research about human resource management

Tools and Resources
Customer Services
Affective Science
Biological Foundations of Psychology
Clinical Psychology: Disorders and Therapies
Cognitive Psychology/Neuroscience
Developmental Psychology
Educational/School Psychology
Forensic Psychology
Health Psychology
History and Systems of Psychology
Individual Differences
Methods and Approaches in Psychology
Neuropsychology
Organizational and Institutional Psychology
Personality
Psychology and Other Disciplines
Social Psychology
Sports Psychology
Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Article contents

Human resource management and organizational psychology.

David E. Guest David E. Guest School of Management and Business, King's College London
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.14
Published online: 29 March 2017

Human resources (HR) management addresses those policies, practices, and activities concerned with the management of people in organizations. Although it is typically considered at multiple levels of analysis, it provides an important context for the application of work and organizational psychology. Core research questions address the determinants of HR strategy and practices adopted by organizations and how these are linked to outcomes including in particular organizational performance and employee wellbeing. Much research explores this linkage process including how far HR practices are able to ensure employee abilities, motivation, and opportunities to contribute; the distinctive role of human capital; how employees react to these practices; and the steps management can take to ensure their effective implementation. Most research confirms an association between the adoption of a greater number of what are typically termed “high performance” or “high involvement” HR practices and higher organizational performance and employee wellbeing. However, doubts remain about the causal direction of the association. Continuing research challenges include how best to measure HR practices, understanding more about contextual influences, and incorporating more fully the role of employee attitudes and behavior including employee attributions about the motives of management in their use of HR practices.

human resources management
organizational performance
employee wellbeing
human capital

Introduction

Human resources management (HRM) can be broadly defined as “all those activities associated with the management of work and people in organizations” (Boxall & Purcell, 2011 ). It serves as a focus of study but also as an occupation for specialists and a day-to-day component of the work of line managers. HRM is a relatively new area of study, but research has burgeoned in recent years, and this article will examine some of the central research debates and research findings.

HRM may not at first sight appear to be an obvious candidate for inclusion under the banner of work and organizational psychology. It is, after all, a multidisciplinary area of research, often conducted at the organizational rather than the individual level of analysis. But it also incorporates many of the core activities typically associated with work and organizational (W/O) psychology ranging from topics such as selection and training to outcomes such as wellbeing, absenteeism, and labor turnover. It therefore serves as an integrative context within which to consider the work of W/O psychologists. At the same time, HRM has emerged as a major field of theorizing and research in its own right, with several specialist academic journals and large numbers of practitioners who label themselves as HR professionals, and it offers the promise of some integration across disciplines and across levels of analysis.

The article starts with a brief overview of influences on the emergence of HRM, emphasizing those disciplinary perspectives that lie beyond the usual territory of W/O psychology. Subsequent sections examine the nature of HRM, the kind of outcomes it is expected to influence, and the processes whereby HRM and outcomes might be related. Each of these is a continuing focus of theorizing and research. In each section, conceptual and empirical issues and evidence will be reviewed.

Disciplinary Influences

Three broad disciplinary perspectives have been particularly influential in informing the development of HRM theory and research. The first, reflecting the historical traditions of the application of HRM, is the sub-discipline of industrial relations. The second is the influence of business strategy, reflecting the location of some researchers in business schools and the potentially important role of effective HRM for business performance. The third influence is W/O psychology and the overlapping field of organizational behavior.

The practice of what we now describe as HRM emerged in the early decades of the 20th century . Those working in the field were initially described as welfare officers and then personnel managers. When there was a need to address industrial conflict, the role of the industrial relations manager increasingly came to the fore. In the 1930s, the study of industrial relations and, more broadly, relations at work began to emerge within universities. Well-known examples over the decades include the Hawthorne studies (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939 ), the work of Whyte ( 1955 ) and others on the role of pay and restriction of output, and Walton and McKersie’s ( 1965 ) behavioral theory of labor negotiation. Those engaged in this type of research typically had backgrounds in sociology, economics, or psychology, providing an early multidisciplinary perspective. Topics for research included forms of industrial conflict ranging from strikes to absenteeism, systems for alleviating or preventing conflict such as collective bargaining, systems for workers’ participation and the influence of pay on behavior. By the 1970s, there were flourishing departments of industrial relations in universities in many countries, undertaking research and providing education to those seeking to pursue a career in industrial relations or personnel management. By the 1980s, patterns of industrial conflict began to change and eventually diminish, and academic industrial relations departments entered a slow decline, though several prominent journals remained. A number of researchers who once worked in these departments switched their research focus to HRM, often providing some of the most trenchant critical analysis of the field (see, e.g., Godard, 2004 ).

The influence of business strategy on HRM began to emerge in the 1980s. A major factor in this was the growth of teaching and research in the business schools, particularly in the U.S. The initial argument, proposed in general normative terms, most notably by Porter ( 1985 ), but applied to HRM by, for example, Miles and Snow ( 1984 ) was that organizations had strategic choices about how to compete, and this should influence the approach organizations adopt to HRM. The most obvious distinction was whether to compete on the basis of cost minimization or some combination of quality and innovation. Each required rather different ways of managing people at work. A clear exposition of this was outlined by Schuler and Jackson ( 1987 ) who set out five steps. First, an organization has to clarify its mission and values. Second, and building on this, it has to determine its competitive strategy. Third, it needs to determine the kinds of employees and the sorts of behavior that will enable the strategy to be achieved. Fourth, the organization needs to determine the HR policies and practices that will help to ensure that the right employees are performing appropriately. Finally, organizations should check that employee behavior is actually aligned with the strategic goals.

Further interest in HRM from a strategic perspective was provided by advocacy of the resource-based view of the firm (Barney, 1991 ). This argued that to compete effectively, organizations needed to acquire and utilize resources that are rare, expensive, hard to replace, and not easily replicable. Part of the analysis, developed further by Barney and Wright ( 1998 ), was that human resources fitted these criteria better than other resources such as finance or machinery, which could more easily be copied. This boosted the idea of employees as “human resources,” a term that causes distaste in some quarters.

The resource-based view of HRM placed considerable emphasis on the economic concept of human capital (Nyberg & Wright, 2015 ). For example, Lepak and Snell ( 1999 ), argued that organizations need to invest heavily in attracting, retaining, and utilizing “human capital” that is highly unique to the firm and highly valuable. In contrast, human capital that is valuable but plentiful is best acquired, perhaps by being brought in. Where human capital is unique but of low strategic value, it might be best to form an alliance. Finally, human capital that is low in value and uniqueness is perhaps best contracted in. This might appear to be a cost-effective strategy, and research has shown the benefits of a selective approach (Lepak & Snell, 2002 ). However, Peel and Boxall ( 2005 ) found that seeking to classify human capital is far from straightforward and likely to vary from firm to firm. We return to the topic of human capital later in the article.

The third major source of influence on HRM comes from work and organizational psychology and (OB) organizational behavior (hereafter just W/O psychology). The reason for this is straightforward; HR practices such as selection, training, appraisal, and reward are the bread and butter of the research and practice of W/O psychologists. HR practitioners are constantly on the lookout for the best practices to apply, and it is the W/O psychologists who undertake the research that provides them. Although the picture is mixed, many W/O psychologists and most of those who use the OB label now work in business schools and, with an interest in effective management, this makes the field of HRM a natural context for their research and consultancy. At the same time, W/O psychology has a particular focus on individual and group behavior and associated outcomes. This has helped to promote a more employee-centered, micro-level focus to HRM.

A distinctive feature of HRM is its ability to integrate features of the macro strategic perspective with the more micro-level perspective typically adopted by psychologists. Indeed, writers such as Wright and Boswell ( 2002 ) have argued that some integration of macro and micro areas is essential for the field to develop. A feature of an integrated perspective, and a key argument of advocates of HRM (see, e.g., Becker & Huselid, 1998 ; Jackson, Schuler, & Jiang, 2014 ), is that HRM should be viewed as a system. What this implies is that it is not enough to focus on selection, training, rewards, or job design; it is necessary to view the whole range of HR practices as an integrated whole and to ensure that they are aligned to provide “internal fit.” If this approach succeeds, there should be a kind of gestalt whereby the sum is more than the parts.

The dominant research topic has been the relationship between HRM and outcomes, and in particular, organizational performance. However, researchers are increasingly exploring the relationship with employee wellbeing and the feasibility of mutual gains (Van de Voorde, Paauwe, & van Veldhoven, 2012 ). Some years ago, Guest ( 1997 ) noted that if research on HRM is to progress, there needs to be clearer theory and research concerning the nature and measurement of HRM, of outcomes and the nature of the relationships among them. Since then, either directly or indirectly, much of the research has addressed these three core issues. In the following sections, we consider each of these in turn.

The Nature of HRM

A major and continuing challenge for research has been how to conceptualize and operationalize HRM. There are several interrelated issues that need to be addressed. What HR practices should be included in the general field of HRM? What is the underlying rationale for including specific practices? How much detail is required about each practice? Can and should practices be combined in any kind of bundles? Who should provide information about them? And what kinds of response categories are appropriate? All these questions have provided the focus for extensive conceptual and empirical work.

Diversity in Conceptualizations of HRM

In several earlier articles on HRM, it was conventional to identify four broad topics that reflected the field. These were recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisal, and rewards (see, e.g., Fombrun, Tichy, & Devanna, 1984 ). However, this list omitted a range of issues concerning the employment relationship, such as job security, communication, and flexible work arrangements. Writing for general managers at Harvard, Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Quinn Mills, and Walton ( 1985 ) suggested that broad core topics that needed to be addressed included employee influence, human resource flows, reward systems, and work systems. These two differing approaches highlight the scope for diversity when studying HRM. It is therefore perhaps not surprising that when Becker and Gerhart ( 1996 ) reviewed the existing studies, they found a wide variety of practices being measured. Indeed, no one practice appeared in every study they reviewed. Several years and many studies later, two extensive reviews (Boselie, Dietz, & Boon, 2005 ; Combs, Liu, Hall, & Ketchen, 2006 ) found that little had changed with respect to the variety of practices used in studies. There was also considerable difference in the number of practices used; indeed, Combs et al. found that the number ranged between 2 and 13 with an average of 6.2. The variety of practices used to measure HRM makes comparison across studies highly problematic. This has not stopped such comparisons being made, notably in meta-analyses.

Alternative Rationales for Determining the Content of HRM

There has clearly been a need to find some underlying rationale to determine which practices should be included in any study. One approach has been to focus on external and internal fit. In the case of external fit, as Porter ( 1985 ) and Schuler and Jackson ( 1987 ) have argued, the starting point is to determine the mission, values, and core goals of the organization and then determine its competitive strategy. Since the main goal of most private-sector organizations is to maximize financial performance, it is those HR practices that help to achieve this that should be included. As researchers have accepted this logic, one consequence has been a change in language, so that many studies now don’t refer to HR practices, but rather to high-performance work practices (HPWPs).

In public sector organizations, the mission and values may be rather different, and the concept of competitive strategy may be inappropriate. Furthermore, as Paauwe ( 2004 ) and others have pointed out, in Europe, with its focus on social partnership, legislation at European and national levels requires the application of a range of HR practices to promote issues such as health and safety at work, equal opportunities, and flexible working. Partly reflecting this perspective, and acknowledging the roots of HRM in the industrial relations tradition, scholars have outlined alternative bases for determining appropriate HR practices. In the U.S., Walton ( 1985 ) argued that effective management of the contemporary workforce requires a shift from policies and practices seeking control to those that promote employee commitment. This has led to advocacy of what is termed high commitment (Wood & Albanese, 1995 ) or high-involvement HRM (Boxall & Macky, 2009 ). These terms suggest a rather different approach, reflected in the writing of Beer et al. ( 1985 ) that recognized the legitimacy of outcomes of concern to employees and other stakeholders.

One problem with an approach to HRM that starts from mission, values, and stakeholder interests is that it still leaves open the choice of practices and it does not clearly specify how those practices should be deployed. Therefore, though there can be agreement about the need to include practices such as selection and training, the specific features of such practices can remain unclear. For example, selection can be measured through the use of certain types of psychometric tests or the use of assessment centers. Alternatively, it can be measured in relation to its aims, such as by hiring those who demonstrate immediate competence in a specified job or those with a positive attitude toward learning. The complexities and choices in measuring these variables are familiar to W/O psychologists. The problem in measuring them in the context of HRM is that each practice is just one among several. As a result, it is not surprising that researchers have measured a wide and varied range of practices, and have done so in often rather different ways.

Internal Fit and the Role of HR Bundles

The aim of internal fit is to identify sets of HR practices (sometimes described as bundles) that will complement each other. The most frequently cited approach to achieve this is the so-called AMO model. This draws on Lawler’s ( 1971 ) expanded version of expectancy theory. While expectancy theory proposes that motivation is a function of the perceived links among effort, performance, and rewards, Lawler extended this to propose that effective performance also depends on individuals having the appropriate ability and role. Applying this to HRM (Becker, Huselid, Pickus, & Spratt, 1997 ; Guest, 1997 ) it is suggested that the immediate goals of an HR system designed explicitly to ensure high performance are to ensure that employees have the ability (A), motivation (M), and opportunity (O) to contribute effectively. HR practices required to achieve these goals can then be clustered together in three broad bundles. For example, ability or competence may be generated through appropriate selection, training, and development practices. The quality of these practices can be greatly enhanced by building on the evidence base developed by W/O psychologists. However, this approach is not without its challenges. For example, there are potential substitution effects—should the focus be on selection of competence or the training of competence? Furthermore, some practices, including those linked to job design, can have an impact on both motivation and opportunity to contribute, thereby blurring the bundles.

The concept of bundles can also present a challenge for psychologists who have typically developed expertise in specific practices, since the argument concerning internal fit suggests that it is not enough to focus on practices that develop one of these outcomes because they are all important. For example, it is not helpful to have highly motivated but incompetent employees or to have highly competent employees who have no opportunity to use their knowledge and skills. So the notion of internal fit within an HR system implies that there need to be HR practices present that can contribute to each element of the AMO model.

Meta-analyses by Jiang, Lepak, Hu, and Baer ( 2012 ) and Subramony ( 2009 ) tested models based on the three AMO bundles of practices and also tested a single integrated measure of HRM. They found a better fit with the three bundles. Furthermore, each was associated with somewhat different outcomes. This is further support for the view that all three bundles need to be present to have a full impact. Subramony found that opportunity to contribute and motivation had a stronger impact than human capital, which on its own was non-significant. On the other hand, Jiang et al. found that each bundle on its own had a modest but significant impact on financial outcomes. Reflecting this, subsequent research has shown that human capital on its own can improve employee behavior and organizational performance (Crook, Todd, Combs, Woehr, & Ketchen, 2011 ). But the impact is not as great as the application of the three bundles. This is somewhat akin to research on the impact of selection and training effects that has consistently shown that high-quality application of both practices can enhance and benefit individual performance. When this is aggregated to the unit or organizational level, we might expect an impact on organizational performance (see, e.g., Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009 ; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998 ). Nevertheless, Subramony ( 2009 ) also showed that each bundle made a stronger contribution than any individual practice. Given these competing results, further research needs to establish the relative importance of individual HR practices, bundles of practices, and an aggregated measure.

Human Capital

Recent theorizing and research have given considerable prominence to the concept of human capital and the specific bundle of HR practices associated with it. As originally conceived by Becker ( 1964 ), the concept was quite wide-ranging and covered the knowledge and skills of individuals and also their information, ideas, and health. Ployhart and Moliterno ( 2011 ) have distinguished between cognitive abilities and other individual characteristics like personality, interests, and values, all of which, as they acknowledge, are typically considered at the individual level. However, they outline enabling factors such as task complexity and interdependencies that create conditions where these types of capital can be aggregated to the unit level and analyzed with respect to their impact on unit performance. Researchers have begun to consider human capital at the unit level as a collective set of capacities for management to utilize (see, e.g., Ployhart, Nyberg, Reilly, & Maltarich, 2014 ) and Nyberg and Wright ( 2015 ) argue that it offers an opportunity for multidisciplinary as well as multilevel research. Although interest in human capital is generating a large body of research, it is potentially limited by its focus on one element, the A within the AMO model.

Levels of Detail about HR Practices

After a decision about which HR practices to include in any study, there remains the issue of how much detail to seek. For example, it is possible with respect to training to ask about the presence of a training policy, hours of training provided, off-the-job versus on-the-job training, and so on. Indeed, the amount of formal training provision is one of the most frequently included items in studies of HRM. However, this is not without problems since it might refer to a goal to provide specified hours, it might refer to off-the-job formal training but ignore informal and incidental learning, and it may apply to only some of the employees. In short, even if the relevant HR practices can be identified, there are unresolved research questions about the level of detail and how far this should be standardized across practices.

Sources of Information about HR Practices

A further and increasingly widely researched question is who should provide information about HR practices. Researchers have noted a gap between intended and implemented practices (Khilji & Wang, 2006 ), and among those concerned with the impact of HRM on outcomes, it is argued that effective implementation is more important than the presence of a policy or practice (Bowen & Ostroff, 2004 ). Senior managers in HR departments may report that a practice such as universal annual appraisal is a firm company policy. However, employees will be in a better position to report whether they have actually received an appraisal in the past year or whether they have perceived and are actually aware of specific policies and practices even if they have not directly experienced them. An example might be policies and practices related to bullying and harassment. Therefore, while much of the research on HR practices has obtained information from senior managers, there is a strong case for collecting information from employees. This may not only increase accuracy, but also enhance reliability. However, the attractions of collecting data from senior managers include the ability to compare across many organizations and to collect data swiftly at an organizational level to permit assessment against organizational-level outcomes. While it is possible to aggregate employee data, collecting such data across many organizations is a complex and time-consuming activity. An alternative is to focus on an important category of employees and ask about the HR practices that apply to this group. This can offer some advantages in accuracy over asking about the workforce as a whole, but it risks ignoring the HR practices applied to the remainder of the workforce.

Response Categories for HR Practices

Researchers need to give consideration to the choice of response categories when collecting information about HR practices. Once again, the published research displays a wide range of approaches. In many cases, the logical response categories will be a straightforward “Yes/No” as in responses to questions such as “Have you received an appraisal in the past 12 months?” An alternative is to turn these questions into statements and use a Likert scale, typically from “strongly agree to strongly disagree,” which permits a factor analysis of the responses, but also invites potentially inaccurate responses to categorical items. When the questions are directed to managers, an alternative to asking for categorical answers is to ask about the percentage of workers who are likely to have experienced a particular practice. This permits a more flexible response, although the accuracy of such responses is open to question and they present potential problems of aggregation, particularly if different practices apply to different categories of employees. There are therefore choices concerning the approach to adopt for response categories, with no consensus in sight.

Aggregating HR Practices

A final issue concerns how to aggregate practices. This issue was first addressed some years ago by Delery and Doty ( 1996 ) who tested competing theories and different ways of combining data to address both external fit, through a contingency approach linking practices to strategy, and internal fit, based on a simple count of practices in place and a configurational model that examined interactions between bundles of practices. It was found that there was no clear advantage to a configurational model. Subramony ( 2009 ) and Jiang et al. ( 2012 ) also found no consistent evidence that one bundle in the AMO model or that any combination of A, M, and O is superior in terms of its impact. Interestingly, this is similar to the findings in a meta-analysis of expectancy theory (van Eerde & Thierry, 1996 ). The most widely used approach over the years has been to provide a count of the practices that are reported to be present on the grounds that a greater number of practices indicates the strength of the HR system and therefore increases the likelihood that they will have an impact. Although this is a plausible argument, it ignores the likelihood that certain practices will be more important than others. It also supports a universalist model that holds that the same broad set of practices applies, irrespective of the context and strategy, a view that is not well supported by the research and that supporters of contingency theory find inherently implausible.

Identifying and Measuring HR Practices: A Summary

This brief overview has shown that there are major problems in conceptualizing and operationalizing the presence and application of the HR practices that constitute the HRM system. Much of the difficulty can be attributed to the complexities that arise from the lack of clear definitions of the content and boundaries of any HRM system, from the variety of perceived goals of the system and therefore the practices that deserve priority, and from the various levels of analysis at which the research is undertaken. These challenges are of a different order than those faced by W/O psychologists who have typically focused more narrowly on a specific practice at the individual or group level. However, the lesson of HRM for W/O psychology is that this type of detailed focus needs to be understood in its wider context, recognizing the risk that a specific practice can act as a proxy for a wider set of practices unless some way can be found of controlling for their influence. Researchers need to be clear about the underlying rationale for the kind of HRM they are exploring and be explicit about the reasons certain HR practices are included and what assumptions are being made about aggregation. Too many studies have lacked a theory or even an explanation for their choices of practices. It is also worth noting that the research, with its focus on HR practices likely to enhance performance, omits a number of important topics that are likely to be of interest to employees and have been the focus of extensive research by W/O psychologists, such as the role of careers and career management, equal opportunities, and work-life balance. Despite all the problems of identifying and measuring HR practices, and the unreliability that the diversity of practice indicates, the large body of research, reflected in the various meta-analyses (see, e.g., Combs et al., 2006 ; Jiang et al., 2012 ) consistently reveals a positive association at the organizational level between the use of more HR practices and financial outcomes.

The Outcomes of HRM

Most of the early research was concerned with the relationship between HRM and organizational performance and was conducted at the level of the organization. For example, in the early seminal study by Huselid ( 1995 ) who surveyed leading U.S. companies, outcomes included aggregated labor turnover and productivity, but the main focus was on various financial indicators, including market value of shareholder equity. In Jiang et al.’s ( 2012 ) meta-analysis, the main dependent variable was financial performance reflected in a variety of measures, including return on assets, return on equity, and a general measure of overall financial performance. The problem with the use of financial indicators is that they are subject to a wide variety of influences, including the vagaries of the economic system. Therefore, as a distal outcome, the size of the association with HRM is always likely to be quite weak. An alternative is to utilize more proximal measures that are organizationally relevant in the sense that they could have a financial impact but are more likely to be influenced by HRM. In other words, they can provide a test of mediation. This has led to the use of outcomes like labor turnover, productivity, and service quality. Two early studies in strip steel mills (Arthur, 1994 ; Ichniowski, Shaw, & Prennushi, 1997 ) explored the link between HRM and productivity. However, productivity has proved particularly challenging to measure, especially in the service sector, and in their meta-analysis, Combs et al. ( 2006 ) found that there was a stronger association between HRM and financial performance than between HRM and productivity. What this perhaps illustrates is that there are questions concerning both the reliability and validity of these outcome measures.

Identifying outcome measures can become greater at the unit level rather than the organizational level. One way of addressing this has been to obtain subjective assessments of outcomes from managers. This is the approach that has been adopted over the years by the British Workplace Employment Relations surveys that collect data from about 2000 workplaces (see van Wanrooy et al., 2013 ). They ask managers to rate their performance on a variety of criteria against competitors they know about in the same sector. Analyses of the results where it is possible to compare against independent financial reports (e.g., in single unit organizations) show that there is a modest positive association between the subjective and more objective indicators (Forth & McNabb, 2008 ; see also Wall et al., 2004 ). However, in their meta-analysis, Combs et al. ( 2006 ) reported higher associations between HRM and performance where subjective rather than objective indicators of performance are used. There are some sectors where unit-level comparisons are feasible, including retail and banking, because organizations have a large number of more-or-less identical branches. Similar arguments are increasingly made about public-sector organizations such as hospitals and local authorities, and benchmarking has become popular based on assumptions about the validity of such comparisons. For relevant research on hospitals, see Givan, Avgar, and Liu, ( 2010 ) and West, Guthrie, Dawson, Borrill, and Carter ( 2006 ), and for local authorities, see Messersmith, Patel, Lepak, and Gould-Williams ( 2011 ).

