islamic art thesis paper

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The Spiritual Turn: Modern Sufism and the Study of Islamic Art and Architecture

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Art of the Islamic world 640 to now

Course: art of the islamic world 640 to now   >   unit 1, arts of the islamic world.

• Adorning the Qur’an
• Gold in the Qur’an
• Introduction to mosque architecture
• Common types of mosque architecture
• The complex geometry of Islamic design

What is Islamic art?

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ISLAMIC ART AND THE ABSTRACT ORIENTALIST WORKS OF PAUL KLEE

2019, Sotheby's Institute of Art MA

Klee’s intricate, simplistic, and inventive works of art will be analysed in terms of the clear connections found in both his work and Islamic geometry. The thesis aims to re-evaluate Klee's association with Islamic art by analysing the technical and conceptual orientalist contributions of his work with the technical and theoretical framework of geometric Islamic art. In order to comprehend the connections that Klee shares with Islamic art, this paper will begin by constructing an analytical framework and understanding of the state of Islamic art within western art history and its various and multifaceted definitions, principles, and philosophies. The significance of Islamic art within European art history has often been clouded by past colonial perspectives that hindered its consideration. This complicated relationship is highlighted through the analysis of political terms such as Orientalism, post- colonialism, and hybridity.

Related Papers

Manazir Journal

Joan Grandjean

The art and architecture of the Islamic world had a decisive impact on the development of decorative and fine arts from 1880 to 1945. Many leading artists and architects took inspiration from the rich Islamic language of forms and ornamentation. They were fascinated by the mathematical principles and unusual harmonies of colors in Persian miniatures and rugs, stained glass windows or Iznik tiles, and punched metal works and ceramics from the Near East, North Africa and Moorish Spain. While only some of them actually visited the Islamic world and studied its art and architecture in situ, many discovered it through exhibitions and publications. Following on from Paris (1893/1903), Stockholm (1897) and Algiers (1905), Munich set new standards in 1910 with the exhibition “Meisterwerke muhammedanischer Kunst” (“Masterpieces of Muhammadan Art”). Museums, art dealers and private collectors from a number of countries contributed some 3,600 works, including valuable carpets, ceramics, metalwork pieces and Persian miniatures. The exhibition marked a turning point not only for the academic studies of the time, but also in terms of the reception of Islamic arts. In the Western fine and decorative arts of the 19th century, the “Orient” conjured up motivic imagery heavily influenced by the colonialist perspective, whereas the artists of early Modernism investigated Islam’s stylistic devices in depth, transposing them to their own environment through a process of artistic internalization. In combination with their own traditions and their respective times, it was this very internalisation that instilled motivating creative processes, out of which artists developed countless new forms of expression. The contributions in this volume approach these questions from different perspectives, considering theoretical and practical applications developed by western artists, architects and decorators and how Islamic art was considered as a model for the renewal of European arts at the turn of the twentieth century.

LIBRI: Kitap Tanıtımı, Eleştiri ve Çeviri Dergisi, Journal of Book Notices, Reviews and Translations

Terrance M P Duggan

Perhaps the earliest of European terms employed to describe the religious art-the works of Islam, Islamic Art, describes through this term a work as having been made, (In the manner of ) The Lord. The term employed from the 14th c. onwards in a variety of forms include: Rabb-esco, Ar-Rabb-esco, Orabesco, Rabask/Rabesk/Rebesk, Arabesk, Arabeschi, Rabesca, Rabescato, Rabescare, Rabeschi, Rabesci, Rabiscu, Rabbesco, Rabbiscu, Rabesch, today, most frequently written, Arabesque. This term records an Arabic word which was brought into Portuguese, Spanish, Italian and Sicilian, and a word which directly relates the name of this type of work to the Arabic word Rabb, meaning Lord, and which was then combined with the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese suffix- esco, hence, with the Arabic article, ar-rabb+esco, or, without the article, rabb+esco, today the term, Arabesque. In consequence, to state as Blair and Bloom do, that, “There is no evidence that any artist or patron in the fourteen centuries since the revelation of Islam ever thought of his or her art as “Islamic”, and the notion of a distinctly “Islamic” tradition of art and architecture, eventually encompassing the lands between the Atlantic and the Indian oceans, is a product of late nineteenth-and twentieth-century Western scholarship, as is the terminology used to identify it." is a statement that is simply incorrect. It was a term employed by Muslims to describe to others those works that were made "in the manner of the Lord", meaning in the manner prescribed by the Almighty, through the expression of iktisāb, that is, Islamic Art. For a different modern opinion concerning the term ""Arabesque" see: Met. Museum. N.Y., Department of Islamic Art. “Vegetal Patterns in Islamic Art. "It was not until the medieval period (tenth–twelfth centuries) that a highly abstract and fully developed Islamic style emerged, featuring that most original and ubiquitous pattern often known as “arabesque.” This term was coined in the early nineteenth century (sic.) following Napoleon’s famed expedition in Egypt, which contributed so much to the phenomenon of Orientalism in Europe and later in the United States. Arabesque simply means “in the Arab fashion” (sic.) in French, and few scholars of Islamic art use it today (sic.)."” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vege/hd_vege.htm (October 2001) As also, “The first is the identification of the “arabesque” (a term coined in early modern Europe) (sic.) not only as the epitome of Islamic art but also as the epitome of the ornamental.” In the Ed(s): Finbarr Barry Flood; Gülru Necipoğlu. Companion to Islamic Art of 2017, Vol. 1, page 26. file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/Frameworks_of_Islamic_Art_and_Architectu.pdf Dini sanatları, İslami eserleri ve İslam Sanatını tanımlamak adına kullanılmış belki de en eski Avrupa terimleri, bu terim aracılığıyla bir eseri Tanrı’nın yolunda yapılmışçasına tanımlar. Terimin 14. yüzyıldan itibaren farklı kullanılış biçimleri ile karşılaşılır: Rabb-esco, Ar-Rabb-esco, Orabesco, Rabask/Rabesk/Rebesk, Arabesk, Arabeschi, Rabesca, Rabescato, Rabescare,Rabeschi, Rabesci, Rabiscu, Rabbesco, Rabbiscu, Rabesch ve günümüzde sıklıkla kullanıldığışekli ile Arabesque. Bu terimin Portekizceye, İspanyolcaya, İtalyancaya ve Sicilya dilinegeçmiş Arapça bir kelime ile birlikte, bu türden bir eserin ismini Arapçadaki Rabb, Tanrı, kelimesi ile ilişkilendiren bir başka kelimenin, İtalyanca, İspanyolca ve Portekizcedeki ‘-esco’sonekiyle birleşerek, Arapça bir artikel ile birlikte ar-rabb+esco, veya artikelsiz rabb+escoşeklinde oluştuğu, günümüze de Arabesque (Arabesk) şeklinde geldiği görülür. Sonuç olarak, Blair ve Bloom’un yaptığı gibi, “On dördüncü yüzyılda herhangi bir sanatçının veya haminin İslam’ın ortaya çıkışından bu yana kendi sanatının ‘İslami’ olduğunu düşündüğüne yönelik hiçbir kanıt yoktur; ve giderek Atlantik ile Hint okyanusları arasındaki topraklara yayılan ‘İslami’ sanat ve mimari geleneği kavramı, bunu tanımlamak için üretilen terminoloji ile birlikte geç on dokuzuncu ve yirminci yüzyıl Batı akademisinin bir ürünüdür” demek en yalıntabir ile yanlıştır. Bu terim, Müslümanlar tarafından başkalarına her şeye kadir/Allahtarafından emir buyurulan minval anlamına gelen, iktisāb, yani İslam Sanatının dışavurumuaracılığıyla ‘Tanrı’nın yolunda’ yapılmış eserleri açıklamak için kullanılmıştır.

