarship on laws, eliminate the serious challenges often entailed in interpreting what the law “is,” or replace serious discussion of what the law ought to be.

Implementation Studies

For a law to be effective, its implementation must be such that it will actually influence the behavior of its targets. The process of putting a law into practice can be understood in terms of a series of mediating factors, including the attitudes, management methods, capacities, and resources of implementing agencies and their agents; the methods and extent of enforcement; the relationship between the legal rules and broader community norms; and the attitudes and other relevant characteristics of the population whose behavior is targeted for influence. The text of the law and the resources appropriated for its enforcement constrain, but do not eliminate, the discretion of bureaucratic entities to reshape the rules to fit their existing culture and mission ( Deflem 2004 ).

Implementation research classically starts with investigating the “transformation process” that occurs along path B in figure 1 , the differences between the goals and methods of the law as explicitly or implicitly contemplated in the “law on the books,” and the “law on the streets” actually put into practice by legal agents charged with enforcing the law ( Percy 1989 ). Case studies or other analyses of how health agencies have organized their mission or performed in a given mission are a common form of implementation research ( Buehler, Whitney, and Berkelman 2006 ) and often investigate what legal powers an agency had or how it used them ( Lawson and Xu 2007 ). Creative compliance and outright resistance by the targets of regulation also may be studied ( Nakkash and Lee 2009 ). Implementation research in PHLR includes studies of the relationship among “legal infrastructure,” legal or other competencies, and agency function ( Kimball et al. 2008 ). Such studies may explore the effects of law on private agencies operating under a legal authorization, such as the effect of legal authorization on syringe-exchange programs ( Bluthenthal et al. 2007 ). Implementation researchers also measure proximate outcomes of new rules that may provide an early indication of their true behavioral effects, like the actual speeds observed on highways after a change in the nominal speed limit ( Retting and Cheung 2008 ).

Research on legal practices in PHLR may investigate the means through which systems may be better governed or regulation better designed in order to achieve their goals. Although it has as yet had little impact on PHLR, the study of techniques of regulation and governance has become an important part of empirical legal research and scholarship ( Ayres and Braithwaite 1992 ; Croley 2008 ; Moran 2002 ; Rhodes 1997 ). For nearly three decades, regulation in the United States and many other developed countries has exhibited an increasing pluralism, not just in spreading regulatory functions beyond government to private parties and public-private hybrids ( Burris, Kempa, and Shearing 2008 ; Lobel 2004 ; Osborne and Gaebler 1993 ), but also in using a wide range of strategies beyond detailed rules backed by carrots and sticks ( Parker and Braithwaite 2003 ). Contemporary regulators use cooperation, deliberation, education, competition, and other “soft” strategies that can be more effective than traditional command-and-control bureaucracy ( Lobel 2004 ). Theory and research in governance have highlighted the importance of actors outside government—such as advocacy groups, corporations, and gangs—in managing the course of events in social systems and have investigated how these actors regulate governments and one another ( Buse and Lee 2005 ; Scott 2002 ).

New regulatory and governance approaches have raised a fascinating range of empirical questions, from the use of the audit as a compliance tool ( Power 1997 ) to the design and effectiveness of public/private and self-governing regulatory structures ( Gunningham 2009 ; Ostrom 2005 ). This work resonates with research in behavioral law and economics, captured in Sunstein and Thaler's Nudge , which describes how regulators can creatively structure options to systematically influence behavior by means other than simple legal rules ( Sunstein and Thaler 2008 ).

Because so much regulation is now conducted outside traditional bureaucratic frameworks (and indeed outside government), scholars working in this area begin with a generic definition of regulation and its constituent elements. “Regulation” is the “sustained and focused attempt to alter the behaviour of others according to defined standards or purposes in order to address a collective issue or resolve a collective problem” ( Black 2008 , 139). It uses a combination of basic strategies of control, including standard setting, monitoring, and enforcement ( Scott 2001 ). The use of these strategies can be studied without regard to the particular mode through which the regulatory task is accomplished or what sort of entity is performing it ( Braithwaite and Drahos 2000 ). This analytic approach allows researchers both to better capture the regulatory role of actors outside traditional regulatory agencies—for example, the role of Mothers Against Driving Drunk in fostering stronger social norms condemning drunk driving—and to offer more creative approaches to regulation, as exemplified by Nudge and other works of behavioral law and economics ( Lobel and Amir 2009 ).

Although research in regulation and governance has been limited in public health law ( Biradavolu et al. 2009 ; Burris 2008 ; Trubek 2006 ), its applicability is clear ( Magnusson 2009 ). Public health services are provided by a diversity of public and private actors, and private entities play an important role in practicing and promoting standards of healthy behavior and health-promoting practices ( IOM 2003 ). We recognize that complex systems like health care cannot simply be managed by top-down rules but require the use of many flexible tools, like professional self-regulation, ethics, accreditation, collaborative and deliberative decision making, continuous quality improvement, and market incentives ( Braithwaite, Healy, and Dwan 2005 ; Berwick and Brennan 1995 ; Lobel 2004 ; Trubek 2006 ). Health governance around the world has been dramatically altered by the rise of new public/private hybrid institutions like the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; the enormous wealth of the Gates Foundation; and the consolidation of authority over national health, safety, and intellectual property law in the World Trade Organization ( Hein, Burris, and Shearing 2009 ; McCoy and Hilson 2009 ). The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control is a typical instance of the “soft law” approach, setting broad goals for national action but minimizing binding rules in favor of deliberation and flexibility. Legal scholarship has begun to explore the “constitutional” implications of these structural changes ( Fidler 2004 ), but they have not been extensively investigated in PHLR.

Intervention Studies

Intervention studies evaluate the intended and incidental effects of legal interventions on health outcomes or key mediating factors that drive health outcomes. They may focus on “law on the books”—for example, examining the effect of states’ passage of graduated drivers license statutes on rates of injury-causing crashes ( Foss, Feaganes, and Rodgman 2001 )—or on legal practices, such as the effect of issuing restraining orders against perpetrators of domestic violence on future victimization ( Harrell and Smith 1996 ). Intervention studies can be used to evaluate interventional health law but also to investigate the health effects of public health's legal infrastructure and the unplanned impact of what we have called incidental public health law. Intervention studies lie at the heart of PHLR, as they most directly address the core question of the field: What are the best legal tools to use to promote health?

Intervention studies can draw from an extensive methodological tool kit ( table 1 ). The strongest designs are experimental or quasi-experimental designs with careful controls. Differences in how and when laws are implemented from jurisdiction to jurisdiction provide opportunities for quasi-experimental studies, although sophisticated methods may be required to account for other ways in which jurisdictions may differ from one another. Useful study designs and analytical methods for this purpose can be borrowed from the fields of econometrics and epidemiology ( Ludwig and Cook 2000 ). Real-world, randomized experiments are extremely rare but have been employed to study judicial-branch reforms such as specialized courts ( Gottfredson, Najaka, and Kearley 2003 ). Experimental studies can also be carried out using simulations, such as tabletop exercises ( Dausey, Buehler, and Lurie 2007 ; Hupert, Mushlin, and Callahan 2002 ; Lurie et al. 2004 ).

We already have a substantial evidence base investigating the effectiveness of interventional public health law, ranging from single studies through literature reviews to meta-analyses and systematic reviews conducted by entities like the Campbell Collaboration ( Campbell Collaboration 2009 ) and the U.S. Task Force on Community Preventive Services ( Community Guide 2009 ). We also have a rich, if less well organized, research literature on incidental public health law. For example, researchers have studied the unintended consequences of HIV reporting laws on attitudes toward testing, time of testing, and willingness to be tested ( Hecht et al. 2000 ; Tesoriero et al. 2008 ). Research on the health effects of infrastructural health law has been more limited.

Consistent with ecological models in public health, intervention studies may investigate how laws influence health by changing environments. For example, zoning rules, clean indoor air laws, and laws regulating the condition of rental properties can directly shape residents’ exposures to noise, environmental toxins, and stress, as well as their activity patterns, social connections, collective efficacy, and many other factors that appear to influence population health outcomes ( Browning and Cagney 2002 ; Maantay 2002 ; Schilling and Linton 2005 ). Occupational health and safety laws affect workers’ exposure to hazardous conditions on the job. Product regulations protect consumers from a range of hazards arising from the use of products, from herbal supplements to firearms ( Larsen and Berry 2003 ; Robson 2007 ; Vernick and Teret 2000 ).

Interventional research focuses not only on how the law changes physical environments, but also on how it may change the social environment in ways that affect health or health behaviors. Law may shape people's health knowledge and attitudes, the way they perceive the risks and benefits of different choices, the frames through which they view particular choices, and the social norms against which their health decisions are set. PHLR can measure any or all of these dependent variables, as well as changes in health behaviors. There are many examples: research on the effects of indoor smoking prohibitions on social expectations about exposure to secondhand smoke in public ( Kagan and Skolnick 1993 ); the effect of laws requiring disclosure of calorie information on restaurant menus on consumers’ awareness of calorie content and attitudes toward the role of calorie information in food purchasing decisions ( Bassett et al. 2008 ); and the effect of punitive laws concerning substance abuse during pregnancy on the prenatal care–seeking behavior of pregnant women ( Poland et al. 1993 ), to name a few.

Finally, intervention research can illuminate policy choices under conditions of uncertainty. When problems or policy responses are new, there will naturally be little or no intervention research directly on point. Policymaking can still be informed by evidence about analogous policies or by an understanding of how law typically works to influence environments and behaviors, although all analogies are, of course, imperfect proxies for the situation at hand. An example is the area of legal restrictions on cell phone use by drivers. Although public health research recently has provided good evidence of the injury risk associated with this behavior, evidence of the effectiveness of different legal and policy approaches to the problem is not yet available. Until it is, lawmakers seeking to respond to what is clearly a significant health risk might be guided by the lessons learned about the design and enforcement of laws requiring seatbelt and helmet use and prohibiting driving under the influence of alcohol. Health impact assessment has also emerged as a useful way to use mixed methods to inform policy decisions with reliable data on possible effects, intended and unintended ( Collins and Koplan 2009 ; Lee et al. 2007 ; Mindell et al. 2004 ). Finally, Monte Carlo simulations, widely used in the field of decision science but rarely used in PHLR ( Studdert et al. 2007 ), offer an intriguing method for accounting for uncertainty about multiple parameters of importance to evaluating the likely effect of law.

Mechanism Studies

To advance the field, we need not only more evidence of law's health effects but also a greater understanding of how law has the effects it has. This is important for many reasons. Evidence of mechanisms strengthens specific causal claims. Understanding how a particular intervention influences environments and behavior facilitates the identification of further interventions, or of alternatives to eliminate superfluous requirements or unintended side effects and strengthen the mechanisms that are working. The better we understand how law works, the better we can use it, replicate its successes across jurisdictions, and extend its approach to other kinds of health risks. Informed by theories of health behavior, PHLR can develop and test models to explain how public health law effectuates change in health behaviors and ultimately health outcomes.

At the most basic level, laws encourage healthy, safe, and socially beneficial behaviors and discourage unhealthy, dangerous, and socially deleterious ones by shaping incentives (rewards) and deterrents (punishments). Though the theory may be simple, the process is not. Regulators have myriad levers and tactics that they can use to influence behavior directly or by manipulating the environment, and each choice in a regulatory system can and should be studied for its effectiveness, in both absolute terms and relative to less burdensome alternatives. Among the mechanisms are taxation and subsidies, changes in the information environment, changes in the built environment, and signals sent by tort litigation ( Gostin, Thompson, and Grad 2007 ).

With respect to laws imposing outright prohibitions on particular behaviors, many of the key research questions relate to mechanisms of implementation and enforcement: What penalties are applied to violators of legal rules? What processes are used to detect violators? With what degree of certainty and swiftness will sanctions ensue from a violation? Sociolegal research drawing on disciplines such as psychology, criminology, and sociology has a great deal to contribute to mechanism studies in PHLR. The psychological literature has explored contingencies of reinforcement; criminologists have fleshed out the factors influencing deterrence; and sociology research has plumbed the normative effects of standard setting. Tom Tyler's influential work, for example, has shown the importance of experiences of procedural fairness to compliance with the law ( Tyler 1990 ).

A classic example of compliance research in public health law is the investigation of primary versus secondary enforcement of seatbelt laws. Primary enforcement laws permit police to pull over motorists for not wearing a seatbelt, while secondary enforcement laws permit police to issue a ticket for not wearing a seatbelt only when the motorist has been pulled over for another reason. Because secondary enforcement relies primarily on social norms to enforce seatbelt use, with the threat of a ticket serving a greatly subordinate role, studies comparing these approaches to enforcement are essentially a test of the relative effectiveness of punishment versus social norms as a means of encouraging compliance ( Dinh-Zarr et al. 2001 ). Among the most interesting findings of this PHLR is that the relative benefits of primary enforcement laws varied across population subgroups, with the greatest marginal benefit observed for those groups with lower rates of seatbelt use, including males, young people, African Americans, and Native Americans ( Beck et al. 2007 ).

These and other studies make clear that deterrence is a complex phenomenon. The deterrent effect of law often seems to be assumed, without an appreciation of the factors influencing whether a person's behavior is influenced by a fear of detection or punishment. The threat of fines may have an effect different from the threat of jail ( Wagenaar et al. 2007 ). Deterrence may be weak or incomplete because people are ill informed about what the law requires, because they do not believe violation will result in a sanction, because they are insulated from the adverse effects of a sanction (e.g., by insurance coverage), or because the sanction is not strong enough to outweigh the perceived benefits of noncompliance with the law ( Mello and Brennan 2002 ). Uncertainty about legal standards can also have the opposite effect, leading to overcompliance in an attempt to avoid sanctions ( Mello et al. 2006 ). Mechanism studies can examine all these phenomena. Survey methods, interviews, focus groups, and formal decision analysis can be used to deconstruct how people think through the costs and benefits of different actions. Analysis of administrative data on enforcement actions can shed light on the degree to which popular perceptions reflect what actually happens when a law is violated.

Another variable of interest in mechanism studies that focus on compliance with legal rules is the perceived legitimacy of the body imposing the legal rule. Even people who are aware of the law may not trust “the system,” or they may see strategies other than compliance as more useful to them in achieving their goals ( Burris 1998 ). Studies of the perceived legitimacy of public health lawmakers and law enforcers may be particularly useful in understanding differences in compliance across population groups whose historical experience in the United States has led to different levels of trust in government.

Mechanism studies may also investigate how law shapes behavior in ways more subtle than outright prohibitions. How do regulatory tools such as taxes and subsidies, mandated disclosure or receipt of information, default rules, accreditation and certification, and delegations of authority to private institutions shape how individuals and organizations behave? When are these alternatives more effective and desirable than traditional, command-and-control regulation using rigid rules and penalties? For many of these forms of regulation, understanding the cognitive biases and heuristics that affect individual decision making about risk is critical ( Kahnemann, Slovic, and Tversky 1982 ), and empirical research can examine how these biases influence health outcomes.

PHLR takes a number of forms, each utilizing diverse methods ( table 1 ). By illuminating the paths we have delineated in our logic model, these forms each play important roles in establishing how law is being deployed to promote population health, and how and to what extent it is achieving its intended purpose.

Challenges Facing PHLR

We have argued that PHLR is a distinct and important field of research but that it faces a set of challenges shared with social research of other kinds. These include increasing methodological rigor, ensuring adequate research funding, identifying data sources, and ensuring the impact of PHLR on policy. We describe how each of these challenges takes shape in PHLR and explain why we are optimistic that they can be met.

Increasing Methodological Rigor

PHLR is part of a recent “explosion in empirical work” in law ( Pfaff 2009 ). Some investigators are concerned that legal scholars are producing empirical work faster than the field can create the mechanisms necessary to ensure its rigor ( Pfaff 2009 ). The fact that much PHLR is published in peer-reviewed health journals helps avoid one of the major problems confronting empirical legal studies more generally: the rarity of peer and expert editorial review in law journals. The further development of PHLR as a distinct field within empirical legal and public health research will be instrumental in defining and maintaining high standards of scientific rigor.

One challenge is how to draw new investigators with the right expertise into the field. Perhaps to a greater extent than other areas of empirical legal research, PHLR must grapple with how to integrate individuals who are primarily practitioners into the field. Their involvement in PHLR can improve research in many ways: practitioners bring an intimate knowledge of what the cutting-edge public health problems are and of the practical realities of policymaking and implementation, and they constitute a pipeline for putting research into practice. However, they typically lack both significant training in research methods and experience conducting empirical research. Similarly, even methodologically expert health researchers often lack any grounding in empirical legal scholarship, hampering their ability to conceptualize or measure legal influence on environments, behavior, or health outcomes.

The involvement of traditional legal scholars in PHLR raises similar challenges. Among the assets they bring to PHLR are a commitment to thinking deeply about the law's form, evolution, and function; the capacity for nuanced argument for or against particular legal approaches; and an appreciation of how social values and other normative considerations guide the law's path. Among the things they often lack are expertise in quantitative methods, an allegiance to the scientific method, and an inclination to think systematically about qualitative data collection and analysis.

These shortcomings can be surmounted through greater interdisciplinarity. Increasingly, law faculties are experiencing a “PhD-ification” ( Pfaff 2009 ), bringing aboard junior scholars dually trained in law and economics, political science, or another social science discipline. These scholars are well positioned to move from empirical legal studies generally to PHLR specifically. Even more promising is the trend toward pursuing PHLR in multidisciplinary teams. Research partnerships between practitioners and scholars represent the future of the best research in this field, and interdisciplinary collaborations of scholars will become the “standard of care” very soon. Team-based approaches preclude the need for traditional legal scholars and practitioners to climb the steep learning curve necessary to conduct highly rigorous quantitative and qualitative investigations. At a minimum, however, these scholars and practitioners should receive enough training in empirical methods to become informed consumers of empirical studies and active participants in team decisions about study design ( Lawless, Robbenholt, and Ulen 2010 ).

Another challenge relating to methodological rigor—one that cuts across fields of social science research—is how to adequately control for confounding variables in observational studies. This is particularly difficult in intervention studies that exploit cross-sectional variation in state laws, because states differ in so many other ways, many of which are not captured in data ( Mello and Zeiler 2008 ). Such studies are usually retrospective, relying on extant data rather than employing prospective designs that collect data on all important variables. Statistical techniques such as fixed-effects models and difference-in-difference models provide a means of minimizing this problem in repeated cross-section studies, although analysts need to carefully consider whether such designs are appropriate given the nature of their data. Prospective studies and studies involving original data collection are even stronger responses to this problem but are expensive, time-consuming, and not feasible for studying some public health law questions.