Psychologists have been more interested in employee outcomes, and a growing number of studies explore the relationship between HRM and employee attitudes, behavior, and wellbeing. The choice of measure depends on whether the primary interest lies in organizational performance or employee wellbeing. In the case of the former, it can include individual-level performance, organizational citizenship behavior, absence, and labor turnover. When the main interest is in wellbeing, outcome measures include psychological contract fulfillment, perceptions of employment security, and perceived organizational support, as well as measures of stress, burnout, and engagement, and standard measures of job satisfaction and wellbeing (for a review, see Clinton & van Veldhoven, 2013 ). Almost all the research shows a positive association between the presence of more HR practices and more positive employee responses (see Clinton & van Veldhoven, 2013 ). However, a small minority of studies have revealed increases in levels of stress (see, e.g., Ramsay, Scholarios, & Harley, 2000 ). This has led critics such as Godard ( 2004 ) to argue that HRM is bad for workers because it is likely to result in work intensification and the consequent stress.

Although the evidence of negative consequences for employees is weak, the topic has generated interest in the extent to which HRM is associated with both higher organizational performance and improved employee wellbeing. The relatively few reported studies in which both have been measured have been reviewed by van de Voorde, Paauwe, and van Veldhoven ( 2012 ) and Peccei, van de Voorde, and van Veldhoven ( 2013 ). They find that the presence of more HR practices is associated with both higher performance and higher job satisfaction and organizational commitment. However, the evidence from the very few studies that have included health-related wellbeing measures, mainly indications of stress, is somewhat more equivocal, revealing a mix of positive, neutral, and negative outcomes for employees. It is unclear whether the studies with more negative results were utilizing high-performance work systems to enhance performance or high-commitment/high-involvement approaches that give higher priority to employee roles and outcomes. Future research exploring this issue will need to be clearer about the HRM strategy that underpins the type of practices adopted.

In summary, the research on HRM has predominantly explored outcomes that reflect organizational and managerial interests associated with performance. These have often been quite distal measures, such as financial performance, and have usually been collected at the organizational level. A smaller stream of research has explored employee outcomes like job satisfaction and wellbeing. As more proximal measures, these might be expected to reveal a stronger association with HRM. Relatively few studies have explored both organizational and employee outcomes. Those that have done so tend to show mutual benefits, but the results are somewhat inconsistent and seem to depend in part on the type of employee outcome under investigation. This is an area that would benefit from further research.

Understanding the Relationship between HRM and Outcomes

The early research was primarily concerned with establishing a relationship between HRM and organizational performance, but much of the focus shifted to seek explanations for how or why there appears to be an association. The relatively limited body of research exploring the role of external fit of HR practices with the business strategy has failed to show any consistent impact on outcomes (Jackson, Schuler, & Jiang, 2014 ). Instead, most subsequent research has been based on internal fit and development and testing of linkage models. These typically propose that HR practices influence employee perceptions that in turn affect employee attitudes and behavior and subsequently employee performance. This can then be aggregated to proximal (e.g., productivity, service quality) and distal (e.g., financial) organizational performance. Elements and sometimes a complete linkage model have been tested, and research has typically reported support for the expected associations indicating full or partial mediation. The AMO model has been the most extensively tested, and the meta-analysis by Jiang et al. ( 2012 ) provides a good example of this. They linked measures of the HR bundles to indicators of human capital and motivation, and linked those in turn to labor turnover and internal measures of performance, and finally linked both of those to financial performance. They reported good evidence for these linkages and for partial mediation.

The AMO model suggests that HR practices succeed by leveraging employee behavior. Alternative models based on high-commitment or high-involvement rather than high-performance HRM utilize social exchange theory (Gong, Chang, & Cheun, 2010 ; Piening, Baluch, & Salge, 2013 ). The core argument is that if HR practices are used to enhance the commitment and involvement of employees and to ensure a positive employment relationship, this will in turn be positively perceived by employees at both an individual and collective level. It might, for example, be perceived in terms of fulfillment of the psychological contract (Rousseau & Greller, 1994 ) or in the form of perceived organizational support (Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli, & Lynch, 1997 ). Based on the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960 ), employees can be expected to respond with positive attitudes and behavior. Research supports these linkages and shows an association with organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, higher individual performance, and a lower propensity to quit the organization or be voluntarily absent (e.g., Kehoe & Wright, 2013 ; Takeuchi, Chen, & Lepak, 2009 ). Overall, therefore, there is consistent support for a linkage model. More research is needed to test competing explanations for these linkages and to understand why the strength of the association varies. Some issues, to which we now turn, offer possible explanations.

The Role of Employee Attributions

As the role of employees takes center stage in the analysis of the impact of HRM, it is recognized that to understand the effect of HRM on attitudes and behavior, it is first necessary to consider how employees perceive HR practices. Researchers have begun to use a form of attribution theory to explore how employees interpret management motives for adopting certain HR practices and to examine how their interpretation affects their attitudes and behavior. Nishii, Lepak, and Schneider ( 2008 ) researched attributions among employees in a large Japanese retail chain. They hypothesized that if employees attributed management’s use of HR practices to a desire to enhance quality of service or employee wellbeing, then the response would be positive and would, in turn, have a positive effect on customer service. In contrast, if they were attributed to management’s desire to enhance control over employees or to intensify work, then these negative attributions would feed through into less enthusiastic employee behaviors that would be reflected in customer evaluation of service quality in the branches. Their findings supported these hypotheses. Subsequent research by van de Voorde & Beijer ( 2015 ) tested the impact of wellbeing and performance attributions on individual employee outcomes and found that, as predicted, wellbeing attributions had a positive impact on commitment to the organization and on employee wellbeing, reflected in lower levels of job strain, whereas performance attributions resulted in higher levels of job strain. Both studies confirm the importance of understanding employee attributions in any model seeking to explain the links between HRM and outcomes.

Research on employee attributions highlights the potential role of signaling theory (Connelly, Certo, Ireland, & Reutzel, 2011 ), a variation on communication theory. To put it at its simplest, what do HR practices, singly or in combination, signal to employees? Rousseau and Greller ( 1994 ) used signaling theory to explain how HR practices communicated to workers the content of the psychological contract. Signaling theory formed the basis for an influential conceptual article by Bowen and Ostroff ( 2004 ) concerning the implementation of HRM. They support the view that it is not sufficient to have good HR practices in place; implementation is only likely to be effective if management can clearly signal the intentions behind the HR practices. They argue that this is more likely to be achieved when there is what they call a “strong” HR system. They hypothesize that this will entail three features that need to be clearly signaled: high consensus, implying agreement among the relevant stakeholders about the viability and fairness of the HR practices; high distinctiveness, implying that HR practices should be visible, understandable, and relevant; and high consistency, implying that HR practices complement each other and are seen as aiding goal achievement. Bowen and Ostroff’s approach suggests that strong leadership signaling support from the top of the organization is required to ensure a strong HR system and therefore an increased likelihood of effective implementation of HR practices.

Researchers have begun to test Bowen and Ostroff’s propositions. A first step has been to develop measures of the three core components and the sub-elements that Bowen and Ostroff outline (see, e.g., Delmotte, De Winne, & Sels, 2012 ; Coelho, Cunha, Gomes, & Correia, 2015 ). A second step has been to test the validity of the model by studying the association of the dimensions with performance outcomes (see, e.g., Sanders, Dorenbosch, & De Reuver, 2008 ; Li, Frenkel, & Sanders, 2011 ; Pereira & Gomes, 2012 ). The results of these studies highlight the complexity of the model, suggesting that it would benefit from some simplification. Secondly, they indicate that the distinctiveness dimension appears to be more important than the other dimensions, and that the relative importance of the three dimensions of HRM system strength seems to vary across studies and perhaps across national cultures. Despite the enthusiasm with which some researchers have been exploring the Bowen and Ostroff model, there may be a case for revisiting some of the underlying dimensions.

The HR Implementation Process and Actors

Research on attribution theory, signaling theory, and the strength of the HR system is concerned with HR implementation. It is based on recognition that the presence of HR practices is not enough to ensure that they have an impact. A related stream of research has explored the process of HR implementation by focusing more directly on the roles of the main actors. Guest and Bos-Nehles ( 2013 ) have outlined a descriptive framework that implicated several parties in the implementation process. Top management and senior HR managers have responsibility for deciding whether certain practices should be present. HR managers, perhaps with outside help from consultants and W/O psychologists, shape the quality of the practices. Line managers, with support from local HR managers, have to implement practices on a day-to-day basis, and in addition they need to be motivated to ensure that they are implemented in a high-quality rather than a ritualistic way. Finally, their impact depends on employees’ perceptions of and attributions about the practices. There has been some concern that line managers may be a weak link in this process. Case studies led Hope Hailey, Farndale, and Truss ( 2005 ) to conclude that in the U.K., line managers were neither willing nor able to accept their HR implementation role. In contrast, Bos-Nehles ( 2010 ) found that Dutch managers were motivated to ensure effective implementation of HR but often lacked the time to do so (Bos-Nehles, 2010 ). A study of the implementation of policy and practice to address bullying and harassment in healthcare (Woodrow & Guest, 2014 ) found that although best HR practices were in place, they were invariably poorly implemented due mainly to lack of senior management support, but also to employees’ perceptions that the HR systems were ineffective in helping to resolve incidents of bullying and harassment. This would appear to support Bowen and Ostroff’s argument about the need for a strong HR system with top-level support.

The interest in HRM implementation has increased the focus on the role of HR specialists. There has been a longstanding stream of research on the role of HR managers reflecting concerns about their lack of power and influence (see, e.g., Legge, 1978 ; Ritzer & Trice, 1969 ; Guest & King, 2004 ). In a highly influential attempt to boost the role, Ulrich has presented a stream of writing and research outlining evolving ideas about the HR department structure, the various HR roles, and HR competencies required for effective performance by HR professionals (see Ulrich, 1997 ; Ulrich & Brockbank, 2005 : Ulrich, Younger, Brockbank, & Ulrich, 2013 ). Underpinning his research was a desire to see the HR function contributing to effective HR implementation or, as he expressed it, moving from “doing” to “delivering.”

Ulrich’s ideas generated considerable excitement among HR professionals in several countries, resulting in a rush to implement them. However, they have also been the subject of extensive conceptual critiques (see, e.g., Caldwell, 2008 ) and empirical research (see, e.g., Buyens & De Vos, 2001 ; Wright, 2008 ), raising serious questions about the feasibility of implementing them beyond the context of large, predominantly U.S. private-sector organizations, something Ulrich himself recognized. Nevertheless, his work is important in highlighting the role of HR professionals who often serve as gatekeepers for the application of the research of W/O psychologists in organizations.

The Role of Individual Differences

As psychologists have become more interested in HRM, attention has begun to focus on individual differences. One illustration of this has been a broadening of the conceptualization of the characteristics that constitute human capital, reflected in the work of Ployhart and Moliterno ( 2011 ), including the role of personality and values as human capital. Another stream of research has been considering age and the question of whether specific HR practices or bundles of practices have a greater impact at different ages. The rationale for expecting that this might be the case draws on selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) theory (Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999 ). For example, Bal, Kooij, and De Jong ( 2013 ) and Kooij et al. ( 2013 ) have shown how developmental HR practices among younger workers and accommodative HR practices among older workers can enhance commitment and wellbeing. There would appear to be room to extend this approach to consider other individual differences such as gender and education, but also variations in employment circumstances like temporary employment and other forms of employment flexibility. For example, what sort of HR practices are most suitable for long-distance workers including those working from home?

The Use of Multilevel Analysis

Bowen and Ostroff’s ( 2004 ) model builds on previous work by Ostroff and Bowen ( 2000 ) in arguing for a multilevel approach for understanding HRM processes and their impact. Ployhart and Moliterno ( 2011 ) make a similar point with respect to the aggregation of human capital. There is a strong case for multilevel analysis when employee attitudes and behavior form part of the study but the primary concern is with organizational performance, something that has become relatively common in recent research (see, e.g., Liao et al., 2009 ; Messersmith et al., 2011 ; Piening, Baluch, & Salge, 2013 ). Another context is when moderating variables are hypothesized to affect outcomes, requiring the use of moderated mediation. The kinds of moderating variables that have attracted most research attention are organizational climate and leadership, but there is room to extend this type of research to consider a potentially wide range of moderating variables, including exogenous factors like business sector and market conditions.

Comparative HRM

HRM is potentially a very broad field, and its extensive scope can be illustrated through the large body of research and writing on comparative HR systems. While most multilevel analysis uses the organization as the highest level of analysis, a distinct body of research has explored HRM at the country level. This research studies comparative HR systems and the impact of national institutions and cultural factors in shaping the kind of HR practices that are likely to be acceptable and have impact. European countries typically have a stronger institutional framework, including legislation that requires certain practices to be in place. In a country such as the U.S., organizations have fewer constraints on the HR practices they can choose whether or not to apply. Along with the major comparative studies of national cultures and leadership, the Cranet project (see, e.g., Mayehofer & Brewster, 2005 ) has for years been conducting standard surveys in many countries collecting data on HR practices, the structure of the HR function, and perceptions of impact. Rabl, Jayasinghe, Gerhart, and Kuhlmann ( 2014 ) have analyzed country differences in the strength of the HRM-performance relationship across studies reported in 29 countries. Although in all cases, the associations were positive, there were wide country differences in the average strength of the association, and their hypotheses about the influence of two dimensions of national culture, namely tight-loose properties and degree of flexibility, were not supported.

In policy terms, research on comparative HRM is particularly relevant for international organizations sending managers on overseas assignments. Schuler, Dowling, and De Cieri ( 1993 ) have provided an integrative framework within which to consider international HRM, including overseas assignments. Black and Mendenhall ( 1990 ) have explored issues in selection and more particularly cross-cultural training methods, while Black, Mendenhall, and Oddou ( 1991 ) have outlined the steps necessary for effective adjustment to an overseas assignment. Doherty, Dickmann, and Mills ( 2011 ) have explored motives among company-initiated and self-initiated overseas assignments, while Bolino ( 2007 ) has analyzed the implications of such assignments for career success. Comparative HRM therefore provides a good example of how HRM research can be considered at different levels of analysis, from different disciplinary perspectives, and from both conceptual and applied perspectives.

The Importance of Longitudinal Research

Much of the reported research linking HRM and outcomes has been cross-sectional, raising questions about causality and leading to calls for longitudinal studies. Researchers have begun to answer this call. Birdi et al. ( 2008 ) examined the impact of three HR practices (training, teamwork, and empowerment) and four operational practices (total quality management, just-in-time, supply chain management, and advanced manufacturing techniques) on productivity in a large sample of manufacturing firms over a 22-year period. They found a positive impact of HR practices but not operational practices, and they also found no interaction between them. They reported a lengthy time lag of several years before any impact was significant. In contrast, Piening, Baluch, and Salge ( 2013 ), in a longitudinal study in healthcare, found support for a causal chain from employee perceptions to changes in job satisfaction to changes in patient satisfaction. However, they found that the impact was greatest in the first year and diminished thereafter. The longitudinal study in healthcare by West et al. ( 2006 ) reported a more direct association between the presence of more HR practices and mortality rates after controlling for a range of other potential influences.

Longitudinal studies have generally supported a causal ordering whereby HR practices affect outcomes. However, they have rarely considered the possibility of reverse causality. The potential for reverse causality is based on the assumption that high performance and, in particular, high financial performance create room for investment, including investment in human resources. There is also the possibility that working for a successful organization is a source of satisfaction that in turn further enhances performance, a conclusion that might be drawn from the longitudinal study of company-level performance and job satisfaction over a number of years reported by Schneider, Hanges, Smith, and Salvaggio ( 2003 ). In the context of HRM, Guest, Michie, Conway, and Sheehan ( 2003 ) reported an association between HRM and subsequent financial performance. However, when they controlled for prior performance, this association disappeared, raising questions about the causal ordering. It also raises wider questions about the size of impact of HRM, since few studies have taken into account prior financial performance. This point is strongly reinforced in a study by Shin and Konrad ( 2016 ) that used a longitudinal Canadian company-level dataset to explore the relation over time between HRM and productivity. After controlling for past performance and past HRM, they found a modest positive two-way causal link between the variables, with each having an influence on the other over three two-year time lags. The study by Piening, Baluch, and Salge ( 2013 ) found support for a cyclical process whereby HRM affected outcomes and these in turn affected HR practices. But Van de Voorde, Paauwe, and van Veldhoven ( 2010 ), in a cross-lagged study, found that an “HR-indexed” measure of organizational climate had an impact on organizational performance, though there was no evidence of performance influencing climate.

These studies help to highlight the challenges of establishing the causal direction in the HRM-outcomes relationship and challenge the size of the associations reported in cross-sectional studies. When the outcome is financial performance, one of the problems is that it tends to be very stable from year to year, leaving only a small amount of variance to explain. The same may be the case for HR practices. There are also major challenges in controlling for other endogenous and exogenous variables. What may be needed are naturally occurring quasi-experimental studies, possibly at branch levels. At a micro level, W/O psychologists have been more successful in demonstrating causality with respect, for example, to interventions for improving selection, training, or job design. Since the distinctive feature of HRM is that it needs to be considered as a system of practices and is more typically explored at the unit or organizational level, this presents distinctive challenges of access over time and interpretation of results when other factors are hard to control for. Understanding the dynamics of changes in the use of HR practices may require in-depth longitudinal, qualitative studies along with the dominant quantitative research.

HRM provides an important context for research in W/O psychology. It incorporates the core practices and activities that constitute W/O psychologists’ areas of expertise. HR departments often act as gatekeepers for W/O psychologists from outside the organization or as hosts for those working within it. HRM extends the traditional domain of W/O psychologists by incorporating strategic issues, and it raises ethical issues in terms of the “utilization” of employees that can sometimes spill over into “exploitation.” It is therefore important that research on outcomes addresses the impact of employee wellbeing while at the same time recognizing the pragmatic political requirement to explore those contexts, conditions, policies, and practices that offer the potential for both high performance and high wellbeing. HRM is a broad topic that has attracted an extensive and growing body of research. It also raises a lot of challenging research questions. Its multilevel, multidisciplinary characteristics pose additional challenges for W/O psychologists. But it is an important applied subject with room to link theory, research, and application, and it is one to which W/O psychology is making an increasingly significant contribution.

Human resource management research in healthcare: a big data bibliometric study

Xiaoping qin.

1 School of Health Policy and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730 China

Yu-Ni Huang

2 College of Medical and Health Science, Asia University, Taichung, 41354 Taiwan

Kaiyan Chen

3 Department of Education, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730 China

4 Department of Innovative Medical Research, Hospital Management Institute, Chinese People’s Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing, 100853 China

Richard Szewei Wang

5 Affiliation Program of Data Analytics and Business Computing, Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, 10012 United States of America

6 Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055 China

Bing-Long Wang

Associated data.

All data and materials generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Human resource management (HRM) in healthcare is an important component in relation to the quality and efficiency of healthcare delivery. However, a comprehensive overview is lacking to assess and track the current status and trends of HRM research in healthcare. This study aims to describe the current situation and global trends in HRM research in healthcare as well as to indicate the frontiers and future directions of research. The research methodology is based on bibliometric mapping using scientific visualization software (VOSviewer). The data were collected from the Web of Science(WoS) core citation database. After applying the search criteria, we retrieved 833 publications, which have steadily increased over the last 30 years. In addition, 93 countries and regions have published relevant research. The United States and Australia have made significant contributions in this area. Current research articles focus on topics clustered into performance, hospital/COVID-19, job satisfaction, human resource management, occupational/mental health, and quality of care. The most frequently co-occurring keywords are human resource management, job satisfaction, nurses, hospitals, health services, quality of care, COVID-19, and nursing. There is limited research on compensation management and employee relations management, so the current HRM research field still has not been able to present a complete and systematic roadmap. We propose that our colleagues should consider focusing on these research gaps in the future.

Introduction

Among the many management elements, people are the most dynamic and active element, and they are an important asset in organizations [ 1 ]. The term “human resources” was first coined by the academic Peter F. Drucker in 1954 [ 2 ]. The key function of human resources management (HRM) is to “put the right people in the right jobs at the right time” [ 2 ]. HRM refers to the planned allocation of human resources in accordance with the requirements of organizational development through a series of processes, such as recruitment, training, use, assessment, motivation, and adjustment of employees, to mobilize their motivation, bring into play their potential and create value for the organization [ 1 ]. Ensuring the achievement of the organization’s strategic objectives, HRM activities mainly include human resource strategy formulation, staff recruitment and selection, training and development, performance management, compensation management, staff mobility management, staff relationship management, staff safety and health management, etc. Similarly, modern healthcare management has human resources as the core. The HRM level in hospitals is related to the quality and efficiency of medical services provided by hospitals, which is also the core of internal hospital management and the focus of health macro management [ 3 ].

The World Health Organization (WHO) states that health systems can only work with the help of health workers, and that improving the coverage of health services and realizing the right to the highest standard of health depends on the availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality of health workers [ 4 ]. In response to evolving characteristics in socio-economic development and the human resource market, healthcare system personnel reforms are evident in three key areas: first, decentralization and flexible employment practices grant hospital managers greater decision-making autonomy concerning priorities and access to medical resources. However, they also impose quantitative and functional constraints on physicians' working hours, career planning, and medical payment systems. Second, a focal point is the rational allocation of technical staff to achieve efficiency while controlling labor costs. Finally, hospital organization change and restructuring are prevalent. Many European countries have unionized hospital employees, limiting the ability to establish independent incentives and rewards. In contrast, U.S. hospital employees often do not belong to specific organizations, leading cost control efforts to revolve around adjusting the allocation of technical staff and employee numbers to reduce labor expenses [ 5 – 7 ].

The current global trend in the number of publications on HRM in healthcare is rising. However, there are currently several problems in HRM research. The following issues mainly exist: (1) the expertise and professionalism of HRM managers are limited. (2) Theoretical methods and technical applications are weak. (3) Insufficient regulation of regulations, systems and procedures. (4) Management is mainly at the level of operational work, and functions are too fragmented [ 8 , 9 ]. Although hospitals worldwide generally recognize the importance of HRM, they do not pay sufficient attention to it. The management of human resources is also stuck in the previous understanding that its work is carried out only by transferring positions in hospitals, promoting and reducing the salary of employees and a series of other operations [ 10 ]. Most senior management in hospitals have comprehensive medical knowledge; some are experts in a particular field. Still, they lack expertise in HRM, which makes them work in a transactional way in HRM. There is also currently a general health workforce imbalance in countries worldwide. The lack of well-being of healthcare workers is particularly problematic in foreign healthcare institutions [ 11 ], and to reduce costs, some organizations have reduced staffing levels. In turn, because of lower quality of service, the morale of healthcare providers often suffers. Patient satisfaction may decline [ 12 ]. In the process of data gathering, we found that the literature related to HRM in healthcare is still under-reported and that the research topics are scattered, and there is still a lack of generalization and summary of these literatures [ 13 ]. There is no systematic theoretical support in the current research, which defines the perspective that researchers should take when analyzing and interpreting the data to be collected, leading to biased interpretations of the results, and does not allow other researchers to combine the findings with existing research knowledge and then apply them to practice [ 14 ]. Second, data collection was not rigorous, and the downloading strategy was not appropriate to achieve completeness and accuracy of data. There is also a lack of information and incomplete use of features in the presentation of knowledge maps and visualization results [ 15 ].

Therefore, the aims of this study are the following; first, we provide a new way of viewing the field of healthcare HRM and its associations by examining co-occurrence data. Second, we relate our evolutionary analysis to a comprehensive future research agenda which may generate a new research agenda in healthcare hospital HRM. This review, therefore, focuses on illuminating the research frontiers and future roadmap for healthcare HRM research [ 16 , 17 ].

Materials and methods

This study provides a bibliometric analysis of the HRM research literature in health care over a 30-year period to describe the landscape and trajectory of change in the research field. The methodology used for this overview is based on bibliometric mapping [ 18 , 19 ], a visualization technique that quantitatively displays the landscape and dynamic aspects of the knowledge domain [ 20 ]. Data were collected from the Web of Science (WoS) core citation database. Two Java-based scientific visualization software packages (CiteSpace and VOSviewer), developed by Chaomei Chen and Van Eck and Waltman, were used to analyze the data [ 18 , 21 ].

The data for this study were retrieved from the Web of Science on 28 September 2022. Web of Science was chosen as the search engine, because it is the most widely accepted and commonly used database for analyzing scientific publications [ 22 ]. The keywords “human resource management” and “healthcare organization” were used as search topics. First, to get a complete picture of HRM research, we searched all the literature from 1977 to the date of the search.