The Journal of Art Historiography June 1, 2012, vol. 6 (Special Issue on the Historiography of Islamic Art and Architecture, guest-edited by Moya Carey and Margaret S. Graves)

Gülru Necipoğlu

The article examines the shift in the field, since the 1970s, from a predominant focus on the early period of Islamic art and architecture in the 'central zone' of the Fertile Crescent to a broader chronological and geographical scope. This shift has contributed, among other things, to a change of emphasis from artistic unity to variety, accompanied by an increasing diversification of concepts and approaches including dynastic, regional, media-based, textual, theoretical, critical, and historiographical inquiries. The article seeks to address the unresolved methodological tensions arising from the expanded scope of the field, along with concomitant anxieties over the fragmentation of its traditional 'universalism'. It begins by outlining the premises of still prevalent approaches inherited from the construction of the field during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, a field rooted in the entangled legacies of Orientalism, nationalism, and dilletantism. The article then reviews recent statements on the state and future of the field before turning to personal reflections on challenges posed by its expanding horizons and its relationship to the Museum. “The Concept of Islamic Art: Inherited Discourses and New Approaches,” in Islamic Art and the Museum: Approaches to Art and Archaeology of the Muslim World in the Twenty-First Century, ed. Benoît Junod, Georges Khalil, Stefan Weber, Gerhard Wolf (London: Saqi Books, 2012), 57-75. (Electronically reproduced in The Journal of Art Historiography, June 1, 2012, vol. 6; Special Issue on the Historiography of Islamic Art and Architecture, guest-edited by Moya Carey and Margaret S. Graves, 1-26).

The Journal of Art Historiography

Avinoam Shalem

to Western literature but impinges on many other fields and is undoubtedly rooted in the history of European thought, especially in the construction of the image of its major ‘Other’ and the creation of its own historical narrative. And yet, this critical notion can and should also be applied to the field of art history in general, and to the construction of the field of Islamic art history within the larger discipline of Western art history in particular. To be more precise, what this brief analysis intends is to begin a discussion on the history of ‘Oriental’ art and artistic production within the critical framework of Orientalism, or, more broadly, within the framework of colonial and postcolonial studies; and, at the same time, to

The Art Bulletin

Jonathan Bloom

Sajid Rizvi

Ernst Grube and Eleanor Sims, eds, Serpil Bağcı, Manijeh Bayani, Nahla Nassar, assistant editors. Distributed worldwide by Saffron, Islamic Art is published by The Bruschettini Foundation for Islamic and Asian Art, Genova, and The East-West Foundation, New York. Editors' Note (excerpt): Preparing our customary Editors’ Note for this sixth volume of Islamic Art, we are struck by the many developments that have shaped the issue you hold in your hands. To begin with, it is not the volume so long intended. What had been envisioned as an already-large component of Volume VI instead grew so large that the wiser course seemed to publish it separately: the first supplement to Islamic Art, The Painted Ceilings of the Cappella Palatina, by Ernst J. Grube and Jeremy Johns, appeared in 2005. A detailed examination of the complex iconographical content of the paintings which decorate the celebrated ceilings of this building, erected by order of the Norman King of Sicily around 1140, it seeks to identify the multitudinous sources of these paintings. They range from the Ancient Near East and the Classical world to Romanesque Europe but are overlaid by myriad Islamic forms and manners, especially those developed in the Maghrib and Fatimid Egypt. Unique as a pictorial cycle, the ceilings of the Cappella Palatina may now be seen as an extraordinary and unique fusion of Eastern and Western traditions taking place near the very edge of the Western Islamic world. If Supplement I to Islamic Art focuses on the medieval period in the Muslim West, Volume VI looks primarily toward the Muslim East.

REGARDS, la revue des arts du spectacle (no. 28)

Hamed Yousefi

This article argues that since the 1970s a duality divides the concept of Islamic Art. On the one hand, we have Islamic Art as the subject matter of a modern mode of historical inquiry, invented and developed in the colonial period in Europe but then taken up by scholars from around the world, including Muslim academics. This is the Islamic Art of Islamic Art History as a field of secular scholarship. But then, in the decolonization period, and more pronouncedly since the 1970s, we witness the birth of another concept of Islamic Art that is not focused on the past. This second notion of Islamic Art seeks to envisage Islamic Art as a component of a future-oriented project of reorganizing life under and against modernity. It locates Islamic Art not primarily in historical objects but more importantly at the center of a contemporary "civilizational vision" of Islam. This latter Islamic Art is an explicitly modern project with a professedly social reform agenda. This article explores the challenges that this duality in Islamic Art poses to the discipline of Art History, particularly in terms of the relationship between the two academic fields of Islamic Art and Global Modernism.