Yet another methodological challenge for the field is interpreting empirical findings. Empirical legal scholars have lamented the limited development of approaches to dealing with the problem of induction ( Epstein and King 2002 ). The field of epidemiology has developed and refined tools for evaluating when it is appropriate to draw causal inferences from statistical associations, but the same cannot be said for empirical legal studies ( Pfaff 2009 ). The temptation to infer causality from association, or even to infer association from observing a small, nonsystematic sample of actors or jurisdictions, has been problematic in PHLR. Here, PHLR can and should draw on epidemiology: Sir Austin Bradford Hill's classic work on indicators of causality in environment exposures and disease, for instance, is useful in a broad swath of observational work ( Hill 1965 ). Addressing the question, “What aspects of that association should we especially consider before deciding that the most likely interpretation of it is causation?” Bradford Hill listed strength, consistency, specificity, temporality, “biological gradient” (a dose-response relationship), biological plausibility, coherence with known facts, availability of experimental evidence, and availability of analogous phenomena.

As the factors inhibiting greater rigor are gradually overcome, PHLR will move from its current state, in which simple descriptive studies, nonsystematic qualitative work, and overly simplistic regression modeling are common, to a greater use of more sophisticated study designs. This process will be guided by the application of methodological standards developed in related fields of research. For example, the Society for Prevention Research has established criteria for judging whether laws and policies aimed at disease prevention are efficacious, effective, and ready for dissemination ( Flay et al. 2005 ). The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force has developed a rating system for the strength of evidence for preventive health measures provided by different types of study designs, ranging from case reports to randomized controlled trials ( Harris et al. 2001 ). The Campbell and Cochrane Collaborations are highly informative examples of how work in PHLR can be systematically evaluated and, through this evaluation, spurred to higher levels of rigor ( Campbell Collaboration 2009 ; Cochrane Collaboration 2009 ). The process will also be driven by the increasing extent to which PHLR scholars view themselves as a professional community engaged in stimulating, collaborating in, and critiquing one another's work. Ultimately, a clear professional identity for the field will emerge, and at its core will be a commitment to the disciplined application of the scientific method and the most sophisticated methodological approaches to study public health law questions.

Ensuring Adequate Research Funding

Collecting, analyzing, and communicating research data all cost money. Although the problem of securing research funding is not unique to PHLR, it poses special problems in this field because many public health law researchers work in soft-money environments, and extramural funding for PHLR is sparse. The recent commitment of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) to building PHLR represents a milestone in the field's evolution. First through its overall public health law portfolio (which has also included support for policy-related initiatives like the Substance Abuse Policy Research Program, Healthy Eating Research, Active Living Research, and PHSSR) and now through its program in Public Health Law Research, RWJF has supported PHLR at an unprecedented level. Previously, researchers relied on small programs such as the National Science Foundation's Law and Social Science program and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC's) short-lived Public Health Law for research opportunities, or they tried to shoehorn legal research projects into health research solicitations, for example, the NIH's and the CDC's requests for proposals on drug addiction or injury prevention. While these attempts have often been successful, they have limited the researchers’ ability to address the core areas of inquiry of PHLR, and they have precluded ready identification of studies that constitute the PHLR literature across a wide array of health topics. The RWJF initiative thus will pay for research and also build the field of PHLR by stimulating new investigators to enter the field, bringing researchers together, signaling what constitutes rigor in the field, and gathering together PHLR studies across diverse topics and methods.

The question of sustainability does arise, however. A longer-term and more broad-based commitment by research sponsors is needed to support the field's continued flourishing. This is most likely to occur if public health law researchers spend time educating sponsors and policymakers as to the significance of the problems that the field addresses as well as researchers’ ability to provide useful, credible answers. Empirical research examining how research influences policy has emphasized the importance of the relationships between researchers and their audiences ( Lavis, Moynihan, et al. 2008 ). We hope that over time, law and policy studies will become seen as a core component of all public health research solicitations, in the way that ethics is increasingly viewed in the context of genomic, cancer, and other population health research.

Identifying Data Sources

Although a wide array of data sets on health risk exposures, health behaviors, and health outcomes are available, data on health laws are much harder to find ( Hadfield 2006 ; Heise 1999 ; Mello and Zeiler 2008 ). Unlike many other areas of public health research, research on public health law and policy has developed few surveillance systems ( Brownson et al. 2006 ; McGowan et al. 2003 ). Gathering information about the patterns of public health law adoption and implementation across states and local governments over time generally is done de novo in each research project.

Maintaining and updating databases of laws would dramatically improve researchers’ ability to conduct rigorous policymaking, mapping, intervention, implementation, and mechanism studies at low cost. High standards of transparency concerning the data-collection and coding protocols for such databases would allow subsequent researchers to update publicly available data sets at reasonable marginal cost. In the few instances in which such databases have been made available—for example, Ronen Avraham's contribution of a database of state tort reforms, funded by the National Science Foundation ( Avraham 2006 )—researchers have quickly made them the gold standard source of data in that area of research.

Such examples point to three steps that would help bridge the data gap in PHLR. First, research sponsors need to provide funding to compile databases. Second, database architects need to develop and share systematic protocols for finding and classifying relevant laws and regulations. These protocols are best developed in consultation with other researchers in the field so that definitions and typologies are widely recognized as appropriate and suitable for use in other studies. Third, databases need to be made publicly available and easy to locate online.

A final step that would contribute to the available data resources for PHLR is better linkages between researchers and public and private holders of relevant data. Hospitals and clinics, public health agencies, insurance companies, and product manufacturers are just some of the entities that hold a treasure trove of data relevant to PHLR. Building trust with these data holders, so that they feel confident that the information they share will be appropriately safeguarded and research findings responsibly reported, takes time and care but is well worth the effort. The widespread adoption of standard protocols for using, protecting, and reporting proprietary data could help establish trust, but much will remain dependent on carefully cultivated personal relationships.

Promoting Policymakers’ Use of PHLR Findings

The greatest challenge confronting PHLR is an all-too-common one in research: rigorous research may be relevant to policy in theory but too often is neither salient nor useful to policymakers and advocates in practice. The elements of the problem are well documented. Researchers are often isolated from the policy process and disconnected from policymakers and public health practitioners, making it difficult for them to identify salient topics for study and to produce knowledge that can both respond to policymakers’ concerns and drive policy agendas toward evidence-based innovation ( Brownson, Chriqui, and Stamatakis 2009 ). Academics tend to follow their own interests and, in policymakers’ eyes, often do not successfully anticipate where policy agendas will be in the short and medium terms ( Jewell and Bero 2008 ). Rigorous research—not to mention peer review and publication—takes time, but policy actors need information when they need it. Even when results are available, a lack of understanding of policymakers’ perspectives, time constraints, and level of scientific literacy hampers researchers’ ability to craft research reports that are likely to be read and understood by the policy and practice communities ( Jewell and Bero 2008 ). For their part, policymakers report being overwhelmed by the volume of information presented to them, particularly the quantity of dense, detailed material ( Sorian and Baugh 2002 ). State legislators face particular challenges owing to their lack of research training, the breadth of issues about which they must become knowledgeable, the short timelines involved, the high turnover of legislators and legislative staff, and the leanness of legislators’ staff and resources ( Jewell and Bero 2008 ).

Solutions, like the problems, are not unique to PHLR ( Greenhalgh et al. 2004 ; Mitton et al. 2007 ). Transferring knowledge from research to policy generally requires careful attention to a set of key questions: What is the precise information to be transmitted? Who exactly are the targets? Who are the best messengers? What media can most effectively be used to transfer the knowledge? For what purposes, exactly, is the information likely to be used ( Lavis et al. 2003 )?

Commentators emphasize the importance of ongoing contact between research producers and research consumers ( Innvaer et al. 2002 ; Lavis, Moynihan, et al. 2008 ). Systematic reviews are repeatedly identified as an effective strategy for distilling a large amount of evidence into a usable form ( Community Guide 2009 ; Fielding and Briss 2006 ; Jewell and Bero 2008 ; Lavis et al. 2003 ; Moulton et al. 2009 ; RWJF 2009 ; Sweet and Moynihan 2007 ). Policy briefs and other translational materials should be geared to the recipient and should “concretize impact”—that is, delineate specific benefits, harms, and costs, including the specific populations affected, and how particular policy strategies can alter them ( Jewell and Bero 2008 ; Sorian and Baugh 2002 ). Nor does the entire responsibility lie with researchers. Effective practices have also been identified for organizations engaged in knowledge transfer ( Lavis, Oxman, et al. 2008 ).

Training and mentorship within the field can move PHLR toward these practices, as can hands-on experience when researchers spend time working in policy settings. But there are no panaceas here. Even when research findings are effectively communicated to policymakers, a variety of forces can get in the way of policymakers' ability and willingness to translate evidence into policy proposals. Among these are the influence of interest groups, the power of anecdotes that contradict research findings, force of habit, cultural norms and values, and political compromises and expediency ( Brownson, Chriqui, and Stamatakis 2009 ; Brownson et al. 2006 ; Jewell and Bero 2008 ).

At some level, there is little that researchers can do to overcome these forces. Nonetheless, well-designed translational materials and strategies that reflect an understanding of the constraints that policymakers face certainly have a greater chance of carrying the day than do research reports that are physically and cognitively inaccessible to policymakers. In addition, building strong relationships with public health law practitioners can help ensure that researchers and their work are responsive to practitioners’ needs. When the streams of problem, policy, and politics merge, events often move quickly ( Brownson, Chriqui, and Stamatakis 2009 ). Policy actors thus need answers to specific questions when the time is right for them, not when it serves the needs of funding, peer-reviewed publication, and promotion. As a field, PHLR must be dedicated to both the long-term work that builds a rigorous evidence base for policy and to a practice of “translational service.” The latter includes maintaining contact with policy actors, pursuing models of scholarship that can generate answers on a policy-relevant timeline (such as synthesizing existing evidence and applying it to current issues, or conducting simulation studies), and taking time from academic pursuits to serve as consultants ( Fielding and Briss 2006 ; Jacobson, Butterill, and Goering 2005 ). In the long run, all participants in PHLR—researchers, funders, consumers—have to work to narrow the gap between research that is fundable and research that is needed, and to invest in knowledge translation for its own sake. None of this is peculiar to PHLR, but researchers in this emerging field can aspire to be exemplary in their efforts, attending to and putting into practice the insights of research on translating evidence into policy.

Conclusions

Lawyers have long proclaimed the maxim that “the health of the people is the supreme law,” but in practice, making law work for public health is a constant challenge. PHLR's contribution is to provide the evidentiary foundation for these efforts. Through policymaking studies, PHLR can identify forces that shape public health policy and strategies for effecting policy change. Mapping studies can show what has been done and thus what kind of action various government units can take. Through implementation studies, PHLR can provide information about how best to ensure that “law on the books” becomes effective “law on the streets.” Through intervention studies, it can determine which legal approaches are most efficacious in improving health environments, behaviors, and outcomes and can identify harmful legal side effects. Finally, PHLR mechanism studies can tell us why laws have the effects they do, and what mechanisms we can use to improve the effectiveness of legal interventions.

Although researchers carrying out this work and collectively advancing this vision face significant challenges, a combination of forces has brought us closer to meeting these challenges than ever before. The interest of research sponsors, the broader trend toward interdisciplinary research, the increasing number of legal scholars trained in social science disciplines, and signals from Washington that policy will increasingly be driven by evidence and expertise are all cause for optimism ( Obama 2009 ).

A recent posting on a law professor's blog raised the question of “whether empiricism is a methodology or a philosophy” ( Lipshaw 2009 ). We argue it is both. We urge scholars of public health law to explore and recognize the value of empirical methods. We also hope that scholars and policymakers will adopt the philosophy that evidence derived from rigorous research ought to inform, if not drive, health policy decisions. Through the production of knowledge and conscientious efforts to translate research findings for decision makers, PHLR can make the case for laws that improve health.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Evan Anderson for his assistance in preparing this article; and Angie McGowan, Prabhu Ponkshe, F. Douglas Scutchfield, and The Milbank Quarterly 's reviewers for helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. The authors' work was supported by a grant from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. The opinions expressed in this article are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the view of the foundation.

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Health Law Research

Secondary sources, primary sources, practice materials, organizations, interdisciplinary materials, getting help.

This guide provides an overview of health law research strategies. It will highlight some of the key secondary and primary resources in these areas. It will also provide current awareness sources. To learn more about performing legal research generally, please visit:

Legal Research Strategy by AJ Blechner Last Updated Sep 21, 2023 5745 views this year

Health law has become a distinct field in its own right. However, researchers may also wish to explore: Bioethics, Health Care Policy & Reform, Medical Device Law & Industry, Medical Malpractice, Medicare/Medicaid, Pharmaceutical Law & Industry, and Public Health. For a brief summary of health law please visit:

Health Law: An Overview Cornell Legal Information Institute

Using Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are a great place to begin your research. To learn more about secondary sources and how to use them, visit the following guide:

Secondary Sources: ALRs, Encyclopedias, Law Reviews, Restatements, & Treatises by Catherine Biondo Last Updated Apr 12, 2024 3844 views this year

Encyclopedias & American Law Reports

Legal encyclopedias contain brief, broad summaries of legal topics. They provide introductions to legal topics and explain relevant terms of art. State encyclopedias can also be found on Westlaw and Lexis.

American Jurisprudence 2d - Health - Westlaw
American Jurisprudence 2d - Health - Lexis
Corpus Juris Secundum - Health and Environment - Westlaw
Lawyers' Medical Cyclopedia of Personal Injuries and Allied Specialties

The American Law Reports contains in-depth articles on narrow topics of the law. Use the following Indices to access the ALR. Note: Lexis also has some ALR materials but Westlaw's are more complete.

Health Index Topic - ALR - Westlaw
Medical Care Index Topic - ALR - Westlaw

Health Law Treatises

There are many health law treatises within our collection. Users can search in Hollis for the most up-to-date legal treatises.

Hollis, the Harvard Library Catalog

Explore books by topic: Select Option Below Show All General Administration Bioethics & Biotechnology Mental Health Pandemic Response Policy Public Health

Books - General

Books - Administration

Books - Bioethics & Biotechnology

Books - Mental Health

Books - Pandemic Response

Books - Policy

Books - Public Health

Legal and Medical Journals

In addition to Hollis, mentioned above, many databases can be used for secondary source research:

HeinOnline Health and Medicine
Lexis Healthcare Law Journals
Westlaw Health Law Journals

In addition to traditional law reviews and journals many advocacy organizations also publish:

American Health Law Association Seminar Papers For papers prior to 2009 visit the American Health Law Association Seminar Papers - Archive
American Journal of Law & Medicine by the American Society of Law and Medicine
Food and Drug Law Journal by the Food and Drug Law Institute
Internet Journal of Law, Healthcare and Ethics by Internet Scientific Publications
Issues in Law & Medicine by the National Legal Center for the Medically Dependent & Disabled
Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics by the American Society of Law, Medicine & Ethics
Journal of Legal Medicine by the American College of Legal Medicine

Using Primary Sources

Primary authority is "authority that issues directly from a law-making body." Authority , Black's Law Dictionary (11th ed. 2019). To learn more about primary sources and how to use them visit:

Primary Sources - Legal Research Strategy Guide
Health Law Statutes - Westlaw
Healthcare Law Statutes - Lexis
State Health Statutes - LII Table of state codes on health law, for general use only, not citation.

Statutes & Legislation

50 State Surveys are tools used to compare the law across multiple states. To learn more about using and accessing 50 State Surveys see our guide on:

Comparing State Law - Prepare to Practice Guide

Comparing State Law

For 50 State Surveys on Health Law visit:

50 State Surveys - Health - Westlaw
50 State Surveys - COVID19 - Westlaw
50 State Surveys Healthcare, Public Health, & Welfare Law - Lexis
State by State Guide to Managed Care Law

Legislative History

Federal & State Legislative History by Mindy Kent Last Updated Apr 18, 2024 300 views this year

This may help when considering the impact of Federal and State statutes related to health. Consider searching for earlier versions of the law, supporting testimony, and additional documentation. If available, consider consulting published legislative history.

A Legislative history of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and its Amendments.
Legislative History of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996
Legislative History of the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003
Legislative History of the Social Security Amendments of 1965
Legislative History of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
ProQuest Regulatory Insight Find regulations that have been promulgated as a result of the ACA.

If there is no existing legislative history, researchers may need to consult congressional materials directly.

Regulatory & Administrative Law

Regulations comprise a substantial portion of primary sources in health law research. Statutes may enable change in health policy (such as the Affordable Care Act) and create specific health programs (such as Medicare and Medicaid). Yet, the way those policies and programs are administered relies primarily on regulation.

If you are unfamiliar with how to conduct regulatory research, please visit:

Administrative Law Research by AJ Blechner Last Updated Apr 12, 2024 465 views this year

The regulatory process can be complex, especially in the field of health care. Multiple agencies can be involved in promulgating regulations, further complicating the process. This visual overview can be helpful:

It may be easiest to start with a regulation by number or agency by name. Secondary sources such as books, scholarly articles, or advocacy communications can help you get started.

Government agencies websites provide information about proposed regulations and track them through the regulatory process.

Federalregister.gov Contains federal agency documents, including proposed rules, final rules, public notices, and Presidential actions. This unofficial format provides the same material printed in the official Federal Register. It also contains related material from the Code of Federal Regulations and the US Code.
Regulations.gov Allows users to search regulatory materials, submit comments, and sign up for email alerts. Some agencies require that comments be submitted through their own individual platforms. However, regulations.gov serves as a clearinghouse for the majority of publicly available public comment material.
Reginfo.gov Produced by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and the General Services Administration (GSA). OMB's Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) reviews Federal regulations and information collections. The site provides information about regulations under development to enable public participation.

Administrative Materials are also accessible on both Westlaw and Lexis:

Health Law Regulations - Westlaw
Health Law Administrative Decisions & Guidance - Westlaw
Healthcare Law Administrative Codes & Regulations - Lexis
Healthcare Law Administrative Materials - Lexis

Agency websites also contain regulations and resources that can aid in conducting research:

Health and Human Services Regulations
Food & Drug Administration Regulations
Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Regulations
Federal & State Health Law Cases - Westlaw
Federal & State Health Law Cases - Lexis

Some agencies can also decide cases related to particular regulations. These agency decisions may not be included in general case law databases. Decisions can often be accessed through agency websites:

HHS Compliance - Advisory Opinions
CMS Medicare Advantage/Prescription Drug Plan Decisions
HHS Departmental Appeals Board Decisions
HHS Enforcement Actions
FDA Enforcement Reports
FDA Warning Letters

Using Practice Materials

Practitioners often write the most helpful resources in the field of health law. Although they have similarities to treatises, they are directed at lawyers in practice. They may contain checklists and forms not available in a traditional treatise.