Eight hundred thirty-three publications on HRM in healthcare organizations were identified (Fig. 1 ). We excluded publications before 1990, because the two documents before 1990 did not include complete information. In addition, articles, review articles, and early access articles were included in the study. To minimize language bias, we excluded literature published in languages other than English. Each publication in WoS contains detailed information, including the year of publication, author, author’s address, title, abstract, source journal, subject category, references, etc. A detailed description of the contents of the database preceded the bibliographic analysis. For example, some authors presented their names in different spellings when submitting articles, so reviewing and integrating the data in detail was necessary. A total of 718 publications were included and exported to VOSviewer and CiteSpace software to analyze the following topics: global publishing trends, countries, journals, authors, research orientations, institutions, and quality of publications.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12960_2023_865_Fig1_HTML.jpg

Research flow chart of the bibliometric analysis

Introduction to CiteSpace and VOSviewer

VOSviewer is a software tool for building and visualizing bibliometric networks. It was developed by Van Eck and Waltman [ 21 ]. In VOSviewer, metric networks can be visualized and analyzed for factors, including journals, researchers, or individual publications. They can be constructed based on citations, bibliographic couplings, co-citations, or co-authorship relationships [ 21 ].

Global publication trends

Number of global trends.

After applying the search criteria, we retrieved a total of 718 articles. Figure 2 a shows the increase in articles from 1 in 1977 to 108 in 2021. To predict future trends, a linear regression model was used to create a time curve for the number of publications throughout the year, and the model fit curve for the growth trend is shown in Fig. 2 b. The trend in the number of publications fitted the time curve well at R 2 = 0.8802. The R-squared value is a measure of how well the trend line fits. This value reflects the degree of fit between the estimated value of the trend line and the corresponding actual data; the better the fit, the more reliable the trend line is [ 23 , 24 ]. Based on the model’s trends, it is also predicted that the number of articles on HRM in healthcare will increase to approximately 300 by 2030, an almost threefold increase compared to 2021.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12960_2023_865_Fig2_HTML.jpg

a Total number of publications related to HRM research. The bars indicate the number of publications per year. b Model fitting curves of global publication trends. c Top 10 countries of total publications. d Distribution world map of HRM research

Country and regional contributions

Figure 2 c, d shows the number of publications and the world distribution of the top 10 countries in total publication numbers. The USA contributed the most publications (172, 24.2%), followed by Australia (86, 12.0%), the UK (83, 11.6%), and China (78, 10.9%).

Total number of citations

The USA had the highest total number of citations of all included publications (5195) (Table (Table1), 1 ), while the UK ranked second (2661), followed by Australia (1960) and the Netherlands (1271). The detailed rankings and numbers are shown in Fig. 3 a and Table Table1 1 .

Contributions in publications of countries

Country	Publications	Sum of the Times Cited	Average Citations per Item	H-index
USA	172	5195	30.2	36
UNITED KINGDOM	83	2661	32.06	27
AUSTRALIA	86	1960	22.79	23
NETHERLANDS	60	1271	21.18	21
CANADA	46	1248	27.13	22
CHINA	78	997	12.78	19
BELGIUM	19	936	49.26	12
TAIWAN	36	795	22.08	15
GERMANY	31	596	19.23	11
IRAN	27	277	10.26	9

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12960_2023_865_Fig3_HTML.jpg

a Top 10 countries of average citations for each article. b Average number of citations. c Top 10 countries of the H-index

Average citation frequency

Belgium had the highest average number of citations (49.26), followed by the UK (32.06), the USA (30.2), and Canada (27.13), as shown in Fig. 3 b.

Total citations and the h-index reflect the quality of a country’s publications and academic impact[ 25 ]. Figure 3 c shows the ranking of the h-index, where the top country is the USA (h-index = 36), followed by the UK (h-index = 27), Australia (h-index = 23), and Canada (h-index = 22).

Analysis of publications

Table Table2 2 shows the top 10 journals for publications on HRM in healthcare, with 54 articles published in “International Journal of Human Resource Management”, 44 articles published in “BMJ Open”, 30 articles published in “Journal of Nursing Management”, and 24 articles in “BMC Health Services Research”.

Top 10 journals of publications related to HRM research

Publications	Times	Percentage( = 718)
International Journal Of Human Resource Management	54	7.521
Bmj Open	44	6.128
Journal Of Nursing Management	30	4.178
Bmc Health Services Research	24	3.343
Journal Of Advanced Nursing	18	2.507
Health Care Management Review	16	2.228
Human Resources For Health	16	2.228
Human Resource Management	14	1.95
Plos One	14	1.95
Human Resource Management Journal	11	1.532

Table Table3 3 shows the top 10 most published authors with 96 articles/reviews in the last decade, representing 13.4% of all literature in the field. Timothy Bartram from Australia has published 19 papers, followed by Sandra Leggat from Australia, Stanton P from the USA, and Townsend K from the UK with 13, 11, and 10 papers, respectively. All researchers listed as authors were included in this term for analysis, regardless of their relative contribution to the study. Notably, we have included all authors in this analysis regardless of their relative contribution to the study.

Top 20 authors of publications

Author	Publications	Sum of the Times Cited	Average Citations per Item	h-index
Bartram T	19	722	38	12
Leggat SG	13	488	37.54	9
Stanton P	11	510	46.36	8
Townsend K	10	210	21	8
Wilkinson A	10	210	21	8
Van Rhenen W	8	138	17.25	5
Paauwe J	7	258	36.86	4
Boselie P	6	338	56.33	6
Kellner A	6	87	14.5	6
Marchal B	6	163	27.17	6

Research orientation

Figure 4 a shows the top 10 research orientations of the 100 research orientations. The most common research orientations were management (193 articles), nursing (107 articles), health policy services (105 articles), and health care sciences services (201 articles).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12960_2023_865_Fig4_HTML.jpg

a Top 10 research orientations and the number of publications in each orientation. b Top 20 institutions with the most publications

Institutions

Figure 4 shows the top 20 institutions with the most published papers. La Trobe University has the highest number of articles with 24, followed by the University of London (23) and Griffith University (18).

Co-occurrence analysis

In the keyword mapping on HRM research in healthcare, the size of the nodes represents the frequency, while the line between the nodes reflects the co-occurrence relationship. A total of 1914 keywords were included, and 59 met the criteria. All keywords were grouped into six clusters: performance (light blue cluster), job satisfaction (red cluster), quality of care (blue cluster), human resource management (brown cluster), occupational/mental health (purple cluster), and hospital/COVID-19 (green cluster) (Fig. 5 ).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12960_2023_865_Fig5_HTML.jpg

Co-occurrence analysis of HRM research in healthcare

The most prominent themes in HRM research in healthcare are as below. In the “Performance” cluster, the keywords which have the greatest co-occurrence strength were “performance”, “systematic review”, “decentralization health system” and “motivation”. The main keywords in the “Job Satisfaction” cluster are “job satisfaction”, “organizational commitment”, “transformational leadership” and “turn over”. In the “Quality of care” cluster, the keywords that stand out are “quality of care”, “patient safety”, “high-performance work system”, “quality management” and “patient satisfaction”. In the “Human resource management” cluster, the prominent keywords include “human resource management”, “health policy”, “public health”, and “education and training”. In the “Occupational/Mental Health” cluster, the prominent keywords are “Occupational health”, “mental health”, “well-being” and “burnout”. The main keywords in the “Hospital/COVID-19” cluster were “hospitals”, “COVID-19” “workforce” and “qualitative research”.

Global trends in HMR in healthcare

Our study of HMR research in healthcare illustrates current and global trends in publications, contributing countries, institutions, and research orientations. The field of HMR research has evolved over the past three decades. However, as this study shows, the number of publications steadily increases yearly, with 93 countries or regions publishing in the field, suggesting that research focusing on HMR research and providing in-depth knowledge will likely increase.

Quality and status of publications worldwide

We find that most publishing countries are developed countries, but developing countries are catching up. The total citation rate and the h-index reflect the quality and scholarly impact of a country’s publications [ 25 ]. According to our study, the US ranks first among other countries in total publications, citations, and h-index, making the most substantial contribution to global HRM research. The UK and Canada also contribute significantly, with impressive total citation frequencies and h-index, especially the UK, which ranks second in average citation frequency. However, some countries, such as Belgium, Canada and Australia, also play an important role, given their high average citation frequency. In developing countries, HRM research has also served as a guide for hospitals to improve the quality of care. The study will serve as a reference for developing countries to learn from the experience of developed countries as their economic development gradually catches up with that of developed countries.

The impact and prestige of the journals can be seen in the number of articles published in the field and the influential journals in healthcare HRM research, including the BMC Health Services Research, the Journal of Nursing Management, the International Journal of Human Resource Management, the Health Care Management Review, and the Journal of Health Organisation and Management. These high-quality journals are thus the main source of information for researchers in this field on the latest developments in HRM in healthcare.

The study shows that almost all of the top 20 institutions come from the top five countries with the most publications, with the majority coming from the US, Australia and the Netherlands, reflecting the great academic influence of these three countries in the field of HRM in healthcare. These institutions play an important role in raising the academic performance of a country. Furthermore, the top 20 authors represent research leaders who are likely to impact the future direction of research significantly. Therefore, more attention should be paid to their work to stay abreast of the latest developments in the field.

Research Focus on HRM

Keywords play a crucial role in research papers as they contain vital information [ 26 ]. A systematic analysis of keywords within a specific research domain offers valuable insights into trends and focal points across various research areas [ 27 ]. Moreover, co-occurrence analysis relies on the number of joint publications to evaluate relationships among the identified keyword domains. As a result, it serves as an effective method for predicting future trends and focal points within the research areas of interest. These findings are expected to inspire more researchers to contribute to the future of HRM research in healthcare [ 28 ].

In this study, a total of six research domains were eventually summarized. Performance, Hospital/COVID-19, Job Satisfaction, Human resource management, Occupational/Mental Health, and Quality of care. By visualizing the analysis results, we can easily further clarify future trends. As the co-occurrence diagram shows, the keywords “Organizational culture”, “Patient safety”, “Nursing”, “Leadership”, “Quality of care” and “Hospitals” are highlighted as larger icons, so that investment and demand for quality research are necessary for the context of these six research directions.

Six modules and research directions in human resources

This study found that the visual clustering results and the keywords that emerged from the clusters were closely related to the HRM module s described in “Human Resources Management: Gaining a Competitive Advantage” by Noe. R . [ 29 ]. The modules have been cited in HRM research and are used as textbooks in universities [ 30 – 33 ]. Some of the keywords in each cluster correspond to human resource planning, performance management, recruitment and staffing, and training and development, respectively. The explanation of the HRM modules is described in the next paragraph. However, there are no explicit keywords in the modules related to employee relations management and compensation management results. This may be due to the private nature of the compensation structure in healthcare organizations during data collection, making it unavailable.

The explanation of the HRM modules [ 29 ]

Human resource planning is the starting point of HRM. It helps the organization forecast future personnel needs and their basic qualities, primarily through planning.
Recruitment and staffing, with HR planning as the input, is equivalent to the organization’s blood, nourishing the organization and solving the problem of staffing and staff matching.
Training and development, with the “education” theme.
Performance Management is at the heart of the six dimensions. It is also the primary input to the other dimensions.
Compensation management aims to motivate employees to solve the company’s problems.
Employee relations management aims to manage people and help the company form an effective cycle of rational human resource allocation.

Human resource planning

Human Resource Plan (HRP) stands for the implementation of the HR development strategy of the enterprise and the accomplishment of the enterprise’s goals, according to the changes in the internal and external environment and conditions of the enterprise, through the analysis and estimation of the future needs and supply of human resources and the use of scientific methods for organizational design, as well as the acquisition, allocation, utilization and maintenance of HR and other aspects of functional planning. HRP ensures that the organization has a balance of HR supply and demand at a needed time and in a required position, and achieves a reasonable allocation of HR and other resources to effectively motivate and develop of employees [ 34 ].

Decentralization health system, organizational culture/structure are high-frequency words in the clustering results related to “human resource management”. It is important to assess the extent to which decentralization can be used as a policy tool to improve national health systems. For policymakers and managers, based on relevant literature and research as well as country experience analysis, the experience of decentralization in relation to the organization and management of healthcare services is considered a forward-looking and pioneering concept capable of achieving optimal allocation of HR and other resources, in addition to the need to focus more on ex-ante and ex-post incentive development to deliver a 1 + 1 > 2 HRM effect [ 35 ]. HRP is the starting point and basis for all specific HRM activities. It directly affects the efficiency of the overall HRM of the enterprise. It is, therefore, taken as the primary job requirement for HR managers [ 36 ]. Organizational culture/structure significantly impacts the healthcare sector, such as excellence in healthcare delivery, ethical values, engagement, professionalism, cost of care, commitment to quality and strategic thinking, which are key cultural determinants of high-quality care delivery [ 37 ]. Therefore, as with other for-profit organizations, healthcare organizations must ensure that their organizational structure functions effectively to achieve their strategic goals. The organization formulates and implements HRM, an important task to achieve the development strategy goals.

Staff recruitment and allocation

Recruitment and staffing are the first steps in hospital HRM activities. Under the guidance of the organization’s human resources development plan, potential staff who meet the development conditions are attracted. Through the scientific selection of outstanding personnel, a platform with guaranteed treatment and development prospects is provided to ensure that the team of the healthcare organization is built solidly and meets the development needs. From the findings of this study, the keywords “workforce” and “workload” appear as high-frequency keywords in the co-occurrence analysis. Still, keywords related to traditional staff recruitment (e.g., analysis of recruitment needs, job analysis, competency analysis, recruitment procedures, and strategies) do not appear often. Recruitment and staffing are the prerequisites of human resources work. They bring a new dynamic source to healthcare organizations while complementing staff, making the organization full of vitality and vigor, facilitating organizational innovation and management innovation and helping improve the healthcare organization’s competitive advantage [ 38 ]. Recruitment and staffing, as a part of HR, directly impact the successful running of daily activities.

Training and development

Human resource training is an important component of quality and safety in the health care system. The keyword “education and training” shows a high frequency of co-occurrence in the clustering results of analysis, corresponding to the module “training and education”. However, it is connected to the keywords “human resource management” and “health policy”, and is in the same cluster with” public health”, “health care management”, and the distance between the lines and dots indicate that these topics are closely related, proving the importance of education and training in the HRM of health systems. Healthcare organizations (especially for non-professionals and caregivers) can improve the performance of their employees by enhancing their capabilities, knowledge and potential through learning and training, so that they can maximize their qualifications to match the demands of their work and advance their performance [ 39 , 40 ].

Performance management

Performance management, the core of the six modules, is also featured in the clustering results. Although this is an important focus for HR professionals, few studies have explored the link between HRM and health sector performance [ 6 ], the results show “performance” and “motivation”. The effectiveness of performance management is an important component of HRM, which effectively improves the quality of care in healthcare organizations/institutions [ 6 ]. Focusing on the effectiveness of performance management is considered to be crucial. First, as an integral part of HRM within an organization, it can help the organization meet its goals. Second, ineffective approaches can lead to negative attitudes among employees (including clinicians, nursing staff, administrators, etc.) and adversely affect performance due to decreased satisfaction among employees and patients. Third, given the increasing quality and cost reduction pressures on healthcare organizations, conducting further research on performance management and effectiveness is critical [ 41 ]. However, it is clear from our results that healthcare organizations have recognized the importance of performance management and are pursuing “high performance”. Although the topic of performance management in HRM in healthcare is one of the research priorities, the number is lacking and more discussion on performance management should be suggested for future research.

Compensation management

Compensation is an important tool to motivate employees to work hard and to motivate them to work hard. The results of the database's bibliographic analysis show that no keywords directly involved compensation. This indicates that “compensation management” has not been considered a hot topic or a research issue over 30 years of available literature. To clarify the content of this module, we further searched the database of 718 articles with keywords, such as compensation, remuneration, salary, etc., and found that only 35 of them mentioned or discussed compensation, and some years (e.g., 2018, 2009) even had no relevant literature being published. However, issues such as fairness of compensation management and employee compensation satisfaction are still important issues of concern to business management academics [ 42 , 43 ]. The actual situation is that it is difficult to conduct research on compensation management. Most organizations keep their employees’ compensation confidential, and when conducting research, HR managers avoid talking about their employees’ compensation or leave it vague, rendering it impossible for researchers to conduct further research.

Employee compensation is one factor that has the greatest impact on organizational performance. In the future, organizations should be encouraged to scientifically structure their compensation management and empower academic research to establish and implement fair compensation management systems based on empirical research while maintaining the privacy and security of organizational information.

Employee relations management

The connotation of employee relations management involves organizational culture and employee relations, as well as the coordination of the relationship between employers and employees. Healthcare organizations have complex structures with employees with varying skills, tasks or responsibilities, and such conflicts are often managed through the communication skills of administrative staff [ 44 ]. Although the keywords related to “employee relations management” did not occur in this study's analysis results, the six HRM modules are closely related. Therefore, this does not mean that no description of employee relations management was completely absent in the retrieved articles. It is clear that there is currently a lack of research on employee relations management in the healthcare field. Still, with the continuous development of the healthcare industry, it faces multiple challenges. If employee relations are not handled properly, healthcare organizations with social responsibility will face great public pressure, which will even affect the quality of healthcare services and performance, so it is especially important to strengthen the research on employee relations management.

This study inevitably has some limitations, the first of which arises from using quantitative methods to review documents in the field of HRM. The review relied on an analysis of the bibliographic data associated with the documents rather than a review of the research findings. The impact of the study was, therefore, limited to the general direction of developments in the field, rather than a synthesis of research findings. As a result, we may have missed some publications due to database bias. Second, most of the publications identified were in English and some articles relevant to other languages have not been included. Third, Since HRM exists in a wide range of industries and research areas, although researchers have set the screening criteria as detailed as possible, there may still be some literature that has not been detected.

This study describes the current state and global trends in HRM research in healthcare. The United States has made significant contributions in this field, establishing itself as a global leader. It is foreseeable that more and more publications will be published in the coming years, which indicates that HRM research in healthcare is booming. The analysis results of this study echoed the modules of HRM. It can be seen that in the current HRM research, many topics have been of interest. However, the focus and hotspots of the research are scattered, and there is presently no systematic research on the content of HRM in healthcare.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Editor-in-Chief and the referees for their helpful comments which help to improve our manuscript significantly.

Author contributions

BW, ZH and LLconceived of the presented idea. BW, developed the theory. BW, YH, RW, KC and XQ collected the data and discussed the results. BW and YH encouraged XQ to investigate the hospital management field and supervised the findings of this work. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.

This research was supported by Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, China (Grant number: 2021-RC630-001).

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

There are no human or animal studies in this manuscript, and no potentially identifiable human images or data are presented in this study.

Not applicable.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Research trends in human resource management. A text-mining-based literature review

International Journal of Manpower

ISSN : 0143-7720

Article publication date: 26 April 2022

Issue publication date: 14 March 2023

The purpose of the study was to detect trends in human resource management (HRM) research presented in journals during the 2000–2020 timeframe. The research question is: How are the interests of researchers changing in the field of HRM and which topics have gained popularity in recent years?

Design/methodology/approach

The approach adopted in this study was designed to overcome all the limitations specific to the systematic literature reviews and bibliometric studies presented in the Introduction. The full texts of papers were analyzed. The text-mining tools detected first clusters and then trends, moreover, which limited the impact of a researcher's bias. The approach applied is consistent with the general rules of systematic literature reviews.

The article makes a threefold contribution to academic knowledge. First, it uses modern methodology to gather and synthesize HRM research topics. The proposed approach was designed to allow early detection of nascent, non-obvious trends in research, which will help researchers address topics of high value for both theory and practice. Second, the results of our study highlight shifts in focus in HRM over the past 19 years. Third, the article suggests further directions of research.

Research limitations/implications

In this study, the approach designed to overcome the limitations of using systematic literature review was presented. The analysis was done on the basis of the full text of the articles and the categories were discovered directly from the articles rather than predetermined. The study's findings may, however, potentially be limited by the following issues. First, the eligibility criteria included only papers indexed in the Scopus and WoS database and excluded conference proceedings, book chapters, and non-English papers. Second, only full-text articles were included in the study, which could narrow down the research area. As a consequence, important information regarding the research presented in the excluded documents is potentially lost. Third, most of the papers in our database were published in the International Journal of Human Resource Management, and therefore such trends as “challenges for international HRM” can be considered significant (long-lasting). Another – the fourth – limitation of the study is the lack of estimation of the proportion between searches in HRM journals and articles published in other journals. Future research may overcome the above-presented limitations. Although the authors used valuable techniques such as TF-IDF and HDBSCAN, the fifth limitation is that, after trends were discovered, it was necessary to evaluate and interpret them. That could have induced researchers' bias even if – as in this study – researchers from different areas of experience were involved. Finally, this study covers the 2000–2020 timeframe. Since HRM is a rapidly developing field, in a few years from now academics will probably begin to move into exciting new research areas. As a consequence, it might be worthwhile conducting similar analyses to those presented in this study and compare their results.

Originality/value

The present study provides an analysis of HRM journals with the aim of establishing trends in HRM research. It makes contributions to the field by providing a more comprehensive and objective review than analyses resulting from systematic literature reviews. It fills the gap in literature studies on HRM with a novel research approach – a methodology based on full-text mining and a big data toolset. As a consequence, this study can be considered as providing an adequate reflection of all the articles published in journals strictly devoted to HRM issues and which may serve as an important source of reference for both researchers and practitioners. This study can help them identify the core journals focused on HRM research as well as topics which are of particular interest and importance.

Human resource management
Text-mining

Piwowar-Sulej, K. , Wawak, S. , Tyrańska, M. , Zakrzewska, M. , Jarosz, S. and Sołtysik, M. (2023), "Research trends in human resource management. A text-mining-based literature review", International Journal of Manpower , Vol. 44 No. 1, pp. 176-196. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-03-2021-0183

Emerald Publishing Limited

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

The human resource (HR) function has evolved over the years from serving a purely administrative role into one that is more strategic in character. Today it is believed that the mission of human resource management (HRM) is to support the organization in achieving its objectives by developing and implementing HR strategies that are integrated with a company's business strategy, promote staff development, foster a positive employment relationship, promote an ethical approach to people management, and care about the environment (social and natural) ( Ehnert, 2009 ; Braga et al. , 2021 ).

In practice, HRM means providing continuous solutions to a wide array of problems occurring in employee-employer, line worker-manager, and employee-employee relations and also in contacts with, e.g. trade unions. Human behaviors, feelings and attitudes are determined both by the personal characteristics of individuals and by the impact of the environment. The shape of HRM is significantly influenced by such factors as, e.g. the demographic and technological transformations ( Greiling, 2011 ; Silva and Lima, 2018 ), and globalization ( Gerhart and Fang, 2005 ).

HRM has evolved as a professional and academic discipline in parallel with both planned shifts in global considerations and unplanned phenomena such as, e.g. epidemics. For researchers it is crucial to identify, define, explain, and help practitioners understand the key factors which have an impact on HRM. Another of the researchers' roles is to formulate practical guidelines on how to manage people in different circumstances and outline areas of future research. HRM thrives on the contributions made in other fields that it assimilates and applies in practice. It unscrupulously builds on theoretical developments made earlier in related disciplines ( Boxall et al. , 2009 ). Finally, the researcher endeavors to provide an overview, comparisons, analyses and syntheses of previously published findings ( Paul and Criado, 2020 ).

The theme of trends in HRM has been addressed in numerous publications (e.g. Cooper et al. , 2020 ; Madera et al. , 2017 ). Their authors have employed various approaches to identify such phenomena, including systematic literature reviews. Articles offering a traditional overview provide a quantity-oriented (i.e. meta-analytical, systematic) approach together with descriptive or qualitative elements. Jointly, they develop a theoretical background, highlight irregularities in existing findings, integrate the findings of a wide variety of publications and in general provide other researchers with an up-to-date understanding of the discipline, frequently prepared by leading specialists ( Palmatier et al. , 2018 ). In most cases, the documents selected for analysis were based on titles, keywords and abstracts only. Unfortunately, they contain only around 8% of all research findings ( Blake, 2010 ). In order to gain a deeper insight into such a body of knowledge authors have often turned to the by-hand review method (e.g. Cooper et al. , 2020 ).