Rui Oliveira Lopes

A Companion to Islamic art and Architecture 2

Finbarr Barry Flood , Gülru Necipoğlu

In a book published in 2008, Arnold Hottinger provocatively asserted that as far as the Western stance toward Islam is concerned, Islam does not exist.1 He argued correctly that it is pure fiction to speak about Islam using one sole, monolithic and global term. Moreover, he added that the desire to see in the wide-ranging and diverse ‘worlds of Islam’ a homogenous sphere called Islam is simply an abstract cognitive notion, which, as with any general concept, has its sole origin in the mind of the person who creates this concept or theory. It is quite clear, then, that Hottinger, like many other scholars of Islamic studies, developed his ideas in the critical ‘Post-Edwardian Era’; that is, the period following the death of Edward Said in 2003, in which renewed discussion has taken place around his renowned book Orientalism, first published in 1978.2 The ‘imaginary Orient’, as termed by Linda Nochlin in 1983,3 is not restricted to Western literature but impinges on many other fields a...

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Islamic Art – A Deep Dive into the Gilded World of Islamic Art

Islamic art is the term used to describe the broader art forms that occurred in Islam after the 7 th century CE. It was not restricted to only Muslim artists making religious artworks, but all art forms and non-Muslim artists under this designating term. This article will explore Islam art, its characteristics, as well as some of the common art forms from this extensive artistic and cultural period in the Islamic world.

Table of Contents

• 1 What Is Islamic Art?
• 2.1 Early Period
• 2.2 Medieval Period
• 2.3 Later Period
• 2.4.1 Arabesques
• 2.4.2 The Use of Script
• 2.4.3 Beauty and Meaning
• 2.5 Forms of Islamic Art
• 2.6 Islamic Calligraphy Art
• 2.7.1 Islamic Paintings
• 2.7.2 Islamic Ceramics
• 2.7.3 Islamic Glasswork
• 2.7.4 Islamic Metalwork
• 3 Islamic Art: From the Past to the Present
• 4.1 What Is Islamic Art?
• 4.2 What Are the Characteristics of Islamic Art?
• 4.3 When Did Islamic Art Occur?

What Is Islamic Art?

Islamic art and architecture tend to be characterized by the shared commonality that is the Islamic religion. The veneration of the Islamic religion and its traditions underpin almost all of Islam art with the primary holy text, the Qur’an, serving as a guidepost for Muslim artists. With over 2 billion adherents of Islam worldwide, this style of art is one of the most prevalent. So, with that in mind, when we look at Islam art, we can understand what drove and inspired Muslim artists to create their works.

Introducing Islam: A Chronological Overview

It was only during the 19 th century CE when the “umbrella” term, Islamic art, was used to describe the cultural material from the vast regions of Islam, spanning almost 1400 years. Therefore, it is important that when we explore Islamic art, we must keep in mind that it includes numerous art forms and artists from numerous regions and socio-political structures like kingdoms and dynasties.

To understand Islam art, let us briefly explore how it originated, and what the Islamic religion is.

The Islamic religion is one of the world’s largest practiced monotheistic religions alongside Christianity and Judaism (all of which are also called “Abrahamic faiths” because they share similar relationships with the prophet Abraham).

The beginnings of the Islamic religion lie with the prophet Muhammad, who was the founder of the religion, and its seminal religious text, the Qur’an, which was written from the prophet’s recitations after his religious revelations from Allah. The Arabian city, Mecca, is where Mohammad is believed to have been born and is considered a sacred and holy city.

Islamic art can be divided into three chronological time periods for easier understanding and context. This includes the Early period, from around 640 to 900 CE, the Medieval period, from around 900 to 1517 CE, and the final, or Later period, which was from around 1517 to 1924 CE.

Below, we look at each time period and the prevailing dynasties and other ruling structures within each.

Early Period

The Early period in Islam’s socio-political history and art is estimated to be around 640 to 900 CE. This falls just after Mohammad’s death, which was in the year 632 CE. After Mohammad’s death, four Caliphs were appointed as his successors, known as the “Rightly Guided Caliphs” – Caliphs are rulers within what is known as the caliphate, which is a state under Islamic rule.

During this period, there was political unrest over the successors, and Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib were assassinated by rebels and sects who protested for new Caliphs. This was also when the fifth caliph, Al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, signed a peace treaty for the caliph Mu’awiya to rule. The Umayyad Dynasty ruled from around 661 to 750 CE, and the second civil war (“Second Fitna”) started after Mu’awiya’s death in the year 780 CE.

The Abbasid Dynasty ruled after the Umayyad Dynasty.

The Abbasid Dynasty was also known as the “Islamic Golden Age” as it became a cultural and intellectual center in various disciplines like science, technology, theology, literature, visual arts, and music, among others. There was also a cross-cultural influence between East Asia (such as China, India, and Iran) and the West (for example, Europe’s Byzantine and Classical Antiquity styles).

Medieval Period

The Medieval period started around the 900s CE and lasted until about the 1500s CE. As the Abbasid Dynasty ended, there were several new dynasties in North Africa and the East. This started with the Fatimid Dynasty, which began around 909 to 1171 CE. The Fatimids Mohammad’s daughter’s name was Fatima.

During this period, the Fatimids ruled in Egypt and Syria, with Cairo as the main city.

This also became a cultural center with a trade route in the Mediterranean and the Indian oceans. There was also a focus on building architectural structures like Mosques, which were important religious structures. Some prominent examples include the Al-Hakim and Al-Azhar Mosques in Cairo. Other forms of art that emerged from the Fatimid Dynasty included ceramics and pottery, relief sculptures, and carvings made from ivory. There was also a focus on decorative patterns on objects, such as foliage (otherwise referred to as “vegetal” forms) and human shapes. The Fatimid Dynasty produced its art in a luxurious manner.

After the Fatimid Dynasty came the Ayyubids, who reigned from 1171 to 1250. Other dynasties included the Ghaznavids, who ruled from 977 to 1186 CE, who were Turkish in origin. The Seljuk Empire, also Turkish, ruled around the years 1038 to 1194 CE.