Practice Centers

Healthcare Practice Center - Vitallaw
Health Practice Center - Bloomberg Law
Health Law Practice Center - Westlaw
Medical Litigation Practice Center - Westlaw
Healthcare Law Practice Center - Lexis

Practitioner Materials

Handbooks and guides are helpful when working on health law issues as a new practitioner.

Health Law Handbook
Health Care Compliance Guide - Bloomberg
Health Law Practice Guide
Health Care Law: A Practical Guide

Current Awareness Sources

Advocacy resources.

POLITICO Pro PoliticoPro provides subject-based issue and policy tracking tools in multiple areas including Health Care. It prepares issue pages for major policy areas. Features include: news, calendar function, whiteboard, charts, graphs, and glossaries, all in well-organized practice centers. PoliticoPro content relies on policy experts in the field, writing in real time. The site also stores all primary source documents in a "document drawer" for easy access.
Legistorm The In the News section curates news from Capitol Hill. StormFeed provides updates from press releases, twitter accounts from legislators, and relevant trending hashtags. For regular alerts request a personal account, contact [email protected].
Vitallaw The Health Care library includes several Daily Documents and Newsletters. Researchers can also find CMS manuals and guidance, and State Health Care information.

News Sources

Keeping up-to-date with new developments in the field of health law will enhance research projects. Recent headlines in the field may also inspire researchers still looking for a paper topic. Use these links to find news sources related to health law:

Kaiser Health News A nonprofit news service committed to in-depth coverage of health care policy and politics (not affiliated with Kaiser Permanente).
Health Affairs A leading peer-reviewed journal of health policy thought and research. Aims to offer a nonpartisan forum to promote analysis and discussion.
Medpac An independent congressional agency advising the U.S. Congress on issues affecting the Medicare program.
Health Law & Business News - Bloomberg
Health Law Daily - Westlaw Daily updates on current health law developments including the areas of food safety and Medicaid.

Legal Blogs have become an increasingly rich source of information and legal news. Below are two indices to health law blogs:

ABA Journal Health Law Blogs Index
Justia Healthcare Law Blogs

Non Profits and NGOs

National Agencies and Organizations from Pace Health Law Research Guide

The following organizations may be particularly useful to researchers:

Center for Medicare Advocacy Nonprofit, nonpartisan law organization providing education, advocacy, and legal assistance to help people obtain Medicare. In addition to the newsroom, you can sign up for alerts via email.
Families USA A consumer advocacy group that focuses on Health Care, with a robust newsroom. You can access insights, reports, raw data, and more under their resources tab.

Kaiser Family Foundation

Kaiser Family Foundation A non-profit organization focusing on national health issues. They provide policy analysis, journalism, and communication for the general public.

Kaiser Health News includes a morning briefing and updates via email or RSS feed:

Community Catalyst

Community Catalyst Non-profit dedicated to consumer health advocacy, working in 40 states across the country.
Dual Agenda Newsletter Includes state highlights on health care reform. Their ACA Implementation Fund partners with state-based advocacy groups on issues related to the implementation of health care reform. They focus on the state level, and explore the impact of potential repeal.
Health Policy Hub Blog Allows for email subscription.

The latest posts from their feed are included below:

Health & Medical Field Resources

Health law is an interdisciplinary area. You may benefit from accessing health and biomedical resources.

For unfamiliar terms and acronyms consult the following:

There are several health and medical databases that may be helpful in your research:

Harvard Medicine & Public Health Databases
PubMed For how to use please visit the Pubmed Research Guide
Web of Science

Additional Resources

Health law also touches on many different research areas. These additional research guides contain important content related to health law:

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Research Guide on International Health Law GlobaLex Guide from Professor Chenglin Liu, St. Mary's University School of Law

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Healthcare Law and Ethics: Dissertation Preparation module (LW50116)

Learn how to write a critical review of a peer-reviewed journal article and research for a healthcare law and ethics dissertation topic

This module is designed to help you develop your legal and ethical writing skills. You will understand how to critically assess, analyse, apply and discuss relevant legal and ethical principles using your individually chosen dissertation topic.

What you will learn

In this module you will:

receive support from legal experts through optional online sessions via the University of Dundee's online library and academic skills centre
develop skills in crafting well-structured paragraphs, incorporating evidence, and expressing your voice through persuasive arguments
learn effective techniques for presenting and editing your dissertation, such as using research assistant tools for referencing and citations
gain insight into the specialised methodology of legal research
engage in discussions with your supervisor to explore incorporating empirical studies into your dissertation, and understand any ethical approval implications

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

bring skills together to analyse, discuss and apply legal and ethical principles to a moral dilemma
demonstrate excellent writing skills
confidently argue a point in your writing
be able to prepare a well-presented dissertation
demonstrate best practices when referencing and using citations in your work
seek ethical approval for studies as required

Assignments / assessment

coursework (100%)

This module has a total of 3 assessments, two formative and one summative that build to a draft research proposal leading into the dissertation.

This module does not have a final exam.

Teaching methods / timetable

independent study - 100 hours

Materials are provided through My Dundee, including the module handbook, the reading list (using the TALIS software), and any slides or additional materials. Students are offered various ways of interacting with each other and with the tutor – e-mail, discussion board, telephone.

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Books and other materials on Health Law can be found in the UW-Madison library catalog . The catalog default is Relevancy, to switch this to date order, select Relevancy and a dropdown menu will appear, select newest to oldest.

Clinical Trials Law and Legislation

Discrimination in Medical Care

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Health Insurance Law and Legislation

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Informed Consent Medical Law

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LLM in Medical Law and Ethics

Academic staff
Student profiles
How to apply

The LLM in Medical Law and Ethics addresses a diverse range of topics that reflect the legal and ethical challenges faced by those working in and around health and medicine. These topics are examined in their social, political and historical context.

The programme will cover legal and ethical issues that arise in various contexts, including but not limited to:

Medical treatment and experimentation
Regulation of healthcare professionals
Assisted reproduction
Assisted dying and euthanasia
Biomedical research, and
Public health and global health

Zahra, graduate from the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics

My experience on the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics course was fantastic. The quality of the course was impeccable.

Individual and population health is of critical social concern and has been identified as a key ‘global challenge’ which implicates a wide range of actors and policy fields.

This programme is ideal for those who wish to develop skills that will prepare themselves for a career in medical law or ethics or in health-related policy or regulation, and who wish to add new advocacy skills to their professional portfolio. The programme attracts students from a variety of legal backgrounds, as well as students with prior education and training in health and public health-related fields, life sciences, social sciences, and the humanities.

The LLM in Medical Law and Ethics adopts an interdisciplinary approach to learning, drawing on academics within and beyond law and ethics.

Uniquely, students will have the opportunity to select their own topics for study, exploring together with fellow students and staff, issues that are at the cutting-edge of the broad field of medical law and ethics.

This not only broadens avenues of learning, but also opens students up to a much wider community of scholars and practitioners.

Edinburgh Law School has had a strong presence in the regulation of the medicine, innovation, and related human rights since the birth of the disciplines of medical law and ethics in the 1970s.

Edinburgh Law School is home to the Mason Institute – a world-leading interdisciplinary research hub – whose research feeds directly into the Masters programme.

The Medical Law and Ethics team, alongside the Mason Institute, is also responsible for the leading textbook in the field, Law and Medical Ethics (Oxford University Press). This was the first textbook of its kind in the UK, and it continues the tradition of medical jurisprudence study first laid down by Professors J Kenyon Mason and Alexander McCall Smith.

As a student on the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics programme, you will become part of our active community of scholars, practitioners, and students from around the world.

You will gain insights into both the fundamentals of medical law and ethics, and issues of contemporary significance that reflect the research interests of members of staff. Importantly, you will benefit from interactions with diverse research communities with which the staff are engaged, including:

The J Kenyon Mason Institute for Medicine Life Sciences and Law, an interdisciplinary research institute based in the Law School
The Global Academies of Justice and Health
The Institute for the Study of Science, Technology and Innovation, based in the School of Social and Political Science
Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics , and
The Centre for Biomedicine, Self and Society .

The Law School arranges a wide range of events, public lectures and conferences throughout the year which regularly attract high-profile speakers and delegates.

In addition the Mason Institute offers a range of events that you will be able to attend and opportunities to get involved in the activities of the institute. In the video below Dr Agomoni Ganguli-Mitra, co-director of the Mason Institute, talks about the range of events and activities that students can attend.

In this video, we celebrate the 40th anniversary of the first publication of Mason and McCall Smith's Law and Medical Ethics. It is the UK’s leading textbook in medical law and ethics, which was born and nurtured at Edinburgh Law School.

The Mason Institute has its own podcast series and recorded a special episode to celebrate the seminal textbook, Mason and McCall Smith's Law and Medical Ethics.

The podcast looks at how the textbook came about in the first place, what contributions have been made to the current 12th edition published in 2023, and what the future may hold for the book.

Listen to the Mason Institute Podcasts

If you have any questions about the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics please don’t hesitate to contact us.

[email protected]

This programme can be taken full time over one year, or part time over two years subject to visa restrictions. It offers a range of subjects that covers a broad spectrum of contemporary issues in medical law, jurisprudence and ethics, from an international and interdisciplinary perspective, allowing you to tailor a programme to suit your interests.

The programme consists of 180 credits, comprising taught courses worth 120 credits (60 credits per semester) and a 10,000 word dissertation worth 60 credits. Full programme details for the 2023-24 academic year are available on the University Degree Regulations and Programmes of Study website.

View 2023-24 programme information for the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics

Courses listed below are scheduled for the 2023-24 academic year.

Fundamental Issues in Medical Jurisprudence (20 credits)

This course serves as a foundation for critical analytical engagement with the core features of the discipline of medical jurisprudence, being the relationship between law and ethics in the provision of healthcare, the influence of human rights on medical practice, the importance of consent, confidentiality and medical negligence in shaping the contours of the doctor/patient relationship, as well as issues at the start and end of life, such as assisted reproduction and assisted dying. Where appropriate, comparative legal analysis will further inform discussion and debate.

Fundamental in Bioethics (20 credits)

This course serves as a foundation for critical engagement with the core elements of bioethics and of doing bioethics. It will introduce students to three pillars of rigorous bioethical analysis: (i) concepts, (ii) theories, and (iii) robust argumentation. It will equip students with the skills to develop and defend ethical arguments, and to apply these to legal, regulatory and policy issues in health and biomedicine.

Contemporary Issues in Medical Jurisprudence (20 credits)

This course is designed to engage students with current live issues arising in the field of medical jurisprudence, being a disciplines which sits at the cross-roads between law, medicine and ethics and is concerned primarily with legal and social responses to advanced in medicine, healthcare and related technologies. The course is deliberately designed to be open and responsive to issues that are current at the time of delivery in any given year.

You must study between 40 and 60 credits from the courses listed below.

Mental Health Law (20 credits) The main aim of the course is to examine the development of mental health law and how it is applied to related conditions that arise throughout the spectrum of life, beginning with diagnosis of conditions through early years, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and senior years. As well as examining specific legislation, the course (to a lesser extent) will focus on: changing societal attitudes to mental health and the growing recognition that mental health is as important as physical health. The course will also consider the provisions in Scots law and that in England & Wales, for the care and detention of offenders who have a mental health diagnosis. It should be noted that the basis of this course lies in the law and legislation; it does not seek to focus on medical diagnosis or treatment for mental health conditions.
Reproduction and the Law (10 credits) This course provides students with an understanding of the law, policy, and precedent associated with the regulation of human reproduction in the UK. It provides a solid legal grounding in this area by focusing on four key topics: abortion, assisted reproduction and embryo research, wrongful life and wrongful birth, and surrogacy.
End of Life, Ethics and the Law (10 credits) This course provides students with an understanding of the law, policy and precedent associated with the decision-making processes at the end of life. It provides a solid legal grounding in this area by focusing on four key topics: definition of death; medical futility; euthanasia; and assisted suicide.
Public Health Ethics (20 credits)
Public health ethics presents us with various kinds of ethical questions and tensions. What kind of good is public health? How do we address population-based health and social inequalities? What kind of measures can be ethically justified in the context of a public health emergency? Can individual liberty be curtailed for the sake of preventing harm, or for the sake of fairness?
Shaping and Regulating Modern Healthcare (10 credits) This course provides students with an opportunity to explore some of the ways that modern healthcare has been (and is being) shaped by key events, actors, and objects. In particular, it reflects on how these have impacted on law, policy and regulation in the sector, and how this continues to evolve. This course will contextualise and deepen student's understanding of the changing healthcare landscape. It will equip students to navigate a range of primary and secondary sources in order to advance arguments and positions at this intersection of law, policy and regulation. While this course focuses on the UK as its primary jurisdiction, it also provides scope for students to reflect on the issues raised in relation to their home jurisdictions (if different).
Clinical Negligence and the Law (10 credits) This course is a detailed exploration of the law of clinical negligence. It is designed to equip students with an in-depth knowledge and understanding of relevant case law. It also aims to develop skills in using the case law effectively by formulating reasoned and persuasive arguments for or against particular legal propositions. Whilst focusing on the law in the UK, the course will have a strong comparative dimension. The clinical negligence action will be viewed in its social, economic and political context and students will be encouraged to reflect critically on the various factors driving law and policy in this area.
Ethics of Health Technologies (20 credits) This course will equip students with the skills to engage in bioethical debates about emerging health technologies and uses of health data. It will explore the values that inform technological and data-driven innovations and the normative, critical and conceptual tools that can be mobilised in developing ethical responses to these innovations.

You will have the option to take 20 credits from the Law School which will include the courses listed below, depending on availability and with the express permission of the Programme Director.

For full programme and course information please visit the University Degree Regulations and Programmes of Study website.

Having successfully completed 120 credit points of courses within the LLM, you will be ready to move onto a single piece of independent and in-depth research. The 10,000 word dissertation allows you to focus on a preferred topic from within the field of medical law and ethics. Dissertations normally involve the expansion and development of issues addressed in one of your courses. Your Programme Director will be able to advise you as to whether your topic is appropriate for your programme of study.

You will be assigned an academic dissertation supervisor who will provide you with support and guidance while you prepare and write your dissertation.

The dissertation is a challenging but rewarding endeavour, asking you to demonstrate a comprehensive grasp of the relevant literature and an ability to engage critically with a range of sources, drawing on the skills and knowledge you have developed during the course of the programme. Students are encouraged to show originality and evidence of independent thinking, whether in terms of the material used, or the manner in which it is presented.

The dissertation is written in the summer months (April to August) after the taught courses are successfully completed.

Please note that due to unforeseen circumstances or lack of demand for particular courses, we may not be able to run all courses as advertised come the start of the academic year.

You will be taught by a core teaching team made up of individuals who each has an outstanding record of research in the field, as well as in other related areas. Core teaching staff for the 2022-23 academic year are listed below.

Dr Catriona McMillan - Programme Director 2023-24

Catriona (Katy) McMillan is a Lecturer in Medical Law and Ethics at the University of Edinburgh School of Law. She is also Deputy Director of the JK Mason Institute for Medicine, Life Sciences and the Law, and Convenor of the Law Society of Scotland's Health and Medical Law Sub-Committee.

Find out more

Murray Earle is a Teaching Fellow in medical law. He is a graduate of the University of the Witwatersrand (BA Law & International Relations; BA (Hons) Comparative Literature), and the University of Edinburgh (LLM Medical Jurisprudence & the Sociology of Law; and PhD in Medical Law).

Murray started his career as a lecturer in medical law at the University of Glasgow, while completing his PhD. That was followed by work as a Senior Researcher at the Scottish Parliament Information Centre (SPICe, 2000-2011). From there he developed an independent career, writing, and teaching on, a wide range of online postgraduate medical law courses offered by the School of Law, at the University of Edinburgh. He was also involved in writing for a range of reference publications.

Gerard is a lecturer in medical law and ethics in the School of Law. His research interests include medical law, patent law and the regulation of the life sciences. He speaks Japanese and also conducts comparative research in Japanese law within these subject areas.

He has held visiting fellowships at the Centre for Studies in Ethics and Rights (Mumbai, India), the Centre for Biomedical Ethics, National University of Singapore and with the Program on Science, Technology and Society at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.

Find out more about Gerard Porter

Dr. Agomoni Ganguli-Mitra is Chancellor’s Fellow in the Legal and Ethical Aspects of Biomedicine, and Co-director of the JK Mason Institute for Medicine, Life Sciences and the Law. She is also a member of the Wellcome Trust-funded Centre for Biomedicine, Self and Society.

Dr. Ganguli-Mitra’s background is in bioethics, with a special interest in global bioethics, structural and gender justice. She has written on ethical issues related to global surrogacy, sex-selection, biomedical research in low-income countries, social value in research governance and the concepts of exploitation and vulnerability in bioethics.

Find out more about Agomoni Ganguli-Mitra

Annie Sorbie is a Lecturer in Medical Law and Ethics at Edinburgh Law School, with a research and teaching portfolio. She is a medical lawyer (currently non-practising) with over 14 years’ experience in legal practice in the health, social care and regulatory sector (September 2001 – December 2015, Partner from 2009). She has extensive experience of providing strategic advice on matters of health regulatory practice and policy, both in health and social care regulation, and also more widely within the NHS and private sectors.

Having joined the Wellcome funded Liminal Spaces Project in January 2016, Annie’s doctoral research interrogates the contribution of the public interest to health research regulation in the context of access to identifiable patient information for research purposes without consent. Annie is also a Deputy Director of the Mason Institute for Medicine, Life Sciences and the Law, and co-leads its policy portfolio. In June 2018 Annie was appointed to the Lay Advisory Group of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh.

Find out more about Annie Sorbie

Edward (Ted) Dove is Lecturer in Risk and Regulation at the School of Law, University of Edinburgh, and Deputy Director of the J Kenyon Mason Institute for Medicine, Life Sciences and Law. From 2011 until 2014, Ted was an Academic Associate at the Centre of Genomics and Policy at McGill University in Montreal. He holds a Bachelor of Arts degree (BA) in Political Science and Civil Law and Common Law degrees(BCL, LLB) from McGill University, a Master of Laws degree (LLM) from Columbia University in New York City and a PhD from the University of Edinburgh.

Ted’s primary research interests are in the areas of regulation of biomedical research, research ethics oversight, health-related data access and sharing, and governance of international research collaboration.