Conventional systematic by-hand literature reviews are sometimes characterized by errors in article selection, possible simplifications and potentially incomplete and not universal results (subjective, impressionistic descriptions), In response to these shortcomings, in recent years a number of new alternatives have emerged. One new approach that has attracted increasing attention is bibliometric studies. This method applies dedicated IT tools to gauge trends in articles. They examine academic material from both an objective and qualitative perspective for the purposes of identifying, organizing, and analyzing information in a specific research field ( Capobianco-Uriarte et al. , 2019 ). As far as trends in HRM are concerned, Markoulli et al. (2017) presented a summary of previously published traditional and narrative reviews and on its basis created a science map and defined clusters based on keyword co-occurrence analysis and the VOSviewer software tool.

Bibliometric analyses can be treated as a platform for writing an entire article or can be used only as preparation for the groundwork for further in-depth content analysis and qualitative descriptions. In turn, a text mining toolset can help identify research trends and select papers which are in line with a particular trend. Moreover, a full-text analysis of publications using a text mining toolset enables researchers to obtain higher-quality results than when using only keywords, such as in the case of VOSviewer analyses ( Kobayashi et al. , 2018 ). As a consequence we decided that it was worth adopting a methodology based on full-text mining and a big data toolset in order to identify trends in HRM research. We believe that big data and analytics help not only companies function but also researchers in a highly data-driven world ( Kobayashi et al. , 2018 ).

The purpose of the study was to detect trends in HRM research presented in journals during the 2000–2020 timeframe. The following research question was asked: how are the interests of researchers changing in the field of HRM and which topics have gained in popularity in recent years?

The paper is organized as follows. In the second section we describe the HRM research trends identified in previous studies. Here the focus is on the context in which authors were operating when analyzing HRM issues. The third section is devoted to the research method employed for the purpose of this study. Then we present the results and discussion. The article ends with conclusions, including limitations and areas of future research.

The article makes a threefold contribution to academic knowledge. First, it uses modern methodology to gather and synthesize HRM research topics. The proposed approach was designed to allow early detection of nascent, non-obvious trends in research, which will help researchers address topics of high value for both theory and practice. Second, the results of our study highlight shifts in focus in HRM over the past 20 years. Third, the article suggests further directions of research.

2. Trends in the HRM research identified in previous studies

In their search for HRM research trends authors of this study firstly used the Scopus database and a search strategy based on such terms as: trends in human resource management/HRM, trends in research on human resource management/HRM, human resource management/HRM trends, intellectual structure of human resource management/HRM. The searching process covered titles, abstracts and keywords and was limited to articles written in English. The search produced 37 documents. Then the authors also searched for additional articles in Google Scholar.

Most of the articles were devoted to the trends identified in HR practices in companies (e.g. Dubravska and Solankova, 2015 ). One of such trends is HRM digitalization ( Ashbaugh and Miranda, 2002 ). Table 1 presents a list of HRM trends identified in the research (related to academic work) conducted by different authors.

It can be concluded from the above that researchers employed different approaches to defining and identifying these trends. Research trends may be associated with research topics (e.g. Özlen, 2014 ), research methods (e.g. Pietersen, 2018 ) and the general characteristics of the academic domain (e.g. Sanders and De Cieri, 2020 ). Although a number of authors have provided traditional literature reviews of trends in HRM, Chae et al. (2020) , for example, focused only on the local (Korean) research trends and used only keyword analyses. Others focused on a specific sector ( Cooper et al. , 2020 ), industry ( Madera et al. , 2017 ) or region ( Wood and Bischoff, 2020 ). There are also articles that outline the evolution of research in particular journals (e.g. Pietersen, 2018 ). Others address specific problems, such as international HRM (e.g. Sanders and De Cieri, 2020 ) or green HRM ( Yong et al. , 2020 ). The most visible trends identified in previous studies and associated with research topics were strategic HRM, HR performance and employment/industrial relations. The first topic was addressed in eight works while the remaining was the subject of five publications.

3. Material and methods

The approach adopted in this study was designed to overcome all the limitations specific to the systematic literature reviews and bibliometric studies as presented in the Introduction. The full texts of papers were analyzed. The approach applied is consistent with the general rules of systematic literature reviews ( Tranfield et al. , 2003 ) and consists of several steps, which are presented in Figure 1 .

3.1 Selection of journals

Thousands of articles covering HRM can be found on both Scopus and the Web of Science. For the sake of the present analysis, it was necessary to define inclusion criteria in the meta-analysis.

The main topic of the journal was related to HRM,

The journals were indexed in Scopus and WoS,

The journals have a high SNIP index value (the limit value is set at 1 - status for 2020; full values are presented in Table 2 ),

Full versions of the article were available,

The articles were published in the years 2000–2020.

A total of 8 journals met the above criteria ( Table 2 ). The full texts of the papers were downloaded from academic databases. No duplicates were found. Only research papers were included, while editorials, calls for papers, errata and book reviews were excluded.

All the metadata were removed from the papers. The titles and abstracts often contain catchwords designed to increase readership. As a consequence, only the texts of papers minus their titles, keywords, abstracts and references were analyzed in this study. Additional bibliographic information that could be useful in the analytical process was downloaded from the Crossref database. Each paper was converted into a text file and then into a bag-of-words model for the needs of automatic analysis using computer algorithms. The algorithms were created using Python libraries, such as grobid, nltk, scikit-learn, hdbscan, and scipy ( Pedregosa et al. , 2011 ).

3.2 Search for the most important terms

w i j – result for term i in document j ,

t f i j – number of occurrences of i in j ,

d f i – number of documents containing i ,

N – number of documents in the corpus (set of documents).

The TF-IDF method is not a mathematical model. It requires extensive computation, cannot be used to discover synonyms and ignores multiple meanings of words ( Zhang et al. , 2011 ). However, in the case of research papers, these problems have a minimal impact due to the more precise language used by researchers.

3.3 Identification of thematic groups (clusters)

The TF-IDF model presents each paper as a multidimensional vector. The number of dimensions is equal to the number of keywords used in the analysis. In the next step, all the vectors were compared to each other, which led to the discovery of clusters.

As mentioned in section 3.2 , the TF-IDF model does not analyse synonyms and ignores multiple meanings of words and phrases. In scholarly texts, it is rarely a problem. Even in HRM, where the number of synonyms can be perceived as higher than in other areas of management, the impact on the results should be negligible.

There are two main approaches to clustering: partitioning and hierarchical clustering. The former can be applied when all the corpus elements must be included in one of the groups. This induces data noise, as not even similar elements have to be included. The latter allows some elements to remain outside the clusters. The clusters become much more homogenous. This constitutes a better approach when it comes to identifying trends. Multiple hierarchical clustering methods are available, e.g. meanshift, DBSCAN, Optics and HDBSCAN (Hierarchical Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise) ( McInnes et al. , 2017 ). HDBSCAN is characterized by the least number of limitations. It takes each paper (vector) and checks at what distance it can find similar publications. Then it compares the results, and the densest areas are detected as clusters. Unlike some other methods, the clusters lack permanent density or a fixed number of elements. The only parameter that the researcher needs to establish is the minimum cluster size. The best value can be determined through a series of experiments.

In the present study, the authors carried out a set of experiments using different minimum cluster sizes. The highest value detected was 20. Lower values lead to a much higher number of clusters. Moreover, general phrases not directly related to HRM played a significant role in the discovery of these clusters. With the minimum cluster size set to values greater than 20, the number of clusters was significantly lower. That led to general results based on the most popular phrases only.

The entire sample was divided into groups of papers published in 5-year overlapping periods starting with 2000–2004 and ending with 2016–2020. Each paper was assigned to all the groups into which it fitted. Cluster analysis was performed for every group separately, and the results were used to identify trends.

Cluster analysis was performed on each group separately, and the results were used to discover trends. Approximately 30 clusters on average were identified for each five-year period. However, for a trend to be identified at least two similar clusters had to be discovered in successive periods Therefore, many unrelated clusters were excluded by the algorithm. Such behaviour is expected, as it removes noise from data. Usually, only one-third of clusters meet the conditions to form trends.

The number of papers published in each year is presented in Figure 2 . A slight decrease in the number of articles can be observed compared to 2018–19, which may have been a result of the Covid-19 pandemic.

3.4 Identification of trends

Long-lasting trends that existed and evolved during the studied period,

Declining trends which came to an end during the studied period,

Emerging trends which began during the studied period,

Ephemeris trends that began and ended during the studied period.

3.5 Interpretation of trends

The results delivered by the algorithm must be checked through further studies. The algorithm can detect mergers or splits in trends. We decided, however, that the final decision should be left to researchers. At this stage, trends should also be named, interpreted and described. The interpretation phase should help highlight changes within trends and try to predict their future evolution.

4. Results and discussion

The analyses, performed by researchers using automatic algorithms and further verification, led to the discovery of 42 trends presented in Table 3 . These trends are ordered according to the year of their first occurrence and their duration. It is worth emphasizing that the year in which a trend was observed does not indicate that the idea behind it emerged at the same time. Rather, it shows when a subject began to increase in popularity among researchers. Furthermore, the number of identified trends is much higher than the results from previous studies presented in Section 2.1 Table 4 .

The use of tracking revealed the evolution of clusters, and made it possible to identify trends. The analysis led to the discovery of the types of trends presented in Section 3.4. Of the 42 trends, 4 were long-lasting, 5 declining, 17 emerging and 16 ephemeris in character. One possible fact to note is that “strategic HRM”, which was a prevailing trend in previous studies, is not directly presented in the results obtained using text-mining analyses. However, it is included in the “architecture and changing role of HRM” trend.

At this point it is worth emphasizing that sociologists of science have examined the principles governing the selection of topics analysed by researchers, and noticed that it may result from a trade-off between conservative production and risky innovation ( Bourdieu, 1975 ). The main problem when choosing research topics is deciding whether to continue topics fixed in the literature or take the risk of exploring new, hitherto unknown themes. Trend a analysis offers an indirect solution based on strategic ambidexterity. This is not only because it allows us to observe disappearing themes that continue to be exploited, but also to identify those topics, in which there is a growing interest (exploration).

Long-lasting trends are not homogenous and change over time. The evolution of trends can be tracked using keywords of considerable importance in subsequent years. The importance of keywords was evaluated using the TF-IDF algorithm and averaged for each cluster. The TF-IDF formula was presented in the Methodology section. It should be noted that the TF-IDF score has to be calculated for each phrase in each paper. In this study, over 150,000 phrases were identified in over 6 thousand papers. That resulted in a significant number of calculations made by the algorithm, which cannot be presented in the paper. A comparison of cluster keywords reveals new topics within trends. The evolution of trends may lead to the disappearance of earlier topics or to their parallel development. Declining and ephemeris trends are associated with issues that are of less interest to researchers, have been resolved or were eclipsed by changes in a researcher's approach to the object of their study. The disappearance of certain trends is a normal phenomenon in science. Such a disappearance can be predicted to a certain degree when the average number of papers decreases.

Since we identified many trends, only a few examples will be described below. One example of a long-lasting trend is “Diversity Management”, which covered the entire 2000–2020 timeframe. The articles that discussed this trend focused on effective diversity management, its impact on organizational performance (e.g. Choi et al. , 2017 ), team performance ( Roberge and van Dick, 2010 ), knowledge sharing ( Shen et al. , 2014 ), innovation ( Peretz et al. , 2015 ), and the various factors which impact upon its effectiveness. Some papers discussed only one form of diversity in the workplace, e.g. age diversity ( Li et al. , 2011 ), gender diversity (e.g. Gould et al. , 2018 ) or ethnic diversity (e.g. Singh, 2007 ).

One sub-trend that can be observed within the above-discussed trend is age management', which falls within the 2005–2018 time range. The papers assigned to this sub-trend focus on HR practices towards older employees (e.g. Kooij et al. , 2014 ).

One example of a declining trend is “new and traditional career models”. This trend, which was observed in the years 2000–2019, highlights the fact that the weakening of organizational boundaries has increased career freedom and independence from previously constraining factors. The papers which examined this issue provide conceptual knowledge of different career dimensions. For example, a shift has taken place from objective to subjective careers. Individuals have to make sense of their careers, because they can no longer depend on their employers ( Walton and Mallon, 2004 ). Individual cultural, social and economic capital builds a field of opportunities for pursuing a career ( Iellatchitch et al. , 2003 ). Simultaneously, two major kinds of boundaries to the “boundaryless career” have been identified: the competence-based boundary (industry boundary) and the relation-based boundary (social capital boundary) ( Baghdadli et al. , 2003 ).

In the last two decades, increasing environmental awareness has pushed researchers towards addressing the issue of HRM as a strategic tool for making companies sustainability-driven organizations (e.g. Podgorodnichenko et al. , 2020 ). One of the emerging trends identified in our study is “Green and sustainable HRM”. This trend focuses on the environmental responsibility of companies (e.g. DuBois and Dubois, 2012 ) or/and achieving simultaneously social and economic goals (if the triple bottom line concept is discussed) (e.g. Ren and Jackson, 2020 ). The results, in the form of behavioral changes, have also been examined (e.g. Dumont et al. , 2017 ) and the contribution of HRM to company sustainability has been discussed in the context of different countries (e.g. Alcaraz et al. , 2019 ).

Finally, one example of an ephemeris trend is “HR certification”. The discussion on this trend was initiated by Lengnick-Hall and Aguinis (2012) . They applied a multi-level theory-based approach to investigating HR certification. They tried to assess the value of HR certification for individual HR specialists, their organizations as well as for the HR profession as a whole. The main topic addressed in later articles devoted to this trend was the value of HR certification (e.g. Aguinis and Lengnick-Hall, 2012 ). The value of HR certification has been linked with shareholder value ( Paxton, 2012 ). The link between organizational values and HR certification is another issue that has been addressed. Organizational values are treated as a key antecedent to the use and pursuit of HR certification ( Garza and Morgeson, 2012 ).

Table 3 presents only those periods during which specific trends were active, but provides no information on their dynamics. This can be observed by looking at the average number of papers per year (ANPY) in consecutive periods. Table 4 presents all the trends active during the last year of the study. They were divided into three groups according to whether the ANPY was decreasing, increasing or stable in recent years. To depict the relative strength of these trends, table shows the average number of papers published in the final 5-year period.

It can be concluded that trends with an increasing dynamic coincide with the trends defined in the literature. For example, “flexible employment from the perspective of HRM” corresponds with “employment relations” distinguished by Markoulli et al. (2017) and “the HRM process, the changing nature of HRM, and precarious employment relations” in the typology developed by Cooper et al. (2020) . “Diversity Management” is related to “organizational culture” ( Özlen, 2014 ). “Employee participation” may be associated with “employment relations” ( Cooke et al. , 2019 ) and “organizational commitment” ( García-Lillo et al. , 2017 ). The latter occurs both in the presented typology and in previous ones. “leader–member exchange” should be included in “behavioral issues” ( Özlen, 2014 ). Finally, a trend characterized by an increasing dynamic is “green and sustainable HRM”. Green HRM was an independent subject of analysis in a study by Yong et al. (2020) .

5. Conclusions

5.1 contributions and implications.

The present study provides an analysis of HRM journals with the aim of identifying trends in HRM research. It makes contributions to the field by providing a more comprehensive and objective review than analyses resulting from conventional systematic literature reviews as well as by identifying 42 different trends. It fills an existing gap in literature studies on HRM with a novel research approach – a methodology based on full-text mining and a big data toolset. As a consequence, this study can be considered as providing an adequate reflection of all the articles published in journals strictly devoted to HRM issues and which may serve as an important source of reference for both researchers and practitioners. It can also help them identify the core journals focused on HRM research as well as those topics which are of particular interest and importance.

As the study covers a period of over 20 years it should come as no surprise that some trends emerged and declined over this time. However, our study creates an opportunity for reviving research topics which combine old trends with new ones, and at the same time take into account the interdisciplinary nature of HRM as a field of research. Some researchers have observed that success can often be achieved by adopting a tool from another research area or through a new way of analyzing old problems that brings new insights and solutions ( Adali et al. , 2018 ).

Finally, we observed the emergence of a number of trends during the studied period that are still active. In particular, green and sustainable HRM is not only an emerging trend but also developing rapidly. It is worth mentioning here that while many articles have focused on green HRM issues, they have not been published in journals that specialize in HRM but in journals devoted to environmental issues. One possible future challenge for researchers may be to estimate the proportions between HRM articles published in HRM journals and those featured in other journals.

Practitioners interested in the evolution of the field can find in this paper areas of HRM that require improving in their own businesses or which can be treated as a platform for introducing innovations in HRM (emerging trends). The information contained in this paper can also be utilized as a source for evaluating the performance of sub-fields in a HRM research domain and for adjusting research policies with regard to funding allocations and comparing research input and output ( Gu, 2004 ). The editors of journals may take into account the results presented in this paper when making decisions regarding the direction, scope, and themes of their journals.

5.2 Limitations

First, our eligibility criteria included only papers indexed in the Scopus and WoS database and excluded conference proceedings, book chapters, and non-English papers. Second, only full-text articles were included in the study, which could narrow down the research area. As a consequence, important information regarding the research presented in the excluded documents is potentially lost. Third, most of the papers in our database were published in the International Journal of Human Resource Management, and therefore such trends as “challenges for international HRM” can be considered significant (long-lasting). Another – the fourth – limitation of the study is the lack of estimation of the proportion between searches in HRM journals and articles published in other journals. Future research may overcome the above-presented limitations. Although we used valuable techniques such as TF-IDF and HDBSCAN, the fifth limitation is that, after trends were discovered, it was necessary to evaluate and interpret them. That could have induced researchers' bias even if – as in this study – researchers from different areas of experience were involved. Finally, this study covers the 2000–2020 timeframe. Since HRM is a rapidly developing field, in a few years from now academics will probably begin to move into exciting new research areas. As a consequence, it might be worthwhile conducting similar analyses to those presented in this study and compare their results.

research about human resource management

Workflow of the methodology used in this study

Number of papers in the years 2000–2020

Trends in HRM research identified in previous studies

Authors	Research aim, approach and scope	Trends
	Identification of HRM trends based on 551 HRM articles which were published in Human	Trend 1: HR and performance
		Trend 2: Culture and motivation (psychological orientation)
		Trend 3: International management of HR
	Resource Management between 1985 and 2005, using factor analysis	Trend 4: Strategy, structure, and environment
		Trend 5: Strategic management of HR
	Identification of trends in the Journal of Human Resource based on keyword analysis	Trend 1: Employee Rights and Career
		Trend 2: HR
		Trend 3: Management
		Trend 4: Context (Specific Industries. etc.)
		Trend 5: Organizational Strategies
		Trend 6: Performance Measurement and Training
		Trend 7: Behavioral Issues and Motivation
		Trend 8: Organizational Culture
		Trend 9: Technical Issues (Information Systems, etc.)
		Trend 10: Theories
		Trend 11: Organizational Performance
(2017)	Bibliometric analysis of articles published in The International Journal of Human Resource	Trend 1: Reciprocity and perceived organizational support
		Trend 2: Organizational commitment
		Trend 3: The git process and the adaptation of expatriate staff
		Trend 4: International and strategic HRM
		Trend 5: The integration of HR strategies with business strategies
		Trend 6: HRM and company performance
	Management between 2000 and 2012	Trend 6: HRM and company performance
		Trend 7: The configurational approach to HRM
		Trend 8: High performance and innovative practices
		Trend 9: The application of a resource-based view
		Trend 10: The integration of HRM practices and systems with business strategies
(2017)	Identification of industry specific trends (research on HRM in hospitality and tourism) based on a systematic literature review	Trend 1: Human capital and company performance
		Trend 2: High-performance HRM practices and performance
		Trend 3: International/global issues and strategic HRM
		Trend 4: Individual HRM practices and performance
(2017)	Identification of trends related to HR systems research based on a systematic literature review	Trend 1: Strategic HRM
		Trend 2: Experiencing HRM
		Trend 3: Employment Relations
		Trend 4: International HRM, and Assessing People
	Identification of trends associated with the bibliometric characteristics of articles published in the South African Journal of Human	Examples:
		Trend 1: The predominance of white people, male HRM researchers
		Trend 2: The predominance of empirical research
	Resource Management	Trend 3: The substantial presence of qualitative research
(2019)	Determining trends in research on international HRM based on a systematic literature review	Trend 1: HRM practices
		Trend 2: MNC headquarters – subsidiary relations
		Trend 3: Strategic HRM and business studies
		Trend 4: Employment relations
		Trend 5: Organizational behavior
		Trend 6: Cultural studies
		Trend 7: Comparative HRM
		Trend 8: Language and communication in international business
		Trend 9: Others
(2020)	Determining trends in green HRM research based on a systematic literature review	Trend 1: Concepts/models/reviews
		Trend 2: Implementation
		Trend 3: Determinants
		Trend 4: Outcomes
(2019)	Identification of trends related to HR systems research based on a systematic literature review	Trend 1: Focus on broad, undifferentiated HR systems
		Trend 2: Consensus among researchers on how to measure HR systems
		Trend 3: The increasing use of additive approaches to combining HR practices within a single system
(2020)	Analysis of trends in research on HRM in the nonprofit sector based on a systematic literature review	Trend 1: Training
		Trend 2: Job design, job characteristics, and the work environment
		Trend 3: Human capital, HR capacity, and HR slack
		Trend 4: HR systems, HPWPs, HPWSs, bundles of HR practices, and strategic HRM
		Trend 5: Labor mobility, employability, job choice and career decision-making
		Trend 6: The HRM process, the changing nature of HRM, and precarious employment relations
		Trend 7: Career development, leader development, coaching, and mentoring
		Trend 8: Compensation, benefits, incentives and rewards, and pay-for-performance
		Trend 9: Performance management/measurement/evaluation/appraisal/monitoring
		Trend 10: Recruitment and selection
		Trend 11: Succession planning
		Trend 12: Communication and knowledge/information-sharing
		Trend 13: Unionization and labor relations
	Identification of region specific HRM research trends (South Africa) based on a systematic literature review	Trend 1: HRM and MNEs in Africa
		Trend 2: The shifting domain and scope of HR practice
		Trend 3: Industrial and employment relations
		Trend 4: Changes in labor regulations
		Trend 5: HR development
		Trend 6: Indigenous management theory
	Identification of trends associated with the bibliometric characteristics of conceptual articles on international and comparative HRM	Examples:
		Trend 1: An increasing number of empirical articles
		Trend 2: A decreasing number of publications authored by US researchers
(2020)	Identification of trends in Korean HRM research based on an analysis of keywords	Trend 1: Organizational behavior and organization theory
		Trend 2: Organization theory and strategic management
		Trend 3: Industrial Relations
		Trend 4: The entire field of HRM

HRM-related journals included in this study

Journal	snip	cite	sjr	Number of papers included
Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources	1.17	1.58	0.60	429
Human Resource Development International	1.06	1.72	0.45	796
Human Resource Management Journal	1.54	3.75	1.39	510
Human Resource Management Review	1.98	4.97	1.66	713
Human Resource Management	1.95	4.28	1.89	859
International Journal of Human Resource Management	1.28	2.71	0.96	2,703
Journal of Human Capital	1.79	2.10	2.52	185
Journal of Human Resources	6.65	8.27	12.36	663

Trends in HRM research in the years 2000–2020

Activity of long-lasting and emerging trends in recent years

Avg. papers per year in 2016–2020	Activity in recent years
Avg. papers per year in 2016–2020	Decrease	Stable	Increase
More than 50
26–50
1–25

Adali , T. , Trussell , H.J. , Hansen , L.K. and Calhoun , V.D. ( 2018 ), “ The dangers of following trends in research: sparsity and other examples of hammers in search of Nails ”, Proceedings of the IEEE , Vol. 106 No. 6 , pp. 1014 - 1018 , doi: 10.1109/JPROC.2018.2823428 .