The Seljuks made significant contributions to the development of culture, art, and politics. They also invested in the development of education through schools, called “madrasas” in Arabic.

Some of the more notable architectural inclusions from this period include the four- iwan layout for congregational mosques, consisting of four doorways on each side of a rectangular building or courtyard. A famous example of such a building is the Masjid-e Jameh, or the Great Mosque of Isfahan, which was built by the Malik Shah. Other artistic developments included ceramics, metalwork, textiles, and more. Some of the techniques in ceramics included fritware.

The Mamluks reigned from around 1250 to 1517 CE and were mainly based in Cairo, Egypt, Syria, and other areas in the Middle East.  During the Mamluk rule, there was also a surge in Islamic art and architecture, especially with the intention to emphasize the grandiosity of the rulers. Cairo was one of the cultural and artistic centers at the time and showcased the rich and elaborate expressions of Muslim art. Buildings included mosques, schools, and mausoleums, among others.

Other forms of art and craft included metalwork and glasswork.

Ceramics also showed influence from Eastern cultures like the Chinese due to the extensive trade routes, which allowed a wider reach. An example of elaborate craftsmanship is the metal basin, Baptistere de Saint Louis (1290 to 1310).

Later Period

The Ottomans started to overrule the Mamluks, reigning from around 1281 to 1924. The Later period includes several important dynasties and empires, notably the Ottoman Empire; the Timurids, who reigned from around 1369 to 1502; the Safavids, who reigned from around 1502 to 1736; and the Mughals, who reigned from around 1526 to 1858.

The Ottomans took control over the Byzantine Empire’s city, Constantinople, in 1453, which then became Istanbul. With their rule, they introduced impressive architectural structures. Architects also utilized the Byzantine-style dome in building layouts. Other forms of Muslim art included ceramics and decorative arts, especially the Iznik pottery style.

The Iznik style was prominent on tiles and was characterized by flowers and vines in curvilinear shapes. The colors consisted of different hues of blue and turquoise . There was also an extensive production of textiles as well as the extensive use of calligraphy. Some prominent examples include the Topkapı Palace (construction started in 1459) and the Süleymaniye Mosque (1550 to 1558).

When we look at the Timurids and Safavids, both empires included impressive architectural structures.

The Safavids also produced high-quality manuscripts, especially illuminated manuscripts. Islamic painting through this form of art was exceedingly popular, and a significant number of patrons came from the royal court. An example can be seen in the Shahnama , which was a “Book of Kings”.

Other forms of art included textiles, especially in the form of Persian carpets, which were utilized in the courts, such as the  Ardabil Carpet (1539 to 1540). The entire carpet appears elaborately decorated with forms of foliage, flowers, and other patterns. The Mughal Empire extended its reach into India. Artwork spanned across painting, architecture, illuminated manuscripts, and more. This period also includes the construction of the famous building , the Taj Mahal (1632 to 1653), commissioned to be built by Shah Jahan, who was the fifth Mughal Emperor.

Characteristics of Islamic Art

The art of the Islamic world is very easy to spot because it has very niche characteristics. Whether it be mosaics or vessels from Baghdad, Damascus, or Anatolia, there are several key features of this secular art that are easy to identify. In the section below, we will discuss these themes and decorative elements in more detail. 

An arabesque is an interwoven geometric motif of leaves and floral designs. Geometric motifs and symbols related to Allah are The geometric Islamic motifs hold significant symbolism related to God and transcending life, symbolizing the infinite.

These geometric patterns are also referred to as Arabesques and are seen far and wide on many buildings.

Some examples can be seen as far as Spain, like the Alhambra (c. 1238 to 1358), which means “The Red One” in Arabic) as well as many more notable buildings. There were also three primary types of buildings built, namely: mosques, madrasas (religiously oriented schools), and mausoleums. All of these buildings would be built and decorated in varying ways.

The human figures were considered idolatry and not suitable for depictions in art, which was meant for worshipping purposes. This is referred to as Aniconism and falls under the Islamic law called Sharia Law. In some forms of this art, there would be depictions of holy figures like Mohammad and others as part of telling a story, although the use of more geometric and floral shapes as well as Arabic calligraphy was more prevalent.

While Aniconism was a strong part of Islamic art and architecture, there are examples where this was not applied.

While the older, more religious spaces subscribed to aniconism, such as the shrine in Jerusalem called the Dome of the Rock (c. 7 th  century CE) and the Al-Aqsa Mosque (completed in 705 CE), other spaces that belonged to sovereigns and their private homes chose to include humans and animal figures. Examples of these include the palace called Khirbat Mafjar (c. 8 th century CE), also known as Hishām’s Palace. Other examples include the castle Qasr Amra (also called Qusayr ’Amra), which is in Jordan. It houses various frescoes on the walls depicting a variety of scenes like hunting, women, and some animals. There are also other forms of art that portrayed figural depictions, seen on textiles, ceramics, metalwork, and illuminated manuscripts.

The Use of Script

A discussion of the art of Islam would not be complete without mentioning the Arabic script. As mentioned earlier, calligraphy played a major role in Muslim art and architecture, as well as other forms of Muslim art. Calligraphy was the vehicle through which Muslim artists venerated the written word and messages given by Mohammad in the Qur’an. Where in Christianity there was strong visual imagery of religious icons, Muslim art veered more towards the written word being painted on surfaces. This served two purposes: to decorate the surface as well as convey the important religious messages from the Qur’an.

Beauty and Meaning

When we look at Muslim art, we will notice a significant focus on ornamentation and lustrous colors like blues and gold. These colors and designs were also used in common household items like bowls, jewelry, and furniture. Islamic art was about a way of life – objects were highly decorated, not only for the mere sake of art but also for a deeper meaning.

When an object or building had elaborate decorations, the focus was taken off the actual object and suggested a deeper world that transcended the material world.  

This notion is especially emphasized by the infinity motifs utilized in varying degrees. These Islamic motifs open up and transform the base materials from which the objects or buildings are made into something more beautiful and meaningful.

Forms of Islamic Art

Below, we briefly discuss some of the other modalities that were vehicles for the wide scope of Islam art. Alongside Arabic calligraphy, art, and architecture, there was a lot of development in Islamic painting, which took on different formats like miniatures and illuminated manuscripts.