Emily is an Early Career Fellow in Bioethics. Her background is in philosophical bioethics and policy management. She was awarded her PhD for her thesis ‘Defining Ourselves: narrative identity and access to personal bioinformation’ in 2017.

Prior to her doctoral research she worked in policy roles at the Scottish Government in the fields of public health and environmental justice. She was also project leader and co-author of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics 2013 report ‘Novel Neurotechnologies: intervening in the brain’. She has published on ethical and legal issues relating to identity development, consent to research participation, secondary uses of health data, and neurotechnology.

Emily’s main research interests lie in exploring the relationships between biomedical information and self-conception, specifically the narrative constitution of self. Emily is Course Organiser for the on-campus and online LLM courses Fundamentals in Bioethics and Biotechnology, Bioethics and Society. She is a Deputy Director of the JK Mason Institute for Medicine, Life Sciences and the Law, with particular responsibility for the Institute’s policy engagement portfolio.

Find out more about Emily Postan

Professor Anne-Maree Farrell is Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at Edinburgh Law School and Director of the Mason Institute.

Professor Farrell's research expertise lies generally in health law and bioethics. She is particularly interested in the relationship between politics and regulation in the area of health. She has specific interests in law and the human body (blood, organ, tissue), health technologies, health security, the management of public health risks, clinical negligence and no-fault compensation for medical injury. She admitted to legal practice as a solicitor in Australia, Ireland, England & Wales. Prior to becoming an academic, she worked as a lawyer in private legal practice specialising in mass torts, product liability and medical negligence.

You may also be taught by other leading experts and practitioners.

The staff teaching on this programme are subject to change for 2023-24. Staff listed as on sabbatical will not be available to teach for the duration of their sabbatical.

[email protected]

Find out what it's like to study for an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics at Edinburgh Law School from our current and former students.

Fabienne, UK

Fabienne is a 2023 graduate of the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics at Edinburgh Law School. In this video, she talks about her experience studying the LLM and what it's like to live in the city of Edinburgh.

Titlee is a 2023 graduate of the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics at Edinburgh Law School. In this video, she talks about her experience studying the LLM and what it's like to live in the city of Edinburgh.

Eleonora, from Italy, studied for an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the 2021/22 academic year, graduating in 2022. In this video she talks about her experience of studying for an LLM at Edinburgh Law School, life in Edinburgh and her plans for the future.

Chioma, from Nigeria, studied for an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the 2021/22 academic year, graduating in 2022. In this video she talks about her experience of studying for an LLM at Edinburgh Law School, life in Edinburgh and her plans for the future.

Qinlin, from China, studied for an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the 2021/22 academic year, graduating in 2022. In this video he talks about his experience of studying for an LLM at Edinburgh Law School, life in Edinburgh and his plans for the future.

Leyla, from the UK, studied for an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the 2021/22 academic year, graduating in 2022. In this video she talks about her experience of studying for an LLM at Edinburgh Law School, life in Edinburgh and her plans for the future.

Xuanyun studied the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the academic year 2021-22, graduating in 2022.

"After undergraduate education in medical law from China, I wanted to gain a more in-depth understanding of the field. Therefore, I decided to do my Master's in Medical Law and Ethics in Edinburgh.

The programme has given me a fresh experience, as I have not only learned about the law but also about bioethics, which I had little knowledge of before. I was also able to fulfill my academic and practical interests by taking different courses. The professors are very enthusiastic. Their love for the topic is evident through their words in class, and they are very patient in answering every question.

Before coming to Edinburgh, all I remembered about the city and Scotland was the old buildings and kilts. When I came to Edinburgh, I felt the city's beauty and the Scots' friendliness. The sunsets on Calton Hill and the jazz in the pubs will always be in my memory."

Rhiannon, from England, studied for an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the 2019/20 academic year, graduating in 2020. In this video she talks about her experience of studying for an LLM at Edinburgh Law School, life in Edinburgh, completing her studies during the Covid-19 pandemic and her plans for the future.

My name is Chris Maragh; I am a healthcare professional from Ontario, Canada. I have over seven years of experience in the field.

I attended the University of Edinburgh and pursued an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics because I have a broad interest in learning how the law can improve health systems.

Chris, LLM in Medical Law and Ethics, 2020

Based on this interest, the programme exceeded my expectations. I learned how law, policy, governance, and ethics could improve the health of the population and the delivery of health programmes and services. I also learned many skills and tools that are applicable to any health system. Particularly, ethical and legal theories that can evaluate the efficacy of strategies, policies, and laws pertaining to health and social care. This is all attributed to the teaching staff that I would describe as experts in the field who are dedicated to helping students grow personally and professionally. I would highly recommend this programme to anyone who desires to navigate and solve complex problems related to medical law and ethics.

Last but not least, Edinburgh is a safe and beautiful place to live and study. It is hard to give a brief description of the city; however, I will say that there something for everyone in the city – culture, nature, history, and nightlife. My most memorable moments were exploring Scotland and developing friendships with people from across the globe.

Chris studied the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the academic year 2019-20, graduating in 2020.

Emma, from the USA, studied for an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the 2019/20 academic year, graduating in 2020. In this video she talks about his experience of studying for an LLM at Edinburgh Law School, life in Edinburgh, completing her studies during the Covid-19 pandemic and her plans for the future.

I applied for a place on the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics at The University of Edinburgh after working as a Dentist in the NHS for around seven years.

I was initially drawn to the programme to learn more about the legal and ethical issues surrounding medical treatments and public health interventions in the UK. My aim was then to apply this knowledge to my day-to-day clinical work.

The teaching on this LLM is excellent. The Programme Director and academic staff are very approachable and supportive. I met many other students from all over the world with a wide range of Undergraduate degrees. We shared and discussed many topics during our seminars and beyond. Edinburgh is also a beautiful city to live in and explore!

This LLM in Medical Law and Ethics opened many doors for me and equipped me with the skills I needed to work towards further clinical and academic goals.

Mattie studied the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the academic year 2019-20, graduating in 2020.

Kathryn, from Scotland, studied for an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the 2019/20 academic year, graduating in 2020. In this video she talks about her experience of studying for an LLM at Edinburgh Law School, life in Edinburgh, completing her studies during the Covid-19 pandemic and her plans for the future.

Destiny studied the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the 2018-19 academic year. In this video she talks about her experience of studying the LLM at Edinburgh Law School.

Claudia talks about her experience of studying for an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics at Edinburgh Law School and life in Edinburgh.

Peter, a Geriatrician from Singapore and originally from Hong Kong, talks about his experience of studying the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics at Edinburgh Law School.

Isabelle graduated with an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in 2018. Here she talks about her experience of studying on the LLM at Edinburgh Law School in the 2017-18 academic year.

Nasser studied the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the academic year 2017-18, graduating in 2018.

When I decided to pursue an LLM in Medical Law and Ethics, Edinburgh was my first choice. Well, actually it was my only choice as I decided to apply to this single place and wait for the response. I like the beautiful city of Edinburgh as well as its friendly people.

Nasser, LLM in Medical Law and Ethics, 2018

Studying the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics with a medical background was a challenging task for me. I had no formal background in law, and this was a concern for me. However, I received assurance on the first day of the programme, when I met Prof. Graeme Laurie, that I will be able to move smoothly, and, this what happened.

I enjoyed the programme and curriculum very much. I started to build on my background, change some conceptions, and even challenge others which I took earlier as a given. The programme was quite interactive throughout the year, with various tasks and tools adding further interest to the programme. I enjoyed interacting with both our instructors and fellow students equally.

The Programme Director, dissertation supervisor and courses lecturers were very helpful and approachable throughout my studies. They handled all concerns positively and professionally. They were supportive and encouraged positive interactions. The programme director was very helpful to address concerns and smoothen the work during the study year. The dissertation supervisor was very approachable and provided excellent guidance throughout the work of the dissertation.

Moreover, I found my extra-curricular learning was as equally fascinating and fruitful. For example, the Mason Institute seminars were particularly useful and provided a boost for the topics we encountered in the programme. This is in addition to many other useful courses that are provided by the University of Edinburgh for its students for free throughout the year.

If there is one thing I regret, it is not doing this programme earlier. Throughout this year, I felt like a member of the Medical Law and Ethics family. I enjoyed the learning opportunity as well as the company of the people on the programme. I think this LLM in Medical Law and Ethics at the University of Edinburgh is one of the best and it opens the door for future endeavours. As I return to my medical career in Oman, I see clearly how this programme has equipped me with new skills and ways of thinking that further enhance my professional work.

Gabriel studied the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in the academic year 2017-18, graduating in 2018.

"As a lawyer, I have been working on health issues in Chile for almost a decade, mainly in public institutions such as the Ministry of Health and the Superintendence of Health. This allowed me to understand the problems and challenges in the area of health, requiring a critical and multidisciplinary approach to face and resolve them.

I decided to study a Masters degree related to topics that could be applied to future challenges related to legal and ethical issues in the health area, which have a massive impact on the lives of all people and communities.

Through the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics at the University of Edinburgh, I was set on finding a multidisciplinary and critical approach to these subjects. In addition, I was interested in the more complex aspects of regulations on medicine and health, and the associated ethical problems beyond the purely legal approach.

Why this LLM at the University of Edinburgh? The LLM in Medical Law and Ethics covers all the relevant topics associated with this discipline, including contemporary problems, issues related to risks and regulation, the constant emergence of biotechnology, and the complex balance between governance and innovation in medicine. The University of Edinburgh is one of the best universities in the world according to international rankings and its programme has proven to be rigorous, continual and innovative. Plus, Edinburgh is one of the most beautiful cities in Europe and its people are wonderful.

My expectations for this post graduate degree programme were widely exceeded. The LLM perfectly combines the current aspects and challenges in the area of medical law with a broad view of its regulations and problems, and it incorporates complex argumentative tools and resources of ethical analysis. The professors play a fundamental role in providing a high level vision of the discipline and in students having a high level of participation in the intellectual exchange. As a result, the global and enriched vision allows programme participants to explore different problems in a sophisticated manner and in more depth than a mere aggregate of knowledge. This has been a great contribution in my current work regarding solving the health problems of the population and in an eventual reform of my country’s health system."

Please note that the information provided is for entry in the 2024-25 academic year and requirements for future academic years may differ.

This programme can be taken full time over one year, or part time over two years subject to visa restrictions.

Due to high demand, the school operates a number of selection deadlines. We will make a small number of offers to the most outstanding candidates on an ongoing basis, but hold the majority of applications until the next published selection deadline when we will offer a proportion of the places available to applicants selected through a competitive process.

We recommend that you apply as early as possible. This is particularly important for applicants who may need to allow sufficient time to take an English language test, for overseas students who may need time to satisfy necessary visa requirements and/or to apply for University accommodation.

We require a minimum 2:1 honours degree from a UK university, or its international equivalent, in law, politics, medicine, medical humanities, or life sciences. Entry to this programme is competitive. Meeting minimum requirements for consideration does not guarantee an offer of study.

Supporting your application

Relevant work experience is not required but may increase your chances of acceptance.
Relevant professional qualifications will be considered.
Preference will be given to those with grades above the minimum requirements due to strong competition for places on this programme.

International qualifications

You can check whether your degree qualification is equivalent to the minimum standard before applying.

Check your degree

Students from China

This degree is Band A.

Find out more about our postgraduate entry requirements for students from China

Postgraduate study in the field of law requires a thorough, complex and demanding knowledge of English, so we ask that the communication skills of all students are at the same minimum standard.

You must demonstrate a level of English language competency at a level that will enable you to succeed in your studies, regardless of your nationality or country of residence.

English language tests

We accept the following English language qualifications at the grades specified:

IELTS Academic and IELTS Academic Online : total 7.0 (at least 7.0 in the writing component and 6.5 in each other module)
TOEFL-iBT (including Special Home Edition): total 100 (at least 25 in writing and 23 in each other module)
C1 Advanced (CAE) / C2 Proficiency (CPE): total 185 (at least 185 in writing and 176 in in all other components)
Trinity ISE: ISE III with passes in all four components
PTE Academic: 70 overall with at least 70 in the writing component and 62 in each other component
Oxford ELLT (Global and Digital): 9 overall with at least 9 in the writing component and 8 in each other component.

Your English language qualification must be no more than three and a half years old from the start date of the programme you are applying to study, unless you are using IELTS, TOEFL, Trinity ISE or PTE, in which case it must be no more than two years old on the first of the month in which the degree begins.

Degrees taught and assessed in English

We also accept an undergraduate or postgraduate degree, that was taught and assessed in English in a majority English speaking country as defined by UK Visas and Immigration (UKVI). The UK Government's website provides a list of majority English speaking countries.

View the UKVI list of majority English speaking countries

We also accept an undergraduate or postgraduate degree, or equivalent, that has been taught and assessed in English from a university on our list of approved universities in non-majority English speaking countries.

Approved universities in non-majority English speaking countries

If you are not a national of a majority English speaking country, then your degree must be no more than five years old at the beginning of your programme of study.

View approved universities in non-majority English speaking countries

Your application may not be successful if you do not currently satisfy any of these requirements; alternatively, you may be offered a place conditional on your reaching the satisfactory standard by the time you start the degree.

Find out more about the University's English language requirements

Pre-sessional English for Academic Purposes

We also accept satisfactory completion of our English for Academic Purposes programme as meeting our English language requirements. You must complete the programme no more than two years and one month before the start date of the degree you are applying to study.

Find out more about the University's Pre-sessional English for Academic Purposes

English language support

The University runs a series of programmes for English Language Education, including a pre-sessional English Language Programme intended to strengthen your English Language skills before you start your programme of study.

Find out more about English language support offered by the University

Deadlines for applicants applying to study the LLM in Medical Law and Ethics in 2024-25 are provided in the table below.

We monitor application numbers carefully to ensure we are able to accommodate all those who receive offers. It may therefore be necessary to close a programme earlier than the published deadline and if this is the case we will place a four-week warning notice on the relevant programme page.

Please note that the deadline for meeting the conditions of an offer is 18 August 2024.

Applications are made online via the University Application Service, EUCLID.

Please follow the instructions carefully and make sure that you have included the following documentation with your application:

You will need to submit a personal statement of around 500 words, outlining your academic history and relevant experience. Guidance on writing your personal statement .
Degree certificates showing award of degree
Previous academic transcripts for all past degree programmes (please upload the full transcript showing results from all years of study)
A reference in support of your application. The reference should be academic and dated no earlier than one year from the start of study on the LLM programme
Evidence of English language proficiency, if required

If you are currently studying for your degree or you are not in a possession of an English test result you may still apply to the programme. Please note that it is your responsibility to submit the necessary documents.

Please be aware that applications must be submitted and complete, i.e. all required documents uploaded, by the relevant application deadline in order to be considered in that round. Your application will still be considered if you have not yet met the English language requirement for the programme.

View full detailed application guidance

Students at this University must not undertake any other concurrent credit bearing studies in this (or in any other) institution, unless the College has granted permission. The College must be satisfied that any additional credit-bearing studies will not restrict the student’s ability to complete their existing programme of study. Students will not be permitted to undertake concurrent degree programmes in any circumstances.

If you are studying at this or another institution just prior to the start of your postgraduate studies you must have finished these studies before the start of the programme to which you have an offer.

After your application has been submitted you will be able to track its progress through the University's applicant hub.

Application processing times will vary, however the admissions team will endeavour to process your application within four to six weeks of submission. Please note that missing documentation will delay the application process.

You will be informed as soon as possible of the decision taken. Three outcomes are possible:

You may be offered a place unconditionally
You may be offered a conditional place, which means that you must fulfil certain conditions that will be specified in the offer letter. Where a conditional offer is made, it is your responsibility to inform the College Postgraduate Office when you have fulfilled the requirements set out. Please note that the deadline for meeting the conditions of an offer is 18 August 2024.
Your application may be unsuccessful. If your application has not been successful, you can request feedback from us or refer to our guidance for unsuccessful applicants, which explains some of the common reasons we why we reach this decision. View the University's guidance for unsuccessful applicants

Deferring your offer

We do not normally offer deferrals, however, we may be able to make a very limited number of offers for deferred entry in exceptional circumstances.

View full guidance on deferral requests

The University’s terms and conditions form part of your contract with the University, and you should read them, and our data protection policy, carefully before applying.

University of Edinburgh admissions terms and conditions

Key information

Llm and msc programmes.

LLM in Medical Law and Ethics by online learning

Why Edinburgh Law School?

The Mason Institute for Medicine, Life Sciences and the Law

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Healthcare Dissertation Topics

Published by Carmen Troy at January 4th, 2023 , Revised On August 16, 2023

Health care education brings together the science and arts of medicine along with the practice of general education. Healthcare is an education program that is tremendously significant for humans and society.

Medicine, nursing, and all other related health care fields provide a substantial understanding of living beings, disease trends, treatment, treatment outcomes, functional abilities, disabilities, and much more.

The primary purpose of healthcare is to ensure people’s health, look after the patients, and provide information about health risks and their effects. Health care education provides knowledge and information about life and helps survival, to say the least.

We all rely on the health care system to get physically well and resume the mundane course of life after getting affected by a health risk.

Therefore, studying health care is of immense importance as it offers you the opportunity to serve humanity by looking after their health. If you are studying health care science, you will need to complete a dissertation to complete a degree and practice its laws and principles.

It is always a highly complex task to begin the dissertation or even find the motivation. Choosing the right topic can help you cross their mental barrier, however. Look at some of the potential healthcare dissertation topics mentioned below to take an idea for starting your dissertation.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an introduction to the problem, research question , aim and objectives, literature review , along with the proposed methodology of research to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our example dissertation to get an idea of how to structure your dissertation .

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2022 Healthcare Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: investigating the impact of household air pollution (hap) on the respiratory health of people and recommend measures of intervention.

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the impact of household air pollution (HAP) on the respiratory health of people and recommend measures of intervention

Objectives:

To analyse the contributors of HAP.
To determine the impact of harmful particulate matter on the respiratory health of people.
To suggest measure for controlling HAP through intervention with biomass fuels.

Topic 2: An assessment of the bioethics issues arising during medicine development and administration to patients and how ethics of public health can be improved

Research Aim: The research aims to conduct an assessment of the bioethics issues arising during medicine development and administration to patients and how ethics of public health can be improved

To analyse the bioethics challenges associated with medicine development and patent administration.
To examine the measures of improvement of ethics associated with public health.
To conduct an assessment of the bioethics issues arising during medicine development and administration to patients and how ethics of public health can be improved

Topic 3: Investigating the present global health security infrastructure and its capacity to detect and prevent the spread of infectious diseases. A case study of the outbreak of Covid-19.