Aguinis , H. and Lengnick-Hall , M.L. ( 2012 ), “ Assessing the value of human resource certification: a call for evidence-based human resource management ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol. 22 No. 4 , pp. 281 - 284 , doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2012.06.015 .

Alcaraz , K.I. , Eddens , K.S. , Blase , J.L. , Diver , W.R. , Patel , A.V. , Teras , L.R. , Stevens , V.L. , Jacobs , E.J. and Gapstur , S.M. ( 2019 ), “ Social Isolation and Mortality in US Black and White Men and Women ”, American Journal of Epidemiology , Vol. 188 No. 1 , pp. 102 - 109 , doi: 10.1093/aje/kwy231 .

Ashbaugh , S. and Miranda , R. ( 2002 ), “ Technology for human resources management: seven questions and answers ”, Public Personnel Management , Vol. 31 No. 1 , pp. 7 - 20 , doi: 10.1177/009102600203100102 .

Baghdadli , A. , Pascal , C. , Grisi , S. and Aussilloux , C. ( 2003 ), “ Risk factors for self-injurious behaviours among 222 young children with autistic disorders ”, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00507.x (accessed 23 October 2003) .

Blake , C. ( 2010 ), “ Beyond genes, proteins, and abstracts: identifying scientific claims from full-text biomedical articles ”, Journal of Biomedical Informatics , Vol. 43 No. 2 , pp. 173 - 189 , doi: 10.1016/j.jbi.2009.11.001 .

Boon , C. , Den Hartog , D.N. and Lepak , D.P. ( 2019 ), “ A systematic review of human resource management systems and their measurement ”, Journal of Management , Vol. 45 No. 6 , pp. 2498 - 2537 , doi: 10.1177/0149206318818718 .

Bourdieu , P. ( 1975 ), “ The specificity of the scientific field and the social conditions of the progress of reason ”, Social Science Information , Vol. 14 No. 6 , doi: 10.1177/053901847501400602 .

Boxall , P. , Purcell , J. and Wright , P.M. ( 2009 ), “ Human resource management ”, Boxall , P. , Purcell , J. and Wright , P.M. (Eds), Oxford University Press , Vol. 1 , doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199547029.003.0001 .

Braga , B.M. , de Camargo Oliva , E. , de Miranda Kubo , E.K. , McKenna , S. , Richardson , J. and Wales , T. ( 2021 ), “ An institutional approach to ethical human resource management practice: comparing Brazil, Colombia and the UK ”, Journal of Business Ethics , Vol. 169 No. 4 , doi: 10.1007/s10551-019-04257-x .

Capobianco-Uriarte , M.D.L.M. , Casado-Belmonte , M.D.P. , Marín-Carrillo , G.M. and Terán-Yépez , E. ( 2019 ), “ A bibliometric analysis of international competitiveness (1983-2017) ”, Sustainability , Vol. 11 No. 7 , p. 1877 , doi: 10.3390/su11071877 .

Chae , C. , Yim , J.-H. , Lee , J. , Jo , S.J. and Oh , J.R. ( 2020 ), “ The bibliometric keywords Network analysis of human resource management research trends: the case of human resource management journals in South Korea ”, Sustainability , Vol. 12 No. 14 , p. 5700 , doi: 10.3390/su12145700 .

Choi , J.N. , Sung , S.Y. and Zhang , Z. ( 2017 ), “ Workforce diversity in manufacturing companies and organizational performance: the role of status-relatedness and internal processes ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 28 No. 19 , pp. 2738 - 2761 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2016.1138315 .

Cong , Y. , Chan , Y.B. and Ragan , M.A. ( 2016 ), “ A novel alignment-free method for detection of lateral genetic transfer based on TF-IDF ”, Scientific Reports , Vol. 6 , p. 30308 , doi: 10.1038/srep30308 .

Cooke , F.L. , Wood , G. , Wang , M. and Veen , A. ( 2019 ), “ How far has international HRM travelled? A systematic review of literature on multinational corporations (2000-2014) ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol. 29 No. 1 , pp. 59 - 75 , doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.05.001 .

Cooper , E.A. , Phelps , A.D. and Rogers , S.E. ( 2020 ), “ Research in nonprofit human resource management from 2015 to 2018 ”, Employee Relations: The International Journal , Vol. 42 No. 5 , pp. 1055 - 1100 , doi: 10.1108/ER-04-2019-0166 .

DuBois , C.L.Z. and Dubois , D.A. ( 2012 ), “ Strategic HRM as social design for environmental sustainability in organization ”, Human Resource Management , Vol. 51 No. 6 , pp. 799 - 826 , doi: 10.1002/hrm.21504 .

Dubravska , M. and Solankova , E. ( 2015 ), “ Recent trends in human resources management in selected industry in Slovakia and the Czech republic ”, Procedia Economics and Finance , Vol. 26 , pp. 1014 - 1019 , doi: 10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00924-7 .

Dumont , J. , Shen , J. and Deng , X. ( 2017 ), “ Effects of green HRM practices on employee workplace green behavior: the role of psychological green climate and employee green values ”, Human Resource Management , Vol. 56 No. 4 , pp. 613 - 627 , doi: 10.1002/hrm.21792 .

Ehnert , I. ( 2009 ), Sustainable Human Resources Management: A Conceptual and Exploratory Analysis from a Paradox , Physica-Verlag HD .

Fernandez-Alles , M. and Ramos-Rodríguez , A. ( 2009 ), “ Intellectual structure of human resources management research: a bibliometric analysis of the journal Human Resource Management , 1985-2005 ”, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology , Vol. 60 No. 1 , pp. 161 - 175 , doi: 10.1002/asi.20947 .

García-Lillo , F. , Úbeda-García , M. and Marco-Lajara , B. ( 2017 ), “ The intellectual structure of human resource management research: a bibliometric study of the international journal of human resource management, 2000-2012 ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 28 No. 13 , pp. 1786 - 1815 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2015.1128461 .

Garza , A.S. and Morgeson , F.P. ( 2012 ), “ Exploring the link between organizational values and human resource certification ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol. 22 No. 4 , pp. 271 - 278 , doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2012.06.011 .

Gerhart , B. and Fang , M. ( 2005 ), “ National culture and human resource management: assumptions and evidence ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 16 No. 6 , pp. 971 - 986 , doi: 10.1080/09585190500120772 .

Gould , J.A. , Kulik , C.T. and Sardeshmukh , S.R. ( 2018 ), “ Trickle-down effect: the impact of female board members on executive gender diversity ”, Human Resource Management , Vol. 57 No. 4 , pp. 931 - 945 , doi: 10.1002/hrm.21907 .

Greiling , D. ( 2011 ), “ Demographic change as a challenge to human resources development ”, in The University as a Business? , VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften , pp. 65 - 89 , doi: 10.1007/978-3-531-93195-1_6 .

Gu , Y. ( 2004 ), “ Global knowledge management research: a bibliometric analysis ”, Scientometrics , Vol. 61 No. 2 , pp. 171 - 190 , doi: 10.1023/B:SCIE.0000041647.01086.f4 .

Iellatchitch , A. , Mayrhofer , W. and Meyer , M. ( 2003 ), “ Career fields: a small step towards a grand career theory? ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 14 No. 5 , pp. 728 - 750 , doi: 10.1080/0958519032000080776 .

Kobayashi , V.B. , Mol , S.T. , Berkers , H.A. , Kismihók , G. and Den Hartog , D.N. ( 2018 ), “ Text mining in organizational research ”, Organizational Research Methods , Vol. 21 No. 3 , pp. 733 - 765 , doi: 10.1177/1094428117722619 .

Kooij , D.T.A.M. , Jansen , P.G.W. , Dikkers , J.S.E. and de Lange , A.H. ( 2014 ), “ Managing aging workers: a mixed methods study on bundles of HR practices for aging workers ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 25 No. 15 , pp. 2192 - 2212 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2013.872169 .

Lengnick-Hall , M.L. and Aguinis , H. ( 2012 ), “ What is the value of human resource certification? A multi-level framework for research ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol. 22 No. 4 , pp. 246 - 257 , doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2011.03.001 .

Li , J. , Chu , C.W.L. , Lam , K.C.K. and Liao , S. ( 2011 ), “ Age diversity and firm performance in an emerging economy: implications for cross-cultural human resource management ”, Human Resource Management , Vol. 50 No. 2 , pp. 247 - 270 , doi: 10.1002/hrm.20416 .

Madera , J.M. , Dawson , M. , Guchait , P. and Belarmino , A.M. ( 2017 ), “ Strategic human resources management research in hospitality and tourism ”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management , Vol. 29 No. 1 , pp. 48 - 67 , doi: 10.1108/IJCHM-02-2016-0051 .

Markoulli , M.P. , Lee , C.I.S.G. , Byington , E. and Felps , W.A. ( 2017 ), “ Mapping human resource management: reviewing the field and charting future directions ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol. 27 No. 3 , pp. 367 - 396 , doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2016.10.001 .

McInnes , L. , Healy , J. and Astels , S. ( 2017 ), “ hdbscan: hierarchical density based clustering ”, The Journal of Open Source Software , Vol. 2 No. 11 , p. 205 , doi: 10.21105/joss.00205 .

Özlen , M.K. ( 2014 ), “ The recent trend in a human resource management journal: a keyword analysis ”, European Researcher , Vol. 79 Nos 7-2 , pp. 1367 - 1375 , doi: 10.13187/er.2014.2.1367 .

Palmatier , R.W. , Houston , M.B. and Hulland , J. ( 2018 ), “ Review articles: purpose, process, and structure ”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science , Vol. 46 No. 1 , pp. 1 - 5 , doi: 10.1007/s11747-017-0563-4 .

Paul , J. and Criado , A.R. ( 2020 ), “ The art of writing literature review: what do we know and what do we need to know? ”, International Business Review , Vol. 29 No. 4 , p. 101717 , doi: 10.1016/j.ibusrev.2020.101717 .

Paxton , R.A. ( 2012 ), “ A practitioner's perspective on the value of PHR and SPHR certification ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol. 22 No. 4 , pp. 279 - 280 , doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2012.03.002 .

Pedregosa , F. , Varoquaux , G. , Gramfort , A. , Michel , V. , Thirion , B. , Grisel , O. , Blondel , M. , Prettenhofer , P. , Weiss , R. , Dubourg , V. , Vanderplas , J. , Passos , A. , Cournapeau , D. , Brucher , M. , Perrot , M. and Duchesnay , É. ( 2011 ), “ Scikit-learn: machine learning in Python ”, Journal of Machine Learning Research , Vol. 12 No. 2011 , pp. 2825 - 2830 .

Peretz , H. , Levi , A. and Fried , Y. ( 2015 ), “ Organizational diversity programs across cultures: effects on absenteeism, turnover, performance and innovation ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 26 No. 6 , pp. 875 - 903 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2014.991344 .

Pietersen , C. ( 2018 ), “ Research trends in the South African journal of human resource management ”, SA Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 16 , doi: 10.4102/sajhrm.v16i0.825 .

Podgorodnichenko , N. , Edgar , F. and McAndrew , I. ( 2020 ), “ The role of HRM in developing sustainable organizations: contemporary challenges and contradictions ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol. 30 No. 3 , p. 100685 , doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2019.04.001 .

Ren , S. and Jackson , S.E. ( 2020 ), “ HRM institutional entrepreneurship for sustainable business organizations ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol. 30 No. 3 , p. 100691 , doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2019.100691 .

Roberge , M.-É. and van Dick , R. ( 2010 ), “ Recognizing the benefits of diversity: when and how does diversity increase group performance? ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol. 20 No. 4 , pp. 295 - 308 , doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2009.09.002 .

Sanders , K. and De Cieri , H. ( 2020 ), “ Similarities and differences in international and comparative human resource management: a review of 60 years of research ”, Human Resource Management , Vol. 60 No. 1 , Special Issue: 60th Anniversary Issue of HRM; January/February 2021 , pp. 55 - 88 , hrm.22028 , doi: 10.1002/hrm.22028 .

Shen , J. , Tang , N. and D'Netto , B. ( 2014 ), “ A multilevel analysis of the effects of HR diversity management on employee knowledge sharing: the case of Chinese employees ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 25 No. 12 , pp. 1720 - 1738 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2013.859163 .

Silva , M.S.A.E and Lima , C.G.D.S. ( 2018 ), “ The role of information systems in human resource management ”, Management of Information Systems , InTech , doi: 10.5772/intechopen.79294 .

Singh , V. ( 2007 ), “ Ethnic diversity on top corporate boards: a resource dependency perspective ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 18 No. 12 , pp. 2128 - 2146 , doi: 10.1080/09585190701695275 .

Tranfield , D. , Denyer , D. and Smart , P. ( 2003 ), “ Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review ”, British Journal of Management , Vol. 14 No. 3 , pp. 207 - 222 , doi: 10.1111/1467-8551.00375 .

Walton , S. and Mallon , M. ( 2004 ), “ Redefining the boundaries? Making sense of career in contemporary New Zealand ”, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources , Vol. 42 No. 1 , pp. 75 - 95 , doi: 10.1177/1038411104039470 .

Wood , G. and Bischoff , C. ( 2020 ), “ Human resource management in Africa: current research and future directions – evidence from South Africa and across the continent ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 33 No. 3 , pp. 1 - 28 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2019.1711443 .

Yong , J.Y. , Yusliza , M.-Y. and Fawehinmi , O.O. ( 2020 ), “ Green human resource management: a systematic literature review from 2007 to 2019 ”, Benchmarking: An International Journal , Vol. 27 No. 7 , pp. 2005 - 2027 , doi: 10.1108/BIJ-12-2018-0438 .

Zhang , W. , Yoshida , T. and Tang , X. ( 2011 ), “ A comparative study of TF*IDF, LSI and multi-words for text classification ”, Expert Systems with Applications , Vol. 38 No. 3 , pp. 2758 - 2765 , doi: 10.1016/j.eswa.2010.08.066 .

Corresponding author

Related articles, all feedback is valuable.

Please share your general feedback

Report an issue or find answers to frequently asked questions

Contact Customer Support

Open access
Published: 17 June 2014

HRM and its effect on employee, organizational and financial outcomes in health care organizations

Brenda Vermeeren 1 ,
Bram Steijn 1 ,
Lars Tummers 1 ,
Marcel Lankhaar 2 ,
Robbert-Jan Poerstamper 2 &
Sandra van Beek 3

Human Resources for Health volume 12 , Article number: 35 ( 2014 ) Cite this article

117k Accesses

36 Citations

22 Altmetric

Metrics details

One of the main goals of Human Resource Management (HRM) is to increase the performance of organizations. However, few studies have explicitly addressed the multidimensional character of performance and linked HR practices to various outcome dimensions. This study therefore adds to the literature by relating HR practices to three outcome dimensions: financial, organizational and employee (HR) outcomes. Furthermore, we will analyze how HR practices influence these outcome dimensions, focusing on the mediating role of job satisfaction.

This study uses a unique dataset, based on the ‘ActiZ Benchmark in Healthcare’, a benchmark study conducted in Dutch home care, nursing care and care homes. Data from autumn 2010 to autumn 2011 were analyzed. In total, 162 organizations participated during this period (approximately 35% of all Dutch care organizations). Employee data were collected using a questionnaire (61,061 individuals, response rate 42%). Clients were surveyed using the Client Quality Index for long-term care, via stratified sampling. Financial outcomes were collected using annual reports. SEM analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses.

It was found that HR practices are - directly or indirectly - linked to all three outcomes. The use of HR practices is related to improved financial outcomes (measure: net margin), organizational outcomes (measure: client satisfaction) and HR outcomes (measure: sickness absence). The impact of HR practices on HR outcomes and organizational outcomes proved substantially larger than their impact on financial outcomes. Furthermore, with respect to HR and organizational outcomes, the hypotheses concerning the full mediating effect of job satisfaction are confirmed. This is in line with the view that employee attitudes are an important element in the ‘black box’ between HRM and performance.

The results underscore the importance of HRM in the health care sector, especially for HR and organizational outcomes. Further analyses of HRM in the health care sector will prove to be a productive endeavor for both scholars and HR managers.

Peer Review reports

One of the main goals of Human Resource Management (HRM) is to increase the performance of organizations [ 1 ]. Pfeffer [ 2 ] emphasized the importance of gaining competitive advantage through employees and noted the importance of several Human Resource (HR) practices necessary to obtain this advantage. Huselid [ 3 ] stressed the use of an integrated and coherent ‘bundle’ of mutually reinforcing HR practices over separate ones. Notwithstanding the substantial volume of research on the link between HRM and performance, the exact nature of this relationship within the health care sector remains unclear [ 4 ]. This can be considered problematic, as studying HRM in the health care sector and its effect on performance has both practical and academic relevance [ 5 ].

However, performance is not a concept that can be easily defined and conceptualized. According to Guest [ 6 ] it is better to use the concept of ‘outcomes’ instead of performance. One can then distinguish three different outcomes: 1) financial outcomes (profits, net margin, market share), 2) organizational outcomes (productivity, quality, efficiency, client satisfaction) and 3) HR outcomes (employees’ attitudes and behaviour) [ 7 ]. Dyer and Reeves [ 7 ] noted that HR and organizational outcomes are more proximal outcomes, for example, closely linked to the HR practices adopted by an organization, whereas financial outcomes are more distant, as they are less likely to be directly affected by HR practices. Moreover, specific HR outcomes are often used as intermediate outcomes that bridge the ‘black box’ between HR practices and financial or organizational outcomes [ 8 ].

This multidimensional perspective of outcomes seems especially relevant for health care organizations, as financial outcomes are certainly not the only - or even primary - objective [ 9 ]. Notwithstanding the large amount of research on HRM in health care, few studies have explicitly addressed the multidimensional character of performance and linked HR practices to various outcome dimensions [ 4 ]. In this article, we therefore add to the literature by examining several outcome dimensions of health care organizations. The research question we will address is as follows: ‘ To what extent are HR practices in health care organizations related to multiple outcome dimensions?’

First, we will provide a brief background on the link between HRM and outcomes with a specific focus on the health care sector. Next, we will develop several hypotheses. Thereafter, the methods and results of the data analysis are provided. The article ends with a conclusion regarding the effects of HRM on various outcomes in the health care sector.

HRM and outcomes

Studying the relationship between HRM and performance outcomes is an important research theme [ 1 , 10 , 11 ]. In an overview article, Boselie et al . [ 12 ] identified the main research issues within the field. These primarily concern the conceptualization and measurement of the central concepts and several theoretical issues about their relationship. These issues remain important in the contemporary debate [ 1 ]. The concept of performance has been discussed above. HRM is commonly defined as a set of employee management activities, but there is no consensus regarding which HR practices should be included in a ‘comprehensive HRM checklist’ [ 12 ]. Even more important is the question as to whether one should examine discrete HR practices or employ a systematic HRM approach. According to the systems approach, one should regard interrelated HR practices that affect performance as a ‘synergistic whole’. In this study we follow the systems approach, as this was proven valuable in earlier studies [ 13 ].

In addition to conceptualization, there are also important measurement issues concerning HRM. Does one measure HR policies at the company level (for instance by asking HR managers) or at the individual level (practices as experienced by employees)? Nishii and Wright [ 14 ] refined this issue by distinguishing among intended, actual and perceived HRM. The notion behind this is that there may be differences within organizations among the HR policy designed by the HR department (intended HRM), the HR practices implemented by line managers (actual HRM) and the perceptions of employees (perceived HRM). This study focuses on perceived HRM, following the Thomas Theorem: if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences [ 15 ]. Thus, if employees believe that specific HR practices are employed in the organization, they will act according to that belief.

An important theoretical issue that has dominated the field in the last decade concerns the precise nature of the mechanism linking HRM and performance outcomes. This issue is called the ‘black box’, i.e., the mediating link between HRM and performance. In recent years, many suggestions have been made regarding the nature of this ‘black box’ [ 14 , 16 ], but most scholars emphasize the perceptions and experiences of employees as the main linking mechanism [ 12 ]. HR practices forge a psychological contract between employer and employee that in turn affects these perceptions and experiences. In this article, job satisfaction is used as a mediating variable linking HRM to various outcomes [ 17 , 18 ].

HRM and outcomes in the health care sector

In the last two decades, several studies on HRM and performance have been conducted in the health care sector [ 19 , 20 ]. In their review of health care studies, Harris et al . [ 4 ] concluded that HR practices are often related to patient oriented performance outcomes. They also noted the importance of conducting additional research on the ‘black box’ issue. Furthermore, many health care studies relate HRM to organizational and HR related outcomes [ 21 – 25 ]. However, studies focusing on financial outcomes - which have been extensively addressed in the private sector HRM literature - seem rather scarce.

This study focuses on the Dutch care sector (home care, nursing care and care homes). Its contribution concerns two elements discussed in the literature. First, we apply a multidimensional performance perspective, and we will therefore consider three outcome dimensions: financial, organizational and HR. This is innovative because although many health care studies have analyzed care - an organizational outcome - and HR outcomes, financial indicators have received much less attention. Moreover, we are unaware of health care sector studies that have examined the relationship between HRM and these three outcome dimensions simultaneously. The second contribution concerns the ‘black box’ issue. Many studies use employee attitudes as an outcome variable. However, an important interpretation of the ‘black box’ implies that employee attitudes will mediate the link between HRM and performance [ 13 ]. Using job satisfaction as indicator of employee attitudes, we will test whether this holds for all three outcome measures considered in this article. This leads to the following three hypotheses:

H1: job satisfaction mediates the relationship between HR practices and financial outcomes in health care organizations.

H2: job satisfaction mediates the relationship between HR practices and organizational outcomes health care organizations.

H3: job satisfaction mediates the relationship between HR practices and HR outcomes in health care organizations.

Before discussing our data, it is important to shortly describe the structure of the Dutch health care sector. In general, the Dutch health care system can be described as a mix of public and private provider agents, mainly based on public funding [ 26 ]. More specifically, Dutch health care is divided into short-term care (‘cure’-sector, for instance provided in hospitals) and long-term care (‘care’-sector, for instance provided in nursing homes). This research focuses on organizations that provide long-term care. This includes organizations providing home care, somatic care and psychogeriatric a care and is mainly financed using public funds. Next to this, citizens also pay a relatively small private fee.

A central explanation for the limited number of studies focusing on objective and multidimensional outcome data is that such data are difficult to collect. This study has the advantage of being able to use data from the ‘ActiZ Benchmark in health care’. This benchmark was developed by ActiZ - an important Dutch employer association - in cooperation with PwC - for the period 2010 to 2015. The benchmark measures and compares the performance of three different health care sectors (home care, nursing care and care homes) and contains employee data, client data and financial performance data. We analyzed the data gathered from autumn 2010 to autumn 2011. In total, 162 organizations participated during this period. This is approximately 35% of all organizations providing home care, nursing care and care homes in the Netherlands ( http://www.zorggegevens.nl ).

The data will be analyzed at the organizational level. Thus, data collected at the employee or client level will be aggregated. Other variables, such as financial performance indicators, do not need to be aggregated, as they are (only) available at the organizational level. With respect to financial outcomes, we will consider the net margin. With respect to organizational outcomes, we will focus on client satisfaction, and absence due to sickness will be considered to capture HR outcomes. Job satisfaction - which also can be regarded as an (proximal) HR outcome - will be used as a ‘black box’ variable mediating the relationship between HR practices and outcomes. The measurement of HR practices is discussed below.

First, most financial performance data on health care organizations are publicly available and based on annual reports. This information is stored in databases (available at http://www.zorggegevens.nl and http://www.jaarverslagenzorg.nl ) (in English: healthcare information and annual reports). We discussed this information with an accountant from PwC. To gather employee data, a questionnaire was distributed to all employees, and a total 1 of 61,061 individuals completed the survey, resulting in a response rate of 42%. Only the responses of employees with direct interactions with clients were used in our analysis (job functions such as nursing, care, client-related domestic support and occupational therapy), due to their relationship with the organizational outcome (client satisfaction). This resulted in a database of 48,145 employees. Within this employee database, each question was answered by at least 90.7% of the respondents. Of the valid respondents, 92% were women. This is consistent with Dutch averages for employees in home care, nursing care and care homes, which is predominantly a female profession [ 27 ]. As age is subdivided into categories in our study, we could only say something about the predominant age category. The predominant age category is 46 to 55 years (36.9%) which suggests that the average age is slightly above the average age of 41 years [ 27 ]. Clients were surveyed using the Client Quality Index (CQi) for long-term care [ 28 , 29 ]. The CQi employs a stratified sampling method, through which an independent agency surveys a representative client sample for each organization. Three groups are constructed: home care clients, somatic care clients (in nursing homes or care homes) and psychogeriatric care clients (in nursing homes or care homes). Home care clients are asked to complete a survey; somatic clients are interviewed using a survey as a guide. For psychogeriatric clients (suffering from cognitive issues such as dementia), an authorized representative completes a survey.

To ensure the comparability of the employee data with the client and financial performance data, we only included organizations with information in all three databases. This resulted in a database with 85 organizations.

Measurement

The dataset constructed as described above has the potential to increase our understanding of the relationship among HR practices, job satisfaction and outcomes. However, it also has limitations. The data are not gathered with academic objectives in mind; instead, its primary goal is to be practically useful for the organizations involved. This implies that items used in this study are only partly based on validated scales and existing theory. To determine the reliability of the scales, we have computed reliability statistics where possible. Cronbach’s Alpha is used as a measure of reliability. It indicates how consistently the observed variable measures the latent dimension (prescribed norm is > .70).

HR practices

The employee questionnaire contains five indicators that are often used in HRM and performance research: training and development, performance related pay, teamwork, job design, and autonomy. In the overview article by Harris et al . [ 4 ] the measurement of HRM in health care is discussed. They stated that HR practices that should be adopted in HRM systems incorporate high performance work practices found to have had a positive effect on performance in other sectors (the so-called best practices) without derogating the specific health care context. The first two indicators included by us are the most frequently used in research [ 12 ]. The other three also score relatively high on the list of the most common practices (ranked 5, 10 and 11) [ 12 ]. However, HRM and performance research exhibits little consistency in the selection of HR practices to measure HRM. Boselie et al . [ 12 ] analyzed 104 important HRM and performance studies and identified as many as 26 different HR practices used in different studies. No single agreed, or fixed, list of HR practices or systems of practices exists to measure HRM [ 30 , 31 ]. Nevertheless, a certain consensus regarding the measurement of HRM has emerged in the academic literature on HRM and performance during the last decade. More than half of the articles published after 2000 made use of AMO (Ability, Motivation and Opportunity) theory [ 30 ]. AMO theory proposes that an HRM system should be designed to meet employees’ needs for skills and motivation and, after meeting those needs, provide them with opportunities to use their abilities in various roles [ 32 ]. The underlying idea is that employees will perform well if they have the requisite abilities, when they are motivated and when they obtain the opportunity to profile themselves [ 32 ]. By using the five HR practices indicated above, all three dimensions of AMO theory are covered. Lepak et al . [ 33 ] have listed concrete HR practices that influence employees’ AMO. In this respect, training and development are expected to improve employees’ abilities (A), performance related pay is an HR practices to motivate employees to perform (M), and teamwork, job design and autonomy are HR practices that are considered as opportunities to perform [ 30 ]. These five HR practices are also regularly part of the measurement of HRM in health care studies [ 21 , 24 , 34 ].

Training and development was measured using three items. A sample item is: ‘My organization pays enough attention to my career’. Responses were given using a five-point Likert scale (‘totally disagree’ to ‘totally agree’). All standardized loadings were greater than .5. Cronbach’s alpha was .77.

Performance related pay was measured using one item: ‘My organization provides additional financial rewards to employees with exceptional performance’. Responses were provided on a four-point Likert scale ranging from ‘never’ to ‘always’.

Teamwork was measured using two items. A sample item is: ‘Our organization encourages me to work together with other work units/teams or individuals within the organization’; (four-point Likert scale, ‘never’ to ‘always’). All standardized loadings were greater than 0.5, and they were all statistically significant. Correlation between the two items is .547 ( P < .001).

Job design was measured using three items. A sample item is: ‘My tasks are clear’ (four-point Likert, ‘never’ to ‘always’). All standardized loadings were greater than 0.5, and they were all statistically significant. Cronbach’s alpha was .85.

Four items were used to measure autonomy . A sample item is: ‘I can make decisions independently’ (four-point Likert, never to always). All standardized loadings were greater than .5, and they were all statistically significant. Cronbach’s alpha was .76.

As stated above, we followed the systems approach and therefore combined the five indicators into one HR system variable. As our analysis is at the organizational level, we aggregated the employee data. In this type of analysis, only variables with sufficient variance across organizations are included. To determine whether the data could be aggregated, the intraclass correlation (ICC) was computed. Aggregation is permissible when the variance between groups is larger than the variance within groups. For all HR practices, aggregation was permissible: training and development (F = 11.400, P < 0.01), performance related pay (F = 20.455, P < 0.01), job design (F = 7.728, P < 0.01), teamwork (F = 14.240, P < 0.01), autonomy (F = 8.391, P < 0.01), as was the overall HRM variable (F = 9.667, P < 0.01).

Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction was measured by one item: ‘I enjoy going to work’ (F = 6.586, P < 0.01) (five-point Likert, ‘never’ to ‘always’). Nagy [ 35 ] noted that measuring job satisfaction with a single item ‘is more efficient, is more cost-effective, contains more face validity, and is better able to measure changes in job satisfaction’.

Financial outcome

The net margin is defined as the ratio of a firm’s net profits to its total revenues. It indicates what share of each euro/dollar earned is translated into profit. It is stated as a percentage:

Organizational outcome

The organizational outcome is measured by focusing on client satisfaction. Clients were asked about their satisfaction with the treatment they received. This indicator consists of five items. A sample item is: ‘Do the caregivers have enough time for you?’ (four-point Likert, ‘never’ to ‘always’). We must note that the Association of Client Quality only provides aggregated scales, partly because of privacy issues. Thus, the reliability statistics and ICC cannot be computed. However, the robustness of the CQi - which is most often analyzed at the organizational level - shows that aggregation seems appropriate [ 25 , 26 ].

The HR outcome measure considered is absence due to sickness. Absence due to sickness can be considered a key HR outcome as the decision of employees to be absent affects the available human resources and is a critical success factor for the continuation of work processes within the organization (for example, see [ 36 ]). Absenteeism due to sickness is calculated in percentages, using a standard formula developed by Vernet [ 37 ]. In brief: for every employee, each day he/she calls in sick is multiplied by the part-time factor and disability factor pertaining to that day. These days are then summed and divided by the total number of working days. Maternity leave is excluded. This is calculated for the organization as a whole.

Control variables

We also included control variables, such as gender (1 = female) and age (1 = up to 25 years; 2 = 26 to 35 years; 3 = 36 to 45 years; 4 = 46 to 55 years; 5 = 56 years and older). Furthermore, we included diversity of care to determine whether the relationship among the variables differs for organizations employing a diverse set of care activities as supposed to more specialized organizations. It ranges from a minimum of one to a maximum of six as there are six different forms of care in our sample: hospital care, extramural residential care, extramural personal care, day activities, maternity care and youth care b .

Method of analysis

The hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling (SEM) with Robust Maximum Likelihood estimation. SEM allows us to test the full conceptual model simultaneously. Furthermore, SEM allows us to simultaneously analyze the direct and indirect relationships among the independent and the dependent variables. Finally, SEM also enables us to compare different models [ 38 ]. We used AMOS version 21 IBM SPSS (see http://www-03.ibm.com/software/products/nl/spss-amos ) to develop the SEM model.

As our hypotheses include mediation effects, we employed bootstrapping [ 39 ]. This method estimates the parameters of a model and their standard errors strictly from the sample without reference to any theoretical sampling distribution. In our study, we created 200 samples (with replacement) from the available observed sample.

Results and discussion

Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations and correlations of the variables. As perception variables are measured on various scales (1 to 5 or 1 to 4), we recoded them into a 1 to 10 scale to ease interpretation. The results show that employees perceive a relatively large number of HR practices (M = 6.08 on a 1 to 10 scale). Employees are on average satisfied with their jobs (M = 8.15). Client satisfaction is also quite high: 8.63. With respect to absence due to sickness, the average score is .06 (6%). Finally, the average value for the net margin was .03, showing that for each 100 euros of revenue, 3 euros accrue as profits. Furthermore, the correlations show that HR practices are related to the outcomes as expected. For instance, HR practices are positively and significantly related to client satisfaction. As some of the bivariate correlations are in the medium to high range, we conducted multicollinearity tests. The variance inflation factor (VIF) values were all well within the acceptable range, with the highest being 2.05 [ 40 ]. Thus, our results are not adversely affected by multicollinearity.

To test the proposed relationships, a structural equation model was developed, as shown in Figure 1 . Only the statistically significant relationships are described ( P < .05). The numerical scores on all lines indicate standardized regression coefficients (beta), and the scores in brackets are the explained variance. The overall model fit was tested using several indices. The model fit values were CMIN 24.146 (df 19, p .191) and .962 (comparison fit index (CFI)), implying that the model had a very good fit. Additionally, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), with a value of .057, also indicated that the model had a good fit.

Result of Structural Equation Modeling.

We can now discuss the hypotheses in detail. First, we tested the hypothesis that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between HR practices and financial outcomes in the Dutch care sector. The results show that this indirect effect is not statistically significant (see Table 2 ). We therefore reject the first hypothesis concerning a mediating effect. This could imply that the effect of HR practices on financial performance is direct and not mediated by job satisfaction. The results indeed show a positive and significant relationship between these variables (β = .267, P < .05), implying that a greater use of HR practices is directly related to improved financial outcomes.

The second hypothesis proposed that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between HR practices and organizational outcomes. The results show that this is indeed the case. Therefore, our second hypothesis is supported by the data.

Finally, we tested the hypothesis that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between HR practices and HR outcomes in the Dutch care sector. The results indeed show that the indirect relationship between HRM on the HRM outcome sick absenteeism is significant. Therefore, our third hypothesis is also supported by the data.

The final step in the analysis was the examination of the control variables. In organizations with more female employees, clients are more satisfied with the delivery of services. Moreover, the percentage absence due to sickness is lower in these organizations. With respect to age, the results show that absence due to sickness is higher in organizations in which the average age is relatively high. Finally, the diversity of care is positively associated with absence due to sickness. In other words, organizations engaging in a diverse set of care activities have more absence due to sickness than more specialized organizations.

Finally, model validity was achieved through cross-model validation. Camilleri [ 41 ] suggests pursuing cross-validation in three phases. In the first phase, the data are divided into two data sets. One dataset consists of a random selection of 20% of the data collected from respondents; the second dataset consists of a random selection of 80% of the data collected. In the second phase, SEM via path analysis that calculates the structural fit index (measured by R 2 ) is conducted for both datasets. The third phase consists of examining the differences between the calculated structural fit indices obtained for each dataset. The extent of model validity is determined by the similarity in the variance accounted for by each dataset. The results of the cross-model validation are presented in Table 3 . As the differences in the explained variance are small, the cross-model validation provided satisfactory results.

The main contributions of this study to the literature on HRM and performance in the health care sector concerns the use of a multidimensional performance perspective. In this respect, we examined three different outcomes: financial (net margin), organizational (client satisfaction), and HR (sickness absence). The analysis includes job satisfaction, which can be regarded as a ‘black box’ variable: a mediating variable connecting HR practices and performance.

The results confirm the basic notion that HRM and performance within the health care sector are linked. Our final SEM model shows that HRM is - directly or indirectly - linked to all three outcomes. When organizations apply - according to their employees - more HR practices, this is associated with greater client satisfaction, less sickness absence, and a better net margin. With respect to organizational and HR outcomes, the hypotheses regarding the mediating effect of job satisfaction are confirmed. This is in accordance with the perspective that employee attitudes are an important component of the ‘black box’ between HRM and performance. In this respect, our study showed that higher job satisfaction is associated with higher organizational performance. More specifically, in line with the assumption, our research showed a positive association between employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction because if employees are satisfied with their jobs, they are likely to behave toward customers in ways that yield positive service experiences. A more extensive use of HR practices leads to more satisfied employees. This greater satisfaction ‘reflects’ on the clients, as satisfied employees will do more for them [ 42 ]. Moreover, satisfied workers are less likely to call in sick than less satisfied workers.

HR practices are directly related to financial outcomes, although the explained variance is small. Furthermore, we found that job satisfaction does not mediate the relationship between HRM and net margin. As we mentioned in the introduction, financial outcomes are a distant outcome of HRM. In fact, the literature about strategic management informs us that organizations can use different strategies to achieve their objectives [ 43 ]. In addition to a high performance strategy, organizations can also employ a low cost strategy [ 44 ]. Boxall and Purcell [ 45 ] describe the ‘mass service market’ - which includes care - as a ‘service market with some quality differentiation’. Organizations can follow various strategies to become (financially) successful. One possible strategy implies investing in employees, which will likely result in more satisfied employees. Another strategy implies cutting costs, which will result in reduced investments in employees and (most likely) less satisfied employees. The finding that HRM has a direct effect on financial outcomes may be because a low cost strategy also implies the use of certain HR practices, for instance performance management. It can thus lead to financial success without positively affecting the satisfaction of employees.

We conclude this article by presenting some limitations. An important limitation of this research - but also of many other studies in this area - is the hidden assumption that the same mix of HR practices will work for all organizations. Therefore, the inclusion of HR strategy in research designs will be an important addendum.

The possibility of considering various data sources (employee, client and ‘objective’ performance data) is an important - and unique - advantage of this study. However, it also has some drawbacks. The scales used are not based on previous academic literature. In further research, validated scales should therefore be employed. Moreover, a disadvantage of using secondary data is that not all the desired research concepts were covered in the data.

A further limitation is the sample size. Although the underlying dataset is large, the data were aggregated at the level of 85 health care organizations. This could be considered quite low. However, Bentler and Chou [ 46 ] recommended a ratio of sample size to free parameters of at least 5:1. In our analysis, the model tested was simple, and the ratio of the number of free parameters to the number of cases did not fall below under 5:1. Related to this, several studies using SEM with a small sample size are available [ 47 – 49 ]. Nevertheless, future studies might attempt to replicate the findings using larger sample sizes.

Furthermore, the results of this study should be interpreted in light of the study’s context and sample. The study was conducted in the Netherlands, which features a social health insurance scheme in health care financing and a mix of public and private provider organizations in health care provision [ 26 ]. This is in line with other ‘Bismarck’ countries, such as Belgium, Germany and France [ 26 ]. It would be interesting to replicate our study to test the proposed model in other countries using different kinds of health care systems.

In conclusion, our empirical results underscore the importance of HRM in the health care sector. We can state that HRM makes a difference, especially for HR and organizational outcomes. Its impact on financial performance is less strong. Job satisfaction links HR practices and organizational and employee outcomes. In conclusion, further analyzing HRM in the health care sector will be a productive endeavour for both researchers and practitioners.

a In some countries this terminology is no longer used. However, according to the organization of the care in the Netherlands, ‘psychogeriatric care’ is supposed to be the correct terminology.

b In this variable, more distinct forms of care are included than are analyzed in our study. We use this variable, however, as a proxy for the complexity of the organization.

Abbreviations

Ability, Motivation and Opportunity

comparison fit index

Client Quality Index

Human Resources

Human Resource Management

intraclass correlation

root mean square error of approximation

structural equation modeling

variance inflation factor.

Paauwe J, Guest DE, Wright P: HRM and Performance: Achievements and Challenges. 2013, UK: Wiley Press

Google Scholar

Pfeffer J: The Human Equation: Building Profits by Putting People First. 1998, Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press

Huselid M: The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity, and corporate financial performance. Acad Manage J. 1995, 38 (3): 635-672. 10.2307/256741.

Article Google Scholar

Harris C, Cortvriend P, Hyde P: Human resource management and performance in healthcare organisations. J Health Organ Manag. 2007, 21 (4/5): 448-459. 10.1108/14777260710778961.

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Kabene SM, Orchard C, Howard JM, Soriano MA, Leduc R: The importance of human resources management in health care: a global context. Hum Resour Health. 2006, 4 (20): 1-17.

Guest DE: Human resource management and performance: a review and research agenda. Int J Hum Resour Manag. 1997, 8 (3): 263-276. 10.1080/095851997341630.

Dyer L, Reeves T: Human resource strategies and firm performance: what do we know and where do we need to go?. Int J Hum Resour Manag. 1995, 6 (3): 656-670. 10.1080/09585199500000041.

Peccei R, Van de Voorde K, Veldhoven MMJP: HRM, well-being and performance: a theoretical and empirical review. HRM & Performance: Achievements and Challenges. Edited by: Paauwe J, Guest DE, Wright PM. 2013, London: Wiley, 15-46.

Givan RK, Avgar A, Liu M: Having your cake and eating it too? The relationship between HR and organizational performance in healthcare. Adv Ind Lab. 2010, 17: 31-67.

Combs J, Liu Y, Hall A, Ketchen D: How much do high‒performance work practices matter? A meta‒analysis of their effects on organizational performance. Person Psychol. 2006, 59 (3): 501-528. 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00045.x.

Paauwe J: HRM and Performance: Achieving Long-term Viability. 2004, Oxford: Oxford University Press, USA

Book Google Scholar

Boselie P, Dietz G, Boon C: Commonalities and contradictions in HRM and performance research. Hum Resour MAnag J. 2005, 15 (3): 67-94. 10.1111/j.1748-8583.2005.tb00154.x.

MacDuffie JP: Human resource bundles and manufacturing performance: Organizational logic and flexible production systems in the world auto industry. Ind Labor Relat Rev. 1995, 48 (2): 197-221. 10.2307/2524483.

Nishii LH, Wright PM: Variability Within Organizations: Implications for Strategic Human Resource Management. The people make the place. Dynamic linkages between individuals and organizations. Edited by: Smith DB. 2007, New York, Sussex: Taylor & Francis Group, 225-248.

Merton RK: The Thomas theorem and the Matthew effect. Soc Forces. 1995, 74 (2): 379-422. 10.1093/sf/74.2.379.

Bowen DE, Ostroff C: Understanding HRM-firm performance linkages: The role of the ‘strength’ of the HRM system. Acad Manage Rev. 2004, 29 (2): 203-221.

Taris TW, Schreurs PJG: Well-being and organizational performance: an organizational-level test of the happy-productive worker hypothesis. Work & Stress. 2009, 23 (2): 120-136. 10.1080/02678370903072555.

Harmon J, Scotti DJ, Behson S, Farias G, Petzel R, Neuman JH, Keashly L: Effects of high-involvement work systems on employee satisfaction and service costs in veterans healthcare. J Healthc Manag. 2003, 48 (6): 393-405.

PubMed Google Scholar

Vasset F, Marnburg E, Furunes T: The effects of performance appraisal in the Norwegian municipal health services: a case study. Human Resour Health. 2011, 9 (1): 1-12. 10.1186/1478-4491-9-1.

El-Jardali F, Tchaghchagian V, Jamal D: Assessment of human resources management practices in Lebanese hospitals. Human Resour Health. 2009, 7 (1): 84-10.1186/1478-4491-7-84.

Chuang E, Dill J, Morgan JC, Konrad TR: A configurational approach to the relationship between high‒performance work practices and frontline health care worker outcomes. Health Serv Res. 2012, 47 (4): 1460-1481. 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2011.01366.x.

Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Lee SM, Lee D, Kang C: The impact of high-performance work systems in the health-care industry: employee reactions, service quality, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty. The Service Industries J. 2012, 32 (1): 17-36. 10.1080/02642069.2010.545397.

Scotti DJ, Harmon J, Behson SJ: Links among high-performance work environment, service quality, and customer satisfaction: an extension to the healthcare sector. J Healthc Manag. 2007, 52 (2): 109-124. discussion 124–5

Weinberg DB, Avgar AC, Cooney‒Miner NM, Sugrue D: The importance of a high‒performance work environment in hospitals. Health Serv Res. 2013, 48 (1): 319-332. 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2012.01438.x.

Cole DC, Robson LS, Lemieux-Charles L, McGuire W, Sicotte C, Champagne F: Quality of working life indicators in Canadian health care organizations: a tool for healthy, health care workplaces?. Occup Med. 2005, 55 (1): 54-59. 10.1093/occmed/kqi009.

Maarse H: The privatization of health care in Europe: an eight-country analysis. J Health Polit Policy Law. 2006, 31 (5): 981-1014. 10.1215/03616878-2006-014.

Maximum, Strategisch arbeidsmarktcommunicatieplan deel 1: Onderzoeksrapportage in opdracht van FAOT en SAB-V&V. 2009, Den Haag: Aovvt,

Triemstra M, Winters S, Kool RB, Wiegers TA: Measuring client experiences in long-term care in the Netherlands: a pilot study with the Consumer Quality Index Long-term Care. BMC Health Serv Res. 2010, 10 (1): 95-10.1186/1472-6963-10-95.

Wiegers TA, Stubbe JH, Triemstra AHM: Ontwikkeling van een CQ-Index voor verpleeg- en verzorgingshuizen en thuiszorg: Utrecht. 2007, Nivel: Utrecht

Paauwe J: HRM and performance: achievements, methodological issues and prospects. J Management Studies. 2009, 46 (1): 129-142. 10.1111/j.1467-6486.2008.00809.x.

Guest DE: Human resource management and performance: still searching for some answers. Hum Resour Manag J. 2011, 21 (1): 3-13. 10.1111/j.1748-8583.2010.00164.x.

Appelbaum E, Bailey T, Berg P, Kalleberg A: Manufacturing Advantage: Why High Performance Work Systems Pay Off. 2000, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press

Lepak DP, Liao H, Chung Y, Harden EE: A conceptual review of human resource management systems in strategic human resource management research. Res Pers Hum Resour Manage. 2006, 25: 217-272.

West MA, Guthrie JP, Dawson JF, Borrill CS, Carter M: Reducing patient mortality in hospitals: the role of human resource management. Journal of Organizational Behave. 2006, 27: 983-1002. 10.1002/job.396.

Nagy MS: Using a single-item approach to measure facet job satisfaction. J Occup Organ Psychol. 2002, 75 (1): 77-86. 10.1348/096317902167658.

Keech M, Scott AJ, Ryan PJJ: The impact of influenza and influenza-like illness on productivity and healthcare resource utilization in a working population. Occup Med. 1998, 48 (2): 85-90. 10.1093/occmed/48.2.85.

Article CAS Google Scholar

Vernet: Verzuimmonitor 2010. 2011, Amsterdam

Byrne B: Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS. Basic Concepts, Applications and Programming. 2001, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Hayes AF: Beyond Baron and Kenny: statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Commun Monog. 2009, 76 (4): 408-420. 10.1080/03637750903310360.

Field A: Discovering statistics using SPSS. 2005, London: Sage, 2

Camilleri E: Towards developing an organisational commitment-public service motivation model for the Maltese public service employees. Public policy and administration. 2006, 21 (1): 63-83. 10.1177/095207670602100105.

Vermeeren B, Kuipers B, Steijn B: Two faces of the satisfaction mirror: a study of work environment, job satisfaction, and customer satisfaction in Dutch municipalities. Rev Public Personnel Admin. 2011, 31 (2): 171-189. 10.1177/0734371X11408569.

Miles RE, Snow CC: Designing strategic human resources systems. Organ Dyn. 1984, Summer: 36-52.

Dess GG, Davis PS: Porter’s (1980) generic strategies as determinants of strategic group membership and organizational performance. Acad Manage J. 1984, 27 (3): 467-488. 10.2307/256040.

Boxall P, Purcell J: Strategy and Human Resource Management. 2011, Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke

Bentler PM, Chou C: Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociol Methods Res. 1987, 16 (1): 78-117. 10.1177/0049124187016001004.

Bakker AB, Demerouti E, Verbeke W: Using the job demands‒resources model to predict burnout and performance. Hum Resour Manage. 2004, 43 (1): 83-104. 10.1002/hrm.20004.

Verplanken B: Value congruence and job satisfaction among nurses: a human relations perspective. Int J Nurs Stud. 2004, 41 (6): 599-605. 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2003.12.011.

Fields D, Chan A, Akhtar S: Organizational context and human resource management strategy: a structural equation analysis of Hong Kong firms. Int J Hum Resour Manag. 2000, 11 (2): 264-277. 10.1080/095851900339864.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the reviewers, Gulin Gedik, Sandra Leggat, How Lee, Mario Monteiro and Amani Siyam for their useful suggestions by earlier versions of this manuscript. The authors would also like to thank American Journal Experts for editing this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Erasmus University Rotterdam, PO Box 1738, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Brenda Vermeeren, Bram Steijn & Lars Tummers

PwC, PO Box 8800, 3009 AV, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Marcel Lankhaar & Robbert-Jan Poerstamper

Actiz, PO Box 8258, 3505 RG, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Sandra van Beek

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brenda Vermeeren .

Additional information

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

BS, BV and LT have contributed to the manuscript by drafting the manuscript (all sections). BV has furthermore contributed by conducting the statistical analyses. RJP and ML have contributed by designing the datasets which form the foundation of the manuscript and by acquisition of data. SvB has contributed by drafting the manuscript and revising it critically. All authors approved the final manuscript.

Authors’ original submitted files for images

Below are the links to the authors’ original submitted files for images.

Authors’ original file for figure 1

Rights and permissions.

This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Vermeeren, B., Steijn, B., Tummers, L. et al. HRM and its effect on employee, organizational and financial outcomes in health care organizations. Hum Resour Health 12 , 35 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-4491-12-35

Download citation

Received : 28 July 2013

Accepted : 04 June 2014

Published : 17 June 2014

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-4491-12-35

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Health care
Employee outcome
Client satisfaction
Sick absenteeism

Human Resources for Health

ISSN: 1478-4491

Submission enquiries: Access here and click Contact Us
General enquiries: [email protected]

Human Resource Management Research Paper Topics

Human resource management research paper topics are a critical area of study for students and professionals aiming to understand and advance the field of Human Resource Management (HRM). With the rise of complex organizational structures, diverse workplace environments, and evolving employment laws, HRM has become an essential part of any successful organization. This abstract provides an overview of the multifaceted world of HRM research and introduces a comprehensive list of research paper topics that cater to various aspects of HRM. From talent acquisition to employee retention, performance evaluation, training, and legal compliance, the following sections will offer detailed insights into these areas. Students interested in pursuing research in HRM will find these topics engaging and highly relevant to the current organizational landscape. Additionally, they will be introduced to iResearchNet’s writing services that provide expert assistance in producing custom HRM research papers, ensuring quality, depth, and adherence to academic standards.

100 Human Resource Management Research Paper Topics

Human Resource Management (HRM) is a field that delves into the multifaceted interactions between employees and organizations. The role of HRM has evolved over time to include not only the management of recruitment and employee relations but also strategic planning, legal compliance, and organizational development. Here, we present a comprehensive list of Human Resource Management research paper topics divided into 10 essential categories, each containing 10 specific topics.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code.

HRM is a dynamic and broad field that demands multidimensional approaches to study. As students explore various topics, they will find intricate connections between management strategies, organizational behavior, and employee satisfaction. The following list serves as an inclusive guide to inspire research and academic inquiry.

The role of HRM in organizational strategy
Integrating HRM and business planning
Talent management strategies
Outsourcing HR functions: Pros and cons
Technology and HRM
Cross-cultural HRM
Mergers and acquisitions: HRM challenges
Strategic HR planning and organizational success
The future of strategic HRM
Best HR practices in top-performing companies
Innovative recruitment techniques
Bias and discrimination in the recruitment process
Role of artificial intelligence in recruitment
Recruitment marketing strategies
Social media as a recruitment tool
Ethics in employee selection
Assessing the effectiveness of recruitment strategies
Diversity and inclusion in recruitment
Remote hiring practices
Campus recruitment strategies
The effectiveness of training programs
Employee development and organizational growth
The role of mentors in employee growth
E-learning and virtual training methods
Personalized training approaches
Training evaluation methods
Cross-training and skill development
The future of corporate training
Impact of continuous learning culture
Leadership development programs
Modern performance appraisal techniques
360-degree feedback system
Employee engagement and performance
Performance management and job satisfaction
Aligning performance goals with organizational objectives
Challenges in performance evaluation
Performance-based rewards
Emotional intelligence and employee performance
Performance management in remote work environments
Real-time performance tracking systems
Building trust and collaboration among employees
Conflict resolution strategies
Impact of organizational culture on employee engagement
Managing generational differences in the workplace
Role of leadership in fostering engagement
Employee wellness programs
The psychology of employee engagement
Communication strategies for employee relations
Remote employee engagement tactics
Work-life balance initiatives
Salary negotiation techniques
The psychology of compensation
Pay equity and gender wage gap
The impact of benefits on employee retention
Flexible compensation models
Global compensation strategies
Linking compensation to performance
Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs)
Non-monetary benefits and motivation
Compensation transparency
Labor law compliance in multinational corporations
Whistleblowing and ethical considerations
HRM in unionized workplaces
Workplace harassment laws
Employee rights and employer responsibilities
Managing employee terminations ethically
Diversity and anti-discrimination policies
Legal aspects of employee benefits
Remote work and legal challenges
Ethical dilemmas in HRM
Building a diverse workforce
Strategies for fostering inclusion
The impact of diversity on team performance
Gender diversity in leadership roles
Managing cultural diversity
Age diversity in the workplace
Disability inclusion strategies
LGBT+ inclusion in the workplace
Ethnic diversity and organizational success
Bias reduction training
The role of HRM in shaping organizational culture
Employee behavior and organizational success
Workplace norms and values
Emotional labor in organizations
Organizational change management
Strategies for building a positive work environment
Employee motivation and organizational culture
The psychology of workplace relationships
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) and culture
The role of leadership in defining organizational culture
Emerging Trends in HRM
HRM in the gig economy
Artificial intelligence and HRM
Employee mental health and well-being
Sustainability and HRM
The future of remote work
Integrating HRM and corporate social responsibility (CSR)
Blockchain in HRM
Personal branding in HR
The role of big data analytics in HRM
HRM challenges in the post-pandemic world

The list of human resource management research paper topics presented above offers a rich and diverse avenue for exploration. Each category delves into core aspects of HRM, reflecting the ever-changing nature of this field. As students embark on their research journey, they will discover a world that intricately connects people, organizations, and societal values. Whether focusing on traditional practices or emerging trends, these topics provide the starting point for meaningful inquiry and the creation of knowledge that contributes to the continued growth and evolution of HRM.

Human Resource Management and the Range of Research Paper Topics

Human Resource Management (HRM) is an interdisciplinary field that integrates aspects of management, psychology, sociology, economics, and legal studies. It is the art and science of managing people within an organization to maximize their performance, well-being, and alignment with strategic goals. As a broad and multifaceted domain, HRM opens doors to a wide array of research opportunities. This article will explore the essence of HRM, its historical evolution, theoretical frameworks, practical applications, and the myriad of research paper topics it offers.

Historical Background

The history of HRM can be traced back to the early 20th century, during the rise of the industrial revolution. The scientific management theory introduced by Frederick Taylor sought to apply scientific principles to worker productivity. As the business environment grew more complex, the Hawthorne studies emerged, highlighting the importance of social factors and human relations in the workplace. The evolution from personnel management to modern HRM reflects a shift from viewing employees as mere resources to recognizing them as valuable assets.

Theoretical Frameworks

HRM is underpinned by several key theories that guide practice:

Resource-Based View (RBV): Emphasizes the role of human resources as a competitive advantage.
Equity Theory: Focuses on fairness and justice in employee relations.
Expectancy Theory: Explains how employees are motivated by the expected outcomes of their actions.
Human Capital Theory: Regards employees as assets whose value can be enhanced through training and development.

These theories offer diverse perspectives for research, ranging from organizational behavior to strategic HRM.

Key Functions and Practices

The scope of HRM encompasses various functions that address the needs of both the organization and its employees:

Recruitment and Selection: Designing and implementing processes to attract and hire suitable candidates.
Training and Development: Enhancing employee skills and knowledge through continuous learning.
Performance Management: Assessing and managing employee performance to align with organizational goals.
Compensation and Benefits: Structuring pay and rewards to motivate and retain talent.
Labor Relations: Navigating the legal landscape and fostering healthy employee-employer relationships.

Contemporary Challenges

Modern HRM faces several challenges that provide fertile grounds for research:

Diversity and Inclusion: Creating a workforce that represents various backgrounds, beliefs, and perspectives.
Technology and Automation: Leveraging technology to enhance HR processes while considering its impact on jobs.
Globalization: Managing HR practices across different cultures and jurisdictions.
Ethical Considerations: Balancing organizational needs with ethical treatment of employees.

Emerging Trends

The ever-changing business landscape leads to new trends in HRM:

Remote Work: The rise of virtual workplaces and the associated management challenges.
Well-Being and Mental Health: Prioritizing employee health and well-being as part of HR strategy.
Sustainability: Integrating social responsibility into HR practices.

Range of Research Paper Topics

The complexity and diversity of HRM lead to an abundance of research paper topics. Here are examples from different areas:

Strategic HRM: Examining the alignment of HR practices with business strategy.
Employee Engagement: Exploring factors that influence engagement and its impact on performance.
Legal Aspects of HRM: Investigating laws and regulations affecting HR practices.
Organizational Culture and Behavior: Analyzing the influence of culture on employee behavior and organizational success.

Human Resource Management is a vast and dynamic field that intertwines various disciplines, theories, practices, and challenges. From historical roots to contemporary issues, HRM offers a rich tapestry of research opportunities. Whether investigating traditional functions or delving into emerging trends, students and scholars can find a wealth of topics that resonate with their interests and contribute to our understanding of human interactions within organizational contexts. The spectrum of human resource management research paper topics reflects the depth and breadth of a field that continues to evolve, shaping the way we work, lead, and thrive in an ever-changing world.

How to Choose Human Resource Management Research Paper Topics

Selecting the right topic for a research paper in Human Resource Management (HRM) is a critical step that can shape the entire trajectory of your project. The topic you choose should align with your interests, academic level, the specific requirements of the assignment, and the current trends in the field. Here’s a guide to help you navigate the decision-making process and pinpoint a topic that resonates with you.

The realm of Human Resource Management is vast and diverse, encompassing various theories, functions, challenges, and emerging trends. Choosing a suitable research paper topic within this multifaceted field requires careful consideration and strategic thinking. This section will outline ten essential tips to guide you in selecting a meaningful, relevant, and engaging topic for your research.

Identify Your Interests: Begin by reflecting on what aspects of HRM intrigue you. Are you passionate about organizational behavior, talent acquisition, employee welfare, or strategic HRM? Your research will be more enjoyable if it aligns with your interests.
Understand the Assignment Requirements: Review the guidelines and grading criteria provided by your instructor. Consider the scope, length, and expected complexity of the paper.
Conduct a Preliminary Literature Review: Explore existing research in areas that interest you. Identify gaps, controversies, or emerging trends that could form the basis for your study.
Consider the Target Audience: Think about who will read your paper. Tailoring the topic to your audience’s interests, knowledge level, and expectations can enhance its impact.
Evaluate Available Resources: Assess the availability of data, tools, and resources needed for your research. The feasibility of a topic depends on your ability to access relevant information and support.
Align with Current Trends: Consider choosing a topic that relates to contemporary issues or recent developments in HRM. This alignment can make your research more relevant and appealing.
Seek Guidance from Instructors or Peers: Don’t hesitate to consult with your instructor, classmates, or academic advisors. They may offer valuable insights, feedback, or suggestions.
Ensure Ethical Consideration: Ensure that your chosen topic complies with ethical standards, particularly if it involves human subjects, sensitive data, or controversial subjects.
Consider the Broader Impact: Reflect on how your research could contribute to the field of HRM. A topic with potential practical implications or theoretical advancements can add value to your work.
Create a Shortlist and Evaluate: Draft a list of potential topics and weigh them against the criteria outlined above. This systematic approach can help you identify the most suitable option.

Selecting a research paper topic in Human Resource Management is a thoughtful and iterative process that requires introspection, exploration, and strategic thinking. By considering your interests, academic requirements, available resources, current trends, ethical considerations, and potential impact, you can identify a topic that not only resonates with you but also contributes to the vibrant discourse in HRM. Remember that your choice is not set in stone; it’s a starting point that you can refine and adapt as you delve into your research. Embrace the journey, for the right topic is a gateway to discovery, learning, and growth in the multifaceted world of human resource management.

How to Write a Human Resource Management Research Paper

Writing a research paper on Human Resource Management (HRM) is a complex task that requires a clear understanding of the subject matter, a methodical approach to research, and strong writing skills. The following section will guide you through the process of crafting a well-structured, insightful, and academically rigorous research paper in HRM.

Human Resource Management is at the core of organizational success, shaping the way businesses attract, retain, and develop talent. As a field that intertwines with psychology, sociology, business strategy, and law, writing a research paper on HRM is both challenging and rewarding. The following guide provides a step-by-step approach to help you navigate the research, writing, and revision stages, ensuring that your paper is thorough, coherent, and impactful.

Understand the Assignment: Before diving into research and writing, clarify the assignment’s objectives, scope, format, and grading criteria. Ensure you understand what is expected in terms of content, structure, style, and depth of analysis.
Choose a Relevant Topic: Select a topic that aligns with your interests, the course objectives, and current HRM trends. Refer to Section IV for guidance on choosing the right topic.
Conduct Comprehensive Research: Utilize reputable sources such as academic journals, books, and industry reports to gather data, theories, and insights related to your topic. Evaluate the credibility and relevance of each source.
Develop a Thesis Statement: Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the central argument or focus of your paper. The thesis should guide the reader on what to expect and provide a roadmap for your analysis.
Create an Outline: Develop a detailed outline that breaks down the main sections and sub-sections of your paper. An outline will help you organize your thoughts, maintain coherence, and ensure a logical flow of ideas.
Write the Introduction: Begin with an engaging introduction that introduces the topic, provides background information, highlights its significance, and presents the thesis statement.
Develop the Body Paragraphs: Divide the body of your paper into clear sections and subsections. Use headings and subheadings to guide the reader. Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence, supporting evidence, and a concluding sentence that links back to the thesis.
Include Practical Insights and Case Studies: Where appropriate, include practical examples, case studies, or industry insights that illustrate your points. This application of theory to real-world scenarios can enhance the depth and relevance of your paper.
Write the Conclusion: Summarize the key findings, restate the thesis in light of the evidence, and discuss the implications, limitations, and recommendations for future research or practice.
Revise and Edit: Review your paper multiple times to check for clarity, coherence, grammar, and formatting errors. Consider seeking feedback from peers or instructors, and use plagiarism check tools to ensure originality.

Writing a research paper in Human Resource Management is a multifaceted process that requires careful planning, diligent research, critical analysis, and thoughtful writing. By following the tips outlined above, you can create a paper that not only meets academic standards but also contributes valuable insights to the dynamic field of HRM. Remember that writing is a process of continuous refinement; embrace revisions, seek feedback, and strive for clarity and depth. The journey of crafting an HRM research paper is an opportunity to deepen your understanding, hone your skills, and contribute to the ongoing discourse in a field that shapes the heart of organizations around the world.

iResearchNet Writing Services

For custom human resource management research paper.

At iResearchNet, we pride ourselves on offering premium quality writing services for students focusing on Human Resource Management (HRM) research. We understand that every academic discipline requires a unique approach, and HRM is no exception. Our services stand out because of their superior quality, customization, and attention to detail. For a more thorough understanding of why iResearchNet is the go-to choice for many students worldwide, we have outlined a detailed list of 13 core features that give us an edge in the academic writing industry.

Expert Degree-Holding Writers: At the core of our services, you’ll find our team of experts. These are not just writers but highly qualified professionals who hold advanced degrees in Management, Business, and related fields. Their qualifications and in-depth knowledge ensure that your HRM research paper is handled with the required expertise and understanding of nuanced academic requirements.
Custom Written Works: Beyond the qualifications of our writers, we prioritize the creation of each research paper from scratch. This means that we take your specific guidelines, your unique instructions, and the expectations of your academic level into account when crafting your paper. This unique, individualized approach results in a piece that is as distinctive as the student it represents.
In-Depth Research: A cornerstone of our services is our commitment to comprehensive research. Our writers don’t just skim through the surface of your chosen topic. Instead, they delve deep, exploring various reputable sources and making sure that they provide a robust and critical analysis. This commitment to in-depth exploration ensures your work aligns with the academic rigor expected in HRM studies.
Custom Formatting (APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard): Accurate formatting is crucial in academic writing. Whether you require APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, or Harvard formatting, our writers can proficiently apply these rules. They ensure that your citations, bibliography, and the overall layout of your paper consistently adhere to the required style.
Top Quality: Our commitment to quality is what makes us a leading academic writing service provider. We meticulously proofread and edit every paper to ensure coherence, clarity, and correctness. This attention to detail reflects our relentless pursuit of excellence and the high standards we maintain for every paper we deliver.
Customized Solutions: iResearchNet operates on the principle that each student and each research paper is unique. We value your individual needs and academic goals and believe in a personalized approach to our writing services. Our writers work closely with you, tailoring their approach to resonate with your unique requirements.
Flexible Pricing: We recognize that budget constraints can be a concern for students. Our pricing structure is designed to offer flexibility and affordability without compromising the quality of our services. We have a range of options available to suit various budgetary requirements, demonstrating our commitment to providing excellent value for money.
Short Deadlines up to 3 Hours: Time can be an overwhelming pressure for students, but our team of writers is up to the challenge. Whether you need a research paper in a week or within a few hours, our writers can deliver. Their ability to work effectively under pressure ensures you receive quality work even within the shortest deadlines.
Timely Delivery: Alongside our ability to handle short deadlines, we understand the importance of delivering your work on time. We make it a point to ensure that your research paper is delivered on or before the agreed deadline, allowing you ample time for review.
24/7 Support: We strive to make our services as user-friendly as possible. Our customer support team is available around the clock, ready to assist you with any queries, concerns, or requirements. This ensures a smooth, seamless experience from the moment you place your order to the moment you receive your final paper.
Absolute Privacy: At iResearchNet, we respect and prioritize your privacy. We adhere to stringent data protection policies to ensure that all your personal and academic information is safeguarded with the utmost confidentiality.
Easy Order Tracking: We’ve developed a user-friendly platform that lets you monitor your order’s progress easily. This system not only allows you to check updates but also facilitates communication with your writer, making the process transparent and interactive.
Money Back Guarantee: Your satisfaction is paramount to us. We strive to meet your expectations with every order. However, if the final paper doesn’t meet the quality standards or instructions you provided, we offer a money-back guarantee.

Our mission at iResearchNet is to be a reliable academic partner, providing the tools, resources, and support necessary for success in your HRM research papers. With an exceptional team of experts, a deep-seated commitment to quality, and an array of features designed to cater to various academic needs, we aim to make your academic journey smooth, enriching, and successful. Choose iResearchNet and experience the benefits of professional, dedicated, and reliable academic assistance that puts your needs first.

Act Now for Success!

The path to academic success in Human Resource Management requires dedication, effort, and the right support system. That’s where iResearchNet steps in, offering you not just a service, but a partnership that facilitates your growth, understanding, and accomplishment. If you are ready to elevate your academic experience and reach new heights, here’s why you should act now:

Join a Community of Achievers: By choosing iResearchNet, you join a community of students and professionals who believe in excellence. We understand your pursuit of success, and we’re here to support you every step of the way.

Avail Exclusive Benefits: From our expert degree-holding writers to the assurance of quality, privacy, and prompt support, we have structured our services to provide you an unparalleled experience. Our features are crafted to enhance your academic journey, making it smoother and more enjoyable.

Unlock Opportunities for Growth: Our custom Human Resource Management research papers are not just documents; they are tools that unlock new understandings and opportunities for growth. Engage with our writers, learn from their insights, and apply those learnings to your broader academic life.

Don’t Let Deadlines Dictate Your Progress: Time is valuable, and we understand the pressures that come with academic deadlines. With our timely delivery and support for short deadlines up to 3 hours, you can be assured that your progress is in safe hands.

Enjoy Risk-Free Assistance: Our money-back guarantee is a testament to our confidence in our services and our commitment to your satisfaction. When you choose iResearchNet, you choose a risk-free path to success.

Act Now for a Brighter Future! Don’t wait for the opportunity to pass by. Embrace the chance to work with professionals who can enrich your academic experience. Place your order now, or contact our 24/7 support for further information. iResearchNet is more than a service; it’s your partner in academic excellence, empowering you to achieve more. Embark on this journey with us, and together, we’ll forge a path to success!

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

SUGGESTED TOPICS
The Magazine
Newsletters
Managing Yourself
Managing Teams
Work-life Balance
The Big Idea
Data & Visuals
Reading Lists
Case Selections
HBR Learning
Topic Feeds
Account Settings
Email Preferences

The Most Successful Approaches to Leading Organizational Change

Deborah Rowland,
Michael Thorley,
Nicole Brauckmann

A closer look at four distinct ways to drive transformation.

When tasked with implementing large-scale organizational change, leaders often give too much attention to the what of change — such as a new organization strategy, operating model or acquisition integration — not the how — the particular way they will approach such changes. Such inattention to the how comes with the major risk that old routines will be used to get to new places. Any unquestioned, “default” approach to change may lead to a lot of busy action, but not genuine system transformation. Through their practice and research, the authors have identified the optimal ways to conceive, design, and implement successful organizational change.

Management of long-term, complex, large-scale change has a reputation of not delivering the anticipated benefits. A primary reason for this is that leaders generally fail to consider how to approach change in a way that matches their intent.

Deborah Rowland is the co-author of Sustaining Change: Leadership That Works , Still Moving: How to Lead Mindful Change , and the Still Moving Field Guide: Change Vitality at Your Fingertips . She has personally led change at Shell, Gucci Group, BBC Worldwide, and PepsiCo and pioneered original research in the field, accepted as a paper at the 2016 Academy of Management and the 2019 European Academy of Management. Thinkers50 Radar named as one of the generation of management thinkers changing the world of business in 2017, and she’s on the 2021 HR Most Influential Thinker list. She is Cambridge University 1st Class Archaeology & Anthropology Graduate.
Michael Thorley is a qualified accountant, psychotherapist, executive psychological coach, and coach supervisor integrating all modalities to create a unique approach. Combining his extensive experience of running P&L accounts and developing approaches that combine “hard”-edged and “softer”-edged management approaches, he works as a non-executive director and advisor to many different organizations across the world that wish to generate a new perspective on change.
Nicole Brauckmann focuses on helping organizations and individuals create the conditions for successful emergent change to unfold. As an executive and consultant, she has worked to deliver large-scale complex change across different industries, including energy, engineering, financial services, media, and not-for profit. She holds a PhD at Faculty of Philosophy, Westfaelische Wilhelms University Muenster and spent several years on academic research and teaching at University of San Diego Business School.

Partner Center

Book a Speaker

Introduction

Keeping benefits packages competitive.

The SHRM Employee Benefits Survey returns with new insights for 2024, headlined by modern additions and updated definitions across a wide berth of potential benefits offerings. Evolving upon nearly 30 years of employee benefits research, this comprehensive annual survey of HR professionals captures the prevalence across the spectrum of various employee benefits and perks provided by organizations.

A competitive job market comes with a need for organizations to provide equally competitive benefits offerings. As organizations face labor shortages, those who adapt their total compensation and benefits packages with creative and modern offerings put themselves in better positions to attract and retain talent. The goal of the SHRM Employee Benefits Survey is to gain an accurate representation of benefits offerings throughout the United States. SHRM members can use the findings to discover and benchmark the benefits changes organizations have implemented. With the inclusion of even more items in 2024—as well as new research diving into the average vacation, sick, and PTO days granted by employers—SHRM hopes to provide an even more comprehensive picture of the employee benefits landscape than ever before.

See How Your Benefits Stack Up

To help you compare your organization’s benefits against those surveyed, we’ve provided an online, interactive benchmarking tool. The power is in your hands to explore results for the last five year and to filter results according to your organization’s industry, size and location. Do you work in health care in California? Results are available specifically for an organization like yours. What about a medium-sized trucking company in the South? Yep, results are available for that as well.*

This tool not only equips you to see the overall results of the SHRM Employee Benefits Survey, but also allows you to call up custom-filtered results any time you need them. You can also export the results for later reference.

We’re excited to share these results and equip you with the information to help you build better workplaces. Select any of the benefits categories on the navigation bar to get started.

*For confidentiality purposes, a minimum of five responses is required to show filtered results. For filters resulting in 5-19 responses, results will display with an asterisk to denote a low response count.

License Agreement

By using the employee benefits survey results interactive online tool you agree to our license agreement. click to see full details..

LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR THE SHRM EMPLOYEE BENEFITS SURVEY RESULTS INTERACTIVE ONLINE TOOL, SURVEY RESULTS AND REPORT

By opening and using the SHRM Employee Benefits Survey Results interactive online tool (the "Interactive Online Tool"), the Benefits Survey Results (the “Results”), and generating a Report (the “Report”) (and together the “Results and Report”), you (“User”) hereby agree as follows:

(i) That the Society for Human Resource Management is the exclusive provider and owner of the Interactive Online Tool and exclusive copyright owner of the Results and Report.

(ii) User has the right, by this License, to use the Interactive Online Tool and Results and Report solely for the internal purposes of their employer (“Company”) or for the internal purposes of a single client of Company (“Single Client”), and to make or distribute copies of the Results and Report to other employees within the Company or to employees within the Single Client, provided that such other Company employees or Single Client employees may only use the Results and Report for the internal purposes of the Company or Single Client. The Results and Report may not be shared to external third parties by any Company employees, Single Client employees or User. Except as allowed above with respect to use by employees of Company for the internal purposes of Company or employees of Single Client for the internal purposes of Single Client, User, Company and Single Client are strictly prohibited from printing, making or distributing any copies of the Results and Report in any type of media.

(iii) All materials, reports, data, records, including all export files and reports generated from the Interactive Online Tool, regardless of format (e.g., PDF, CSV), and any other intellectual property created or compiled by SHRM for the Results or in generating the Report, contained in the Results and Report and all copies thereof, collectively the “SHRM Intellectual Property”, shall be the sole property of SHRM.

(iv) Neither User, Company nor Single Client has any right to sell or sublicense, loan or otherwise convey or distribute the Interactive Online Tool, the Results or the Report or any copies thereof in any media to any third parties outside of the Company or Single Client.

SHRM is a member-driven catalyst for creating better workplaces where people and businesses thrive together. As the trusted authority on all things work, SHRM is the foremost expert, researcher, advocate and thought leader on issues and innovations impacting today’s evolving workplaces. With nearly 340,000 members in 180 countries, SHRM touches the lives of more than 362 million workers and their families globally. Discover more at SHRM.org.

This publication may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Society for Human Resource Management, 1800 Duke Street, Alexandria, VA 22314, USA.

This report is published by the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM). SHRM cannot accept responsibility for any errors or omissions or any liability resulting from the use or misuse of any such information.

HR Daily Newsletter

New, trends and analysis, as well as breaking news alerts, to help HR professionals do their jobs better each business day.

Success title

Success caption

Human Resource Management & Development

Join GW Temps
Welcome to GW (New Employees)
Employee Referral Bonus Program
Compensation
Caring For You
Well-Being Programs
Employee Assistance Program (EAP)
Family Care
Leadership Development
Professional Development
Performance Management
Recognition and Positive Vibes
My Voice at GW Survey
Employee Handbook
Manager Resources

Research Staff Resources

Equal Employment Opportunity & Access
HRMD Services
HR Information Systems
HR Support Systems
Meet Our Organization

GW is to proud to be among the select group of universities that hold membership in the Association of American Universities (AAU ), which represents institutions that are “on the leading edge of innovation, scholarship, and solutions that contribute to scientific progress, economic development, security, and well-being.”

Because research is integral to the university’s mission, HRMD will continue to prioritize efforts that support our viability as a Research 1-university . Resources provided on this page are geared to research stakeholders including but not limited to applicants, existing GW research staff, administrators supporting research interests, Principal Investigators/Research Deans and others.

For information on careers at GW we encourage you to explore the following resources available on our website:

Careers in Staff Research
GW Research Magazine
GW Research Newsletter
International Research

Relocation Resources - coming soon!

Research Staff Benefits

Post-Doc Benefits

Office of the Vice Provost for Research - GW's Office of the Vice Provost for Research (OVPR) works alongside our talented faculty to support cutting-edge research and scholarship across all stages of the research lifecycle. OVPR leads a number of initiatives and programs with the strategic aim of growing research capacity and boosting the impact of GW-led discovery and innovation.

Office of Post-Doctoral and Graduate Student Affairs - The Office of Postdoctoral Affairs (OPA) is committed to supporting the professional development of postdocs on their journey to becoming successful, independent investigators and scholars. In addition to supporting postdocs, OPA also assists the faculty and research staff who serve as postdoc mentors.

Advertising for Research Recruitment

Non-Competitive Recruitment Waiver - In certain rare and specific circumstances, the university may allow an individual to be hired into a position without requiring that position to be posted. This situation is known as a “waiver of posting.” All waivers of posting require approval by the HR Business Partner in consultation with the Office of Equal Employment Opportunity & Access (EEOA) and Talent Acquisition.

Career Path – Job Classifications for Research Staff

Talent@GW - features tools to manage training, compensation, performance management, hiring, onboarding and developing future leaders (requires GW credentials for login)

EEO and Hiring Process

Resources coming soon:

Competitive Recruitment Guide
How to Write an Effective Position Description

GW Research Training Opportunities

HRMD Facilitated Training Sessions for Research

Classification, Compensation & Salary Administration for Staff Research Positions
Recruitment, Selection, Interviewing and Placement of Research Staff

Pre/On-Boarding Your New Hire

Pre-Boarding - coming soon!

I-9 Employment Eligibility Verification

Banner Access Request Form (PDF) – Banner is the integrated system of record used collect and maintain student and employee data

GW Organization Chart-Saba Saba is an online enterprise organizational chart tool available to HR staff and Finance Directors (FDs), which provides visual depictions of the organizational structure at GW, in addition to position data, employee data, etc.

Staff PeopleAdmin 7 (PA7) Access Request Form (PDF) – PA7 is the system used by HR, School Research Admins/Department Admins to initiate and approve requests to: 1) create a new headcount/position description; 2) Modify an existing position; 3) Post a position for recruitment; 4) Submit Hiring Proposals

Research Systems and Platform

HR Business Partner Directory

Announcements
About AOSIS

SA Journal of Human Resource Management

Editorial Team
Submission Procedures
Submission Guidelines
Submit and Track Manuscript
Publication fees
Make a payment
Journal Information
Journal Policies
Frequently Asked Questions
Reviewer Guidelines
Article RSS
Support Enquiry (Login required)
Aosis Newsletter

Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management.

Open Journal Systems

Original research, global challenges of the mining industry: effect of job insecurity and reward on turnover intention through job satisfaction, about the author(s).

Orientation: This research focusses on the dynamics of job insecurity, job satisfaction and employee turnover intentions in the Indonesian mining industry facing significant global and local economic challenges.

Research purpose: This research aims to investigate the influence of job insecurity and rewards on the turnover intentions of employees with job satisfaction as a mediating variable in the mining industry of Indonesia.

Motivation for the study: This research is based on the observation that the mining industry faces high turnover rates, which can be detrimental to company operations and sustainability.

Research approach/design and method: This research uses a quantitative approach by collecting data through surveys distributed to employees in various mining industries. The population in this study were employees of the mining industry in PT Vale Indonesia, totalling 3044 employees, and a sample of 230 respondents was taken at random.

Main findings: The main findings show that job insecurity negatively influences job satisfaction, increasing employee turnover intentions. However, when companies implement a fair and adequate reward system, the negative impact of job insecurity on job satisfaction and turnover intentions can be minimised.

Practical/managerial implications: The practical implication of this research is the importance of the mining industry developing human resource management strategies that not only focus on competitive compensation but also create a stable and satisfying work environment.

Contribution/value-add: This research provides an important contribution to the development of human resource management by highlighting the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between job insecurity and turnover intentions. These findings provide new insights for companies in overcoming employee retention challenges with a holistic approach and good reward system.

Sustainable Development Goal

Crossref citations.

Subscribe to our newsletter

Get specific, domain-collection newsletters detailing the latest CPD courses, scholarly research and call-for-papers in your field.

SA Journal of Human Resource Management | ISSN: 1683-7584 (PRINT) | ISSN: 2071-078X (ONLINE)

ISSN: 2071-078X

Winning the war for talent starts with AI

As the global talent shortage becomes increasingly apparent, and organizations double-down on new strategies to attract the best of the best from an increasingly small pool, can artificial intelligenc...

By Aaron Carpenter

Designing for safety: Making user consent and trust an organizational asset

Organizations that prioritize user privacy and transparency can gain a competitive edge and build strong, long-lasting relationships with customers. Visit a website nowadays and you’re bombarded ...

By Catherine Thurtle

IDC names Qualtrics a leader in employee experience

The results of IDC MarketScape: Worldwide Employee Experience 2023 Vendor Assessment are in, and Qualtrics have been named a ‘Leader’ in this year’s report. See why they named us a Leader and le...

By Qualtrics

Customer Experience

Get the latest opinions from our customer experience experts and explore the stories behind some of the breakthrough brands turning customers into fans.

Meeting the omnichannel challenge with Three and Samsung

Integrated omnichannel experience is now table stakes for any business worth its salt. If your customer is not receiving a joined-up experience across every touchpoint, they’ll see - and feel - the ...

By Daniel Saunders

Qualtrics named in Forrester Wave™ Conversation Intelligence for Customer Service (CICS) report

See how Qualtrics stacks up against the most significant vendors. The results of The Forrester WaveTM: Conversation Intelligence for Customer Service, Q3 2023 are in — and Qualtrics has been name...

Employee Experience

Hear from the HR leaders delivering breakthrough experiences for their people and get the latest insights and advice from our team of XM Scientists

Throw your drowning managers a lifeline before it's too late

Do you feel like your managers are submerged in the depths of employee attrition and low morale? If so, you’re not alone. Here’s how to help them stay afloat. Employees don’t quit their jobs ...

Brand Experience

Get the latest advice and best practices from our brand experience experts and see the stories behind some of the world’s most iconic brands.

Small tasks, big ambitions: How Airtasker designed a brand for global growth

Italian lessons? Chef for a birthday party? Kill a spider for you? Airtasker is known as THE platform to get anything done. At X4 on Tour Sydney, Angeline Lee (Vice President - Brand, Airtasker) revea...

When consumers are friction-free how can you build brand loyalty?

Right now, brands must face a new reality in the marketplace: consumers are friction-free and jump between brands at will. This is a reality exacerbated by unprecedented levels of consumer choice, not...

Product Experience

Uncover the stories behind the world’s biggest product breakthroughs and get the latest advice and news from our product experience experts

Continuing our journey to make experience management accessible for all

Today, we celebrate Global Accessibility Awareness Day, a day to raise awareness and advocate for inclusion for people of all abilities. Learn more about our accessibility principles, recent announcem...

By Scott Fynn

Top 5 ways to improve product experience

Product experience refers to a customer's overall perception and satisfaction when using a product or service. Improving product experience is an ongoing process that involves understanding customer n...

By Jebran Shafiq

Qualtrics Life

Dive into the Qualtrics Employee Experience and discover our stories

“One Team” in Mexico City – Ana

Helping others and solving problems are two things I care about. Of course, I work to survive, but at Qualtrics I get to help and witness the difference that people's feedb...

By Qualtrics Life

A Passion for Sales – Logan

My primary 'why' has always been rooted in my desire to be successful and provide for my family. Recently, we learned we are expecting our first child, which will make my '...

XM Institute

Customers prefer human interaction channels.

From XM Institute's Q3 2022 Global Consumer Survey, this data snippet shows that customers prefer to complete seven out of nine common interactions through human-assisted, rat...

By XM Institute

Infographic: NPS Facts and Figures, 2023

This infographic shares recent Net Promoter Score (NPS) data across industries, regions, and ages based on studies with more than 37,000 customers from around the world....

Subscribe to the Experience Matters blog

Stay up to date with the latest xm thought leadership, tips and news., latest articles.

September 7, 2023

August 28, 2023

August 21, 2023

August 16, 2023

Seats upright, trays stowed: Virgin Australia takes off with customer-led innovation

Patient-centric innovation isn’t a numbers game – it’s a people game.

August 14, 2023

Who’s responsible: You or the machine? Everything you should consider about AI

August 7, 2023

Artificial Intelligence has already disrupted the contact center – it’s time to embrace it

More from qualtrics, your guide to experience management.

Deliver exceptional customer, product, brand and employee experiences with our comprehensive guides to Experience Management.

Hear from the brands delivering breakthrough experiences and learn from industry experts and XM Scientists.

Get the latest white papers, eBooks, and guides to help you develop your XM programs.

Get started on your XM project with expert-designed survey templates for everything from employee engagement to customer, product, and brand research.

Marketplace

Explore hundreds of pre-built, expert-designed programs and projects, ready to go straight out of the box.

Request Demo

Ready to learn more about Qualtrics?

IMAGES

(PDF) A review of human resources management research: The past 10
(PDF) Strategic Human Resource Management Research in the United States
Understanding Human Resource Management: Essay Sample
Human Resource Management
(PDF) A Simplified Study of Definitions of Human Resource Management
Human Resources Management Research Paper Topics

VIDEO

Human Resource Management l Answer Key l B Com Prog l Semester 2 l Internal Assessment l
Human Resource Management l Previous Year Question Paper PYQ l Semester 2 B Com l Delhi University
Human Resource Management
Human Resource Management S24 Midterm Prep
HR Records and Research- Human Resource Management (HRM)
Human Resource Management and Administration Introduction Lecture (2023/05/11)

COMMENTS

A Systematic Review of Human Resource Management Systems and Their
Strategic human resource management (SHRM) research increasingly focuses on the performance effects of human resource (HR) systems rather than individual HR practices (Combs, Liu, Hall, & Ketchen, 2006).Researchers tend to agree that the focus should be on systems because employees are simultaneously exposed to an interrelated set of HR practices rather than single practices one at a time, and ...
Human Resource Articles, Research, & Case Studies
However, research by Summer Jackson shows how hiring managers' fears of seeming transactional can ultimately undermine their diversity goals. New research on human resources from HBS faculty on issues including organizational design, compensation, incentive plans, hiring practices, and recruitment.
Human resource management
Leadership Magazine Article. Claudio Fernández-Aráoz. Hitting the hiring bull's-eye is one of an executive's most important—and most difficult—responsibilities. Ten common mistakes can ...
Human Resource Management Journal
The Human Resource Management Journal has published several research papers exploring various aspects of HR in contexts of change and turmoil from a number of perspectives. This virtual special issue on HRM in times of turmoil brings together a collection of papers which, when viewed together can help shed light on some of the challenges and ...
(PDF) Research Methods for Human Resource Management
This book presents advanced quantitative and mixed research methods that can be used to analyze integrated macro and micro paradigms within the field of human resource management. Multi-actor ...
Human Resource Management Review
Conceptual Development for Future Research. The Human Resource Management Review (HRMR) is a quarterly academic journal devoted to the publication of scholarly conceptual/theoretical articles pertaining to human resource management and allied fields (e.g. industrial/organizational psychology, human capital, labor relations, organizational behavior). ). HRMR welcomes manuscripts that focus on ...
152086 PDFs
Explore the latest full-text research PDFs, articles, conference papers, preprints and more on HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT. Find methods information, sources, references or conduct a literature ...
Human Resource Management
Human Resource Management has strong global recognition and readership, and is filled with conceptual and empirical articles that uniquely advance the academic literature as well as having clear practical implications. We accept cutting-edge research and thought leadership on micro-, macro-, or multi-level phenomena relating to all HRM topics and issues, and utilize the full range of ...
Full article: Important issues in human resource management
In this fourth annual review issue published by The International Journal of Human Resource Management (IJHRM), we are delighted to present five articles that cover some of the important areas in people management in contemporary work settings. Our review articles cover topics that are less well-researched, compared with some popular themes, as ...
Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management
Forty Volumes of Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management: Reflecting on Impactful Contributions and Continuing Our Mission Into the Future; Looking Back to Move Forward: A 20-year Overview and an Integrated Model of Human Resource Process Research; Retaining Self-initiated Expatriates: Systematic Reviews and Managerial Practices
Research paradigms in international human resource management: An
International human resource management (IHRM) has grown substantially as a field of study and has become more multifaceted in the way conceptual and empirical contributions are designed (see, for example, Cooke et al., 2019; Pudelko et al., 2015; Stahl et al., 2012; for another Special Issue dedicated to this topic in the GHRM (German Journal of Human Resource Management), see Festing et al ...
Researching employee experiences and behavior in times of crisis
Kornau A, Frerichs IM, Sieben B (2020) An empirical analysis of research paradigms within international human resource management: The need for more diversity. German Journal of Human Resource Management 34: 148-177.
Human Resource Management and Organizational Psychology
Human resources management (HRM) can be broadly defined as "all those activities associated with the management of work and people in organizations" (Boxall & Purcell, 2011 ). It serves as a focus of study but also as an occupation for specialists and a day-to-day component of the work of line managers. HRM is a relatively new area of study ...
Human resource management research in healthcare: a big data
Human resource management (HRM) in healthcare is an important component in relation to the quality and efficiency of healthcare delivery. However, a comprehensive overview is lacking to assess and track the current status and trends of HRM research in healthcare. This study aims to describe the current situation and global trends in HRM ...
Research trends in human resource management. A text-mining-based
The purpose of the study was to detect trends in human resource management (HRM) research presented in journals during the 2000-2020 timeframe. The research question is: How are the interests of researchers changing in the field of HRM and which topics have gained popularity in recent years?,The approach adopted in this study was designed to ...
Sixty years of research on technology and human resource management
Technology has changed the way we work and how companies manage their employees. This article reviews 60 years of research on the relationship between technology and human resource management, as represented in Human Resource Management.Based on 154 articles, we identify recurring and evolving patterns of research on technology across three time periods (separated by the advent of the personal ...
HRM and its effect on employee, organizational and financial outcomes
One of the main goals of Human Resource Management (HRM) is to increase the performance of organizations. However, few studies have explicitly addressed the multidimensional character of performance and linked HR practices to various outcome dimensions. This study therefore adds to the literature by relating HR practices to three outcome dimensions: financial, organizational and employee (HR ...
Full article: Imprinting in HR process research: a systematic review
Introduction. Strategic human resource management (HRM) research has traditionally adopted a firm-level, employer-focused approach to examine the relationship between (one or a set of) HR practices and employees and organisational outcomes (Wright & Ulrich, Citation 2017).Despite the body of valuable knowledge gleaned from this body of work (known as HR content research; Sanders et al ...
HR & Workplace Research
SHRM Research. Our vision is to advance the HR profession by providing evidence-based insights, recommendations and innovations at the intersection of people and work. The intended outcomes for ...
What Is Human Resource Management? Definition + Career Guide
Human resource management is organizing, coordinating, and managing an organization's current employees to carry out an organization's mission, vision, and goals. This includes recruiting, hiring, training, compensating, retaining, and motivating employees. HRM staff also develops and enforces policies and procedures that help ensure employee ...
Human Resource Management Research Paper Topics
Human Resource Management and the Range of Research Paper Topics. Human Resource Management (HRM) is an interdisciplinary field that integrates aspects of management, psychology, sociology, economics, and legal studies. It is the art and science of managing people within an organization to maximize their performance, well-being, and alignment ...
The Most Successful Approaches to Leading Organizational Change
She has personally led change at Shell, Gucci Group, BBC Worldwide, and PepsiCo and pioneered original research in the field, accepted as a paper at the 2016 Academy of Management and the 2019 ...
Employee Benefits Survey
The SHRM Employee Benefits Survey is one of the longest-running annual research reports covering trends in employee benefits among organizations in the United States.
Human Resource Management Journal
1 INTRODUCTION. In this editorial, we look back at the 30 years of Human Resource Management Journal (HRMJ) publishing quality research focused on the management of people at work.In so doing, we chart the development of the journal from its early origins to now being viewed as a leading international journal of choice as evidenced by its top tier position in several national journal rankings ...
How to Improve the Hiring Process for Disabled Candidates
These research-backed practices can demonstrate that you' ... Disabilities Diversity and inclusion Hiring and recruitment Human resource management Workplace discrimination. Source: Harvard Business Review Digital Article. Product #: H08A30-PDF-ENG . Length: 1560 word count. Higher Education. About Us;
Establishing the Nexus between Green Human Resource Management and
It suggests implementing GHRM practices, like green recruitment and induction, through policies to enhance organizational performance. This study contributes to the understanding of GHRM's impact on the environmental performance of construction projects and provides a foundation for future research to improve human resource management.
Research Staff Resources
GW is to proud to be among the select group of universities that hold membership in the Association of American Universities (AAU), which represents institutions that are "on the leading edge of innovation, scholarship, and solutions that contribute to scientific progress, economic development, security, and well-being." Because research is integral to the university's mission, HRMD will ...
SA Journal of Human Resource Management
The SA Journal of Human Resource Management provides a forum for cutting-edge, peer reviewed research in all fields related to the exploration of issues and experiences relating to employment studies and people management. Orientation: This research focusses on the dynamics of job insecurity, job satisfaction and employee turnover intentions in ...
Still in search of strategic human resource management? A review and
In doing so, we draw on a wider range of HRM journals such as Human Resource Management Review, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, and so forth. We find that while the trend of psychologization in SHRM research is gathering pace, the range of theoretical perspectives mobilized to inform the studies is actually expanding.
Qualtrics Blog
XM for Strategy & Research Research. Get faster, richer insights with qual and quant tools that make powerful market research available to everyone. User Experience. Run concept tests, pricing studies, prototyping + more with fast, powerful studies designed by UX research experts. Brand

Article contents

Introduction

Disciplinary Influences

The Nature of HRM

Diversity in Conceptualizations of HRM

Alternative Rationales for Determining the Content of HRM

Internal Fit and the Role of HR Bundles

Human Capital

Levels of Detail about HR Practices

Sources of Information about HR Practices

Response Categories for HR Practices

Aggregating HR Practices

Identifying and Measuring HR Practices: A Summary

The Outcomes of HRM

Understanding the Relationship between HRM and Outcomes

The Role of Employee Attributions

The HR Implementation Process and Actors

The Role of Individual Differences

The Use of Multilevel Analysis

Comparative HRM

The Importance of Longitudinal Research

Further Reading

Related Articles

Human resource management research in healthcare: a big data bibliometric study

Yu-Ni Huang

Kaiyan Chen

Richard Szewei Wang

Bing-Long Wang

Introduction

Materials and methods

Introduction to CiteSpace and VOSviewer

Global publication trends

Country and regional contributions

Total number of citations

Average citation frequency

Analysis of publications

Research orientation

Institutions

Co-occurrence analysis

Global trends in HMR in healthcare

Quality and status of publications worldwide

Research Focus on HRM

Six modules and research directions in human resources

The explanation of the HRM modules [ 29 ]

Human resource planning

Staff recruitment and allocation

Training and development

Performance management

Compensation management

Employee relations management

Acknowledgements

Author contributions

Availability of data and materials

Research trends in human resource management. A text-mining-based literature review

Design/methodology/approach

Research limitations/implications

Originality/value

1. Introduction

2. Trends in the HRM research identified in previous studies

3. Material and methods

3.1 Selection of journals

3.2 Search for the most important terms

3.3 Identification of thematic groups (clusters)

3.4 Identification of trends

3.5 Interpretation of trends

4. Results and discussion

5. Conclusions

5.2 Limitations

Corresponding author

Report an issue or find answers to frequently asked questions

HRM and its effect on employee, organizational and financial outcomes in health care organizations

HRM and outcomes

HRM and outcomes in the health care sector

Measurement

HR practices

Control variables

Method of analysis

Results and discussion

Abbreviations

Acknowledgements