There were also Islamic ceramics, pottery, textiles, glasswork, and metalwork.

We will also see the intricate craftsmanship of the Islamic motifs in other forms like leatherwork, jewelry, carvings from semi-precious stones (also referred to as hardstone carvings) and ivory, different pieces of furniture and household items, as well as materials like silk and batik.

Islamic Calligraphy Art

When we take a closer look at Islamic calligraphy art, there were two different calligraphic scripts used, namely, the Kufic script and the Naskhi (or Naskh ) script. One of the oldest Arabic scripts, the Kufic script originates from Kufa, a city in Iraq, from the Nabatean culture. The appearance of the Kufic script is horizontal, and the letters have an angular delineation when written. In other words, there is a strong verticality that pronounces the letters.

The script’s letters are often described as geometric and linear with vertical and horizontal aspects.

There are also several different types of this script, such as the floriated Kufic , which has floral-like adornments to the letters; the square Kufic , which was used on bricks or tiles in architectural structures that gave the script a block or square-like appearance; the knotted or plaited  Kufic , which was used on architectural structures; and the foliated Kufic , which has half-palmettes and “lobed leaves” on the vertical letters. These are only several examples among many other types of the Kufic script.

The Naskhi script, on the other hand, started replacing the Kufic script during the 11 th  century. However, there are scholars that estimate both scripts were utilized centuries before they were given prominence. The Naskhi script is rounder in appearance and is mostly used for scribing rather than decoration.  The Naskhi script was mostly used to write administrative documents as well as to transcribe various texts, including the Qur’an. It was easier to read because it did not have the decorative elements we see in the Kufic script.

An easy way to identify this script is through the lack of “hooks” or small “lobes” adorning the ends of letters.

Ibn Muqla is known to have invented the Naskhi script, along with the cursive text called Thuluth and five other scripts called Tawqi’ , Ruq’ah , Muhaqqaq , and Reyhan . All six scripts are referred to as the “Six Pens” and vary in style.

Islamic Architecture

The Islamic architectural style can be seen in the most important structure of Islam, which is the mosque. The mosque in Arabic is called the masjid . It is a religious building for prayer and praise, although it is also used for community purposes like studying, gatherings, or quiet reflection.

The mosque is an important structure in the Islamic faith and so too became an important structure within Islam art.

Mosque architecture is believed to have originated from the first mosque, the Quba Mosque, which was Mohammad’s home. It was in the style of an Arabian house from the 7 th  century CE, in Medina, which is now Western Saudi Arabia. The Arabian style had a courtyard, rooms, and columns.

There are some overall characteristic features that appear in Mosque architecture, although it is important to understand that Islamic architecture also varied widely due to the vast geographic expansion, regional styles, and the time it occurred in Islamic history. One such feature is the Sahn , which is the large courtyard. This is an important part of the Mosque’s prayer hall because of mandatory prayer attendance by all men in the Islam community, meaning that there needs to be enough space to house everyone. 

There are fountains in the courtyards to offer hydration and cleansing prior to prayer.

Islamic Paintings

Islamic paintings included the more famous illuminated manuscripts (book paintings) as well as miniatures. Book paintings were common in various regions like Iraq, the Ottoman Empire, Persia, and Syria. It is believed that this style originated during the 13 th century CE when the Mongols infiltrated the Islamic culture, and as a result, the Ilkhanid Dynasty is where the first “Persian books” started. Illustrated books were usually commissioned by the royal courts and aristocrats as they required considerable financial investments to make.

Once the book was completed, the Islamic paintings would be done by various artists. The subject would range from battle scenes to landscapes, and portraits. On occasion, paintings would be done from Islamic drawings or sketches that were already done and then copied over. Various natural pigments were utilized for Islamic paintings, after which they would be gilded and illuminated.

Islamic miniatures also developed alongside illuminated manuscripts, becoming a popular form of Islamic painting.

We will also notice the common depiction of figural forms and influence from the Byzantine and Chinese eras. The illustrated books drew extensively from Persian poetry, such as from the Shahnameh , which is an epic poem by the Persian called Ferdowsi. There were other stories that revolved around historical accounts, autobiographical stories, as well as military stories.

Islamic Ceramics

Islamic ceramic art is important to note here because it became one of the most developed forms of Islam art and culture compared to other cultures. It took on the forms of pottery and tiles, which adorned many of the architectural structures.

The earliest Islamic pottery was unglazed, but one of the earliest glazing techniques was the tin-opacified glazing. Stonepaste was another technique introduced during the 9th century CE in Iraq.

During Ottoman rule, Iznik ceramics were a beautiful art form and a testament to Islamic culture. Muslim artists drew a lot of influence from Chinese ceramics. However, they were not able to use porcelain due to a lack of availability, so Muslim artists created another type of pseudo-porcelain, which became known as fritware. It was made from glassy frit, ground quartz crystal, and potter’s clay.

An example includes the Iznik Ewer (c. 16 th  century CE), which shows the traditional blue and white color scheme widely applied to ceramics with additions of other colors like greens and reds. We also notice decorative black-painted bands around parts of the ewer to create a sense of separation. The ewer has a transparent glaze over all the colors. The shape of this ewer has a rounded, bulbous body, a narrow neck, and an oval-like handle.

Fritware is also compared to Islamic metal jugs from the 15th and 16th centuries CE as well as Chinese jugs from the Ming Period (1368 to 1644).

Islamic Glasswork

Islamic glasswork became one of the most highly regarded forms of glasswork and was even exported to China and Europe. It also retained much of the Roman glass production techniques and developed them in unique new ways. This form of Islam art provided new ways of adorning mosques and buildings and is often described as “sophisticated” and “advanced” compared to other regions that produced glass. Islamic glasswork consisted of either glassblowing or glass cutting.

An example is the  Luck of Edenhall (14 th  century CE), which is a beaker made from enameled glass. It depicts Arabesque shapes in varying colors ranging between blue, red, green, and white. It also has golden touches along the edges and a narrower body that widens at the top.

Another example includes the Mosque Lamp (c. 1329 to 1335), which was made for Amir Qawsun.