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the present global health security infrastructure and its capacity to detect and prevent the spread of infectious diseases. A case study of the outbreak of Covid-19.

To analyse the concept of global health security.
To determine the current infrastructure of global health security and the position of WHO in detecting and preventing the spread of infectious diseases.
To investigate the effectiveness of the present global health security infrastructure in dealing with the Coviud-19 pandemic and recommendations for future scenarios.

Topic 4: Investigating the importance of vaccines and childhood nutrition on improving maternal and child health

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the importance of vaccines and childhood nutrition on improving maternal and child health

To determine the present challenges of material and child health and its significance in society.
To analyse the role of vaccines and childhood nutrition on safeguarding the health of the mother and child.
To recommend the measures to improve maternal and child health for ensuring wellbeing of the families with pre-natal and well-child care for infant and material mortality prevention.

Topic 5: An analysis of the risks of tobacco and second-hand smoke exposure on the cardiovascular health of people in the UK.

Research Aim: The research aims to conduct an analysis of the risks of tobacco and second-hand smoke exposure on the cardiovascular health of people in the UK.

To contextualise the risk factors of tobacco and second-hand smoke.
To determine the cardiovascular health impact of the people of the UK due to tobacco and second-hand smoke.
To recommend measures for reducing and minimising tobacco risks and prevent health impact due to passive smoke.

Topic. 1: COVID-19 and health care system:

Research aim: The prime focus of the research will be analysing the impact of COVID-19 on the health care system and how the health care system was able to handle the health emergency in different regions of the world. The research can pinpoint one location and study its health care system from the perspective of the COVID-19 outbreak.

Topic 2: UN health care policy and its implications

Research aim: UN has a major health department that oversees the health sector around the world. United Nations plays an important role in bringing sustainability in human life such physically, economically, and in so many other ways. The main goal of the research will be to understand and analyse the UN health care policy and identify to what extent it is improving health care systems around the world.

Topic 3: WHO's response to COVID-19:

Research aim: It is an undisputed argument that the World Health organisation was at the forefront when the tsunami of pandemics hit the world. From keeping people informed to ensure the formulation of vaccines, WHO’s role was comprehensive. The aim of the research is to identify how WHO responded to the outbreak and helped people stay protected. The research will critically analyse the plans that were formulated and executed in response to the covid-9.

Topic no.4: The spread of the variant during Olympics and Paralympics:

Research Aim: Olympics were called from July to August in 2021 in Tokyo, Japan, when delta variant had been engulfing lives around the world. While many people opposed the decision of arranging the Olympics, it ended up with flying colours. But it is said that due to the Olympics and Paralympics, in which athletes from all over the world participated, the delta variant transcended easily.

The aim of the research is to find out whether or not the Olympics and Paralympics helped the widespread of the delta variant.

Topic no. 5: The Covid-19 Vaccination drive and people's response:

Research Aim: There is a large proportion of people who are still unvaccinated against Covid-19 in the world. The aim of the research is to track the covid-19 vaccination drive around the world. The researcher will also find the key motivations behind their denial.

Topic no. 6: Poverty and its impact on childhood diseases:

Research aim: The aim of the research will be to find out the relationship between poverty and childhood diseases. The researcher can conduct quantitative research by finding out the figures of most affected childhood diseases and their financial data in the world.

Topic no. 7: The motivation towards a healthy:

Research Aim: By and large, it is said that people in a few regions in the world are more motivated towards attaining a healthy life than in other places. The purpose of the research is to find relative and varying motivations to live healthy around the world.

Topic 8: Health crisis in warzone countries

Research aim: Children and women are the most suffered creatures in the warzone areas of the world. The purpose of the research is to identify the health crisis of women and children in places where there is no rule of law.

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ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results , and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

Also Read: Medicine and Nursing Dissertation Topics

Topic 9: Scope of Health care research

Research aim: The research aims to identify and analyse the significance of health care research and its effects on humans and society. The researcher will identify the necessity of the study in the field and its overall impact.

Topic 10: The future of telemedicine

Research aim: Telemedicine refers to the use of technology to disseminate medical information, diagnose, or interact with a patient. Currently, it is gaining tremendous importance, especially due to the pandemic, but it is important to figure out how it will work out in the future.

The research aim of the research would be to find the significance of telemedicine and its prospects.

Topic 11: Controlling infectious diseases

Research aim: The research will aim to find out whether or not infectious diseases are difficult to deal with. The paper will identify all the elements responsible for making infectious diseases unstoppable. The researcher can make arguments in the context of the COVID-19.

Topic 12: Effective health care policies around the world

Research aim: Different countries have different health care systems with different policies around the world. The aim of the research will be to find out the most effective health care systems around the world. The research can incorporate both quantitive and qualitative methods for the study.

The researcher can pinpoint a respective area for the study—for example, the health care system of Nigeria, the United States, or South Asia etc.

Topic 13: Technology and health care system

Research aim: The advancements in technology have transformed all aspects of our life, and the health care system is no exception.

The main aim of the research will be to find out the impact of technology on the health care system.

Topic 14: Health care system in 2030

Research aim: The aim of the research will be to identify trends and forecast the future on their basis. The researcher will examine the health care system today and study the elements that may bring about change and may modify it in the future. The projections must base on evidence.

Topic 15: The emotional impacts of COVID-19

Research aim: The COVID-19 affected normal life significantly. People were locked in the homes, and the roads and streets were empty. In that perspective, it is significant to understand how(if it did) affected people emotionally.

The main aim of the research will be to find out how and to what extent COVID-19 affected people emotionally.

Topic 16: Beauty standards and how they impact the health of humans

Research aim: Neither being skinny is healthy, nor starvation is the solution to getting a perfect body shape. The standard beauty standards have persistently put social pressure on individuals to become as per se. Otherwise, they will be neglected or segregated. The research will aim to find out how people who try to meet the standard beauty standards affect their health.

Topic 17: Depression and anxiety in adults in developed countries

Research aim: Depression and anxiety are some common instances that occur to almost all people. It may apparently look like people in developed countries, having access to their basic needs, must not have anything to worry about. It might not be what looks from the outside. The research will measure the rate of increase or decrease in depression and anxiety in adults in developed countries and identify the key determining factors.

Topic 18: Creating awareness of Breast cancer in third world countries

Research aim: The aim of the research will be to identify why it is important to create awareness about breast cancer in third-world countries and identify how to do so.

Topic 19: Gene therapy for hemoglobinopathies

Research aim: Haemoglobinopathies are genetic problems that affect the structure or formation of haemoglobin. One recent research identifies gene therapy as a solution to the disorders. The research will aim to identify how effective gene therapy is and in what capacity it can be used in medicine in the future.

Topic 20: The unspoken problems of health care managemnt

Research aim: While it is so much it is stressed on ensuring the treatment of patients and advancing healthy life of humans in generals; there is a very little say about what problems, who are responsible for managing, may face. The research aims to identify the undiscussed problems faced by health care management to ensure a healthy life for people.

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To find healthcare dissertation topics:

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Explore patient perspectives.
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80 Medical Law and Ethics Research Topics

FacebookXEmailWhatsAppRedditPinterestLinkedInFor students embarking on the arduous academic research journey, the quest for compelling and thought-provoking topics is akin to setting sail in uncharted waters. As the tides of academia ebb and flow, selecting suitable research topics becomes ever more critical, particularly in Medical Law and Ethics. Whether you are an aspiring undergraduate, a seasoned master’s […]

For students embarking on the arduous academic research journey, the quest for compelling and thought-provoking topics is akin to setting sail in uncharted waters. As the tides of academia ebb and flow, selecting suitable research topics becomes ever more critical, particularly in Medical Law and Ethics. Whether you are an aspiring undergraduate, a seasoned master’s candidate, or a doctoral scholar poised on the precipice of discovery, the world of medical law and ethics research topics awaits your exploration. This blog post will guide you through the possibilities, offering a treasure trove of ideas to fuel your thesis or dissertation journey. The path to scholarly excellence begins with carefully selecting research topics, and we’re here to light the way.

Medical Law and Ethics, often referred to as “Healthcare Law and Ethics,” “Medical Ethics,” and “Bioethical Regulations.”, constitute an interdisciplinary field that scrutinizes the intricate relationship between medicine, law, and ethical principles. It is the study of legal standards, regulations, and moral dilemmas that permeate the healthcare industry.

A List Of Potential Research Topics In Medical Law and Ethics:

Organ transplantation and allocation: a review of ethical dilemmas and policy reforms.
Euthanasia and assisted suicide: a comparative review of laws and ethics worldwide.
Exploring the rights of minors in medical decision-making and the role of parental consent.
Investigating the role of medical ethics in the allocation of NHS resources.
Assessing the ethical considerations of pediatric medical research and child assent.
Exploring the legal challenges surrounding genetic testing and discrimination in healthcare.
Investigating the legal and ethical dimensions of medical cannabis and marijuana use.
Analyzing the ethical challenges of fetal surgery and prenatal interventions.
Advance directives and end-of-life decision-making: a review of legal and ethical perspectives.
Medical tourism: A review of patient rights, quality of care, and legal remedies.
Assessing the ethics of human challenge trials in vaccine development.
Analyzing the legal and ethical dimensions of medical tourism advertising and marketing.
Assessing the ethical challenges of genome sequencing in newborn screening.
Investigating the role of data privacy in contact tracing and public health surveillance.
Analyzing the legal and ethical implications of human cloning and reproductive cloning.
Investigating the legal and ethical aspects of Mental Capacity Act assessments.
Analyzing the legal frameworks for euthanasia and physician-assisted death.
Investigating the legal and ethical aspects of non-disclosure agreements in medical malpractice cases.
Ethical considerations in global health: a review of healthcare equity, access, and responsibility.
Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on medical malpractice lawsuits and liability.
Analyzing the legal frameworks for organ donation and transplantation in the UK.
Informed consent in medical research and microfinance : Ethical considerations and legal frameworks.
Patient confidentiality in healthcare and business law: Balancing legal obligations
Analyzing the legal and ethical dimensions of assisted dying legislation in the UK.
Telemedicine and telehealth: a review of legal and ethical implications in modern healthcare.
Assessing the ethical considerations of “Vaccine passports” and digital health certificates.
Exploring the role of medical ethics in end-of-life care decision-making in the UK.
Healthcare resource allocation in a pandemic: a review of ethical frameworks and case studies.
Examining the impact of Brexit on cross-border healthcare in the UK.
Examining the impact of pandemic-related emergency powers on civil liberties and medical ethics.
Analyzing the impact of religious beliefs on medical decision-making and patient autonomy.
Evaluating the legal and ethical implications of AI and machine learning in medical decision-making.
A critical review of the ethical implications of gene editing and designer babies.
Assessing the ethical considerations of genetic privacy and genetic discrimination.
Assessing the ethical considerations of mandatory vaccination policies.
Examining the impact of AI-powered chatbots in patient communication and informed consent.
Exploring the rights and responsibilities of healthcare providers in the age of medical AI.
Exploring the role of ethics committees in hospital decision-making.
Exploring the role of medical ethics in resource-scarce environments and global health.
Medical data privacy and security: a review of regulatory frameworks and emerging technologies.
Analyzing the ethical challenges of resource allocation during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Medical research ethics: a review of contemporary debates in human subjects protection.
Assessing the legal and ethical implications of human enhancement technologies in medicine.
Pharmaceutical industry ethics: a review of drug pricing, marketing, and clinical trials.
Investigating the role of artificial intelligence in medical diagnostics and treatment recommendations.
Assessing the ethical considerations of human microbiome research and manipulation.
Examining the legal frameworks for organ transplant allocation and its ethical implications.
Examining the legal and ethical aspects of drug testing in athletics and sports medicine.
Assessing the legal and ethical challenges of medical tourism.
Examining the impact of data privacy laws on medical data sharing and research.
Examining the role of ethics consultation services in healthcare institutions.
The role of artificial intelligence in medical diagnostics: a review of legal and ethical challenges.
Examining the role of ethical guidelines in resource allocation during healthcare crises.
Assessing the ethics of organ trafficking and organ trade.
Analyzing the legal and ethical dimensions of COVID-19 treatment rationing.
Analyzing the impact of telemedicine on patient privacy and informed consent in medical practice.
Investigating the legal and ethical issues surrounding access to experimental treatments.
Assessing the ethics of covid-19 vaccination policies in the UK.
Patient confidentiality in healthcare and business law : Balancing legal obligations.
A comprehensive review of informed consent in medical research: recent developments and ethical challenges.
Investigating the role of medical ethics committees in resolving end-of-life dilemmas.
Analyzing the legal and ethical implications of physician-patient confidentiality in the digital age.
Medical malpractice lawsuits: a review of recent cases and trends in legal liability.
Assessing the ethics of vaccine distribution equity during the COVID-19 crisis.
Assessing the impact of medical error disclosure and apology laws on patient outcomes.
Investigating the legal and ethical aspects of mental health care and involuntary commitment.
The role of medical ethics committees: a review of their effectiveness and decision-making processes.
Analyzing the legal and ethical implications of medical malpractice insurance.
Analyzing the role of informed consent in medical experiments and clinical trials.
Exploring the legal and ethical aspects of telehealth regulation post-covid-19.
Analyzing the legal frameworks for assisted reproductive technologies and surrogacy.
Disability rights and healthcare: a review of legal protections and ethical considerations.
Medical ethics and environmental health: a review of ethical considerations in addressing climate change and health equity.
Exploring the intersection of medical ethics and environmental health concerns.
Examining the impact of medical negligence laws on healthcare quality and accountability.
Legal and ethical issues in pediatric healthcare: a review of current debates and policies.
Investigating the rights of healthcare workers in the context of COVID-19.
Investigating the rights and protections of medical whistleblowers.
Analyzing the ethical and legal dimensions of medical research involving vulnerable populations.
Exploring the legal and ethical issues surrounding end-of-life care for minors.

In the ever-evolving healthcare landscape, the significance of research topics in Medical Law and Ethics cannot be overstated. For undergraduates, these topics serve as the foundation for exploring ethical quandaries and legal intricacies. Masters candidates delve deeper, contributing to the discourse, while doctoral scholars blaze new trails of knowledge. Remember, your journey starts with a well-chosen research topic. As you embark on this scholarly voyage, may your inquiries be incisive, your insights profound, and your contributions to Medical Law and Ethics genuinely remarkable. Happy researching!

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LLM Healthcare Ethics and Law

Year of entry: 2024

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We require a UK bachelor's degree with a First or Upper Second (2.1) classification or the overseas equivalent in Law. Candidates should demonstrate a strong background in Law modules relevant to the course, including Public Law and Contract Law and achieve scores of 2.1 or above in relevant modules.

When assessing your academic record, we consider the grades you have achieved and the standing of the institution where you studied your qualification.

Full entry requirements

Apply online

If you would like to study this course 100% online, please check out the Healthcare Ethics and Law online learning page.

Course options

Course overview.

Develop your knowledge of medical law, and how medical law is shaped by ethical arguments and concerns.
Take a course that is both flexible and interdisciplinary, and comes with a solid legal component.
Apply bioethical and legal theory to real-world scenarios.

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These are an opportunity to find out about the course, meet students and staff, and tour the campus and facilities.

If you receive an offer, we will invite you to a visit day where you learn about the School, teaching and learning, study opportunities and student life.

For entry in the academic year beginning September 2024, the tuition fees are as follows:

LLM (full-time) UK students (per annum): £15,500 International, including EU, students (per annum): £28,500
LLM (part-time) UK students (per annum): £7,750 International, including EU, students (per annum): £14,250
LLM (part-time distance learning) UK students (per annum): £13,000 International, including EU, students (per annum): £25,000

Further information for EU students can be found on our dedicated EU page.

The fees quoted above will be fully inclusive for the course tuition, administration and computational costs during your studies.

All fees for entry will be subject to yearly review and incremental rises per annum are also likely over the duration of courses lasting more than a year for UK/EU students (fees are typically fixed for International students, for the course duration at the year of entry). For general fees information please visit: postgraduate fees . Always contact the department if you are unsure which fee applies to your qualification award and method of attendance.

Self-funded international applicants for this course will be required to pay a deposit of £1000 towards their tuition fees before a confirmation of acceptance for studies (CAS) is issued. This deposit will only be refunded if immigration permission is refused. We will notify you about how and when to make this payment.

Policy on additional costs

All students should normally be able to complete their programme of study without incurring additional study costs over and above the tuition fee for that programme. Any unavoidable additional compulsory costs totalling more than 1% of the annual home undergraduate fee per annum, regardless of whether the programme in question is undergraduate or postgraduate taught, will be made clear to you at the point of application. Further information can be found in the University's Policy on additional costs incurred by students on undergraduate and postgraduate taught programmes (PDF document, 91KB).

Scholarships/sponsorships

Manchester Alumni Scholarship Scheme

The Manchester Alumni Scholarship Scheme offers a £3,000 reduction in tuition fees to University of Manchester alumni who achieved a first-class bachelor's degree and are progressing to a postgraduate taught master's course.

Manchester Humanities International Excellence Scholarship

The University of Manchester is proud to offer scholarship awards to exceptional international students.

Manchester Master's Bursary

The University of Manchester is committed to widening participation in master's study and allocates 75 awards of £4,000 each year.

Postgraduate loans for master's students

If you're coming to Manchester this year to begin postgraduate study, you could qualify for a loan from the UK government.

For more information on our awards, see fees and funding or search the University's postgraduate funding database .

Commonwealth Scholarships and Fellowships Plan (CSFP) General Scholarship

Contact details

See: School Subjects

Courses in related subject areas

Use the links below to view lists of courses in related subject areas.

Entry requirements

Academic entry qualification overview, english language.

Applicants whose first language is not English should meet the following language requirements:

IELTS Academic test score of 7 overall, including 7 in writing with no further component score below 6.5
TOEFL IBT 100 with 25 in writing and no further score below 22 in each section. TOEFL code for Manchester is 0757
Pearson Test of English (PTE) score of 76 overall, with 76 in writing and no further score below 70

Pre-Sessional English Courses

We will consider applicants who do not meet these scores but you may be required to complete a pre-sessional English language course at the University of Manchester prior to the start of the course.

To be considered for a pre-sessional English language course for this programme we require the following minimum IELTS (Academic) scores:

6 Week Pre-Sessional Course : IELTS 6.5 overall with 6.5 in writing and no more than one sub-skill of 6.0.

10 Week Pre-sessional Course : IELTS 6.0 overall with 6.0 or above in each sub-skill

If you have not yet completed your current academic study and are interested in studying a pre-sessional course, you must hold an IELTS for UKVI (Academic) test certificate to ensure that you are eligible for a separate visa for the English language course.

English language test validity

Some English Language test results are only valid for two years. Your English Language test report must be valid on the start date of the course.

Applicants from Majority English-speaking countries

If you are a national of a majority English-speaking country (or have studied for a full bachelor's degree or higher from one of these countries) you may be exempt from submitting further evidence of English language proficiency.

Other international entry requirements

We accept a range of qualifications from across the globe. To help international students, the university provides specific information for many individual countries. Please see our country-specific information page for guidance on the academic and English language qualifications which may be accepted from your country.

Application and selection

How to apply, advice to applicants.

As there is a high demand for our courses we operate a staged admissions process with selection deadlines throughout the year. Due to the competition for places and high quality of applications that we receive, we give preference to students from high ranking institutions and with grades above our minimum entry requirements.

Please ensure you submit all supporting documentation with your application before the application deadline to avoid a delay in processing.

Applications for 2024 entry:

Stage 1: Application received by 8th December 2023 ; Application update by 22nd February 2024

Stage 2: Application received by 3rd March 2024 ; Application update by 25th April 2024

Stage 3: Application received by 5th May 2024 ; Application update by 8th June 2024

Stage 4: Application received by 1st July 2024 ; Application update by 25th July 2024

Whilst we aim to give you a decision on your application by the deadline date, in some instances due to the competition for places and the volume of applications received, it may be necessary to roll your application forward to the next deadline date.

Applications received after our final selection deadline will be considered at our discretion if places are still available.

Please note: All places are subject to availability and if you apply at one of the later stages, some courses may already be reaching capacity or be closed to further applications. We, therefore, recommend that you apply early in the cycle to avoid disappointment.

If you are successful in receiving an offer, you will be required to pay a tuition fee deposit of £1,000 by the deadline stated in your offer letter to confirm your place. We ask for the deposit as competition for places is high and there is limited availability. The deposit amount is then deducted from your tuition fees when you register on the course.

Re-applications

Course details, course description.

The LLM in Healthcare Ethics and Law provides high-quality education in healthcare ethics and healthcare law. There is an emphasis on the application of bioethical and legal theory to real-world scenarios, catering to the practical needs of healthcare and legal professionals and those in related fields.

You will study a wide variety of ethical and legal subjects including:

refusal of treatment;
confidentiality;
the moral status of the foetus;
resource allocation;
genetic testing;
HIV testing;
medical malpractice;
clinical negligence;
organ and tissue transplantation;
fertility treatment;
genetic manipulation;
research ethics;
stem cell research;
euthanasia.

This course requires the study of both ethics and law, but with a bias towards law in the taught units. On the distance learning course, all options taken must be law-based. On the campus-based course, the majority of options should be law-based.

This course will allow you to develop an expert knowledge and understanding of bioethical and medico-legal theories, and the skills needed to apply them to real world scenarios in a diverse range of contexts.

You will also develop the ethical and medico-legal knowledge and research skills required for writing a master's level dissertation, and will be well prepared for further research if you so desire.

Teaching and learning

Teaching tends to defy the traditional boundaries associated with lectures and seminars.

Generally, each class in a course unit has a duration of two or three hours per week, and is split roughly between a formal, didactic period and a structured discussion period (most often based on the so-called, challenge-response model).

Nevertheless, each class is considered a seminar or lecture, and attendance of all classes of a course unit for which you are enrolled is compulsory. For course units of 15 credit value, there will generally be 15 hours of face-to-face teaching throughout the semester in which the unit is delivered, and twice that amount for 30 credit units.

Coursework and assessment

Assessment of all taught course units (to a total of 120 credits) is assessed by coursework in the form of 4,000-word essays per 15 credit course unit and up to 6,000 words for the two 30 credit core course units.

In addition, to complete the LLM, you must submit a 10,000-12,000 word dissertation by independent research (60 credits); no dissertation is required for the PGDip or PGCert. Part-time students undertake a supervised dissertation in the summer months of Year 2. Please note that if you are on the part-time route, you can extend your registration for an extra three months to submit your dissertations in December of Year 2, instead of September (you will be advised of the exact date in Year 2).

If you do not successfully complete the MA, you may be considered for the award of the Postgraduate Diploma.

If you do not successfully complete the Postgraduate Diploma, you may be considered for the award of the Postgraduate Certificate.

The awards of the MA or Postgraduate Diploma are classified according to pass, merit and distinction. The Postgraduate Certificate is awarded unclassified.

Course unit details

You will be required to complete 180 credits:

120 credits comprised of taught course units (each of 15 or 30 credit value);
and an independent research element worth 60 credits. This will be a 12,000-15,000-word dissertation, which is undertaken over the summer months of the course. The dissertation should be predominantly law-based.

On the full-time course, the 120 taught credits can be split in one of two ways:

60 credits in each of the two semesters;
or 75 credits in semester one and 45 credits in semester two.

If you are registered on the LLM Healthcare Ethics and Law course, you would need to select a majority of your optional course units from the law list (Mental Health Law and Policy; Medicine, Law and Society; Children, Medicine and the Law). Global Health Law and Bioethics can count as an ethics or law course.

Course unit list

The course unit details given below are subject to change, and are the latest example of the curriculum available on this course of study.

Scholarships and bursaries

Manchester Alumni Scholarship Scheme:

Manchester Humanities International Excellence Scholarship:

The University of Manchester is proud to offer scholarship awards to exceptional international students commencing their postgraduate studies across subjects in its Faculty of Humanities from September 2022

Manchester Master's Bursary:

For more information on our awards, see fees and funding or search the University's postgraduate funding database .

What our students say

At The University of Manchester Law School, you are supported by the first-class resources you would expect of a top law school.

In addition to the networked study spaces at the Williamson Building, you can access a specialist moot courtroom, enabling future legal minds to hone your debating skills in a realistic court setting.

You also have access to The University of Manchester Library , which houses a substantial collection of law books and periodicals, as well as texts to support you.

Disability support

Career opportunities.

Successful graduates are able to progress within a wide variety of roles in the Medical, Legal and Ethical fields.

Graduates from previous years have, for example, proceeded to specialise in Medico-Legal practice and academic careers, and the degrees have enhanced the careers of health care professionals.

The University has its own dedicated Careers Service that you would have full access to as a student and for two years after you graduate. At Manchester you will have access to a number of opportunities to help boost your employability .

LLM Health, Law and Society

At a critical time in history, our LLM in Health, Law and Society presents an exciting opportunity for you to develop a deep understanding of the relationships between law, governance and health across society and governmental sectors. There is a growing demand for lawyers with the knowledge and skills to approach some of the greatest challenges for law and policy as mechanisms to address health and wellbeing.

The LLM in Health, Law, and Society has been well received as a distinctive course that goes far beyond traditional courses in healthcare law. It offers an in-depth, intensive study of wide-ranging issues from health inequalities and regulation of the body to reproductive justice and mental health and wellbeing. It also explores the diverse roles social and political institutions and emerging technologies, such as healthtech, can play.

Choosing this LLM means you will be challenged and inspired by world-leading academics dedicated to progressive and innovative thinking in health law and governance - with those teaching the course belonging to the Law School's Centre for Health, Law, and Society. The intellectually demanding, research-rich curriculum will allow you to demonstrate excellent legal, analytical and research skills and be empowered to pursue top-flight careers in a variety of fields.

This course has particular appeal for those looking to work in areas such as healthcare regulation, with NGOs and other agencies, or in legal/policy research. Find out how you can do more with law at the University of Bristol Law School.

On demand academic talks

Hear directly from an academic giving you a deeper insight into this programme.

Programme structure

We have a large and vibrant international community and University of Bristol LLM students benefit from small class sizes taught by world-leading experts. The LLM in Health, Law and Society provides an exciting range of units that reflect the expertise of our globally-renowned academics and an opportunity to further specialise your degree.

You will take four units (120 credit points overall, 30 credit points each) and a compulsory dissertation (60 credit points). You will take units in Health Inequalities, Law and Society and Law, Governance, and Health, and at least one optional unit linked to the Health, Law and Society programme. You may also take a further Health Law unit or one chosen from the LLM programmes more widely (not all units from the wider LLM programme are available to non-Law graduates).

Visit our programme catalogue for full details of the structure and unit content for our LLM in Health, Law and Society.

World-leading research

The University of Bristol is ranked fifth for research in the UK ( Times Higher Education ).

94% of our research assessed as world-leading or internationally excellent.

Entry requirements

An upper second-class honours degree or international equivalent in Law or a related discipline (such as History, Philosophy, Politics or Policy Studies). Degrees in Health Care or Health Sciences (such as Medicine and Nursing) and related streams will be considered on a case-by-case basis.

For applicants who are currently completing a degree, we understand that their final grade may be higher than the interim grades or module/unit grades they achieve during their studies.

We will consider applicants whose interim grades are currently slightly lower than the programme's entry requirements. We may make these applicants an aspirational offer. This offer would be at the standard level, so the applicant would need to achieve the standard entry requirements by the end of their degree.

We will consider applicants whose grades are slightly lower than the programme's entry requirements, if they have at least one of the following:

evidence of significant, relevant work experience;
a relevant postgraduate qualification.

If this is the case, applicants should include their CV (curriculum vitae / résumé) when they apply, showing details of their relevant work experience and/or qualifications.

See international equivalent qualifications on the International Office website.

Read the programme admissions statement for important information on entry requirements, the application process and supporting documents required.

If English is not your first language, you will need to reach the requirements outlined in our profile level B.

Further information about English language requirements and profile levels .

Fees and funding

Fees are subject to an annual review. For programmes that last longer than one year, please budget for up to an 8% increase in fees each year.

More about tuition fees, living costs and financial support .

Alumni discount

University of Bristol students and graduates can benefit from a 25% reduction in tuition fees for postgraduate study. Check your eligibility for an alumni discount.

Funding for 2024/25

Information about funding and scholarships can be found on the University of Bristol Law School fees and funding webpages . This includes information about the Law School's Think Big about Global Justice Scholarships , open to international postgraduate students.

Further information on funding for prospective UK and international postgraduate students.

Career prospects

Graduating from Bristol will open doors for careers in a variety of sectors. Suitable for graduates in law, medical and related streams, this LLM will help:

develop and deepen understanding of health, law, and society,
build transferable skills,
provide a springboard into a diverse range of careers,
boost the prospects for those already working in related fields,
provide a solid first step towards a research career.

Please visit our careers and employability webpage for more information about the additional opportunities we provide.

How to apply

Apply via our online application system. For further information, please see the guidance for how to apply on our webpages.

Overseas applicants: 24 July 2024. Home applicants: 9 August 2024.

Please note that due to high demand, some programmes may close earlier than advertised. Early applications are advised to avoid disappointment. Places are limited and allocated on a continuous basis from September 2023 until all places are filled.

Faculty of Social Sciences and Law

University of Bristol Law School

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Digital Commons @ USF > College of Public Health > Public Health Practice > Theses and Dissertations

Public Health Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Needs Assessment for a Web-Based Support Resource for Patients with a Pathogenic Variant in LMNA , Dylan M. Allen

Evaluation of a Story-telling Approach to Educate Minority Populations About Inherited Cancer , Celestyn B. Angot

Using the Genetic Counseling Skills Checklist to Characterize Prenatal Genetic Counseling , David A. Cline

Reframing Resistance, Resilience, and Racial Equity in Maternal Health: A Mixed Methods Exploration of Paternal Involvement and the Racial Disparity in Severe Maternal Morbidity , Marshara G. Fross

Student Perceptions of the Nonmedical Use of Prescription Stimulants and Preferences for Health Education , Ana Gutierrez

Relationships between Leading and Trailing Indicators at Construction Sites in Yanbu Industrial City, Saudi Arabia , Anas H. Halloul

Variability of Air Sampling Results Using Air-O-Cell Cassettes , Christina M. Haworth

Use of Silica Dust and Lunar Simulants for Assessing Lunar Regolith Exposure , Layzamarie Irizarry-Colon

The Aging Workforce: How it Relates to Incident Rates within a Distribution Warehouse and a Chemical Manufacturing Building , Elisabeth V. Jones

Fuzzy KC Clustering Imputation for Missing Not At Random Data , Markku A. Malmi Jr.

Piloting a Spanish-language Web-based Tool for Hereditary Cancer Genetic Testing , Gretter Manso

Development of a ddPCR Multiplex to Measure the Immune Response to Borrelia burgdorferi. , Kailey Marie McCain

A Healthcare Claims Investigation of Parasomnia Epidemiology, Associations with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Correlates , Anh Thy Ha Nguyen

Diet and Salivary Microbiome on Cardiovascular Risk and Glycemic Control in Participants with and without Type 1 Diabetes: The CACTI Study , Tiantian Pang

Evaluation of Two Methods to Estimate Wet Bulb Globe Temperature from Heat Index , Stephi Pofanl

Intimate Conversations: A Mixed-Methods Study of African American Father-Adolescent Sexual Risk Communication , Shanda A. Vereen

Assessment of ISO Heart Rate Method to Estimate Metabolic Rate , Karl Williams

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Outcomes of a Periodic Exposure Assessment of Workers at a University Campus , Logan M. Armagast

Evaluating the Effect of Public Health Governance Structure and Public Opinion on COVID-19 Disease Control Interventions , Daniel Chacreton

Alpha Synuclein: A therapeutic target and biomarker for Parkinson’s Disease , Max Chase

A Study of Noise Exposures for Amusement Park Employees by Positions and Ride Categories , Danielle M. Dao

Bayesian Network-based Diagnostic Support Tool with Limited Point-of-Care Ultrasound for Work-related Elbow Injuries , Cristina Maria Franceschini Sánchez

Host-Pathogen Coevolution Between Tasmanian Devils (Sarcophilus harrisii) and Devil Facial Tumor Disease , Dylan Garret Gallinson

Measurements of Generalizability and Adjustment for Bias in Clinical Trials , Yuanyuan Lu

Examining the Relationship between Racial Respect among Black Early Childhood Professionals and their Perceptions of Black Children , Kayla Nembhard

Etiology of sterile intra-amniotic inflammation: An exploratory study , Zoe M. Taylor

Evaluating and Improving a Novel Toolkit for Implementation and Optimization of Lynch Syndrome Universal Tumor Screening , Tara M. Wolfinger

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Exploring Adult Attachment in Intimate Relationships among Women who Were Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence in Childhood: A Convergent Mixed Methods Approach , Ngozichukwuka C. Agu

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Disinfectant-Impregnated Wipes Versus Detergent Wipes for Surface Decontamination , Jacob Amadin

Limited Point of Care Ultrasound Clinical Decision Support Model for Work-related Injuries of the Shoulder Utilizing Bayesian Network , Gwen Marie Ayers

Synthesis of a Multimodal Ecological Model for Scalable, High-Resolution Arboviral Risk Prediction in Florida , Sean P. Beeman

Feasibility of a Virtual Group Nutrition Intervention for Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder , Acadia W. Buro

Defining Codes Based on the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research in the Context of the Implementing Universal Lynch Syndrome Screening , Jasmine A. Burton-Akright

Americans’ Familiarity, Interest, and Actions with Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing , Riley L. Carroll

Does Better A1C Control Worsen Osteoarthritis? An Electronic Health Record Cross-Sectional Study , Sarah C. Cattaneo

Analysis of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Gene Expression Profiles in a Prospective, Community-based Cohort , Jan Dahrendorff

Differential Privacy for Regression Modeling in Health: An Evaluation of Algorithms , Joseph Ficek

Does Time-Weighted Averaging for WBGT and Metabolic Rate Work for Work-Recovery Cycles? , John W. Flach

Screening of Pregnant Women with Opioid Use Disorder: Identifying Factors Impacting Implementation of Screening Recommendations Using the Theoretical Domains Framework , Tara R. Foti

Epigenetic Potential in an Introduced Passerine , Haley E. Hanson

Face Mask Use to Protect Against COVID-19; Importance of Substrate, Fit, and User Tendencies , Evelyn Kassel

Novel Educational Material for Patients with a Variant of Uncertain Significance (VUS) in a Cancer Risk Gene , Meghan E. Kelley

Mechanisms and Mitigation: Effects of Light Pollution on West Nile Virus Dynamics , Meredith E. Kernbach

Seasonality in Competence to Transmit West Nile Virus for a Widespread Reservoir , Kyle L. Koller

Mealtimes in Early Childhood Education Centers During COVID-19: A Mixed-Methods Assessment of Responsibilities, Interactions, and Best Practices , Joanna Mackie

Development and Validation of an Isothermal Amplification Assay for Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus , Mikayla D. Maddison

Evaluating the Development and Implementation of Campus-based Sexual and Interpersonal Violence Prevention Programming , Robyn Manning-Samuels

Bait-and-Kill: Targeting a Novel Heme Biochemical Pathway in Hundreds of Cancers , Christopher G. Marinescu

Acclimatization Protocols and Their Outcomes , Ayub M. Odera

Promoting HPV vaccination with vaccine-hesitant parents using social media: a formative research mixed-method study , Silvia Sommariva

Sleep Diagnoses and Low Back Pain in U.S. Military Veterans , Kenneth A. Taylor

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Journey Mapping the Minority Student’s Path Toward Genetic Counseling: A Holistic Picture , Tatiana E. Alvarado-Wing

Using Observations from the UAW-Ford Ergonomic Assessment Tool to Predict Distal Upper Extremity Musculoskeletal Disorders , Zachariah T. Brandes-Powell

Do Similar Exposure Groups (SEG) differ from Air Force base to Air Force base? A Combat Arms Training and Maintenance (CATM) noise exposure comparison of Moody AFB and MacDill AFB. , Miriam F. Escobar

Predictors of Premature Discontinuation from Behavioral Health Services: A Mixed Methods Study Guided by the Andersen & Newman Model of Health Care Utilization , Shawna M. Green

Non-invasive Sex Determination and Genotyping of Transgenic Brugia malayi Larvae , Santiago E. Hernandez Bojorge

Does Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Increases the Risk of Preeclampsia Among Primigravid Women? , Astha Kakkad

Evaluating Effects of Cancer Genetic Counseling on Several Brief Patient Impact Measures , Alyson Kneusel

Impact of Heat-Related Illness and Natural Environments on Behavioral Health Related Emergency and Hospital Utilization in Florida , Natasha Kurji

The Quantification of Heavy Metals in Infant Formulas Offered by the Florida WIC Program , Naya Martin

Differences in Knowledge Acquisition, Perceived Engagement and Self-Efficacy in Latino Promotores Delivering the Heart Disease Prevention Program Su Corazόn, Su Vida , Samuel Matos-Bastidas