It is made from Egyptian enameled glass. This is also one of the hundreds of other mosque lamps that were made from glass. Lamps were important light sources in mosques and were always utilized. They typically have similar shapes, being a more “bulbous” body and a narrower neck.

Islamic Metalwork

Islamic metalwork was primarily made from steel, brass, or bronze. The types of items made varied from common household items of more fundamental and functional purposes to other items utilized for luxury purposes, which would have been produced for the court. The range of items included bowls, buckets, ewers, incense burners, braziers, candle holders, lamp stands, plates, and more.

Items would often be made from silver, which indicated a higher status and was influenced by the earlier Roman and Byzantine eras. Common items would be made from brass.

Examples of these silver items include two silver plates made in Constantinople. They are titled Plate with David Anointed by Samuel (629 to 630 CE) and Plate with David Slaying a Lion (629 to 630). These depict biblical scenes and were probably created for display at banquets. These Islamic art pieces are examples of items that were used to showcase higher status and wealth.

Islamic metalwork items would also be elaborately decorated, and some would have inlays of gold and silver. Such an example is the Baptistère de Saint Louis (1320 to 1340), which is a basin made of hammered brass with inlays of black niello, gold, and silver. The above basin depicts inner and outer friezes of various figural and foliage forms, with notable riders on horses who appear to be in the process of hunting while other figures are standing without accompanying horses.

Other metalwork items would have an array of different subject matter, ranging between foliage, animals, Zodiac signs , and the characteristic calligraphy and Arabesque patterns typical of Islamic art.

Other items, such as the 8th century CE Brazier , depicted figural shapes like women, satyrs, and birds – subject matter of a Dionysiac nature. This Brazier was the property of the wealthy great-grandson of ‘Uthman ibn ‘Afan, the third ruling Caliph.

Other household items include various ewers and beakers, such as the silver Ewer with Dancing Females Within Arcades (6 th to 7 th century CE). Here, we see various Dionysiac elements, especially the female figure and various animals with festivity-related objects surrounding her. The ewer itself is ornamental in nature and would have served the purpose of a vessel for wine for festivals or religious occasions. This vessel is from the Sasanian period and originated in Iran.

Bucket with a Hunting Scene (6 th century CE) is made from brass and depicts animals in the act of hunting. There is an inscription in Greek on this bucket, which would have been used for domestic purposes like bathing. The inscription reads, “Use this in good health, master, for many good years happily”. The bucket was made in the Eastern Mediterranean. Similarly, another functional object, this ewer (cast from bronze in the 9th century CE) depicts delicate ornamental foliate scroll shapes on the bulbous body, reminiscent of the Sasanian period. 

This vessel is believed to have been made either in Iran or Iraq.

Islamic Art: From the Past to the Present

Traditional Islamic art started to develop over time with more influence from European styles, which is estimated to have occurred during the 18 th  century CE. However, Islamic art is not only housed in mosques and illuminated manuscripts, but it is also alive and well in our contemporary culture.

Muslim artists now produce Islamic art with the aim to connect the past to the present and keep the veneration of the Islamic religion and God alive. We see this in many contemporary exhibitions housing Islamic paintings from the Middle East. An example is from the Islamic Art Now: Contemporary Art of the Middle East exhibition at the LACMA art museum in the United States. It has been one of the biggest exhibitions showcasing the works of hundreds of Middle East artists and their perspectives.

Islamic art has been around for centuries and is as vast in its style and modalities as it is in the regions it developed. We can almost say that it has been all around the world and come around full circle – it always returns to what is most valued, and that is the Islamic way of life, the path to God, and living in honor and accordance to what is right.

Islamic art is a testament to the deeper aspects of the Islamic culture, and Muslim artists have left the world with an assortment of examples, whether it is Islamic drawing, calligraphy, painting, various household objects, or architecture, these all express deeper truths and values.

Frequently Asked Questions

Islamic art is the term used to designate the arts from the Islamic world that originated during the 7 th  century CE, although the term was first used during the 19 th century CE. It describes the art, architecture, and various other forms of arts and crafts from the Islamic culture that practiced the Islamic religion. It is also used to designate art forms unrelated to the Islamic religion, but that still come from the Islamic culture.

What Are the Characteristics of Islamic Art?

Some of the main characteristics of Islamic art include the veneration of the holy text called the Qur’an and the messages from the Prophet Mohammad. This is a significant influencing factor in what drove Muslim artists to produce artwork, although it was not the sole contributing factor. Other characteristics include the dominant geometric shapes used as decorations, called Arabesques. Islamic paintings would often not depict figural elements like humans and animals, and calligraphy was also a large part of Islamic art and seen widely as a decorative reminder of the Islamic faith.

When Did Islamic Art Occur?

Islamic art is usually viewed in three chronological divisions. These provide an easier understanding not only of historical accounts but also of how the Islamic World evolved over time, artistically and culturally. The chronological order is as follows: the Early Period, which occurred from around 640 to 900 CE; the Medieval period, which occurred from around 900 to 1517 CE; and the final, or Later period, which occurred from around 1517 to 1924 CE.

Isabella studied at the University of Cape Town in South Africa and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts majoring in English Literature & Language and Psychology. Throughout her undergraduate years, she took Art History as an additional subject and absolutely loved it. Building on from her art history knowledge that began in high school, art has always been a particular area of fascination for her. From learning about artworks previously unknown to her, or sharpening her existing understanding of specific works, the ability to continue learning within this interesting sphere excites her greatly.

Her focal points of interest in art history encompass profiling specific artists and art movements, as it is these areas where she is able to really dig deep into the rich narrative of the art world. Additionally, she particularly enjoys exploring the different artistic styles of the 20 th century, as well as the important impact that female artists have had on the development of art history.

Learn more about Isabella Meyer and the Art in Context Team .

Cite this Article

Isabella, Meyer, “Islamic Art – A Deep Dive into the Gilded World of Islamic Art.” Art in Context. September 1, 2021. URL: https://artincontext.org/islamic-art/

Meyer, I. (2021, 1 September). Islamic Art – A Deep Dive into the Gilded World of Islamic Art. Art in Context. https://artincontext.org/islamic-art/

Meyer, Isabella. “Islamic Art – A Deep Dive into the Gilded World of Islamic Art.” Art in Context , September 1, 2021. https://artincontext.org/islamic-art/ .

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Islamic Studies

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• ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global This link opens in a new window ProQuest database providing the electronic equivalent of Dissertation Abstracts International. Beginning with the first U.S. dissertation in 1861, represents the work of authors from North American and European universities on a full range of academic subjects. Indexes and provides access to Georgetown-authored theses and dissertations. more... less... Includes abstracts for doctoral dissertations beginning July 1980 and for Master's theses beginning Spring 1988. Citations for dissertations published from 1980 forward include 350-word abstracts. Citations for Master's theses from 1988 forward include 150-word abstracts. Most dissertations published since 1997, and some from prior years, are available for free download; others may be requested via Interlibrary Loan.
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• Theses Canada Portal This link opens in a new window Index of Canadian masters theses and doctoral dissertations from 1965-present. Full text available from 1998 through August 31, 2002; those after 2002 may be available in Dissertations and Theses
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• Writing Your Dissertation? - Academic Dissertation Help
• The modern researcher / Barzun, Jacques, 1907-2012. New York, Harcourt, Brace [1957]
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Islamic Studies Theses via EthOS (UK) Full-Text Doctoral Dissertations on Middle East and Islamic Studies Available Free. Free download of theses after registering (free). "Almost all UK universities make their theses available through the Service."  [ Digital islam: Theses on EThOS Selected doctoral theses (860) in Islamic Studies from UK Higher Education Institutes.]

Supreme Council of Universities (Egypt). Egyptian Universities’ Libraries Consortium . Theses & "Draft Theses"

Masters and PhD of Egyptian researchers

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Osmanlı Edebiyatı Bibliyografyası Veritabanı - The Online Bibliography of Ottoman-Turkish Literature , a free and extensive database of references to theses, books, articles, papers and projects relating to research into Ottoman-Turkish culture. Please visit the Turkish version of this site if your first language is Turkish. 

Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in English on Arabic-Western Literary Relations, 1902-1997

THESES & DISSERTATIONS MIDDLE EAST STUDIES (University of Utah Marriott Library) Circulating copies of the theses and dissertations listed below are available in the University of Utah Marriott Library. Non-circulating copies of all Middle East Studies theses and dissertations, dating back to 1972, are available for review at the Middle East Center.

Morocco - Toubk@l In French. "catalogue national des thèses et mémoires" Database of citations. Includes abstracts but not full text of the theses. Theses are from Moroccan universities and universities outside Morocco.Produced by the Institut Marocain de l'lnformation Scientifique et Technique (IMIST)." http://toubkal.imist.ma/

Al Manhal "Al manhal database (online theses) aims at promoting the consultation and downloading of theses, dissertations defended by members of the juries from different countries. Thanks to the services offered by the different cyber-theses and thesaurus of many universities, we put at the disposal of the researchers a huge number of considerable documents without geographically being limited to the Arab World and Turkey." [The Faculty of Human and Social Sciences of Tunis. University of Tunis; The Cairo faculty of Letters; Cairo University. King Saoud University(KSA); King Abdu Aziz University (KSA)].

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• ProQuest Dissertations and Theses With more than 2 million entries, PQD&T is the single, central, authoritative resource for information about doctoral dissertations and master's theses. Dissertations published from 1980 forward include 350-word abstracts written by the author. Master's theses published from 1988 forward include 150-word abstracts. UMI offers over 1.8 million titles for purchase in microfilm or paper formats. More than 600,000 are available in native or image PDF formats for immediate free download. Coverage begin in 1861 to the present.
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• Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD) International organization dedicated to promoting the adoption, creation, use, dissemination, and preservation of electronic theses and dissertations. The website provides topics: how to find, create, and preserve ETDs; how to set up an ETD program; legal and technical questions; and the latest news and research in the ETD community.
• Google Scholar  Provides a simple way to broadly search for scholarly literature. From one place, you can search across many disciplines and sources: articles, theses, books, abstracts and court opinions, from academic publishers, professional societies, online repositories, universities and other web sites.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'History of islamic Art'

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Pocock, V. A. (Valerie-Anne). "Pre-Islamic Turkish elements in the art of the Seljuqid period (1040-1194)." Thesis, McGill University, 2000. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=33311.

Armendariz, Kaitlyn Kathleen, and Kaitlyn Kathleen Armendariz. "Culturalcide: The Systematic Destruction and Rewriting of World History at the Hands of ISIS." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/624119.

Alsaleh, Yasmine F. ""Licit Magic": The Touch And Sight Of Islamic Talismanic Scrolls." Thesis, Harvard University, 2014. http://dissertations.umi.com/gsas.harvard:11479.

Ren, Josephine. "Islamic Ceramics, Indelible Creations: Assessing and Preserving the Scripps Collection." Scholarship @ Claremont, 2019. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/1353.

Carey, Moya Catherine. "Painting the stars in a century of change : a thirteenth-century copy of Al-Sufi's treatise on the fixed stars (British Library Or.5323)." Thesis, SOAS, University of London, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.367524.

Wain, Alexander David Robert. "Chinese Muslims and the conversion of the Nusantara to Islam." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2015. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:53a48196-ac0e-4510-b74d-794c48e976ed.

Haveric, Dzavid, and mikewood@deakin edu au. "Islamisation of Bosnia: Early Islamic influence on Bosnian society." Deakin University. School of Social and International Studies, 2004. http://tux.lib.deakin.edu.au./adt-VDU/public/adt-VDU20051123.133900.

Abdalla, Mohamad, and n/a. "The Fate of Islamic Science Between the Eleventh and Sixteenth Centuries: A Critical Study of Scholarship from Ibn Khaldun to the Present." Griffith University. School of Science, 2004. http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/public/adt-QGU20040618.091027.

Harrison, Tracy Elizabeth. "Visualizing Complexity : A Spatial Analysis of Decorative Geometric Pattern in the Islamic World, 900-1400 AD." PDXScholar, 2005. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/2434.

Moore, Katharine T. "Al-Andalus, the Umayyads, and Hispano-Islamic Art:The Influence of the Abbasids and Northern Christians on the Art of Muslim Patronage in the Iberian Peninsula from the 8th to 11th Centuries." Walsh University Honors Theses / OhioLINK, 2020. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=walshhonors1587323490141253.

Akin, Esra. "Mustafa Ali’s epic deeds of artists a study on the earliest Ottoman text about the calligraphers and painters of the Islamic world." The Ohio State University, 2007. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1181502871.

Al, Ajlouni Rima Ahmad. "Development and evaluation of a digital tool for virtual reconstruction of historic Islamic geometric patterns." Texas A&M University, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/2519.

King, Rachel. "Divine Constructions: A Comparison of the Great Mosque of Cordoba and Notre-Dame-du-Chartres." Thesis, Boston College, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/2345/504.

Sugden, Kimberly J. "Animal ambassadors and talking products : a cultural history of advertising trade-characters." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2013. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:4487a28c-b634-4d62-85ec-00afd3f2739b.

Rustem, Unver. "Architecture for a New Age: Imperial Ottoman Mosques in Eighteenth-Century Istanbul." Thesis, Harvard University, 2013. http://dissertations.umi.com/gsas.harvard:11074.

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Positive Impact of Islamic Art on Society Argumentative Essay

History of Islamic Art takes its roots in the seventh century and encompasses all types of visual art produced by people who inhabited culturally Islamic territories.

Though Islamic art long stayed remarkably loyal to spiritual and religious traditions, it can still be perceived as sophisticated mixture of Arab, Turkish, Persian, and even Roman and Byzantine influences (Duiker and Spielvogel, 2010, p. 178).

Just like other external artistic and scientific trends have influenced the formation of the Islamic traditions, the art of Islam have reached other spheres of human activities, such as architecture, culture, media, and politics.

Its impact of social and cultural development of the Islamic World and other cultures can be considered to be positive because it has introduced uniqueness, originality, and unity of Islamic culture, architecture, media and politics.

Islamic art is mistakenly believed to be narrowed to religious motives, although most of the artistic elements involve predominantly secular themes. Although religious motives were less prominent, Islamic architecture is equally marked by spiritual and impious styles that still effect the construction and design of structures and building in Islamic culture (Kleiner, 2010, p. 277).

Similar to the art of Islam, architecture has also been impacted by Roman and Byzantine geometrical motives and calligraphic elements. Interestingly, the Islamic artists convert “the architectural surface into a textile surface – the three-dimensional wall into a two-dimensional hanging – weaving the calligraphy into it as another cluster of motifs within the total pattern” (Kleiner, 2010, p. 278).

In a whole, the development of Islamic architecture continues to prosper from the emergent artistic movements and trends that impact neighboring artistic centers, particularly in South Asia and Turkey.

Thematic concerns of Islamic art have also a tangible impact on cultural development, particularly on literature and language. Just as Islamic artists were often considered as being pure, complex, and sophisticated, Islamic literature is also narrowed to the this aesthetic tradition, being “a symbol of a deeper reality” which is tenuous and intrinsic (Leaman, 2004, p. 54).

The same arguments are also applied to calligraphy as the chief Islamic art form. Being the key aesthetic feature in Islamic culture, calligraphy underscores the importance of religion and spirituality as well as essence of the Arabic language that is attributed with a unique status in Islam world.

Hence, literary and cultural sphere is considerably marked by the presence of calligraphic elements acting like meaningful images and turning writing into something more than exposition of ideas; rather, language and writing capture peculiar configurations of colors and shapes.

In general, calligraphy can be recognized as an independent Islamic art form labeling the Arabic literature and making it unique and original.

The spread of the Eastern culture, particular Islamic cultural movements, has occurred as an apposition to the biases created by the Western culture and media. Currently, Islamic media has captured the World Wide Web and has become as ubiquitous as the American culture (McGraw and Formicola, 2005, p. 135).

Hence, the Internet enables Muslims to advance opinions and disseminate news that specifically concern Islamic cultural and aesthetical development. Manifold perspectives provided by the Internet have influenced the advancement of modern networks and discussions about Islamic activities both within the Muslim society and beyond it.

Being under the influence of Islamic traditions and art, the world has learnt much about peculiarities, originality, and uniqueness of Islamic art and culture that is not narrowed to spirituality and religion only. Furthermore, the deployment of Eastern traditions has diminished a considerable imposition of the Western world on the global culture.

Such distinctive features of Islamic art as calligraphy and geometry being presented as variants within one identity are closely associated with political movements and ideologies.

In particular, politics is considered one of the main forces contributing to the creation of new forms of Islamic ornament and calligraphy that are produced with political context reflecting the essence of Islamic culture (Tabbaa, 2002, p. 167). Political trends matter when it comes to Islamic art being defined as representation of national and cultural image and as an opposition to other cultures.

This concept is specifically applied to the conflict between Muslims and Byzantium defining the conflict moment in Islamic history. Therefore, political dimension is largely defined by the language and historical development of the art and culture in Islam.

In conclusion, it should be stated that Islam culture has a positive and balancing impact on the Muslim society in particular and the world community in general.

Its influence of cultural and social development can be perceived as positive because it spreads the concept of uniqueness, originality and identity being the basic prerogative of every culture. Furthermore, it serves as a power confronting intensive deployment of Western trends, ideologies, and movement assimilating minor cultures to the global one.

One way of another, such elements of Islamic culture and art as calligraphy, geometry and ornament has entered politics, architecture, and media creating more opportunities for developing distinctive features of political ideologies, architectural elements, and media channels that are not confined to religious and spiritual themes only.

Reference List

Duiker, W. J., and Spielvigel, J. J. (2010). The Essential World History . US: Cengage Learning.

Kleiner, F. S. (2010). Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective . US: Cengage Learning.

Leaman, O. (2004). Islamic Aesthetics: An Introduction . UK: Edinburgh University Press.

McGraw, B. A., and Formicola, J. R. (2005). Taking Religious Pluralism Seriously: Spiritual Politics on America’s Sacred Ground . Texas, US: Baylor University Press.

Tabba, Y. (2002). The Transformation of Islamic Art during the Sunni Revival . US: I. B. Tauris.

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Positive Impact of Islamic Art on Society." May 27, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/positive-impact-of-islamic-art-on-society/.