Spatial and Temporal Determinants Associated with Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Activity in Florida , Kristi M. Miley

Using Observations from the UAW-Ford Ergonomic Assessment Tool to Predict Low Back Musculoskeletal Disorders , Colins Nwafor

On the Importance of Context: Examining the Applicability of Infertility Insurance Mandates in the United States Using a Mixed-Methods Study Design , Nathanael B. Stanley

Exploration of Factors Associated with Perceptions of Community Safety among Youth in Hillsborough County, Florida: A Convergent Parallel Mixed-Methods Approach , Yingwei Yang

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

The Ability of the U.S. Military’s WBGT-based Flag System to Recommend Safe Heat Stress Exposures , David R. Almario

The Relationship between Continuous Glucose Monitor (CGM) Derived Metrics and Indices of Glycemic Control , Ryan Bailey

“Man plans but ultimately, God decides”: A Phenomenological Investigation of the Contextual Family Planning Beliefs of Recently Resettled Congolese Refugee Women in West Central Florida. , Linda Bomboka Wilson

‘If He Hits Me, Is That Love? I Don’t Think So’: An Ethnographic Investigation of the Multi-Level Influences Shaping Indigenous Women’s Decision-Making Around Intimate Partner Violence in the Rural Peruvian Andes , Isabella Li Chan

An Assessment of the Role of Florida Pharmacists in the Administration of Inactivated Influenza Vaccine to Pregnant Women , Oluyemisi O. Falope

Epidemiological Analysis of Malaria Decrease in El Salvador from 1955 until 2017 , Tatiana I. Gardellini Guevara

Self-Collected Sampling Methods for Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Screening Among College Women: Exploring Patient-Centered Intervention Characteristics , Stacey B. Griner

The Relationship Between Hand and Wrist Musculoskeletal Disorders and Hand Activity and Posture , Warren M. Henry

Speeding Diagnosis and Saving Money Using Point of Care Ultrasound Rather Than MRI for Work-related MSK Injuries , Jared A. Jeffries

Mitigating Barriers to Chronic Disease Risk Factor Prevention and Management in Disadvantaged Communities , Krys M. Johnson

Comparing Family Sharing Behaviors in BRCA Carriers with PALB2 Carriers , Joy E. Kechik

Investigating Air Pollution and Equity Impacts of a Proposed Transportation Improvement Program for Tampa , Talha Kemal Kocak

Exploring Young Women’s Choice to Initiate Use of Long-acting Reversible Contraception: A Mixed Methods Approach , Helen Mahony

Evaluation of Clinical Practices and Needs about Variants of Uncertain Significance Results in Inherited Cardiac Arrhythmia and Inherited Cardiomyopathy Genes , Reka D. Muller

Effects of Medications with Anticholinergic Properties and Opioids on Cognitive Function and Neural Volumetric Changes in Elderly Australians , Malinee Neelamegam

Sundaas Story: A Mixed-Methods Study of Household Sanitation Provisioning in Urban Informal Housing in India , Sarita Vijay Panchang

A Retrospective Study of the Opioid Epidemic and Fentanyl Related Overdose Fatality Cases in a Florida West Coast Medical Examiner District Population , Anne Terese Powell

Using Predicted Heat Strain to Evaluate Sustainable Exposures , Samantha L. Thacker

Isokinetic Sampling Efficiency Differences for Blunt Edge vs Sharp Edge Sampling Probes , Cory A. Treloar

Using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research to Investigate Daily Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (emtricitabine/tenofovir DF) Implementation via Community-based HIV Testing Sites in Florida , Deanne E. Turner

“We can learn some things from them, but they can learn some things from us too”: Intergenerational Perceptions of Shared Infant Feeding Information , Alexis L. Woods Barr

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Comparison of Modeled and Measured Pesticide Concentrations in Air , Trenell Davis Boggans

Effectiveness of Biocide Substitution and Management Plan Implementation for the Control of , Adelmarie Bones

Design, Construction, and Characterization of the University of South Florida Wind Tunnel , Jason S. Garcia

Characterization of Scanning Mobility Particle Sizers For Use With Nanoaerosols , Michael R. Henderson

Validation of the Thermal Work Limit (TWL) Against Known Heat Stress Exposures , Danielle L. Kapanowski

Validation of a New Concept for Measuring Respirable Dusts , Xiao Liu

Occupational Noise Exposure Evaluation of Airline Ramp Workers , Adekunle Ogunyemi

Reduction in Needlestick Injuries Using a Novel Package of Interventions , Kamal Thakor Patel

Ability of the ISO Predicted Heat Strain Method to Predict a Limiting Heat Stress Exposure , Edgar Prieto

Developing the Evidence Base for Mental Health Policy and Services: Inquiries into Epidemiology, Cost-Benefits, and Utilization , Joseph L. Smith

Occupational Sharps Injuries in Medical Trainees at the University of South Florida: A Follow-up Study , Kourtni L. Starkey

Particles in Welding Fumes , Rebecca T. Williams

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

The Effects of Maternal Folate on Fetal Brain and Body Size among Smoking Mothers , Korede K. Adegoke

The Influence of Tropical Forests and Climate Change on the Fates of Select Organic Pollutants in a Jamaican Watershed , Kayon Barrett

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Referencing guides

Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'International public health law'

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Consult the top 50 dissertations / theses for your research on the topic 'International public health law.'

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Li, Phoebe Hung. "Revisiting public health emergency in international law : a precautionary approach." Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/1842/6393.

Wang, Yanbai Andrea. "Who makes international law? : how the World Health Organization changed the regulation of infectious disease." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2014. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:e59123f0-aea5-47e9-9521-0d107a07dd3f.

Feng, Ruo Han. "Conflict and coordination between trademark retriction and public health :a study on the case of Australian tobacco plain packaging act." Thesis, University of Macau, 2018. http://umaclib3.umac.mo/record=b3952292.

Onzivu, William. "Health in international environmental law : an analysis of the health objectives and impact of international environmental legal regimes in developing countries with a focus on Africa and the options for reform." Thesis, University of Stirling, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/1893/21621.

Hoffman, Steven Justin. "Evaluating Strategies for Achieving Global Collective Action on Transnational Health Threats and Social Inequalities." Thesis, Harvard University, 2015. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:23845489.

Wright, Scott A. "Transnational organized crime : a review of offense types and law enforcement response." Honors in the Major Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2009. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETH/id/1340.

鈴木, 將文, and Masabumi SUZUKI. "Domestic Measures for Public Health Policy and International IP/Trade Law : The Case of the Australian Plain Packaging Act." 名古屋大学大学院法学研究科, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/2237/17433.

Ally, Sherry L. "Towards the definition of concepts in international health intervention: Participation, efficiency, equity, sustainability and scaling up." Thesis, University of Ottawa (Canada), 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/27794.

Leon, Joshua K. "The Rise of Global Health: Consensus, Expansion and Specialization." Diss., Temple University Libraries, 2010. http://cdm16002.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p245801coll10/id/72941.

Jenkins, Sara Anne. "Gendered hierarchies and world order: A critical analysis of the instrumentalization of gender within the UN discourse on gender vulnerability to AIDS." Thesis, University of Ottawa (Canada), 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/28059.

Poget, Gaël. "Legal aspects of facilitation in civil aviation : health issues." Thesis, McGill University, 2003. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=81228.

Keevy, Daniel Matthew John. "A critical analysis of the doctor-patient relationship in context of the right to adequate health care." Diss., University of Pretoria, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/25086.

Loff, Beatrice. "Health and human rights : case studies in the potential contribution of a human rights framework to the analysis of health questions." Monash University, Dept. of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, 2004. http://arrow.monash.edu.au/hdl/1959.1/5291.

Frank, Cornelia. "Access to Safe and Legal Abortion- a Human Right? : A study of the protection for access to Safe and Legal abortion within Public International Law." Thesis, Stockholms universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-182564.

Yodlowski, Shane. "Alien Tort Statute: A Discussion and Analysis of the History, Evolution, and Future." Honors in the Major Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2014. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETH/id/1657.

Enga, Kameni Innocent. "TRIPS and the WTO August 2003 deal on medicines: is it a gift bound in a red tape to developing countries." Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2005. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&amp.

Gendrault, Elisabeth. "Le principe de précaution en droit de la santé." Thesis, Aix-Marseille 3, 2011. http://www.theses.fr/2011AIX32035.

Jeffries, Anne. "Cervical Infection with high risk Human Papillomavirus Anogenital Subtypes in Indigenous Women in Alta and Baja Vera Paz Guatemala." FIU Digital Commons, 2018. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/3754.

Walker, Olivia. "Cuba's deepwater drilling operations United States relations, legalities, and future." Honors in the Major Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2012. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETH/id/634.

Nagel, Markus. "Organtransplantation und Internationales Privatrecht." Berlin ; Heidelberg : Springer, 2009. http://deposit.d-nb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=3182142&prov=M&dok%5Fvar=1&dok%5Fext=htm.

Neuwirth, Rostam Josef. "International law and the public/private law distinction." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 2000. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/MQ64296.pdf.

Attar, Frank Daniel Alain. "French courts and Public International Law." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1997. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.627141.

Brölmann, Catharina Maria. "The institutional veil in public international law international organizations and the law of treaties /." [S.l. : Amsterdam : s.n.] ; Universiteit van Amsterdam [Host], 2005. http://dare.uva.nl/document/79790.

Conde, e. Silva Gui J. "Transnational public policy in international arbitration." Thesis, Queen Mary, University of London, 2007. http://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/handle/123456789/1717.

Al-Qahtani, Mutlaq Majed. "Enforcement of international judicial decisions of the International Court of Justice in public international law." Thesis, University of Glasgow, 2003. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2487/.

Jackson, Miles. "Complicity in international law." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2013. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:4f6db506-c5a7-43d6-af49-fec9ad2d7461.

Dawidowicz, Martin Henry. "Public law enforcement for international law : the development of third-party countermeasures." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2009. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.611767.

Van, der Merwe Hermanus Jacobus. "The transformative value of international criminal law." Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/71825.

Leonavičiūtė, Simona. "Diplomatic asylum in the context of public international law." Master's thesis, Lithuanian Academic Libraries Network (LABT), 2012. http://vddb.laba.lt/obj/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2012~D_20120703_133030-41044.

Brookbanks, Darren Ackermann. "International regulation of foreign intelligence liaison." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/16437.

Hoffman, Steven Justin. "Reimagining international law to address global health challenges." Thesis, Paris, Institut d'études politiques, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016IEPP0024/document.

Elzuway, Saleh M. "The right to health care in international law." Thesis, University of Glasgow, 2013. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/4293/.

Gammed, Salem Abd-Arrahman. "The legal aspects of Libyan public international joint ventures." Thesis, University of Strathclyde, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.301437.

Igiehon, Mark Osayomwanbo. "Abandonment : revisiting customary international law and moving the frontiers of public choice law." Thesis, Southampton Solent University, 2004. http://ssudl.solent.ac.uk/595/.

Githiora, Rosa Muthoni. "Attitudes And Perceptions Of Female Circumcision Among African Immigrant Women In The United States: A Cultural And Legal Dilemma." University of Akron / OhioLINK, 2010. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=akron1278553618.

Lewis, Lizani. "The application and reconstruction of international law by domestic courts : an analytical framework for the judicial mediation of a cosmopolitan and emancipatory international law." Doctoral thesis, University of Cape Town, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/4713.

Rosenälv, Sandra. "Responsibility to protect : a legal principle in international law?" Thesis, Stockholms universitet, Juridiska institutionen, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-142938.

Oraa, Jaime. "Human rights in states of emergency in public international law." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1990. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.385608.

Grief, Nicholas. "Public international law in the airspace of the high seas." Thesis, University of Kent, 1991. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.293127.

Haflidadottir, Helga. "The progressive development of international enforcement : public international law and compliance with environmental obligations." Thesis, University of St Andrews, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10023/14459.

Kittrich, Jan. "The Right of Individual Self-Defense in Public International Law /." Berlin : Logos Berlin, 2008. http://d-nb.info/989123898/04.

Tan, Yvette S. "Public Policy in Adult Relationships in English Private International Law." Thesis, University of Manchester, 2010. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.532232.

Vibeke, Eggli Ann. "Mass refugee influx and the limits of public international law /." The Hague : M. Nijhoff publ, 2002. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb39269232j.

Sabuj, Mohammad Zakaria. "The legitimacy and compatibility of use of force (jus ad bellum) in public international law and Islamic international law." Thesis, Northumbria University, 2018. http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/36285/.

Legg, Andrew. "Deference in international human rights law." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2011. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:42fc2528-cf7c-4cd8-9ff6-0d0bd25b6220.

Macak, Jakub (Kubo). "Internationalized armed conflicts in international law." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2014. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:793d605d-dea3-403c-95df-c88bfe0cf19f.

Pal, Maia. "The politics of extraterritoriality : a historical sociology of public international law." Thesis, University of Sussex, 2013. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/45248/.

Mills, Alex. "The confluence of public and private international law : justice, pluralism and subsidiarity in the international constitutional ordering of private law /." Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2009. http://opac.nebis.ch/cgi-bin/showAbstract.pl?u20=9780521731300.

Tiba, Firew Kebede. "Multiplicity of international courts and tribunals implications for the coherent application of public internaional law /." Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 2008. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/b40203591.

Rachovitsa, Adamantia. "'Fragmentation or unity of public international law' revisited : analysing the European Convention on Human Rights when the European Court takes cognisance of public international law norms." Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2013. http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/13023/.

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Secretary Becerra Statement on U.S. Global Health Security Strategy

The United States must be in position to prevent, detect, and respond to public health crises – including infectious disease threats at home and abroad. The Global Health Security Strategy does that. This strategy promotes a One Health approach – an approach that is collaborative, multisectoral, and transdisciplinary — and recognizes the interconnection between people, animals, plants, and their shared environment as well as the importance of coordination across government, business, and civil society. We are committed to contributing to the Pandemic Fund, including $700 million to date, addressing financing gaps and building stronger regional and global institutions that can drive innovation, offering reliable public health guidance, and implementing a rapid response to global health emergencies.

This strategy will strengthen our public health systems, prioritize the health of people around the globe and develop systems that can prevent, detect, and fight every kind of biological danger. Strengthening global health security is a national security priority, and is essential to protect the health, lives, and economic well-being of the American people. These steps confirm that the Biden-Harris Administration is delivering on the President’s commitment to protect the American people from the next pandemic.

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April 18, 2024

It’s Time to Act on Pilots’ Mental Health

Mental health recommendations for pilots and air traffic controllers bring new ideas to old problems; the FAA must decide what’s next

By William R. Hoffman

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In early April, a committee of U.S. aviation, aeromedical and safety experts published a landmark report commissioned by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) related to the mental health of pilots and air traffic controllers. The 24 recommendations directed to the FAA include sweeping changes to current mental health policies, including dropping the need for pilots and controllers to inform the FAA when they see a therapist and easing the pathway to medication use for aviation workers. These recommendations and others could transform an industry whose medical fitness standards may have created barriers for certain pilots and controllers needing mental health assistance. Now, FAA and industry leaders must decide if and how to enact these recommendations.

The FAA requires airline pilots and air traffic controllers to meet certain medical standards in order to work. Pilots and controllers who disclose that they have new mental health symptoms, or that they are taking a new psychoactive medication or seeing a therapist may run the risk of what is usually a temporary loss of their medical certification. Time out of work can result in lost pay, and the evaluations required to return can be prolonged, unpredictable and expensive. For this reason, I and others have argued that pilots and controllers face a barrier to seeking mental health care due to what a change in health status might mean for their career.

Data from my colleagues and myself support this; a study of 5,170 pilots across the U.S. and Canada showed that 56 percent reported a history of health care avoidance (for example, reporting that they decided to forgo an evaluation for a symptom or not fully disclosing health information during screening) based on their fear that they would lose their flying status. While these data included all types of health concerns, it seems reasonable to also apply these data to mental health. The U.S. has employed its current approach to screening pilots and controllers for many years in hopes of ensuring they are fit to perform their high-risk and often stressful duties. That said, many voices are now calling to change a system that may inadvertently harm aviation workers while not always achieving what it aims to do.

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“No one … should have to think twice about their job before seeking help,” said National Transportation Safety Board Chair Jennifer Homendy during a December roundtable on aviation mental health , as quoted in the Web publication The Hill . “And yet, we’re here today because that’s not currently the case in U.S. aviation.”

Multiple mental health incidents in pilots, including a recent one in which an off-duty airline pilot attempted to shut down the engines of a full passenger aircraft amid a mental health crisis, and a bipartisan letter from Congress challenging the FAA to modernize its mental health protocols, fueled momentum that culminated in the committee’s report. The committee is formally known as the Mental Health and Aviation Medical Clearances Aviation Rulemaking Committee; such bodies are referred to as ARCs.

“My personal belief is that the goal of this Mental Health ARC is to better the life of all pilots and controllers both current and aspiring,” Travis Ludwig, Air Line Pilots Association representative and committee co-chair wrote in the report. “This ARC strived to save a life, a job, a family. If we accomplish this lofty goal even once, the amount of work thrown into this project will be worth it.”

Now FAA leaders will need to determine not only which recommendations they incorporate, but also how to cover the costs, while assuring the 2.5 million passengers who fly in the U.S. daily that changes are safe. In an agency responsible for overseeing one of the world’s safest aviation systems, some recommendations are likely to face obstacles. While new mental health education efforts are unlikely to face opposition, broad overhauls to computer and medical processing systems will likely be contingent on major support outside of the agency. More difficult will be decisions about what pilots and controllers can do while working and what they need to tell the FAA amid a surprising paucity of safety data. To implement the committee’s 24 recommendations, the FAA will need broad support both within and outside of the agency.

Mental health is not the only aspect of aviation facing calls for change. Incidents involving Boeing aircraft —including the death of 346 passengers in two Boeing 737 MAX 8 incidents attributed to corporate missteps in the rollout of new flight control systems and a Boeing 737 MAX 9 door plug falling off in-flight—have brought public calls for the FAA to have stricter oversight over what critics view as a decades-long slide towards lax self-regulation and concessions to quickly building aircraft. “It is time to reexamine the delegation of authority and assess associated safety risks,” FAA Administrator Mike Whitaker said in a January 2024 statement, adding that “multiple production-related issues identified in recent years require us to look at every option to reduce risk.” When it comes to building America’s aircraft, calls to increase oversight aim to bolster safety.

But despite this discourse, one critical misunderstanding must be avoided when it comes to mental health.

Government leaders and ultimately the flying public must avoid the simplistic view that the committee’s recommendations aim to reduce oversight at the cost of safety. This is simply not the case. History has taught us that turning up the dials on traditional oversight tools does not necessarily mean greater safety when it comes to mental health. Instead, these recommendations propose novel, innovative ways to address hidden risks currently existing within our national air space while acknowledging an elemental quality of every aviation worker: the normal human need for support. This should be a key part of the FAA’s messaging to the public. Further, the public should insist the FAA is provided sufficient funding and backing to implement all 24 recommendations that will ultimately bolster wellness and safety in our aviation system.

This is an opinion and analysis article, and the views expressed are those of the author or authors and not necessarily those of any other organization or Scientific American.

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Supreme Court Clears Way, for Now, for Idaho to Ban Transgender Treatment for Minors

The Idaho attorney general had asked the justices to move swiftly to let the state law, which would ban gender-affirming medical care for minors, go into effect.

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By Abbie VanSickle

Reporting from Washington

The Supreme Court temporarily allowed Idaho on Monday to enforce a ban on gender-affirming treatment for minors, effectively suggesting that some justices appear comfortable with wading into another front in the culture wars.

In siding with state officials who had asked the court to lift a block on the law as an appeal moves forward, the justices were sharply split, with a majority of the conservatives voting to allow the ban to take effect over the objections of the three liberals.

The court said the ban would apply to everyone except for the plaintiffs who brought the challenge.

Notably, the opinions focused not on transgender care, a hot-button political issue that has prompted several Republican-led legislatures to approve bills to restrict puberty-blocking drugs and hormone treatments, but on a broader legal question: universal injunctions.

Universal injunctions are when a single judge issues a sweeping decision that applies beyond those directly involved in the dispute. Some justices have signaled an interest in looking at the tactic.

Although orders in response to emergency applications often include no reasoning, the justices in this case divided into several factions.

The decision included concurrences by Justice Neil M. Gorsuch, who was joined by Justices Samuel A. Alito Jr. and Clarence Thomas, and Justice Brett M. Kavanaugh, who was joined by Justice Amy Coney Barrett. Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. did not note a position.

Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson dissented and was joined by Justice Sonia Sotomayor. Justice Elena Kagan noted a dissent.

The Idaho law, passed by the state’s Republican-controlled Legislature, makes it a felony for doctors to provide transgender medical care for minors, including hormone treatment.

States around the country have pushed to curtail transgender rights. At least 20 Republican-led states, including Idaho, have enacted legislation that limits access for gender transition care for minors.

In his concurrence, Justice Gorsuch said the use of a universal injunction “meant Idaho could not enforce its prohibition against surgeries to remove or alter children’s genitals, even though no party before the court had sought access to those surgeries or demonstrated that Idaho’s prohibition of them offended federal law.”

He wrote that the case broached the use of such injunctions, “a question of great significance that has been in need of the court’s attention for some time.” In recent years, he added, lower courts had overstepped their bounds by seeking “to govern an entire state or even the whole nation from their courtrooms.”

In her dissent, Justice Jackson also honed in on similar questions. But she wrote that the case, particularly given that it was brought on the emergency docket, was “not be the place to address the open and challenging questions that that issue raises.”

If there was any point of agreement in the case, it seemed to be a growing frustration with the number and scope of cases brought on the court’s emergency docket.

Justice Jackson noted that she saw “some common ground” with her conservative colleagues by agreeing that “our emergency docket seems to have become increasingly unworkable.”

The American Civil Liberties Union, which represents the plaintiffs in the case, denounced the outcome, saying it was “an awful result for transgender youth and their families across the state.”

“Today’s ruling allows the state to shut down the care that thousands of families rely on while sowing further confusion and disruption,” it said in a statement.

The Idaho attorney general, Raúl Labrador, a Republican and former member of Congress who helped found the conservative House Freedom Caucus, celebrated the decision.

“Denying the basic truth that boys and girls are biologically different hurts our kids,” Mr. Labrador said. “No one has the right to harm children, and I’m grateful that we, as the state, have the power — and duty — to protect them.”

Idaho officials had appealed to the Supreme Court after the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, in San Francisco, upheld a temporary block on the law as litigation continues in lower courts.

The law, the Vulnerable Child Protection Act, makes it a crime for medical providers to offer medical care to transgender teenagers.

Mr. Labrador, in his emergency application, said that the case raised a recurring question that a majority of the justices had expressed interest in: whether a court can enact a universal injunction.

Mr. Labrador contended that a federal court erred in applying the freeze so expansively. “The plaintiffs are two minors and their parents, and the injunction covers two million,” he wrote.

Temporarily barring the law meant “leaving vulnerable children subject to procedures that even plaintiffs’ experts agree are inappropriate for some of them,” he added.

Mr. Labrador continued, “These procedures have lifelong, irreversible consequences, with more and more minors voicing their regret for taking this path.”

The plaintiffs had asserted that the case was not the right vehicle for addressing concerns about universal injunctions.

That is because the four plaintiffs are anonymous, referred to only by pseudonyms. If the court narrowed the temporary pause on the Idaho law to apply only to those directly involved in the lawsuit, the plaintiffs, including minors, would be forced to “disclose their identities as the transgender plaintiffs in this litigation to staff at doctors’ offices and pharmacies every time they visited a doctor or sought to fill their prescriptions.”

Abbie VanSickle covers the United States Supreme Court for The Times. She is a lawyer and has an extensive background in investigative reporting. More about Abbie VanSickle

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Lawsuit alleges aca plan-switching scheme targeted low-income consumers.

The lawsuit filed in federal court in South Florida alleges that large call centers were used to enroll people into Affordable Care Act plans or to switch their coverage, all without their permission.

A wide-ranging lawsuit filed this past week outlines a moneymaking scheme with Broward County ties by which large insurance sales agency call centers enrolled people into Affordable Care Act plans or switched their coverage, all without their permission.

According to the lawsuit, filed in U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida, two such call centers paid tens of thousands of dollars a day to buy names of people who responded to misleading advertisements touting free government “subsidies” and other rewards. In turn, sales agents used the information to either enroll them in ACA plans or switch their existing policies without their consent.

As a result, the lawsuit alleges, consumers lost access to their doctors or medications and faced financial costs, such as owing money toward medical care or having to repay tax credits that were paid toward the unauthorized coverage.

Some consumers were switched multiple times or had duplicative policies.

“We allege there was a plan that targeted the poorest of Americans into enrolling in health insurance through deceptive ads and unauthorized switching,” to gain compensation for the sign-ups or capture the commissions that would have been paid to legitimate insurance agents, said Jason Doss, one of two lawyers who filed the case following a four-month investigation.

Doss and Jason Kellogg, the other lawyer on the case, which was filed on behalf of several affected policyholders and agents, are seeking class action status.

KFF Health News has in recent weeks reported on similar concerns raised by consumers and insurance agents.

Named as defendants are TrueCoverage and Enhance Health, which operate insurance call centers in Florida and other states; Speridian Technologies, a New Mexico-based limited liability company that owns and controls TrueCoverage; and Number One Prospecting, doing business as Minerva Marketing, which is also a lead-generating company. The lawsuit also names two people: Brandon Bowsky, founder and CEO of Minerva; and Matthew Herman, CEO of Enhance Health. Attempts to reach the companies for comment were unsuccessful.

According to the lawsuit, the call centers had access to policyholder accounts through “enhanced direct enrollment” platforms, including one called Benefitalign, owned by Speridian.

Such private sector platforms, which must be approved by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, streamline enrollment by integrating with the federal ACA marketplace, called healthcare.gov. The ones included in this case were not open to the public, but only to those call center agencies granted permission by the platforms.

One of the plaintiffs, Texas resident Conswallo Turner, signed up for ACA coverage in December through an agent she knew, and expected it to go into effect on Jan. 1, according to the lawsuit. Not long after, Turner saw an ad on Facebook promising a monthly cash card to help with household expenses.

She called the number on the ad and provided her name, date of birth, and state, the lawsuit says. Armed with that information, sales agents then changed her ACA coverage and the agent listed on it five times in just a few weeks, dropping coverage of her son along with way, all without her consent.

She ended up with a higher-deductible plan along with medical bills for her now-uninsured son, the lawsuit alleges. Her actual agent also lost the commission.

The lawsuit contains similar stories from other plaintiffs.

The routine worked, it alleges, by collecting names of people responding to online and social media ads claiming to offer monthly subsidies to help with rent or groceries. Those calls were recorded, the suit alleges, and the callers’ information obtained by TrueCoverage and Enhance Health.

The companies knew people were calling on the promise “of cash benefits that do not exist,” the lawsuit said. Instead, call center agents were encouraged to be “vague” about the money mentioned in the ads, which was actually the subsidies paid by the government to insurers toward the ACA plans.

The effort targeted people with low enough incomes to qualify for large subsidies that fully offset the monthly cost of their premium, the lawsuit alleges. The push began after March 2022, when a special enrollment period for low-income people became available, opening up a year-round opportunity to enroll in an ACA plan.

The suit asserts that those involved did not meet the privacy and security rules required for participation in the ACA marketplace. The lawsuit also alleges violations of the federal Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, known as RICO .

“Health insurance is important for people to have, but it’s also important to be sold properly,” said Doss, who said both consumers and legitimate agents can suffer when it’s not.

“It’s not a victimless crime to get zero-dollar health insurance if you don’t qualify for it and it ends up causing you tax or other problems down the road,” he said. “Unfortunately, there’s so much fraud that legitimate agents who are really trying to help people are also being pushed out.”

KFF Health News is a national newsroom that produces in-depth journalism about health issues and is one of the core operating programs at KFF — in independent source of health policy research, polling, and journalism. Learn more about KFF .

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Arizona Republicans scuttle effort to repeal 1864 abortion ban (again)

Good morning, and happy Thursday. Today’s newsletter top comes to you from the on-the-ground reporting of The Post’s Caroline Kitchener and Yvonne Wingett Sanchez in Arizona. Not a subscriber? Sign up here .

Today’s edition: Florida’s lawsuit challenging federal eligibility protections for children enrolled in public health insurance programs gets its day in court. A Republican senator is the sole financial backer of a proposed ballot initiative to enshrine a roughly 12-week abortion ban in Nebraska’s constitution. But first …

Inside the GOP reckoning over Arizona’s 1864 abortion ban

The GOP-controlled Arizona House thwarted another attempt yesterday to repeal a Civil War-era law that is set to soon ban abortion across the state, highlighting the indecision of swing-district Republicans on a politically volatile issue.

Democrats had hoped to rally support from GOP lawmakers to challenge the 1864 abortion ban revived by the Arizona Supreme Court last week , amid pressure from prominent conservatives such as former president Donald Trump and Arizona U.S. Senate candidate Kari Lake to overturn the law.

But ultimately only one Republican crossed party lines Wednesday to support setting aside House rules for the repeal effort to proceed.

“The last thing we should be doing today is rushing through the legislative process to repeal a law that has been enacted and reaffirmed by the legislature several times,” said House Speaker Ben Toma (R). “Abortion is a very complicated topic. It is ethically, morally complex.”

The turmoil in the Arizona House yesterday exposes a broader crisis within the Republican Party regarding how to address the abortion issue leading up to November . The 2022 U.S. Supreme Court ruling overturning Roe v. Wade transferred the decision-making power on abortion access to state lawmakers, leaving many Republicans torn between long-held, often religiously rooted views that have defined the GOP for generations and a more practical desire to win elections.

Floor dynamics

In the lead-up to Wednesday, many Republicans in Arizona described agonizing over the decision — reckoning with core beliefs as they texted colleagues, prayed and talked to constituents, pastors and priests. One received what they described as “threats” from a leading state antiabortion advocate.

“This is the most difficult decision that I’ve made in the eight years that I’ve been there,” said state Rep. David Cook (R), a longtime abortion foe who, as of Tuesday, said he had not decided how to vote. “You’re faced with the personal convictions of protecting … an innocent life.”

State Sen. Ken Bennett (R), who once presided over the chamber as president and also served as secretary of state, predicted that several Republicans would not “have a chance” of getting reelected if the pre- Roe ban were allowed to stand.

The debate surrounding the 1864 law has deeply divided the caucus , with some staunch antiabortion advocates urging their colleagues to hold firm against repeal — and lobbing personal attacks at those considering voting for it.

“Anybody who would allow innocent people to be killed to preserve their political career to win an election does not deserve to win,” said Rep. Alex Kolodin (R), who views the law as a victory for the party's core beliefs.

But some Republicans argue that repealing the 1864 ban aligns with their antiabortion stance because they’re strategically considering a path forward to minimize abortions . These Republicans believe supporting the repeal could demonstrate responsiveness to voter sentiment. And, they say, it would bolster GOP opposition to a a ballot initiative Democrats hope to see on the November ballot that would enshrine abortion rights in the state constitution.

The Center for Arizona Policy, an antiabortion group that lobbied against the measure:

All but one AZ pro-life representative kept their word today and stood for the unborn & women! The attempt to repeal the pre-Roe law limiting abortion to when the women’s life is at risk failed to make it to the floor. Thank you @RepBenToma and all lawmakers who stood for life! — Center for AZ Policy (@azpolicy) April 17, 2024

Future prospects

Despite Wednesday’s setback, Democrats are exploring avenues for another attempt to repeal the ban in coming days and weeks.

To succeed, two Republicans in the Arizona House of Representatives and two in the Senate would need to join all Democrats in voting to repeal the ban, which could take effect as early as June 8 without legislative action.

If the legislature agrees to repeal the 1864 ban, the current law banning abortion after 15 weeks of pregnancy would remain in effect, according to legislative sources and lawmakers.

Arizona Gov. Katie Hobbs (D):

Extremist Republicans in the Legislature have failed again to do the right thing. In just one week living under this new reality, women, doctors, and healthcare providers have already begun to feel the devastating effects of living under a total abortion ban. We cannot go on like… — Governor Katie Hobbs (@GovernorHobbs) April 17, 2024

In the courts

Florida challenges biden administration's medicaid and chip coverage mandate in federal court.

On tap today: Florida’s lawsuit against the Biden administration over a new mandate requiring 12 months of continuous coverage for eligible minors in Medicaid and the Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) is heading to federal court.

The suit alleges that the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services overstepped its authority by barring states from removing children from the safety-net programs, even if monthly premiums remain unpaid. The guidance allows states to disenroll children only after the 12-month continuous coverage period.

Florida is seeking a preliminary injunction , arguing in its suit that the rules would jeopardize the program's solvency and long-term stability, turning it into a “free-for-all.”

The bigger picture: Amid the ongoing legal battle, Florida has dropped 22,000 children from its KidCare program, which administers government plans for children from low-income families, due to unpaid premiums since January, according to Christine Jordan Sexton at Florida Politics .

Florida is the only state challenging the 12-month eligibility rule. However, if the lawsuit is successful, it could prevent nationwide enforcement of the federal guidance, according to Joan Alker , executive director of the Georgetown University Center for Children and Families .

Reproductive wars

Sen. pete ricketts of nebraska backs petition aimed at enshrining abortion ban.

Republican Sen. Pete Ricketts of Nebraska is bankrolling an effort to place a roughly 12-week abortion ban on the ballot in November, Andrew Wegley reports for the Lincoln Journal Star .

Ricketts, who was Nebraska’s governor from 2015 to 2023, donated $500,000 in cash last month to the Protect Women and Children committee, being the sole contributor, according to a campaign finance report.

A closer look: The proposed ballot initiative, brought by a group of Nebraska medical professionals and backed by antiabortion groups, would restrict abortions after the first trimester, with exceptions for rape, incest and medical emergencies. It aligns with the state’s existing abortion laws but doesn’t prevent the legislature from tightening the ban if passed.

The effort is in opposition to a proposal by abortion rights advocates for a constitutional amendment , aiming to safeguard access until fetal viability at roughly 24 weeks.

State of play: Advocates for both initiatives have begun collecting the roughly 123,000 signatures of registered voters as required by July.

Agency alert

Fda flags ‘serious’ recall of embolization device.

The Food and Drug Administration has classified Boston Scientific ’s recall of its device used for the embolization of blood vessels to control internal bleeding and hemorrhaging as the “most serious.”

The company issued a correction for the Obsidio Conformable Embolic after an investigation showed that the device posed a high risk of bowel ischemia — the restriction of blood flow to the intestines — when employing a specific technique during procedures to address gastrointestinal bleeding, according to the agency.

The FDA said there are reports of 11 incidents related to the problem , including seven injuries and two deaths.
The recall affects 1,594 devices in the United States and is characterized as a corrective action rather than a complete product removal.

The view from Boston Scientific: The company issued a product advisory in February explaining that the technique isn’t recommended with the device when used for such procedures. “The Obsidio embolic remains safe for use as labeled,” a spokesperson said in a statement provided to The Health 202.

In other health news

Three Democratic senators are pressing Novo Nordisk for answers regarding the company’s decision to discontinue production of its insulin drug Levemir in the United States, according to a letter sent yesterday.
Eli Lilly plans to seek expanded approval of its weight-loss drug Zepbound after it improved symptoms in overweight adults with obstructive sleep apnea in two late-stage trials, the company announced.
The emergency services sector is a likely target for cyberattacks , endangering medical and law enforcement services and posing an ongoing threat to personal data and public safety, according to an analysis by the Department of Homeland Security obtained by ABC News .

Health reads

How Biden’s abortion stance has shifted over the years (By Amy B Wang and Blair Guild | The Washington Post)

Majority Latino city endures years of toxic water in health ‘crisis’ (By Silvia Foster-Frau | The Washington Post)

‘Kids need to breathe just like adults do’: $35 price caps don’t apply to asthma meds young children need, doctors say (By Meg Tirrell | CNN )

Thanks for reading! See you tomorrow.

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Medical Law Dissertation Topic Examples. 3rd Oct 2019 Law Dissertation Topic Reference this In-house law team. Medical law is an interesting topic to explore for your dissertation as it draws on controversial areas such as assisted suicide and euthanasia, the Abortion Act 1967 and organ donation. The legal and ethical principles of medicine are ...
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Healthcare Dissertation Topics

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2022 Healthcare Dissertation Topics

Topic 2: An assessment of the bioethics issues arising during medicine development and administration to patients and how ethics of public health can be improved

Topic 3: Investigating the present global health security infrastructure and its capacity to detect and prevent the spread of infectious diseases. A case study of the outbreak of Covid-19.

Topic 4: Investigating the importance of vaccines and childhood nutrition on improving maternal and child health

Topic 5: An analysis of the risks of tobacco and second-hand smoke exposure on the cardiovascular health of people in the UK.

Topic. 1: COVID-19 and health care system: