effect of problem based learning on critical thinking skills and environmental attitude

Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists

Add to my library.

Effect of Problem Based Learning on Critical Thinking Skill and Enviromental Attitude

Saiful Amin Sugeng Utaya Syamsul Bachri Sumarmi Sumarmi Singgih Susilo

This study aims to find out (1) the effect of problem-based learning model on critical thinking skill, and (2) the effect of problem-based learning model on environmental attitude. This study employs a quasi experiment model using pretest-postest for control group design. The subject of the study is Social Science Education Department students of Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University of Malang, Indoensia who were studying in the odd semester of Academic Year of 2018/2019. The numbers of students in experimental and control class are 25 people. The assessment instrument used for environmental attitude is Likert scale, and essay test is used for assessing the critical thinking skill. The d ata analysis in this study used normality test, homogeneity test, and independent sample t-test. The results of the study indicate that (1) learning activity using PBL model affects the students’ critical thinking, because through PBL learning, students are trained to think critically to solve real problems in groups. 2) The learning activity using PBL model affects the students’ environmental attitude, because the problem solving process in PBL learning encourages students to care about their environment.

problem-based learning , critical thinking skill , environmental attitude

Supporting Institution

Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University of Malang

• Abun, D. (2017). Measuring Environmental Attitude and Environmental Behavior of Senior High School Students of Divine Word Colleges in Region I, Philippines. International Journal of Educational Research, 1(2), 33–69. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.24188.59522
• Agussalim, A., Setyosari, P., Kamdi, W., & Dasna, I. W. (2019). Improving Competency Management of Public Health Center In Indonesia Using The Problem Based Learning Model. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 7(3), 681–696. https://doi.org/10.17478/jegys.613484
• Ahmadi, R. (2018). Hubungan Pengetahuan Lingkungan Hidup dengan Sikap Peduli Lingkungan Hidup pada Siswa Kelas VIII SMP Negeri 3 Tumijajar. Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Lampung.
• Akınoğlu, O., & Tandoğan, R. Ö. (2007). The Effects of Problem-Based Active Learning in Science Education on Students’ Academic Achievement, Attitude and Concept Learning. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 3(1), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/75375
• Al-Fikry, I., Yusrizal, Y., & Syukri, M. (2018). Pengaruh Model Problem Based Learning Terhadap Kemampuan Berpikir Kritis Peserta Didik Pada Materi Kalor. Jurnal Pendidikan Sains Indonesia, 6(1), 17–23. https://doi.org/10.24815/jpsi.v6i1.10776
• Allison, J., & Pan, W. (2011). Implementing and Evaluating the Integration of Critical Thinking into Problem Based Learning in Environmental Building. Journal for Education in the Built Environment, 6(2), 93–115. https://doi.org/10.11120/jebe.2011.06020093
• Amir, M. T. (2013). Inovasi Pendidikan Melalui Problem Based Learning: Bagaimana Pendidik Memberdayakan Pemelajar di Era Pengetahuan. Kencana Prenada Media Group.
• Anderson, J. C. (2007). Effect of Problem-Based Learning on Knowledge Acquisition, Knowledge Retention, and Critical Thinking Ability of Agriculture Students in Urban Schools (Thesis, University of Missouri--Columbia). Retrieved from https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/handle/10355/4832
• Arends, R. (2004). Learning to Teach. London: McGraw-Hill.
• Bashith, A., & Amin, S. (2017). The Effect of Problem Based Learning on EFL Students’ Critical Thinking Skill and Learning Outcome. Al-Ta Lim Journal, 24(2), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.15548/jt.v24i2.271
• Bechtel, R. B., & Churchman, A. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of Environmental Psychology. New York: J. Wiley & Sons.
• Bergman, B. G. (2016). Assessing Impacts of Locally Designed Environmental Education Projects on Students’ Environmental Attitudes, Awareness, and Intention to Act. Environmental Education Research, 22(4), 480–503. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2014.999225
• Birgili, B. (2015). Creative and Critical Thinking Skills in Problem-based Learning Environments. Journal of Gifted Education and Creativity, 2(2), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.18200/JGEDC.2015214253
• Camacho, H., & Christiansen, E. (2018). Teaching Critical Thinking within an Institutionalised Problem Based Learning Paradigm – Quite a Challenge. Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education, 6(2), 91–109.
• Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1973). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. R. McNally College Publishing Company.
• Darmawan, F. A. (2015). Penerapan Model Problem Based Learning Pada Subtema Pelestarian Lingkungan untuk Meningkatkan Kemandirian dan Hasil Belajar Siswa Kelas V SD Negeri Halimun. Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung.
• Dewi, S., Sumarmi, S., & Amirudin, A. (2016). Penerapan Model Pembelajaran Problem Based Learning untuk Meningkatkan Keaktifan dan Keterampilan Sosial Siswa Kelas V SDN Tangkil 01 Wlingi. Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan, 1(3), 281–288. https://doi.org/10.17977/jp.v1i3.6148
• Ditjen Sumber Daya Iptek Dikti. (2018). Formula 4C untuk Bertahan pada Era Revolusi Industri 4.0. Jakarta: Sumber Daya Riset Dikti.
• Djuandi, D. (2016). Pengaruh Pembelajaran Berbasis Masalah Terhadap Sikap Siswa Pada Lingkungan (Studi Eksperimen Quasi Pada Mata Pelajaran Geografi di SMA Negeri 1 Purwadadi). Jurnal Geografi Gea, 16(1), 24–33. https://doi.org/10.17509/gea.v16i1.3465
• Dochy, F., Segers, M., Bossche, P. V. D., & Struyven, K. (2005). Students’ Perceptions of a Problem-Based Learning Environment. Learning Environments Research, 8(1), 41–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-005-7948-x
• EL-Shaer, A., & Gaber, H. (2014). Impact of Problem-Based Learning on Students`Critical Thinking Dispositions, Knowledge Acquisition and Retention. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(14), 74–85.
• Ennis, R. H. (1995). Critical Thinking. Illionis: University of Illionis.
• Fua, J., Wekke, I., Sabara, Z., & Nurlila, R. (2018). Development of Environmental Care Attitude of Students through Religion Education Approach in Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 175, 012229. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012229
• Gwee, M. C.-E. (2009). Problem-Based Learning: A Strategic Learning System Design for The Education of Healthcare Professionals in the 21ST Century. The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences, 25(5), 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1607-551X(09)70067-1
• Hadzigeorgiou, Y., & Skoumios, M. (2013). The Development of Environmental Awareness through School Science: Problems and Possibilities. International Journal Of Environmental & Science Education, 8, 405–426.
• Hemker, L., Prescher, C., & Narciss, S. (2017). Design and Evaluation of a Problem-Based Learning Environment for Teacher Training. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1676
• Herzon, H. H., Budijanto, B., & Utomo, D. H. (2018). Pengaruh Problem-Based Learning (PBL) terhadap Keterampilan Berpikir Kritis. Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan, 3(1), 42—46.
• Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235–266. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3
• Huijser, H., Kek, M. Y. C. A., & Terwijn, R. (2015). Enhancing Inquiry-Based Learning Environments with the Power of Problem-Based Learning to Teach 21st Century Learning and Skills. Innovations in Higher Education Teaching and Learning, 4, 301–320. Retrieved from https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/S2055-364120150000004017/full/html
• Istikomah, I., Basori, B., & Budiyanto, C. (2017). The Influences of Problem-Based Learning Model with Fishbone Diagram to Students’s Critical Thinking Ability. IJIE (Indonesian Journal of Informatics Education), 1(2), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.20961/ijie.v1i2.11432
• Kamil, B., Velina, Y., & Kamelia, M. (2019). Students’ Critical Thinking Skills in Islamic Schools: The Effect of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Model. Tadris: Jurnal Keguruan Dan Ilmu Tarbiyah, 4(1), 77–85.
• Koestiningsih, N. (2011). Perbedaan Hasil Belajar Siswa Yang Belajar Dengan Menggunakan Strategi Problem Based Learning (PBL) dan Konvensional Siswa Kelas X di SMKN 1 Blitar. (Tesis). DISERTASI dan TESIS Program Pascasarjana UM, 0(0). Retrieved from http://karya-ilmiah.um.ac.id/index.php/disertasi/article/view/11261
• Kronberg, J. R., & Griffin, M. S. (2000). Analysis Problems—A Means to Developing Students’ Critical-Thinking Skills: Pushing the Boundaries of Higher-Order Thinking. Journal of College Science Teaching, 29(5), 348–352. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/42990302
• Kuvac, M., & Koc, I. (2018). The Effect of Problem-Based Learning on The Environmental Attitudes of Preservice Science Teachers. Educational Studies, 45(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2018.1443795
• Lestari, R. P. (2015). Pengaruh Model Pembelajaran Problem Based Learning (PBL) Terhadap Sikap Peduli Lingkungan Siswa SMAN 6 Malang (Thesis). Universitas Negeri Malang, Malang, Indonesia.
• Levine, D. S., & Strube, M. J. (2012). Environmental Attitudes, Knowledge, Intentions and Behaviors Among College Students. The Journal of Social Psychology, 152(3), 308–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2011.604363
• Marni, S., Suyono, S., Roekhan, R., & Harsiati, T. (2019). Critical Thinking Patterns of First-Year Students in Argumentative Essay. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 7(3), 733–747. https://doi.org/10.17478/jegys.605324
• Masek, A., & Yamin, S. (2011). The Effect of Problem Based Learning on Critical Thinking Ability: A Theoretical and Empirical Review. International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2(1), 215–221.
• Mulyanto, H., Gunarhadi, G., & Indriayu, M. (2018). The Effect of Problem Based Learning Model on Student Mathematics Learning Outcomes Viewed from Critical Thinking Skills. International Journal of Educational Research Review, 3(2), 37–45. https://doi.org/10.24331/ijere.408454
• Mundilarto, M., & Ismoyo, H. (2017). Effect of Problem-Based Learning on Improvement Physics Achievement and Critical Thinking of Senior High School Student. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 16(5), 761–779.
• Narmaditya, B. S., Wulandari, D., & Sakarji, S. R. B. (2018). Does Problem-Based Learning Improve Critical Thinking Skills? Cakrawala Pendidikan, 37(3), 378–388.
• Nasution, U. S. Z., Sahyar, & Sirait, M. (2016). Effect of Problem Based Learning and Model Critical Thinking Ability to Problem Solving Skills. Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika, 5(2), 112–117. https://doi.org/10.22611/jpf.v5i2.4409
• Orozco, J. A., & Yangco, R. T. (2016). Problem-Based Learning: Effects on Critical and Creative Thinking Skills in Biology. Asian Journal of Biology Education, 9, 3–10.
• Pebriana, R., & Disman, D. (2017). Effect of Problem Based Learning to Critical Thinking Skills Elementary School Students in Social Studies. PrimaryEdu - Journal of Primary Education, 1(1), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.22460/pej.v1i1.487
• Pe’er, S., Goldman, D., & Yavetz, B. (2007). Environmental Literacy in Teacher Training: Attitudes, Knowledge, and Environmental Behavior of Beginning Students. The Journal of Environmental Education, 39(1), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOEE.39.1.45-59
• Pratiwi, T. R., Sarwi, -, & Nugroho, S. E. (2013). Implementasi Eksperimen Open Inquiry untuk Meningkatkan Pemahaman Konsep dan Mengembangkan Nilai Karakter Mahasiswa. UPEJ Unnes Physics Education Journal, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.15294/upej.v2i1.1625
• Purwanto, E. (2005). Evaluasi Proses dan Hasil dalam Pembelajaran, Aplikasi dalam Bidang Studi Geografi. Malang: UM Press.
• Pusparini, S. T., Feronika, T., & Bahriah, E. S. (2018). Pengaruh Model Pembelajaran Problem Based Learning (PBL) Terhadap Kemampuan Berpikir Kritis Siswa pada Materi Sistem Koloid. JRPK: Jurnal Riset Pendidikan Kimia, 8(1), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.21009/JRPK.081.04
• Puspitasari, E., Sumarmi, S., & Amirudin, A. (2016). Integrasi Berpikir Kritis dan Peduli Lingkungan melalui Pembelajaran Geografi dalam Membentuk Karakter Peserta Didik SMA. Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan, 1(2), 122–126. https://doi.org/10.17977/jp.v1i2.6106
• Raharjo, S. B. (2010). Pendidikan Karakter Sebagai Upaya Menciptakan Akhlak Mulia. Jurnal Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 16(3), 229–238. https://doi.org/10.24832/jpnk.v16i3.456
• Ramadhani, R., Huda, S., & Umam, R. (2019). rPoblem-Based Learning, Its Usability and Critical View as Educational Learning Tools. Journal of Gifted Education and Creativity, 6(3), 193–208. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/jgedc/issue/50605/637355
• Rolando. (2019). Hari Peduli Sampah Nasional, Menteri LHK Bersih-Bersih di Pantai Kendal. Retrieved October 8, 2019, from Detiknews website: https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4441524/hari-peduli-sampah-nasional-menteri-lhk-bersih-bersih-di-pantai-kendal
• Saputra, M. D., Joyoatmojo, S., Wardani, D. K., & Sangka, K. B. (2019). Developing Critical-Thinking Skills through the Collaboration of Jigsaw Model with Problem-Based Learning Model. International Journal of Instruction, 12(1), 1077–1094. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12169a
• Saregar, A., Irwandani, I., Abdurrahman, A., Parmin, P., Septiana, S., Diani, R., & Sagala, R. (2018). Temperature and Heat Learning Through SSCS Model with Scaffolding: Impact on Students Critical Thinking Ability. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 6(3), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.17478/JEGYS.2018.80
• Sari, Y. I., Jamil, A. M. M., & Jayanti, M. A. (2017). Effect of PBL Learning Model on Critical Thinking Skills Students Learning Course Design of Geography. Proceedings of the Lst International Cohference on Geography and Education (ICGE 2016), 79, 316–319. https://doi.org/10.2991/icge-16.2017.60
• Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1(1), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002
• Savin-Baden, M., & Major, C. H. (2004). Foundations of Problem-Based Learning. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
• Selçuk, G. S. (2010). The Effects of Problem-Based Learning on Pre-Service Teachers’ Achievement, Approaches and Attitudes towards Learning Physics. International Journal of the Physical Sciences, 5(6), 711–723.
• Sugiyono. (2011). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif dan R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta.
• Sumarmi. (2012). Model-Model Pembelajaran Geografi. Malang: Aditya Media.
• Supriatna, N. (2016). Ecopedagogy Membangun Kecerdasan Ekologis dalam Pembelajaran IPS. Bandung: Rosdakarya.
• Susanti, S., Masriani, M., & Hadi, L. (2017). Pengaruh Model Problem Based Learning Terhadap Sikap Peduli Lingkungan Siswa SMP Negeri 6 Pontianak. Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Pembelajaran, 6(11). Retrieved from http://jurnal.untan.ac.id/index.php/jpdpb/article/view/22762
• Suwarto, W. A. (2013). Pengembangan Pendidikan Berwawasan Lingkungan Hidup melalui Budaya Bersih di Sekolah dan Pemanfaatan Lingkungan sebagai Sumber Belajar. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Pendidikan Universitas Sebelas Maret.
• Tikka, P. M., Kuitunen, M. T., & Tynys, S. M. (2000). Effects of Educational Background on Students’ Attitudes, Activity Levels, and Knowledge Concerning the Environment. The Journal of Environmental Education, 31(3), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958960009598640
• Trianto. (2009). Mendesain Model Pembelajaran Inovatif-Progresif: Konsep, Landasan, dan Implementasinya pada KTSP. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group.
• Wesnawa, I. G. A., Christiawan, P. I., & Suarmanayasa, I. N. (2017). Membangun Perilaku Sadar Ekologis dan Ekonomis Ibu Rumah Tangga Melalui Reorientasi Pemanfaatan Sampah Perumahan di BTN Banyuwangi Indah. Jurnal Abdimas, 21(1), 29–40. Retrieved from https://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju//index.php/abdimas/article/view/10962
• Wibowo, A. (2013). Manajemen Pendidikan Karakter. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
• Widiawati, L., Joyoatmojo, S., & Sudiyanto, S. (2018). Higher Order Thinking Skills as Effect of Problem Based Learning in the 21st Century Learning. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding, 5(3), 96–105.
• Yanto, E. A., & Yerizon, Y. (2018). Effect of Problem Based Learning Model towards Student’s Critical Thinking and Learning Competences in Grade VIII in SMPN 21 Padang. International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies (IJPSAT), 9(2), 199–205.
• Yaumi, M. (2016). Pendidikan Karakter: Landasan, Pilar & Implementasi. Prenada Media.
• Yuan, H., Kunaviktikul, W., Klunklin, A., & Williams, B. A. (2008). Promoting Critical Thinking Skills through Problem-Based Learning. Chiang Mai University Journal of Social Science and Humanities, 2(2), 85–100.
• Yulia, Y., Farida, F., & Yuni, Y. (2018). Influence Model Problem based Learning against Critical Thinking Skills in Learning Thematic Integrated Class IV. Proceedings of the International Conferences on Educational, Social Sciences and Technology - ICESST 2018, 823–828. https://doi.org/10.29210/20181119
• Zecha, S. (2010). Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes and Actions of Bavarian (Southern Germany) and Asturian (Northern Spain) Adolescents. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 19(3), 227–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2010.496982

Pemberdayaan pada Kelompok Usaha Garam Mertaning Segara dalam Meningkatkan Kewirausahaan Masyarakat Desa Pesinggahan Kecamatan Dawan Kabupaten Klungkung

International journal of community service learning, https://doi.org/10.23887/ijcsl.v7i4.68734, critical thinking in higher education: a bibliometric analysis, journal of applied research in higher education, https://doi.org/10.1108/jarhe-08-2023-0377, efforts to improve science learning outcomes through the problem-based learning model for students in bengkulu, journal of basic education research, https://doi.org/10.37251/jber.v5i1.742, the use of e-comics based on a realistic mathematical approach to improve critical and creative thinking skills of elementary school students, ijorer : international journal of recent educational research, https://doi.org/10.46245/ijorer.v5i1.497, peer-tutor assisted problem-based learning model on mathematics critical thinking, mimbar pgsd undiksha, https://doi.org/10.23887/jjpgsd.v11i2.61390, creative thinking skills on the response to problem- based learning in biochemistry courses, mimbar ilmu, https://doi.org/10.23887/mi.v28i2.59604, a conceptual model to measure and manage the implementation of green initiatives at south african public universities, frontiers in sustainability, https://doi.org/10.3389/frsus.2023.1237514, systematic training of future teachers for developing critical thinking of schools pupils in kazakhstan, cogent education, https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2023.2202103, systematic review of problem based learning research in fostering critical thinking skills, thinking skills and creativity, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101334, tecnologias assistivas desenvolvidas na escola para promoção da inclusão social, revista contemporânea, https://doi.org/10.56083/rcv3n6-097, https://doi.org/, effects of problem-based learning instructional intervention on critical thinking in higher education: a meta-analysis, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101069, measuring mathematics and science teachers’ perception on thinking and acting in 21st-century learning, https://doi.org/10.17478/jegys.747395, implementation of pbl and ibl models assisted by video media to improve critical thinking skills, jurnal ilmiah sekolah dasar, https://doi.org/10.23887/jisd.v6i3.47949, jigsaw learning model improves student learning outcomes in mechanical engineering basic knowledge, journal for lesson and learning studies, https://doi.org/10.23887/jlls.v6i1.61166, identification of opportunities for utilizing e-modules with a problem based learning approach to facilitate learning in vocational high schools, jurnal edutech undiksha, https://doi.org/10.23887/jeu.v10i2.52722, critical thinking dispositions as a predictor for high school students’ environmental attitudes, journal of education in science, environment and health, https://doi.org/10.21891/jeseh.1056832, development of mobile learning app based on islamic and science integration to improve student learning outcomes, jurnal iqra' : kajian ilmu pendidikan, https://doi.org/10.25217/ji.v7i1.2317, study of critical thinking skills for junior high school students in the era industial revolution 4.0, jipfri (jurnal inovasi pendidikan fisika dan riset ilmiah), https://doi.org/10.30599/jipfri.v6i1.1255, the effectiveness of problem based learning (pbl) based socioscientific issue (ssi) to improve critical thinking skills, studies in learning and teaching, https://doi.org/10.46627/silet.v2i3.71, probleme dayalı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarı ve eleştirel düşünme becerilerine etkisi, milli eğitim dergisi, https://doi.org/10.37669/milliegitim.1086365.

• Article Files
• Journal Home Page
• Volume: 7 Issue: 4
• Volume: 8 Issue: 1
• Volume: 8 Issue: 2
• Volume: 8 Issue: 3
• Volume: 8 Issue: 4

Accessibility Links

• Skip to content
• Skip to search IOPscience
• Skip to Journals list
• Accessibility help
• Accessibility Help

Click here to close this panel.

Purpose-led Publishing is a coalition of three not-for-profit publishers in the field of physical sciences: AIP Publishing, the American Physical Society and IOP Publishing.

Together, as publishers that will always put purpose above profit, we have defined a set of industry standards that underpin high-quality, ethical scholarly communications.

We are proudly declaring that science is our only shareholder.

Effect of problem-based learning on critical thinking skills

N Fadilla 1 , L Nurlaela 2 , T Rijanto 1 , S R Ariyanto 3,4 , L Rahmah 5 and S Huda 1

Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd Journal of Physics: Conference Series , Volume 1810 , The 3rd International Conference on Vocational Education and Technology (IConVET) 2020 7 November 2020, Bali, Indonesia Citation N Fadilla et al 2021 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1810 012060 DOI 10.1088/1742-6596/1810/1/012060

Article metrics

1446 Total downloads

Share this article

Author e-mails.

[email protected]

Author affiliations

1 Department of Technology and Vocational Education, Postgraduate, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia

2 Department of Vocational Education, Postgraduate, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia

3 Automotive Technology Vocational Education, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Bhinneka PGRI, Tulungagung, Indonesia

4 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Negeri Malang, Malang, Indonesia

5 Culinary and Patisserie, OTTIMMO International Master Gourmet Academy, Surabaya, Indonesia

Buy this article in print

Students' critical thinking skills cannot develop appropriately if in the learning process, the teacher is not active. Therefore, to improve students' critical thinking skills, a teacher should choose and use strategies, approaches, and methods techniques that involve students actively in learning, both in manner mental, physical, and social. One alternative learning that provides opportunities for students to develop students' critical thinking skills in problem solving is problem-based learning. This research was a research study literature examining related journal application of problem-based learning to improve critical thinking skills. The findings of this study included: (1) the implementation of PBL has the potential to help students motivate and provide learning experiences; and (2) PBL implementation is very useful in improving students' critical thinking skills, provided that teachers and students can apply each stage of PBL well.

Export citation and abstract BibTeX RIS

Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence . Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.

• Reference Manager
• Simple TEXT file

People also looked at

Systematic review article, the critical thinking-oriented adaptations of problem-based learning models: a systematic review.

• Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Critical thinking is a significant twenty-first century skill that is prioritized by higher education. Problem-based learning is becoming widely accepted as an effective way to enhance critical thinking. However, as the results of studies that use PBL to develop CT have had mixed success, PBL models need to be modified to guarantee positive outcomes. This study is a systematic review that analyzed how studies have adapted Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to become more Critical Thinking (CT)-oriented, evaluated the effectiveness of these adaptations, and determined why certain adaptations were successful. The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) by searching the scientific databases Scopus and Web of Science. Twenty journal articles were chosen based on their adherence to the inclusion criteria established by PICo (Population, Phenomenon of Interest, and Context). In these studies, PBL adaptations were categorized into five classifications, with activities centered on CT development being the most prevalent approach. Researchers utilized a variety of analytical methodologies to assess the effectiveness of these adaptations and derive significant insights and formulate valid conclusions. An analysis of all selected studies revealed positive outcomes, indicating that incorporating CT elements into PBL was effective in enhancing students' CT. These findings were categorized into nine factors that contribute to the successful adaptation of PBL to be CT-oriented.

1. Introduction

The twenty-first century is an era of innovation, requiring individuals to possess skills for academic excellence, success in the workplace, and the capability to cope with life. Examples of such transferable skills include communication, collaboration, creativity, problem-solving, and critical thinking (CT) ( Hidayati et al., 2022 ). Of these, CT is frequently cited as the most crucial ( National Association of Colleges Employers, 2016 ) for individuals to adapt to this quickly changing society ( Alper, 2010 ). Universities view the development of students' CT skills as one of their most significant educational objectives ( Facione, 2011 ; Erikson and Erikson, 2019 ) and must therefore continually refine their teaching techniques ( Bezanilla et al., 2019 ) and establish a learning environment that improves students' CT capabilities ( Evendi et al., 2022 ). In this way, universities can foster twenty-first-century talents with extraordinary academic performance and excellent professional skills ( Hidayati et al., 2022 ).

Problem-based learning is gaining popularity as a method for enhancing critical thinking. However, PBL models must be adapted to ensure beneficial outcomes, as the results of studies employing PBL to enhance CT have not always been positive. Thus, it is essential to determine which aspects contribute to the success of a PBL-adapted model for developing CT and explore the reason for the success. This paper offers a systematic review of how studies have altered PBL to become more focused on critical thinking, the evaluation of those modifications, and the factors that contribute to enhanced critical thinking.

1.1. Critical thinking

While the importance of CT has been widely acknowledged, scholars from different research fields have conceptualized and defined it differently. For instance, philosophy scholars view CT as the ability to challenge an assumption, evaluate the argument and relevant information, and draw correct conclusions ( Fisher, 2011 ); psychology scholars view CT as a broad range of thinking skills, including problem solving, decision making, and hypothesis testing ( Halpern, 2010 ). The literature generally conceptualizes CT as comprising two equally important elements—skills (CTSs) and dispositions (CTDs). Facione (1990) believes that critical thinkers are unsuccessful if they cannot apply their CT skills effectively.

For this paper, CT is understood as consisting of: (i) making judgments ( Chaffee, 1994 ; Snyder and Snyder, 2008 ; Papathanasiou et al., 2014 ; Ennis, 2018 ); (ii) evaluation ( Facione, 1990 ; Yanchar and Slife, 2004 ; Fisher, 2011 ; and (iii) reasoning ( Facione, 1990 ; Ennis, 2011 ; Elder and Paul, 2012 ). Characteristics commonly recognized as indispensable for CTD include: (1) open-mindedness ( Ennis, 1987 ; Facione, 1990 ); (2) fair-mindedness ( Facione, 1990 ; Elder and Paul, 2001 ); (3) inquisitiveness ( Facione, 1990 ; Elder and Paul, 2001 ); (4) respect for reason ( Ennis, 1987 ; Lipman, 1991 ); and (5) propensity to explore alternatives ( Elder and Paul, 2001 ).

CTSs and CTDs are not innate qualities but must be developed through learning and practice. However, conventional teaching approaches: (1) are not conducive to developing students' CT; (2) lack authenticity ( Sharma and Elbow, 2000 ); and (3) are inadequate for developing students' CTSs ( Drennan and Rohde, 2002 ). Education and teaching systems need to be designed to facilitate CT learning ( Dekker, 2020 ) by selecting the most recent effective instructional strategies ( Karakoc, 2016 ).

1.2. Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered instructional method that enhances CT ( Facione et al., 2000 ; Choi et al., 2014 ; Carter et al., 2017 ), including CTSs ( Facione et al., 2000 ) and CTDs ( Dehkordi and Heydarnejad, 2008 ). PBL occurs among small groups of students who explore problems and find solutions collaboratively ( Yuan et al., 2008 ); it is a continual scientific learning process designed to accustom students to think critically ( Nurcahyo and Djono, 2018 ). PBL begins by challenging students to solve complicated, ill-structured problems ( Barrows, 1986 ) and provides opportunities inside and outside of the classroom to analyze information and consider different viewpoints ( Dwyer et al., 2015 ); students share their thoughts, listen to those of others, reflect on their own ideas, and ultimately obtain a suitable solution to a problem. The required self-directed learning, interpersonal communication, and reasoning foster CT ( Orique and McCarthy, 2015 ).

1.3. Problem-based learning and critical thinking

Liu and Pásztor (2022) meta-analysis of 50 relevant empirical studies with 5,210 participants and 58 effect sizes concluded that PBL was effective for fostering CT. However, Lee et al. (2016) meta-analysis of eight studies concluded that PBL was not effective for enhancing nursing students' CT. These contradictory conclusions suggest that teachers must adapt PBL according to the objectives to be attained ( Barrows, 1996 ). Researchers from different academic fields, such as Kamin et al. (2003) , Fujinuma and Wendling (2015) , and Evendi et al. (2022) have adapted PBL to improve students' CT.

This study thus sought to: (1) examine how studies have adapted PBL to be more focused on CT development; (2) examine the result of those studies; and (3) explore the reasons for successful modifications. It filled the gap left by the systematic reviews that are focused on the impacts of PBL model instead of adapted CT-oriented PBL models on CT development.

1.4. Research questions

The formulation of the research question for this study was based on the PICo framework, which has been developed specifically for qualitative reviews and identifies the key aspects of Population, Phenomenon of Interest, and Context ( JBI, 2011 ). Utilizing these concepts, the authors incorporated three primary aspects into the review: college students (Population), CT improvement (Phenomenon of Interest), and participation in CT-oriented PBL intervention (Context). The principal research question was thus: How can the PBL model be adapted to enhance students' critical thinking abilities? This broad question was further refined into several specific research questions:

(1) What adaptations can be made to PBL to enhance the CT of college students and what is the rationale for these adaptations?

(2) How are the results of CT-oriented PBL interventions evaluated?

(3) To what extent are these adapted PBL models successful and what factors contribute to their success?

2. Methodology

A protocol encompassing search terms, databases, screening criteria, and analytical methods was established to guide the literature search and generate the initial data set ( Yang et al., 2017 ). The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) ( Page et al., 2021 ) were employed to identify pertinent papers concerning PBL adaptations for teaching CTSs and CTDs at the undergraduate level in higher education. Two databases were utilized: Scopus and Web of Science (WOS).

2.1. Search strategy

The key search terms were derived from several sources: previous studies; an online thesaurus; keywords suggested by WOS and Scopus; and the research questions.

Two independent researchers identified research articles published in Scopus or WOS between January 2001 and mid-August 2022 by using a combination of the key search terms with a Boolean operator, phrase searching, and truncation to produce the search string. For WOS, the search string was TS = (PBL or “problem based learning” or “problem-based learning”) AND (“critical thinking” or “think critically”) AND (university or college or undergraduate or “higher education” or “tertiary education”). For Scopus, the search string was TITLE-ABS-KEY (PBL or “problem based learning” or “problem-based learning”) AND (“critical thinking” or “think critically”) AND (university or college or undergraduate or “higher education” or “tertiary education”).

2.2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The inclusion and exclusion criteria were based on PICo ( JBI, 2011 ). Articles were included if they: (1) undertook empirical research; (2) involved undergraduate students; (3) used PBL-adapted models as the main instructional intervention; (4) included research tools to collect CTS and CTD data; (5) explored students' learning experiences; (6) evaluated CTS and/or CTD as the main research outcome; and (7) published in an English peer-reviewed scientific journal.

Studies were excluded if they: (1)were review papers or not empirical papers; (2) did not adapt PBL models for their own research purposes; (3) involved non-undergraduate college students; (4) did not collect CTS and CTD data; (5) did not evaluate CTS and/or CTD as the main research outcome; (6) did not report CTS and/or CTD outcomes; (7) published in languages other than English; and (8) were not published in peer-reviewed journals, e.g., conference proceedings or book chapters.

2.3. Selection of articles

Articles were screened and selected according to PRISMA. Duplicate records and non-research or non-English articles were removed. Two independent reviewers then screened as many articles as possible to not miss any potentially eligible article. Records with a title and/or abstract that suggested the work involved PBL and CT were retained even though they did not fully meet the inclusion criteria for the title and/or abstract. The reviewers then rigorously applied the inclusion and exclusion criteria as they examined the full text of the retained articles. This meant that all eligible articles involved a modified PBL as the pedagogical intervention and evaluated CTS or CTD as the main research outcome. Finally, a database of selected articles was created for data extraction and analysis.

Figure 1 shows the number of records included at the identification, screening, selection and inclusion stages of the review process. The initial database searches uncovered 719 publications. After 70 duplicate records were eliminated, the literature was screened for journal or review articles that were written in English. This reduced the number of records to 499. After evaluating the abstracts of these articles, 292 records were deleted. The entire text of the remaining 207 papers were reviewed; 187 articles that failed to meet the inclusion criteria were excluded, leaving 20 journal articles to be included in this systematic review.

Figure 1 . The flow diagram of the literature search using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA).

2.4. Data extraction

To extract pertinent information from the 20 studies, Harris et al. (2014) guidelines were employed. These guidelines facilitated the extraction of information such as the author(s), year of publication, types of intervention implemented, types of data collection methods, types of data analysis methods, main findings of the study, and the effectiveness of the interventions in achieving their intended outcomes.

3. Results and discussion

The findings of the study are presented in three distinct sub-sections, each corresponding to a specific research question. The first sub-section details the types of PBL adaptations that were made to improve CT. The second sub-section presents the details of data collection and analysis implemented by each study. The last sub-section discusses the reasons for the observed improvements in student's CT as a result of these interventions.

3.1. The CT-oriented adaptations made to PBL models

An analysis revealed five distinct approaches to adapting Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to enhance Critical Thinking (CT) skills: (1) the implementation of CT-specific tools; (2) the incorporation of CT-focused activities; (3) the utilization of digital technologies; (4) the integration with other pedagogical methods; and (5) the integration with discipline-specific knowledge. As depicted in Table 1 , CT-oriented activities ( n = 6) emerged as the most prevalent strategy for augmenting CT, followed by the utilization of instructional technologies ( n = 5) and the assimilation of other instructional modes ( n = 4). Conversely, CT-oriented instruments ( n = 3) and the combination of PBL with subject-specific knowledge ( n = 2) were identified as the least frequently employed tactics for adapting PBL to foster CT development.

Table 1 . The author(s), publication date, and intervention used in studies by approach to PBL adaptation.

3.1.1. CT-oriented tools

As is depicted in Table 1 , the aforementioned studies employed various adaptations of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) with the objective of enhancing critical thinking (CT). These adaptations encompassed the utilization of CT-oriented guiding questions ( Carbogim et al., 2017 ), concept mapping ( Orique and McCarthy, 2015 ), and a CT assessment rubric ( Suryanti and Nurhuda, 2021 ). In their studies, guiding questions were implemented to stimulate and direct cognitive processes, concept maps served as a visual instrument for representing concerned issues and facilitating the development of solving plans, and the CT assessment rubric was employed to furnish lucid guidelines and expectations that facilitated self-assessment and engendered a more profound engagement with the subject matter. These aforementioned instruments possess the capacity to facilitate the development of students' critical thinking aptitudes by providing a framework for the organization and analysis of information.

3.1.2. CT-oriented activities

The studies examined in this text employed various critical thinking-oriented activities within a problem-based learning (PBL) framework to enhance the development of critical thinking skills. These activities were collaborative in nature, a characteristic inherent to PBL ( Yuan et al., 2008 ), and allowed learners to practice cognitive and/or meta-cognitive skills. With regard to the incorporation of cognitive skills, Hsu (2021) , for example, advocates for the integration of collaborative learning with PBL as it requires learners to cooperatively analyze, synthesize, and evaluate ideas to solve complex problems. Additionally, Mumtaz and Latif (2017) and Latif et al. (2018) incorporated debate among learners as it provides an opportunity for deeper analysis and appraisal of issues. The others recognized the significant correlation between meta-cognitive skills and CT improvement. For example, Fujinuma and Wendling (2015) integrated team-based active learning into their PBL model focused on meta-cognitive development to improve critical thinking. Rivas et al. (2022) emphasized individual and interactive meta-cognitive development through reflective activities because effective use of critical thinking skills requires a certain degree of consciousness and regulation of them. Rodríguez et al. (2022) used peer assessment within a PBL framework to develop a four-stage metacognitive approach due to the positive correlation between metacognition and active learning ( Biasutti and Frate, 2018 ), which can help foster higher order thinking skills ( Kim et al., 2020 ). These CT-oriented adaptations suggest that future studies could consider creating active learning environments through collaborative activities to foster cognitive and meta-cognitive skills to enhance critical thinking.

3.1.3. Digital strategies

Included research examined the incorporation of digital technologies into PBL to enhance CT. Sendag and Odabasi (2009) and Evendi et al. (2022) adapted traditional face-to-face PBL to an electronic format known as e-PBL in response to the increasing prevalence of online learning and the demonstrated efficacy of e-PBL in enhancing learning outcomes. Other studies investigated the use of videos in problem-based learning because they can present ill-structured problems in a more vivid manner ( Kamin et al., 2003 ; Roy and McMahon, 2012 ). Digital mind maps were used in conjunction with PBL by Hidayati et al. (2022) because they can create an engaging learning environment and facilitate deeper learning regardless of the learning styles of the learners.

3.1.4. PBL integrated with other pedagogical models

Researchers attempted to combine other pedagogical mode with PBL to enhance CT development. Lim (2020) integrated problem-based learning (PBL) with simulation-based learning to enable students to tackle problems that mirror real-life scenarios, thereby enhancing their professional skills and critical thinking abilities. Similarly, Xing et al. (2021) employed a clinical case-based PBL approach in conjunction with the “Status-Background-Assessment-Recommendation” (SBAR) teaching model to facilitate communication ( Abdellatif et al., 2007 ). Carbogim et al. (2018) combined PBL with the Active Learning Model for Critical Thinking (ALMCT), which comprises a series of questions designed to promote deeper understanding and exploration of meanings, relationships, and outcomes through inquiry within a clinical context or case. Aein (2018) modified PBL by incorporating inter-professional learning (IPL) to foster teamwork, enhance communication, and overcome inter-professional barriers. These studies share a common focus on the medical field and aim to improve students' professional competencies and critical thinking skills by presenting simulated real-world cases and promoting communication and collaboration among students.

3.1.5. PBL integrated with subject knowledge

Silviarza et al. (2020) and Silviariza and Handoyo (2021) are the sole authors among the studies reviewed to have undertaken research on the integration of problem-based learning (PBL) with the instruction of subject knowledge. They contend that the ability to critically solve problems is of paramount importance in the study of geography ( Nagel, 2008 ). Academics may contemplate the incorporation of problem-based learning (PBL) methodologies within fields of study that necessitate the utilization of critical thinking competencies for problem resolution and knowledge acquisition. Such an approach has the potential to augment not only students' comprehension of the subject matter but also their capacity for critical thinking.

3.2. The evaluation of CT-oriented PBL interventions

The efficacy of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) adaptations in enhancing Critical Thinking (CT) was investigated by examining the results of individual studies. To determine the overall effectiveness of modified PBL models on the development of CT skills or dispositions (CTS or CTD), it is necessary to scrutinize the instruments employed for data collection and the analytical methods utilized. Table 2 provides an overview of the article title, publication year, data collection instrument, and data analysis approach utilized in the study.

Table 2 . Evaluation of included educational intervention.

3.2.1. Data collection

The instruments employed by the studies included in this analysis can be classified according to their use in collecting either quantitative or qualitative data, as delineated in Table 2 . Quantitative instruments comprise questionnaires (e.g., Mumtaz and Latif, 2017 ; Carbogim et al., 2018 ; Latif et al., 2018 ; Lim, 2020 ; Silviarza et al., 2020 ; Hsu, 2021 ; Xing et al., 2021 ), tests (e.g., Sendag and Odabasi, 2009 ; Silviariza and Handoyo, 2021 ; Hidayati et al., 2022 ; Rivas et al., 2022 ; Evendi et al., 2022 ), and assessment rubrics (e.g., Orique and McCarthy, 2015 ; Suryanti and Nurhuda, 2021 ; Rodríguez et al., 2022 ), with questionnaires being the most commonly utilized instrument. On the other hand, several studies have employed qualitative instruments to collect CT-related data, which are less varied than their quantitative counterparts. Qualitative instruments primarily encompass recorded learning activities (e.g., Kamin et al., 2003 ; Roy and McMahon, 2012 ; Evendi et al., 2022 ), interviews (e.g., Carbogim et al., 2017 ; Aein, 2018 ; Xing et al., 2021 ), and open-ended questions (e.g., Fujinuma and Wendling, 2015 ; Mumtaz and Latif, 2017 ). Based on an analysis of the tools utilized by the studies involved in this investigation, future research exploring the adaptations of PBL for CT can employ quantitative (e.g., Silviarza et al., 2020 ), qualitative (e.g., Aein, 2018 ), or mixed methods (e.g., Carbogim et al., 2017 ).

As indicated in Table 2 , researchers employ one of two approaches in constructing data collection instruments for quantitative data: either directly utilizing tools developed by others or developing their own research instruments. For instance, widely used and well-developed instruments include the Chinese adaptation of the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) and the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST). Xing et al. (2021) employed the Chinese version of the CCTDI to investigate the impact of modified PBL on learners' CT disposition, while Carbogim et al. (2018) utilized the CCTST to assess students' CT skills. These extensively used tools have been demonstrated to be valid and reliable for data collection and analysis. Alternatively, researchers have endeavored to design their own instruments tailored to their specific study requirements. For example, Silviarza et al. (2020) and Hidayati et al. (2022) developed an essay test and a CTS test, respectively, based on the CT indicators proposed by Ennis (2011) . These self-made instruments were subjected to validity and reliability checks prior to being employed for data collection (e.g., Hidayati et al., 2022 ). Both of the above-discussed approaches, when implemented with established credibility and validity, are effective in collecting the desired data. On the other hand, most studies employing qualitative tools do not test validity and reliability in the same manner as quantitative studies (e.g., Kamin et al., 2003 ; Roy and McMahon, 2012 ), but instead utilize triangulation to enhance validity and reliability (e.g., Rodríguez et al., 2022 ).

3.2.2. Data analysis

As delineated in Table 2 , the studies included in this analysis employed distinct analytical methodologies based on their data collection methods. It is only through the application of analytical techniques that are appropriately tailored to the data and research objectives that researchers can derive meaningful insights and draw valid conclusions from their data.

For quantitative data, researchers utilized descriptive analysis to determine the means and proportions of CT-related data. Several studies employed this method, including Mumtaz and Latif (2017) , Carbogim et al. (2018) , Latif et al. (2018) , Suryanti and Nurhuda (2021) , and Rivas et al. (2022) . In addition to descriptive analysis, other statistical techniques were also frequently employed. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used by Sendag and Odabasi (2009) and Fujinuma and Wendling (2015) to compare the means of multiple groups and determine whether there were any statistically significant differences between them. The t -test technique to compare the means of experimental and control group was also commonly used, as seen in studies by Carbogim et al. (2018) , Latif et al. (2018) , Silviarza et al. (2020) , and Xing et al. (2021) .

In contrast to the quantitative methods described above, content analysis was typically applied to qualitative data. Studies that employed this method include Kamin et al. (2003) . In addition to content analysis, narrative summary was also used to present and interpret qualitative data (e.g., Mumtaz and Latif, 2017 ).

3.3. Examination of the findings from PBL-adapted interventions

3.3.1. interventional outcomes.

The results of individual studies were examined to explore the success of PBL adaptations for improving CT. Table 3 summarizes the CT development outcomes of each intervention. All the studies had positive outcomes with students showing increased CT. This indicates that the planful integration of CT elements into PBL was effective and necessary for enhancing students' CT which cannot be assured with PBL that do not have CT-oriented adaptations ( Lee et al., 2016 ).

Table 3 . The main findings of each study.

3.3.2. Positive findings

Although all of their studies reported positive outcomes in the development of critical thinking (CT), the depth of their research varied. Some studies documented general improvements in CT as a result of instructional interventions, while others reported enhancements in specific CT sub-skills. For instance, Silviarza et al. (2020) discovered that engaging students in debates and encouraging them to confirm information through research promoted critical thinking. Similarly, Aein (2018) found that challenging students to respond to difficulties posed by their peers with concealed features of disorders prompted them to think critically about current and potential health concerns. On the other hand, several researchers confirmed that problem-based learning (PBL) oriented toward CT improved CT sub-skills. Latif et al. (2018) , for example, reported that exposing students to challenging real-life situations encouraged them to conduct research based on their arguments, fostering the CT processes of analysis and interpretation. Carbogim et al. (2017) argued that pairing PBL with guided questions enhanced students' abilities to analyze, reason, and generate solutions for safe care action, demonstrating intellectual stimulation for CT.

Although critical thinking (CT) encompasses both critical thinking skills (CTSs) and critical thinking dispositions (CTDs), only three studies have specifically investigated the development of students' CTDs. Carbogim et al. (2018) employed the Portuguese version of the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) to evaluate CTDs and discovered that integrating problem-based learning (PBL) with the Active Learning Model for Critical Thinking (ALMCT) influenced the acquisition of an analytical disposition. Hsu (2021) utilized Yeh and study of substitute teachers' professional knowledge (1999 ) Inventory of Critical-Thinking Disposition (ICTD) to determine that support for social contacts enhanced students' CT cognitive development. Lim (2020) applied Yoon (2004) self-report questionnaire to assess CTDs and found a correlation between CTDs and problem-solving abilities. These findings indicate that current research primarily concentrates on the development of CTS, suggesting that future studies should not overlook the development of CTD.

3.3.3. Success factors

An analysis of the key CT-related findings from each study, as presented in Table 3 , was conducted to explore the reasons for successful adaptation of problem-based learning (PBL). These findings were categorized into nine factors that contribute to the successful adaptation of PBL to be CT-oriented, as delineated in Table 4 . These factors comprise self-directed learning, CT-related activities, interaction, problem-solving skills, metacognitive activities, authentic learning, positive atmosphere, self-efficacy, and role of teacher. These factors can serve as the principles upon which CT-oriented PBL models should be based.

Table 4 . Classification of the main findings from the studies by theme.

As is shown in Table 4 , the nine principles are identified. The principle of self-directed learning refers to students accepting responsibility for their own learning and actively participating in the learning process ( Kamin et al., 2003 ). CT-related activities refer to the activities of students applying their learning to enhance CT, such as debating (e.g., Latif et al., 2018 ). Interaction refers to students: (1) being assigned to small groups and sharing their learning within the group and across groups ( Kamin et al., 2003 ; Fujinuma and Wendling, 2015 ; Silviarza et al., 2020 ); (2) sharing their knowledge with other students ( Orique and McCarthy, 2015 ); (3) peer discussions on how to solve problems ( Lim, 2020 ; Hidayati et al., 2022 ); (4) challenging each others' views ( Aein, 2018 ); and (5) debating with each other ( Rivas et al., 2022 ). CT propensity in PBL has also been found to be associated with problem-solving abilities and metacognitive skills ( Rodríguez et al., 2022 ). Authentic learning in PBL is key to developing students' CT skills which involve authentic real-world problem that contain diverse, difficult, and ill-structured answers ( Hidayati et al., 2022 ) and utilizing relevant real-world experiences to solve it ( Latif et al., 2018 ). The problems are authentic ( Hidayati et al., 2022 ), relevant to learners' real-world experiences ( Latif et al., 2018 ), and contain diverse, difficult, and ill-structured answers. There was scant scholarly attention given to the learning environment and self-efficacy even though a positive learning environment can assist students to enhance their CT ( Evendi et al., 2022 ). Likewise, self-efficacy has received scant scholarly attention. After simulated PBL, students' learning self-efficacy was positively linked to CT propensity and problem-solving ability ( Lim, 2020 ). Teachers had a significant impact on PBL students, particularly when they assumed the role of facilitator rather than merely transmitting information ( Hsu, 2021 ), were less the center of attention in the classroom ( Sendag and Odabasi, 2009 ), and provided examples that were appropriate for the students' level of learning.

The principles for PBL adaptations for CT development align with those of original PBL models but are optimized to maximize CT development. For instance, Carter et al. (2017) assert that students should be at the center of learning, Barrows (1986) posits that PBL problems should be ill-structured, and Yuan et al. (2008) contend that students should collaborate to solve problems. These principles are intrinsic to PBL. Consequently, the design of new PBL models to enhance CT should adhere to the fundamental principles or characteristics of PBL.

4. Conclusions

In this study, a systematic review was undertaken of published articles associated with PBL adaptations as educational interventions to improve students' CT skills and dispositions. Using the 20 articles that met the inclusion criteria and the PICo approach, this paper explored the methods used to adapt the PBL model to optimize CT development, examined the effectiveness of those models and explored the reasons why these adaptations were successful with the intent to fulfill the gap of the limited number of systematic reviews on adapting the original PBL model to be a more CT oriented model.

Five distinct categories of the strategies employed to adapt PBL were found: activities centered on CT development, incorporation of digital technologies, integration of alternative pedagogical approaches, utilization of CT-specific instruments, and combination of PBL with discipline-specific knowledge. These adaptations were found to be effective in augmenting students' CT skills and dispositions, although the methodologies employed for data collection and analysis varied across studies. Future research is warranted to investigate the potential of these adaptations in diverse educational contexts.

Nine factors that contribute to the successful adaptation of PBL to be more CT-oriented were identified. They are: self-directed learning, CT-related activities, interaction with peers and teachers, problem-solving skills, metacognitive activities, authentic learning, positive atmosphere, high self-efficacy, and supportive teachers. These principles are congruent with those of traditional PBL models but have been specifically designed to optimize CT development. Future research could explore the relative significance of each of these factors in fostering CT development and examine their interplay. Additionally, researchers could investigate the effective integration of these factors into PBL models across diverse educational contexts and disciplines.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Abdellatif, A., Bagian, J. P., Barajas, E. R., Cohen, M., Cousins, D., Denham, C. R., et al. (2007). Communication during patient hand-overs. Joint Comm. J. Qual. Patient Safety . doi: 10.1016/S1553-7250(07)33128-0

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Aein, F. (2018). Midwifery students' experiences of problem solving based interprofessional learning: a qualitative study. Women Birth 31, e374–e379. doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2018.02.006

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Alper, A. (2010). Critical thinking disposition of pre-service teachers. Egitimve Bilim. 35, 14.

Google Scholar

Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problem-based learning methods. Med. Educ. 20, 481–486. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.1986.tb01386.x

Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: a brief overview. New Direct. Teach. Learn. 1996, 3–12. doi: 10.1002/tl.37219966804

Bezanilla, M. J., Fernández-Nogueira, D., Poblete, M., and Galindo-Domínguez, H. (2019). Methodologies for teaching-learning critical thinking in higher education: the teacher's view. Think. Skills Creat. 33, 100584. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2019.100584

Biasutti, M., and Frate, S. (2018). Group metacognition in online collaborative learning: validity and reliability of the group metacognition scale (GMS). Educ. Technol. Res. Dev . 66, 321–1338. doi: 10.1007/s11423-018-9583-0

Carbogim, F. C., Barbosa, A. C. S., de Oliviera, L. B., de Sá Diaz, F. B. B., Toledo, L. V., Alves, K. R., et al. (2018). Educational intervention to improve critical thinking for undergraduate nursing students: a randomized clinical trial. Nurse Educ. Pract . 33, 121–126. doi: 10.1016/j.nepr.2018.10.001

Carbogim, F. D. C., Oliveira, L. B. D., Mendonça, É. T. D., Marques, D. A., Friedrich, D. B. D. C., and Püschel, V. A. D. A. (2017). Teaching critical thinking skills through problem based learning. Texto Contexto-Enfermagem 26, 17. doi: 10.1590/0104-07072017001180017

Carter, A. G., Creedy, D. K., and Sidebotham, M. (2017). Critical thinking evaluation in reflective writing: development and testing of carter assessment of critical thinking in midwifery (reflection). Midwifery 54, 73–80. doi: 10.1016/j.midw.2017.08.003

Chaffee, J. (1994). Thinking Critically . 4th Edn . Houghton: Mifflin.

Choi, E., Lindquist, R., and Song, Y. (2014). Effects of problem-based learning vs. traditional lecture on Korean nursing students' critical thinking, problem-solving and self-directed learning. Nurse Educ. Today 34, 52–56. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2013.02.012

Dehkordi, A. H., and Heydarnejad, M. S. (2008). The effects of problem-based learning and lecturing on the development of Iranian nursing students' critical thinking. Pak. J. Med. Sci. 24, 740–743.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Dekker, T. J. (2020). Teaching critical thinking through engagement with multiplicity. Think. Skills Creat. 37, 100701. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100701

Drennan, L., and Rohde, F. (2002). Determinants of performance in advanced undergraduate management accounting: an empirical investigation. Accoun. Finan . 42, 27–40. doi: 10.1111/1467-629X.00065

Dwyer, C. P., Boswell, A., and Elliott, M. A. (2015). An evaluation of critical thinking competencies in business settings. J. Educ. Bus. 90, 260–269. doi: 10.1080/08832323.2015.1038978

Elder, L., and Paul, R. (2001). Critical thinking: thinking to some purpose. J. Dev. Educ. 25, 40.

Elder, L., and Paul, R. (2012). Critical thinking: competency standards essential to the cultivation of intellectual skills, part 4. J. Dev. Educ. 35, 30–31.

Ennis, R. H. (1987). “A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities,” in Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice , eds J. B. Baron and R. J. Sternberg (New York, NY: W H Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt and Co), 9–26.

Ennis, R. H. (2011). Ideal critical thinkers are disposed to. Inquiry Crit. Think. Across Discipl. 26, 4. doi: 10.5840/inquiryctnews201126214

Ennis, R. H. (2018). Critical thinking across the curriculum: A vision. Topoi 37, 65–184. doi: 10.1007/s11245-016-9401-4

Erikson, M. G., and Erikson, M. (2019). Learning outcomes and critical thinking–good intentions in conflict. Stud. Higher Educ. 44, 2293–2303. doi: 10.1080/03075079.2018.1486813

Evendi, E., Al Kusaeri, A. K., Pardi, M. H. H., Sucipto, L., Bayani, F., and Prayogi, S. (2022). Assessing students' critical thinking skills viewed from cognitive style:Study on implementation of problem-based e-learning model in mathematics courses. Eurasia J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ . 18, pem2129. doi: 10.29333/ejmste/12161

Facione, P., Facione, N., and Giancarlo, C. (2000). The Disposition Toward Critical Thinking: Its Character, Measurement, and Relationship to Critical Thinking Skill. Informal Logic. p. 20. doi: 10.22329/il.v20i1.2254

Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction-The Delphi Report . Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press.

Facione, P. A. (2011). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Insight Assessment 1, 1–23.

Facione, P. A., and Facione, N. C. (1994). Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric . Available online at: http://www.insightassessment.com/Resources/Holistic-Critical-Thinking-Scoring-Rubric-HCTSR (accessed April 20, 2023).

Fisher, A. (2011). Critical Thinking: An Introduction . Cambridge University Press.

Fujinuma, R., and Wendling, L. A. (2015). Repeating knowledge application practice to improve student performance in a large, introductory science course. Int. J. Sci. Educ . 37, 2906–2922. doi: 10.1080/09500693.2015.1114191

Halpern, D. (2010). Undergraduate Education in Psychology: A Blueprint for the Future of the Discipline . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Harris, J. D., Quatman, C. E., Manring, M. M., Siston, R. A., and Flanigan, D. C. (2014). How to write a systematic review. Am. J. Sports Med. 42, 2761–2768. doi: 10.1177/0363546513497567

Hidayati, N., Zubai Dah, S., and Amnah, S. (2022). The PBL vs. digital mind maps integrated PBL: choosing between the two with a view to enhance learners' critical thinking. Particip. Educ. Res . 9, 30–343. doi: 10.17275/per.22.69.9.3

Hsu, Y. (2021). An action research in critical thinking concept designed curriculum based on collaborative learning for engineering ethics course. Sustainability 13, 2621. doi: 10.3390/su13052621

JBI (2011). Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewers' Manual . Adelaide: University of Adelaide.

Kamin, C., O'Sullivan, P., Deterding, R., and Younger, M. (2003). A comparison of critical thinking in groups of third-year medical students in text, video, and virtual PBL case modalities. Acad. Med . 78, 204–211. doi: 10.1097/00001888-200302000-00018

Karakoc, M. (2016). The significance of critical thinking ability in terms of education. Int. J. Human. Soc. Sci. 6, 81–84.

Kim, H. J., Yi, P., and Hong, J. I. (2020). Students' academic use of mobile technology and higher-order thinking skills: the role of active engagement. Educ. Sci . 10, 47. doi: 10.3390/educsci10030047

Latif, R., Mumtaz, S., Mumtaz, R., and Hussain, A. (2018). A comparison of debate and role play in enhancing critical thinking and communication skills of medical students during problem based learning. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Educ . 46, 336–342. doi: 10.1002/bmb.21124

Lee, J., Lee, Y., Gong, S., Bae, J., and Choi, M. (2016). A meta-analysis of the effects of non-traditional teaching methods on the critical thinking abilities of nursing students. BMC Med. Educ . 16, 240. doi: 10.1186/s12909-016-0761-7

Lim, M.-H. (2020). Effectiveness of simulation linked problem based learning on nursing college students in South Korea. Acad. J. Interdiscip. Stud . 9, 15. doi: 10.36941/ajis-2020-0018

Lipman, B. L. (1991). How to decide how to decide how to…: modeling limited rationality. Econom. J. Econom. Soc. 1105–1125. doi: 10.2307/2938176

Liu, Y., and Pásztor, A. (2022). Effects of problem-based learning instructional intervention on critical thinking in higher education: a meta-analysis. Think. Skills Creat. 45, 101069. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101069

Mumtaz, S., and Latif, R. (2017). Learning through debate during problem-based learning: an active learning strategy. Adv. Physiol. Educ . 41, 390–394. doi: 10.1152/advan.00157.2016

Nagel, P. (2008). Geography: the essential skill for the 21st century. Soc. Educ. 72, 354.

National Association of Colleges Employers (2016). Class of 2016 Believes it is “Career Ready,” But is It? Available online at: http://tinyurl.com/ya8a559g (accessed April 20, 2023).

Nurcahyo, E., and Djono, D. (2018). The implementation of discovery learning model with scientific learning approach to improve students' critical thinking in learning history. Int. J. Multicul. Multirel. Understand . 5, 106. doi: 10.18415/ijmmu.v5i3.234

Orique, S. B., and McCarthy, M. A. (2015). Critical thinking and the use of nontraditional instructional methodologies. J. Nurs. Educ . 54, 455–459. doi: 10.3928/01484834-20150717-06

Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., et al. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372, n71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71

Papathanasiou, I. V., Kleisiaris, C. F., Fradelos, E. C., Kakou, K., and Kourkouta, L. (2014). Critical thinking: the development of an essential skill for nursing students. Acta Inform. Med. 22, 283. doi: 10.5455/aim.2014.22.283-286

Peng, M., Wang, G., Chen, J., Chen, M., Bai, H., Li, S., et al. (2004). Validity and reliability of the Chinese critical thinking disposition inventory. Chin. J. Nurs . 39, 7–10 (In Chinese).

Rivas, S., and Saiz, C. (2012). Validación y propiedades psicométricas de la prueba de pensamiento crítico PENCRISAL. Revista Electrónica de Metodología Aplicada 17, 18–34.

Rivas, S. F., Saiz, C., and Ossa, C. (2022). Metacognitive strategies and development of critical thinking in higher education. Front. Psychol . 13, 913219. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.913219

Rodríguez, M. F., Nussbaum, M., Pertuzé, J., Avila, C., Caceres, J., Valenzuela, T., et al. (2022). Using metacognition to promote active learning in large business management classes. Innov. Educ. Teach. Int . 59, 410–420. doi: 10.1080/14703297.2021.1887750

Roy, R. B., and McMahon, G. T. (2012). Video-based cases disrupt deep critical thinking in problem-based learning. Med. Educ . 46, 426–435. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04197.x

Saiz, C., and Rivas, S. F. (2008). Evaluación en pensamiento crítico: una propuesta para diferenciar formas de pensar. Ergo. Nueva Época 22–23, 25–66.

Schraw, G., and Dennison, R. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemp. Educ. Psychol . 19, 460–475. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1994.1033

Sendag, S., and Odabasi, H. F. (2009). Effects of an online problem based learning course on content knowledge acquisition and critical thinking skills. Comput. Educ . 53, 132–141. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.008

Sharma, M. B., and Elbow, G. S. (2000). Using Internet Primary Sources to Teach Critical Thinking Skills in Geography . Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Silviariza, W. Y., and Handoyo, B. (2021). Improving critical thinking skills of geography students with spatial-problem based learning (SPBL). Int. J. Instr. 14, 133–152. doi: 10.29333/iji.2021.1438a

Silviarza, W., Sumarmi, S., and Handoyo, B. (2020). Using of Spatial Problem Based Learning (SPBL) model in geography education for developing critical thinking skills. J. Educ. Gifted Young Sci. 8, 1045–1060. doi: 10.17478/jegys.737219

Snyder, L. G., and Snyder, M. J. (2008). Teaching critical thinking and problem solving skills. J. Res. Bus. Educ. 50, 90.

Suryanti, N., and Nurhuda, N. (2021). The effect of problem-based learning with an analytical rubric on the development of students' critical thinking skills. Int. J. Instruct. 14, 665–684. doi: 10.29333/iji.2021.14237a

Xing, C., Zhou, Y., Li, M., Wu, Q., Zhou, Q., Wang, Q., et al. (2021). The effects of CPBL + SBAR teaching mode among the nursing students. Nurse Educ. Today , 100, 104828. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2021.104828

Yanchar, S. C., and Slife, B. D. (2004). Teaching critical thinking by examining assumptions. Teach. Psychol. 31, 85–90. doi: 10.1207/s15328023top3102_2

Yang, E. C. L., Khoo-Lattimore, C., and Arcodia, C. (2017). A systematic literature review of risk and gender research in tourism. Tour. Manag. 58, 89–100. doi: 10.1016/j.tourman.2016.10.011

Yeh Y. C. A. study of substitute teachers' professional knowledge personal teaching effificacy, teaching behavior in criticalthinking instruction. J. Chengchi. Univ. (1999). 78, 55–84.

Yoon, J. (2004). Development of an instrument for the measurement of critical thinking disposition: in nursing . (Unpublished theses), Seoul: Catholic University.

Yuan, H., Kunaviktikul, W., Klunklin, A., and Williams, B. A. (2008). Improvement of nursing students' critical thinking skills through problem-based learning in the People's Republic of China: a quasi-experimental study. Nurs. Health Sci. 10, 70–77. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-2018.2007.00373.x

Zainul, A. (2001). Alternative Assessment. PAU-PPAI, DirJen Dikti: DepDikNas . Available online at: http://www.academia.edu/5158544/Pengukuran_Assesment_Dan_Penilaian_Evaluation_Hasil_Belajar/Pdf_file (accessed April 20, 2023).

Keywords: higher education, problem-based learning, critical thinking, educational intervention, systematic review, pedagogical adaption

Citation: Yu L and Zin ZM (2023) The critical thinking-oriented adaptations of problem-based learning models: a systematic review. Front. Educ. 8:1139987. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1139987

Received: 08 January 2023; Accepted: 02 May 2023; Published: 24 May 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Yu and Zin. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Zuhana Mohamed Zin, zuhana.kl@utm.my

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Med Sci Educ
• v.29(1); 2019 Mar

Advancing Critical Thinking Through Learning Issues in Problem-Based Learning

Carol c. thompson.

Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ USA

Health professions educators are increasingly urged to use learning designs that promote critical thinking and the development of interpersonal competencies. Problem-based learning (PBL) has a long, albeit contested, history as a collaborative and deep think-aloud process that participants use to reach conclusions about medical cases. In order to make progress, participants must assess what they do not know and what they must learn in order to continue. Answering these learning issues (LI) requires self-direction and cognitive presence. This study analyzes the discussions that participants used in the reporting phase of the LI process in an 8-week PBL module on cardiac-renal systems. Data were drawn from 10 class sessions and analyzed for critical thinking using a model based on Garrison and Newman et al. Participants at first presented LI reports didactically but over time initiated active learning strategies. The findings indicate large increases in the numbers of LI reports in which participants engaged in collaborative thinking. There were also large increases in the amount of time devoted to critical thinking as participants aligned the LI process more closely with the intent of PBL. Participants’ identity development as experts also underwent changes and the fluidity of the expert roles increased. Thoughtful design of the LI process can help learners develop the habitus of self-direction and collaborative critical thinking that they need in order to develop clinical reasoning.

Introduction

Medical educators are increasingly urged to use learning designs that promote both critical thinking (CT) and the development of interpersonal competencies [ 1 – 3 ]. Problem-based learning (PBL), which requires participants to construct their learning collaboratively, addresses both directives. A crucial activity in PBL is the development of learning issues (LIs) in which participants determine what the group does not know and must know in order to move forward in diagnosing cases. These LIs become crucial opportunities for participants to develop interactional competencies, self-direction, and CT.

CT includes, first, the cognitive skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Bloom’s taxonomy), second, argumentation and judgment/evaluation [ 4 ], and third, the interpretation and use of evidence to justify hypotheses [ 5 , 6 ]. CT is promoted when learners have opportunities and requirements for making their thinking visible to their peers [ 7 – 9 ] and for reflection [ 10 ]. As Jeong [ 11 ] suggests, reflection is increased when participants must examine assertions, and the need to argue points can be a useful spur to depth [ 11 , 12 ]. How frequently participants analyze what is said, critically assess it, and justify their assessments indicates the extent to which they are engaging in CT.

LIs, which Mpofu and colleagues [ 13 ] argue, “guide the students’ studying” (p. 330), are a particularly valuable opportunity for the development of both CT and self-direction. However, identifying LIs can be difficult for beginners who must metacognitively assess [ 14 ] what they already know and what will be salient in the case. Following Vygotsky’s [ 15 ] sociocultural constructivism, PBL frameworks are structured so that participants use the help of more expert others to do what they cannot do on their own. Facilitators act as guides in these zones of proximal development (ZPD), offering help (scaffolding) that encourages further inquiry and reflection; their prompts and questions can be particularly useful to participants learning to identify and discuss LIs. Eventually, self-directed students may even find relevant issues that instructors themselves had not identified [ 13 , 16 ]. Self-direction also appears to have some payoff beyond preclinical coursework. As van den Hurk and colleagues [ 17 ] note, LIs appear to encourage the development of self-direction during subsequent training. Some studies indicate that PBL students tend to function better in clinical situations than those in traditional lecture-based curricula [ 18 – 20 ], and that collaborative thinking can model the collegiality and teamwork that they will later need as practicing physicians [ 21 ].

To date, many studies of the LI process in medical education use self-report, and relatively few focus on what participants are actually saying as they analyze case problems and the knowledge needed to solve them. In their analysis of a single hour of discussion, Visschers-Pleijers [ 22 ] and colleagues used a discourse approach in their focus on the LI process. This kind of attention to the discussion in LI sessions is important because it is an indicator of the extent to which participants actually use the PBL and LI tenets of collaborative knowledge construction, distributed expertise [ 7 ], and self-direction [ 23 , 24 ] to engage in CT. The research by Kamin and colleagues [ 6 ] focused primarily on the larger PBL activity and included LIs in the process of integration. Other studies, for example, one by Hmelo-Silver and Barrows [ 7 ], looked at participant structures and the facilitator’s role in knowledge building, but not directly at CT. These studies point toward a potentially rich area for further inquiry.

Therefore, the study described in this article sought to use participant speech to investigate the use of CT over an extended time period in a PBL class of first-year medical students. The study was conducted at Rowan University, a midsized public university in New Jersey, USA, at its School of Osteopathic Medicine. The school has a longstanding practice of offering students the choice of applying to either the PBL or traditional curriculum upon acceptance to the school, and not all who apply to the PBL program are accepted. Students remain on their chosen track for both preclinical years. There are no didactic systems-based courses in the PBL track, and its explicit goal is the development of clinical reasoning. Facilitators are faculty trained in PBL processes.

This study focused on how LIs became an opportunity for collaborative work and development of students’ CT. The study gathered data from ten LI sessions over an 8-week module on cardio-renal processes. By concentrating on the LI portion of the PBL process, I wanted to understand its value for participants in helping them assess their knowledge and what they needed to know to work on the cases. It was also important to understand how the LI process might be valuable in its own right as a contribution to the CT that is a cornerstone of PBL. The focus was on how the desired characteristics of PBL were realized within the LI process, the extent to which the LI process itself promoted CT, and how students’ identities as experts [ 25 ] developed over the course of the 8 weeks.

Materials and Methods

The medical school is one of two attached to Rowan University, and it has a long history of educating osteopathic students in southern New Jersey. Just prior to this study, the school had expanded its PBL curriculum from one PBL section to four. The section discussed here was comprised of seven students and a faculty facilitator. During each week, three classes, each three hours long, were devoted to each case. Students were expected to prepare prior to class, and roles were distributed and rotated weekly (for example, “driver” in charge of the computer case progress, scribe). The curriculum materials had been developed at Southern Illinois University; case information was presented by computer program on a screen visible to all participants. The information with which the patient presented was revealed by the computer “driver,” and the participant acting as scribe recorded the case notes on the walls. Answers to the questions the group formulated for the computerized patient were gradually transformed into differentials.

New cases were presented each week, and the LIs were developed at the end of the first and second class meetings devoted to each case. Usually the participants collaboratively made lists of terms and concepts they wanted to know more about as they discussed the cases. They ranked them, selected the most urgent ones, and then volunteered to address them. During the first 5 weeks, they occasionally developed their own topics that they personally wanted to know more about. At other times, the facilitator helped participants construct LIs that would be particularly germane to the case, suggested modifications, or noted important areas of uncertainty in the case discussions. Following a comment by the facilitator mid-module students began to rotate topic choices. The reporting phase was conducted at the beginning of the following class session.

Prior to beginning the study, IRB approval was sought and granted; subsequently, I sought permission from both the facilitator and the students to be present in the room over the following weeks and record the classroom dialogue. All students were assigned pseudonyms.

Participants

The participants included one section of seven first-year medical students in the second 8-week module of their first semester. They had varying levels of experience in the health field including a bachelor’s degree in pharmacy, experience as an emergency medical technician, and experience at a social needs-oriented nonprofit. The facilitator was an emergency room physician and long-time faculty member trained in PBL.

Data Collection

Classes met for a total of 9 hours a week. I took extensive field notes and observed and recorded classes (including breaks) over the 8-week module on cardio-renal issues. Ten sessions had LI reports. I also conducted member checking to make sure my understanding of what participants were saying was accurate.

Data Analysis

The recordings were transcribed and discourse analysis conducted. To assess critical thinking, a framework based on the models developed by Garrison [ 25 ] and Newman and his colleagues [ 26 ] was employed. Garrison’s model was used to identify aspects of problem solving, including problem clarification and framing the problem in context (p-clar) and making judgments about potential solutions (eval). In addition, Newman and his colleagues were helpful in identifying critical assessment (C-assess; making judgments about potential solutions and the remarks of others) and justification for assertions (ju). The transcripts and field notes were further analyzed for participants’ role take-up as experts.

The LI process was challenging, as might be expected for new medical students. At the beginning of the module, participants chose manageable topics such as cardiomyopathy and arrhythmia. By mid-module, they were beginning to consider both which issues they should develop and how. They began to consider scope, with one participant asking whether they “should go narrower or wider,” and they began to choose more processes more challenging for them such as baroreceptor reflex blood pressure regulation.

The LI reports in the beginning were simple PowerPoint lectures; most also contained quick checks for understanding framed as multiple choice or yes/no questions at the end. As Table ​ Table1 1 indicates, the participants were increasingly able to sustain interactions with CT as the weeks progressed. For example, although there was a single interaction of approximately 1 min in the late September class session, by October 10 (4 sessions later), there were 6 interactions for a total of 9 min, and 2 weeks later, the discussions totaled 20 min. At this point, participants were increasingly extending the LIs as discussion opportunities, indicating a move from passive responses to much more active ones. As there were no further cases the entirety of the final session was devoted to LIs. The participants made the most of their time, engaging in lengthy interactions with substantial CT (see Table ​ Table2 2 ).

Discussions within LIs (minutes)

Levels of CT in LI discussions (P-clar; ps; C-assess/eval; ju)

Next, the extent to which participants used those interactions as opportunities for CT was analyzed. Because participants structured the initial LIs as lectures with brief questions meant to check for understanding, the early discussions tended to be at the level of problem clarification (see Table ​ Table2). 2 ). As the participants began to interact for longer periods, they also used more CT attributes. By October 10, three discussions used all of them, and 2 weeks later, four discussions used all CT attributes and the other discussions used most of the CT attributes.

By mid-October, there was a growing interactivity that grew out of a friendly rivalry between 2 students, Adam and Andrew. As they began to challenge each other during the LIs, they opened the door for others to join the discussion and to structure the LIs differently. Three students presented their LIs by drawing on the wall and without notes or PowerPoints. They began to encourage actual discussions, moving entirely from lecture format to interactional positions. The two women, Maria and Jennifer, had spoken very little during the first weeks of class; they began to participate more visibly by mid-module. This interactivity coincided with the increased use of critical thinking noted above, particularly as students assessed each other’s statements. Participants also began to assess their own learning needs (“I need to work more on EKG”; “Can you actually distinguish all these things from 1 EKG? I don’t think I’m going to be able to do that.”) The substantial restructuring of the LI, abandoning the lecture format for one that was much more interactive, had the effect of aligning the LIs with the purposes of the PBL process: to use CT in a collaborative and self-directed manner. The complexity of the responses in the reconfigured reporting phase coincided with their ability to make more substantial justifications for their positions, to better build on the thinking of others, and to evaluate and reevaluate their own positions with respect to the cases.

Table ​ Table3 3 contains a discussion excerpt from mid-module with increasing use of gently worded critical assessment to correct misunderstandings (see Adam’s comment in line 5: “I would say”) and also of justifications, a pattern that continued through the end of the 8 weeks. Maria was now willing to speak up; although she confined her comments to assessments of what others were saying, she was known to be accurate in her understanding of processes. As this excerpt indicates by mid-module, the participants were comfortable using the LI process to learn from each other. At the same time, they were also beginning to teach each other during breaks on multiple occasions.

Mid-module CT examples (P-clar; ps; C-assess/eval; ju; brackets indicate overlapping speech)

By the end of the module, participants used the LI process even more extensively to arrive at answers. In the final class meeting, there was no case discussion, so the LI report phase and discussions had no time constraints. Participants used the increased time available for discussion around the report phase, sustaining their discussions with the nearly continuous use of CT for 55 min.

Table ​ Table4 4 contains a brief excerpt of dialogue from the final class meeting. At that point in the discussion, participants were analyzing the implications of a comment raised by Jason at the end of his LI report on cardiac pressure equalization: (“… here’s I think on the exam or on the future if you see like this dip, you know, its characteristic of um a stenotic valve.”). The participants were able to use problem solving (ps), critical assessment (C-assess), and justifications (ju) in their thinking, and this brief excerpt of the 55-min discussion consists almost entirely of CT. Only 2 words (stemi and um) in this excerpt were not codable as CT, and the critical assessments often incorporated justifications as in line 18 (“But wouldn’t it be more proper to say that the left hypertrophies so you have that equalization or close to equalization of pressure?”). The brackets indicate the considerable overlaps in speech, where participants eagerly replied to the statements of others; these indicate the intensity of the discussion and the participants’ engagement in it (ll. 13–23). The vehement “No!” by Maria and Jennifer in line 30 reflects their engagement and close tracking of the discussion as it evolved. Adam then adds a justification to their one-word assessment and Andrew then agrees as well.

Final class session examples (brackets indicate overlapping speech)

There were also significant role changes over the 8 weeks. First were the notable ways in which the two women initially performed in a markedly gendered fashion. One apologized at the beginning of her first 2 LI presentations:

• 9-30: Jennifer: I apologize ahead of time. I don’t know how useful this is going to be [said twice].
• 10-5-16 Jennifer: Is that, is that, sorry. My memory is really bad today.

Maria, the other woman, initially spoke so softly that Jason frequently took on the role of acting as her mouthpiece. However, several of the men referred positively to the women’s thinking in discussions, and both Maria’s and Jennifer’s self-effacing postures toward the group in the LIs began to diminish by the middle of the module and disappeared by the end.

The data in this study indicate that the LI process can have significant value when participants reflect on how they are using it. Over the 8 weeks, there were two significant changes in how participants used the LIs. First, with the implicit approval of the facilitator, the initially passive LI learning space became an active one, engaging participants in critical thinking, collaboration, and self-direction. Second, the growing interactions encouraged the participants to use each other’s expertise.

The first change occurred as students replaced the didactic formats with which they might have been more familiar with more active ones, reconceptualizing the purpose and structure of the LIs. As participants mentioned to the facilitator in late October, they had sometimes been thinking of their own individual interests, choosing LIs for themselves that they thought they would learn the most from. However, the facilitator often guided them in choosing LIs that would be useful; his comments helped them develop questions that targeted essential case information. This was crucial to participants’ understanding of the LI process, because it directed efforts away from personal interest to group needs. Although they began to think more carefully about forming their questions, they continued to choose them in what one participant called a “free-for-all.” When they were encouraged to rotate the LIs and link them more carefully to the case, their understanding of the value in the LI process encouraged them to develop more complex questions. Participants were eventually able to identify learning issues that had substantial worth not only as they helped move case resolutions forward but also as they answered the larger effort to understand the cardiac/renal systems in the module.

The reporting phase then became an opportunity for extended discussion. As the group’s need to understand, the case became primary, interaction, engagement, and CT all increased. The deeper engagement with the material and each other visible in Tables  3 and ​ and4 4 created a space in which participants could elaborate on their ideas and use CT. Their growing comfort as a group encouraged them to ask presenters for justifications that deepened the discussions, both for the presenters and for the others. The participants began to try out new reporting formats, drawing on the walls, speaking without notes or PowerPoint slides, and then providing time for the group to respond with questions of their own.

That improvisation restructured the LIs as a more interactional process with considerable fluidity in roles as experts [ 27 ], important because there were considerable differences in prior job and educational experiences. The participants presented themselves variously as novices and as experts. Jason, a younger student, often used rather professorial language toward the group interwoven with requests for help. For example, in October, he began his LI report advising the others, “I won’t be going into that because you can read that on your own….So just keep that in mind…” He then requested help with pronouncing some of the terms. On the other hand, Jennifer whose considerable experience was in adolescent development was initially hesitant to use her expertise in discussing physiological processes. However, she gradually began to contribute valuable insights that helped resolve issues in the cases. Adam’s experience as an emergency medical technician conferred standing to play the role of expert most frequently in cardiac cases. By the middle of the module, though, the increased fluidity of expert/novice relations encouraged everyone to take on the role of expert at different times.

The participants used the facilitator in a variety of ways. In the beginning, he offered occasional suggestions for developing LIs; as discussions became more complex, detailed, and intense, participants sometimes called on him to provide information of both cardiac and renal processes that seemed opaque to them. His long experience as a practicing physician gave him multiple real-life examples that he used to explain physiological processes or correct misunderstandings. As Patel and colleagues [ 28 ] indicate, PBL programs need to have clear strategies for ensuring that the reasoning in self-directed learning is productive rather than incorrect. Where discussions headed off in incorrect directions the facilitator stepped in if others did not, and his awareness that he needed to be a fading presence allowed him to stand back when he was not needed. However, facilitator presence must be carefully modulated so that opportunities for critical thinking are not shut down. As can be seen in the LI trajectory in this case, moves by participants toward more active learning can initially be tentative and need to be encouraged.

For beginning medical students cases are examples of ill-structured problems without obvious correct answers. As Jonassen [ 29 ] argues, ill-structured problems are best addressed through constructivist frameworks; in these frameworks, “designers assume responsibility for constructing the problem space for the learners” [ 30 ] (p. 69). However, the LI part of the PBL process offers a space for learners to claim the problem-solving space as their own, to develop their CT skills, and to understand the advantages offered in PBL.

Conclusions

This study sought to understand how critical thinking and interpersonal competencies could be realized within the LI part of the PBL process in a class of beginning medical students. It focuses particularly on the growth of critical thinking that was encouraged when students began to conceptualize the LI as a problem space for discussion rather than as a simple report. The participants in this study learned to use their varied backgrounds and their willingness to teach and learn from each other thoughtfully. It provides an example of the importance of the LI in participants’ engagement and development.

Limitations

The study has two limitations. First, although there are copious data over time the sample size of 7 is small. Second, participants were able to self-select into either the traditional or PBL curricula; those who saw PBL as a labor intensive way to pass exams rather than as an avenue for cognitive development could opt into the traditional program.

Future Directions

This study adds to the limited literature that addresses LI processes through participant speech. There is a need for more research that examines the extent to which LI discussions can be used as hinges into understanding cases; further work on participant talk in both the developing and reporting phases could also be helpful in targeting LIs to student needs earlier in the PBL process. This focus in this study was on the reporting phase, but understanding how participants can best develop LIs could also be significant and useful to course designers.

It would also be helpful to understand the extent to which facilitators introduce the LI process as both individual and interactional. As is the case with other active learning strategies such as Team-based Learning, individual preparation is critical not only to the success of the learning process but also to subsequent performance on exams and clinical clerkships [ 31 ]. As this study demonstrates, however, the collaborative practices provide a crucial space for the development of both the disposition of self-direction and collaborative critical thinking that they need in order to develop clinical reasoning.

Acknowledgments

The author is indebted to Dean Linda Boyd and Victor Scali, D.O., of the Rowan University School of Osteopathic medicine for their assistance in making this research possible, and to the students in the PBL class and to Matthew Tribble.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Prior to beginning the study, IRB approval was sought and granted.

The author declares that there is conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Meta-analysis: The effect of problem-based learning on students’ critical thinking skills

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

• Split-Screen
• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data
• Peer Review
• Open the PDF for in another window
• Reprints and Permissions
• Cite Icon Cite
• Search Site

Miterianifa , Y. Trisnayanti , A. Khoiri , H. D. Ayu; Meta-analysis: The effect of problem-based learning on students’ critical thinking skills. AIP Conf. Proc. 18 December 2019; 2194 (1): 020064. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5139796

Download citation file:

• Ris (Zotero)
• Reference Manager

This meta-analysis aims to summarize the results of research on the effect of problem-based learning in improving students’ critical thinking on physics, chemistry and biology subjects. The influence of large size (ES) on average, the percentage of influence based on learning to the critical is greatest and the relationship between variables towards improving students’ critical thinking skills in science (physics, chemistry, and biology). The research method used is descriptive with the form of survey research. In the study, studies, which can be meta-analysed concerning predefined criteria, were examined and 98 studies fulfilling these criteria were identified. The results of the data analysis resulted in an effect size of 1.2 with an effect of 83.45%. From the relationship between the variables obtained, Based on Based Learning in enhancing the ability of politics Entrepreneurs who best apply it during physics lessons, with the effect size of 1.36 categories is very high and provides an influence of 90%. In the future, it is expected that the results of this study can be a reference to review the application of PBL to improve students’ critical thinking skills in science learning.

Citing articles via

Publish with us - request a quote.

Sign up for alerts

• Online ISSN 1551-7616
• Print ISSN 0094-243X
• For Researchers
• For Librarians
• For Advertisers
• Our Publishing Partners  
• Physics Today
• Conference Proceedings
• Special Topics

pubs.aip.org

• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Use

Connect with AIP Publishing

This feature is available to subscribers only.

Sign In or Create an Account

Project-Oriented Problem-Based Learning Through SR-STEM to Foster Students’ Critical Thinking Skills in Renewable Energy Material

• Published: 27 February 2024

Cite this article

• Iqbal Ainur Rizki   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8618-5592 1 &
• Nadi Suprapto   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8990-7412 1  

379 Accesses

7 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Fostering students’ critical thinking skills is an urgent issue that requires immediate attention. One viable solution to address this is the implementation of project-oriented problem-based learning (POPBL) through the SR-STEM project. This research aims to describe the implementation, effectiveness, and student perception of the POPBL model through the SR-STEM project in enhancing critical thinking skills in renewable energy materials. The study adopts a quasi-experimental design with a non-equivalent control group. The participants are 74 senior high school students in the academic year 2022/2023. Data collection employs observation sheets, written tests, and questionnaires. The data are analyzed descriptively and inferentially and using confirmatory factor analysis. The key findings of the study are as follows: (1) the model demonstrates a high level of feasibility; (2) the learning model effectively improves students’ critical thinking skills; and (3) the learning model exhibits a positive correlation with student achievement, perceived control, and affective perception. This research suggests introducing innovative learning approaches to enhance students’ critical thinking skills, particularly in renewable energy materials, to promote Education for Sustainable Development. Moreover, it highlights the significance of considering factors that influence the effective implementation of lessons.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Exploring the factors that influence the career decision of STEM students at a university in South Africa

Ethel Ndidiamaka Abe & Vitallis Chikoko

A classification tool to foster self-regulated learning with generative artificial intelligence by applying self-determination theory: a case of ChatGPT

Thomas K. F. Chiu

Opportunities and Challenges of STEM Education

Availability of data and materials.

Not applicable.

Adams, W. K., & Wieman, C. E. (2015). Analyzing the many skills involved in solving complex physics problems. American Journal of Physics, 83 (5), 459–467.

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Adriyawati, A., Utomo, E., Rahmawati, Y., & Mardiah, A. (2020). Steam-project-based learning integration toimprove elementary school students’ scientific literacy on alternative energy learning. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8 (5), 1863–1873.

Article   Google Scholar  

Akor, T. S., Tyav, D. A., Iorbee, M. M., & Nande, K. B. (2020). Developing fourth industrial revolution ready electronics engineers in a problem-oriented project-based learning environment: A theoretical framework. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 11 (3), 1209–1217.

Google Scholar  

Alpizar, D., Vo, T., French, B. F., & Hand, B. (2022). Growth of critical thinking skills in middle school immersive science learning environments. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 46 , 101192.

Alwi, A., & Hussin, R. (2018). Becoming socially responsible: The implementation of project-oriented problem-based learning. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 5 (2), 103–112.

Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Situated learning and education. Educational Researcher, 25 (4), 5–11.

Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51 , 267–272.

Barak, M., & Shahab, C. (2022). The conceptualization of critical thinking: Toward a culturally inclusive framework for technology-enhanced instruction in higher education. Journal of Science Education and Technology , 1–12.

Baran, E., CanbazogluBilici, S., & Mesutoglu, C. (2016). Moving STEM beyond schools: Students’ perceptions about an out-of-school STEM education program. International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, 4 (1), 9.

Brookfield, S. D. (1997). Assessing critical thinking. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 1997 (75), 17–29.

Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research . The Guilford Press.

Changwong, K., Sukkamart, A., & Sisan, B. (2018). Critical thinking skill development: Analysis of a new learning management model for Thai high schools. Journal of International Studies, 11 (2), 37–48.

Chedid, L. G. (2005). Energy, society, and education, with emphasis on educational technology policy for K-12. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 14 (1), 75–85.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (Fifth). SAGE.

de los Ríos-Carmenado, I., Lopez, F. R., & Garcia, C. P. (2015). Promoting professional project management skills in engineering higher education: Project-based learning (PBL) strategy. International Journal of Engineering Education, 31 (1), 184–198.

Dutta, R., Mantri, A., Singh, G., & Singh, N. P. (2023). Measuring the impact of augmented reality in flipped learning mode on critical thinking, learning motivation, and knowledge of engineering students. Journal of Science Education and Technology , 1–19.

Eliyawati, E., Sanjaya, Y., & Ramdani, A. S. (2020). Implementation of project oriented problem-based learning (Popbl) model integrated with stem to enhance junior high school students’ science concept mastery. Jurnal Pena Sains, 7 (2), 120–129.

Fosnot, C. T. (2005). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice . Teachers College Press.

Gregory, R. (1970). The intelligent eye . Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

Greiff, S., & Kyllonen, P. (2016). Contemporary assessment challenges: The measurement of 21st century skills. Applied Measurement in Education, 29 (4), 243–244.

Hailikari, T., Katajavuori, N., & Lindblom-Ylanne, S. (2008). The relevance of prior knowledge in learning and instructional design. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 72 (5), 113.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Halpern, D. F., & Dunn, D. S. (2021). Critical thinking: A model of intelligence for solving real-world problems. Journal of Intelligence, 9 (2), 1–7.

Harerimana, A., & Mtshali, N. G. (2020). Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to understand the role of technology in nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 92 , 104490.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Hockings, C., Thomas, L., Ottaway, J., & Jones, R. (2018). Independent learning–What we do when you’re not there. Teaching in Higher Education, 23 (2), 145–161.

Husin, W. N. F. W., Arsad, N. M., Othman, O., Halim, L., Rasul, M. S., Osman, K., & Iksan, Z. (2016). Fostering students’ 21st century skills through project oriented problem based learning (POPBL) in integrated STEM education program. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 17 (1), 1–19.

Hussain, D. M. A., & Rosenørn, T. (2008). Assessment of student competencies for a second-year operating system course. Proceedings of 36th European Society for Engineering Education, SEFI Conference on Quality Assessment, Employability and Innovation , July , 2–5.

Ibrahim, N., & Halim, S. A. (2013). Implementation of project-oriented problem-based learning (POPBL) in introduction to programming course. The 4th International Research Symposium on Problem-Based Learning (IRSPBL) , 279–288.

Issa, H. B., & Khataibeh, A. (2021). The effect of using project based learning on improving the critical thinking among upper basic students from teachers’ perspectives. Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, 11 (2), 52–57.

Jeong, J. S., & González-Gómez, D. (2020). A web-based tool framing a collective method for optimizing the location of a renewable energy facility and its possible application to sustainable STEM education. Journal of Cleaner Production, 251 , 119747.

Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. (1993). Lisrel 8: Structural equation modeling with the simplis command language . Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford Press.

Kwee, V., Radford, A. D., & Bruton, D. (2007). Architecture on Digital Flatland: Opportunities for presenting architectural precedence. Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference of the Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA) , 110–119.

Lachapelle, P. (2008). A sense of ownership in community development: Understanding the potential for participation in community planning efforts. Community Development, 39 (2), 52–59.

Latada, F., & Kassim, H. (2017). Project-oriented problem -based learning (Popbl): An initiative to enrich soft skills among students at a public university. Journal of Global Business and Social Entrepreneurship, 1 (3), 75–83.

León, J., Núñez, J. L., & Liew, J. (2015). Self-determination and STEM education: Effects of autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated learning on high school math achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 43 , 156–163.

Lorencová, H., Jarošová, E., Avgitidou, S., & Dimitriadou, C. (2019). Critical thinking practices in teacher education programmes: A systematic review. Studies in Higher Education, 44 (5), 844–859.

Mahanal, S., Zubaidah, S., Sumiati, I. D., Sari, T. M., & Ismirawati, N. (2019). RICOSRE: A learning model to develop critical thinking skills for students with different academic abilities. International Journal of Instruction, 12 (2), 417–434.

Martawijaya, M. A., Rahmadhanningsih, S., Swandi, A., Hasyim, M., & Sujiono, E. H. (2023). The effect of applying the ethno-stem-project-based learning model on students’ higher-order thinking skill and misconception of physics topics related to Lake Tempe. Indonesia. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 12 (1), 1–13.

McGunagle, D., & Zizka, L. (2020). Employability skills for 21st-century STEM students: The employers’ perspective. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 10 (3), 591–606.

Miller, E. C., & Krajcik, J. S. (2019). Promoting deep learning through project-based learning: A design problem. Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research, 1 (1), 7.

Mohamed, M., Mat Jubadi, W., & Wan Zaki, S. (2011). An implementation of POPBL for analog electronics (BEL10203) course at the Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Uthm. Journal of Technical Education and Training, 3 (2), 45–53.

Moreno, R. (2010). Educational psychology . John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Mutakinati, L., Anwari, I., & Yoshisuke, K. (2018). Analysis of students’ critical thinking skill of middle school through stem education project-based learning. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 7 (1), 54–65.

Mayasari, T., Susilowati, E., & Winarno, N. (2019). Practicing integrated STEM in renewable energy projects: solarpower. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1280 (5), 52033.

Nielsen, J. F. D., Alminde, L., Bisgaard, M., Laursen, K. K., & Bhanderi, D. (2006). A large scale problem based learning Inter-European student satellite construction project. In PBL at Aalborg university: contributions to the International PBL Conference in Lima July 17–24 (pp. 57–66). Technology, Environment and Society, Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University.

Nieveen, N. (1999). Prototyping to Reach Product Quality. In J. van den Akker, R. M. Branch, K. Gustafson, N. Nieveen, & T. Plomp (Eds.), Design approaches and tools in education and training . Springer Netherlands.

Nu’man, M., Retnawati, H., Sugiman, S., & Jailani, J. (2021). Measuring self-regulated learning in the STEM framework: A confirmatory factor analysis. European Journal of Educational Research, 10 (4), 2067–2077.

OECD. (2019). Programme for international student assessment (PISA) results from PISA 2018 . In OECD Publisher.

Book   Google Scholar  

Perlmuter, L. C., Scharff, K., Karsh, R., & Monty, R. A. (1980). Perceived control. Motivation and Emotion, 4 (1), 35–45.

Pucher, R., & Lehner, M. (2011). Project based learning in computer science – A review of more than 500 projects. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29 , 1561–1566.

Qureshi, U. M., Aziz, Z., Shaikh, F. K., Bohra, N., & Memon, A. A. (2014). Project oriented problem based learning: A wireless sensor network perspective. Wireless Personal Communications, 76 (3), 463–477.

Reynders, G., Lantz, J., Ruder, S. M., Stanford, C. L., & Cole, R. S. (2020). Rubrics to assess critical thinking and information processing in undergraduate STEM courses. International Journal of STEM Education, 7 (9), 1–15.

Riduwan, R. (2012). Skala Pengukuran Variabel-variabel Penelitian . Alfabeta.

Ríos, I. D. L., Cazorla, A., Díaz-Puente, J. M., & Yagüe, J. L. (2010). Project-based learning in engineering higher education: Two decades of teaching competences in real environments. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2 (2), 1368–1378.

Rizki, I. A., Suprapto, N., & Hariyono, E. (2023). Designing vertical axis wind turbine prototype as future renewable energy source in STEAM learning. TEM Journal, 12 (1), 452–458.

Sakib, N., Bhuiyan, A. K. M. I., Hossain, S., Al Mamun, F., Hosen, I., Abdullah, A. H., Sarker, M. A., Mohiuddin, M. S., Rayhan, I., Hossain, M., Sikder, M. T., Gozal, D., Muhit, M., Islam, S. M. S., Griffiths, M. D., Pakpour, A. H., & Mamun, M. A. (2022). Psychometric validation of the Bangla fear of COVID-19 scale: Confirmatory factor analysis and Rasch analysis. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20 (5), 2623–2634.

Salomon, G. (1996). Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations . Cambridge University Press.

Saphira, H. V., Rizki, I. A., Alfarizy, Y., Saputri, A. D., Ramadani, R., & Suprapto, N. (2022). Profile of students’ critical thinking skills in physics learning: A preliminary study of games application integrated augmented reality. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2377 , 012088.

Sari, Y. S., Selisne, M., & Ramli, R. (2019). Role of students worksheet in STEM approach to achieve competence of physics learning. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1185 (1), 012096.

Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8 (2), 23–74.

Schoor, C., Narciss, S., & Körndle, H. (2015). Regulation during cooperative and collaborative learning: A theory-based review of terms and concepts. Educational Psychologist, 50 (2), 97–119.

Schunk, D. H. (2011). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed.). Pearson.

Sharif, R., Maarof, S., & Razali, M. M. F. M. (2012). Project oriented problem based learning in architecture design studio in bachelor of architecture program, UPM. The Proceedings of Malaysian Architectural Education Conference , 65–75.

Shekar, A. (2014). Project-based learning in engineering design education : Sharing best practices. ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, 2014 , 1–18.

Spiropoulou, D., Antonakaki, T., Kontaxaki, S., & Bouras, S. (2007). Primary teachers’ literacy and attitudes on education for sustainable development. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16 (5), 443–450.

Suprapto, N. (2016). tudents’ attitudes towards STEM education: Voices from Indonesian junior high schools. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 13 (Specialissue), 75–87.

Suprapto, N., & Ku, C. H. (2019). Implementation of KS-STEM project: Bridging the STEM curriculum into science education. Journal of Physics: Conference Series , 1417 (1).

Suprapto, N. (2019). Development and validation of students’ perception on learning by questioning scale in physics. International Journal of Instruction, 12 (2), 242–258.

Suprapto, N., & Mursid, A. (2017). Pre-service teachers ’ attitude s toward teaching science and their science learning. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 18 (4), 66–77.

Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive load theory. In Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 55, pp. 37–76). Academic Press.

Taber, K. S. (2018). The use of Cronbach’s alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. Research in Science Education, 48 (6), 1273–1296.

Tapsir, R., Pa, N. A. N., & Zamri, S. N. A. B. S. (2018). Reliability and validity of the instrument measuring values in mathematics classrooms. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 6 (2), 37–47.

Terenzini, P. T., Springer, L., Pascarella, E. T., & Nora, A. (1995). Influences affecting the development of students’ critical thinking skills. Research in Higher Education, 36 (1), 23–39.

Tschannen-Moran, M., Bankole, R. A., Mitchell, R. M., & Moore, D. M. (2013). Student academic optimism: A confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Educational Administration, 51 (2), 150–175.

Tseng, K.-H., Chang, C.-C., Lou, S.-J., & Chen, W.-P. (2013). Attitudes towards science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) in a project-based learning (PjBL) environment. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 23 , 87–102.

van Aalderen-Smeets, S. I., Walma van der Molen, J. H., & Asma, L. J. F. (2012). Primary teachers’ attitudes toward science: A new theoretical framework. Science Education, 96 (1), 158–182.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Harvard University Press.

Wahono, B., Lin, P.-L., & Chang, C.-Y. (2020). Evidence of STEM enactment effectiveness in Asian student learning outcomes. International Journal of STEM Education, 7 (1), 36.

Walsh, L. N., Howard, R. G., & Bowe, B. (2007). Phenomenographic study of students’ problem solving approaches in physics. Physical Review Special Topics - Physics Education Research, 3 (2), 1–12.

Wheaton, B., Muthen, B., Alwin, D. F., & Summers, G. F. (1977). Assessing reliability and stability in panel models. Sociological Methodology, 8 , 84.

Yasin, R. M., & Rahman, S. (2011). Problem oriented project based learning (POPBL) in promoting education for sustainable development. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15 , 289–293.

You, S., Hong, S., & Ho, H.-Z. (2011). Longitudinal effects of perceived control on academic achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 104 (4), 253–266.

Download references

This research is financially supported through the Thesis Assistance Fund—Indonesian Education Scholarship (BPI) by the Education Financing Service Center (Puslapdik), Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of Indonesia.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Physics Education, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia

Iqbal Ainur Rizki & Nadi Suprapto

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Iqbal Ainur Rizki is involved in the processed of data analysis and drafted the manuscript. Nadi Suprapto is involved in planning, supervised the work, and finalized the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nadi Suprapto .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval.

The authors declare that this is an original work that has not been previously published. It is not being considered for publication elsewhere at this time. The manuscript accurately represents the authors’ research and analysis, and co-authors and co-researchers are properly credited. The findings are well-placed within the existing body of knowledge. All sources used are appropriately acknowledged and cited. Each author contributed significantly to the development of the manuscript and accepts full responsibility for its content.

Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals

Approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of State University of Surabaya. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Consent to Participate

The participants involved in this research have been provided with comprehensive information regarding the potential risks and benefits associated with their participation. What is more, they have been reassured that any inquiries arising in the future will be addressed. They have willingly consented to partake in this study and acknowledge that this consent statement applies to each of them individually. The school principal has also granted permission for the involvement of their students as research participants in this study.

Consent for Publication

Written informed consent for publication of their clinical details and/or clinical images was obtained from the patient/parent/guardian/ relative of the patient. A copy of the consent form is available for review by the editor of this journal.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Rizki, I., Suprapto, N. Project-Oriented Problem-Based Learning Through SR-STEM to Foster Students’ Critical Thinking Skills in Renewable Energy Material. J Sci Educ Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-024-10102-2

Download citation

Accepted : 16 February 2024

Published : 27 February 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-024-10102-2

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Critical thinking skill
• Renewable energy
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• No results found

Effect of problem based learning on critical thinking skill and enviromental attitude

Share "Effect of problem based learning on critical thinking skill and enviromental attitude"

Academic year: 2021

Loading.... (view fulltext now)

e-ISSN: 2149- 360X

jegys.org youngwisepub.com © 2020

Research Article

Effect of problem-based learning on critical thinking skills and environmental, saiful amin, , sugeng utaya, , syamsul bachri, , singgih susilo.

Universitas Negeri Malang, Faculty of Social Sciences, Indonesia

Article Info Abstract

Received: 25 November 2019

Revised: 06 April 2020

Accepted: 16 April 2020

Available online: 15 June 2020

Critical thinking skill Environmental attitude Problem-based learning

2149-360X/ © 2020 The Authors. Published by Young Wise Pub. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

The purpose of this study was to: (1) to determine the effect of problem-based learning (PBL) model on critical thinking skill, and (2) to determine the effect of PBL model on environmental attitude. This study used a quasi-experiment model with a pretest-posttest control group design. The subjects of this study were students of Social Sciences Education Program, Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia, academic year 2018/2019. The sampling technique used purposive sampling and determined 25 subjects in each experimental and control class. Data collection used a test as an instrument of critical thinking skill and a questionnaires that were used to know the students' environmental attitude. The data analysis used independent sample t-test. The results showed: 1) there is a significant influence of

PBL model on students’ critical thinking skill (p=0.010) and 2) there is a significant influence of PBL model on students’ environmental attitude (p=0.000). The PBL

model has higher influence on critical thinking skill and environmental attitude than to conventional model. The use of problem-based learning models in activities to solve environmental problems encourages students' critical thinking skills to foster an environmental attitude.

To cite this article:

Amin, s., utaya, s., bachri, s., sumarmi, & susilo, s., (2020). effect of problem-based learning on critical, thinking skills and environmental attitude., journal for the education of gifted young scientists, 8, (2), 743-755., doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17478/jegys.650344, introduction.

The environmental attitude of students majoring in Social Science Education Study Program at Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University of Malang, Indonesia is still considered low. They are less concerned the condition of the campus’ environment and classroom which are dirty since they assume that cleaning the trash is the cleaning service staff’s task. This is an ironic phenomenon because students have already studied Introduction to Geography lesson which discusses sustainable environment. The Minister of Environment and Forestry, Siti Nurbaya states that the percentage number of the people’s ignorance concerning trash is still relatively high (Rolando, 2019), it is including students who play a role as academic society living in Indonesia even in the world. Learning activities should be able to nurture environmental attitude (Suwarto, 2013). However, in fact, learning about environment in higher education institution does not merely alter students’ attitude toward their surrounding environment. Their environmental attitude is not fully affected by the knowledge they mastered.

Critical thinking skills are very crucial to be developed in learning about the environment since environmental attitude is not only influenced by the students’ mastery of knowledge. As a part of academic society, students are expected to be able to preserve and converse the environment as well as overcome the environmental problems so that the environmental attitude will grow within them (Fua, Wekke, Sabara & Nurlila, 2018). However, in reality, most

1 Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia.

Doctoral Program Student in State University of Malang, Indonesia. Email: [email protected] ORCID No: 0000-0001-5408-2898 2 Faculty of Social Science, State University of Malang, Indonesia. E-mail: [email protected], ORCID ID: 0000-0003-3239-5273

students do not have awareness on the campus environment. The lack of knowledge about environment can inhibit the students’ critical thinking skill and awareness toward environment (Ahmadi, 2018).

Critical thinking skill is not only implemented during the learning process, but it is also reflected in the environmental attitude. In daily life, critical thinking skill is necessary as a step to preserve the environment sustainability. The environmental attitude is not merely about the concept, but it means more about the contextual meaning of the critical thinking concerning the way of preserving the environment so that it can be beneficial for the present and future time (Puspitasari, Sumarmi & Amirudin, 2016). Critical thinking skill can be implemented during the effort of nurturing environmental attitude. This attitude or character is not only conveyed conceptually, but also contextually. Critical thinking skill is needed to be taught deeply so that students can understand the condition of their environment where they live better. The skill must be developed from the learning objective formulation that is made based on the environmental condition surrounds them. The learning objectives, according to Puspitasari et al. (2016) are to make students able to: (1) explicate the definition of environment; (2) identify the quality of the environment; (3) analyze the environmental damage; (4) determine the proper action for overcoming environmental damage; and (5) create the example of the proper action for preserving the environment and sustainable development. Based on the description, it can be concluded that the variable of critical thinking ability is directly proportional to the environmental attitude. Students with high critical thinking skills are assumed to have high environmental attitudes.

The learning regarding sustainable development of environment taking place in Social Science Education class is considered conceptual only and it does not truly train students to think critically to overcome the environmental problems; thus, it does not nurture the environmental attitude, while actually critical thinking is one of crucial competencies in this information age of the 21st century. Students are required to have this skill to face the global

problems (Ditjen Sumber Daya Iptek Dikti, 2018). Therefore, learning efforts are needed to be performed to foster students’ critical thinking skill to make them aware of their surrounding environment.

The rational efforts implemented to instill critical thinking skill and environmental attitude by implementing Problem Based Learning. PBL is one of the innovative learnings proposed by Howard Barrows in McMaster University School of Medicine, Canada in 1969 (Anderson, 2007; Savery, 2006; Savin-Baden & Major, 2004). PBL model is implemented in the learning process to resolve the real problems (Orozco & Yangco, 2016) scientifically (Amir, 2013) through a series of investigation (Trianto, 2009) in order to obtain any problem solving. The real problems happened in the environment surrounding the students are directed as a stimulus to start the learning activity using PBL (Sumarmi, 2012). By facing the real problem, students grow more enthusiastic in collecting information, investigating problems, and overcoming the environmental problems properly.

One of the advantages of PBL model is affects the environmental attitude character (Dochy, Segers, Bossche, & Struyven, 2005; Hemker, Prescher, & Narciss, 2017; Huijser, Kek, & Terwijn, 2015; Kuvac & Koc, 2018). Wibowo

(2013) defines environmental attitude as an action or effort to prevent environmental damages and try to fix them.

Through PBL model, environmental attitude can be developed based on the ability to overcome problems (Lestari, 2015). PBL model triggers students to participate in a long life learning (Masek & Yamin, 2011; Selçuk, 2010), by giving them a real problem in daily life (Birgili, 2015). Hence, an authentic problem-based learning can develop students’ character in behaving wisely towards the environment (Supriatna, 2016). The results of the study revealed

by Djuandi (2016) indicate that High School students have experienced an improvement in terms of attitude towards

the environment. Furthermore, Susanti et al. (2017) concluded that the environmental attitude of junior high school students taught using the PBL model is better than the control class. Students can understand the material and work together through small groups to solve problems, so that students grow aware of themselves to care about their environment.

Another excellence of PBL model is the possibility to develop a critical thinking skill (Akınoğlu & Tandoğan, 2007; Allison & Pan, 2011) through a scientific method (Kronberg & Griffin, 2000). During the problem solving process, students are able to refine their critical thinking skills (Bashith & Amin, 2017; Mundilarto & Ismoyo, 2017; Pusparini, Feronika & Bahriah, 2018; Ramadhani, Huda & Umam, 2019). Students are able to analyze and synthesize every single problem they face (Nasution et al. 2016), so that several problem solvings can be obtained rather than only one problem. Based on the results of the study conducted by Yuan et al. (2008), PBL model is recommended to enhance students’ critical thinking skill since students share their ideas with each other in looking for a solution. The result of study shown by EL-Shaer & Gaber (2014)indicate that a significant improvement of students’ critical thinking skill shows up after implementing PBL model. Students can relate each concept and integrate those concepts with a real problem. This process will surely trigger students’ critical thinking skill within students.

Based on the characteristics and advantages of the PBL model, it is assumed that the use of PBL model in classroom can improve critical thinking skills and students' environmental attitudes. This study focuses on the effect of PBL on critical thinking skills and environment attitudes, because there has not been much research on PBL with these variables. Several studies have been conducted by Sari, Jamil & Jayanti (2017), Pebriana & Disman (2017), Yanto & Yerizon (2018), Yulia, Farida, & Yuni (2018), Pusparini et al. (2018), and Herzon, Budijanto, & Utomo (2018) only know the effect of PBL on critical thinking skills without the variable of environmental attitude.

The PBL learning stages applied in the study are adopted from Arends (2004). The description of the steps in using the problem-based learning model in detail can be seen in table 1 below.

Syntax of Problem Based Learning Model

Steps Procedures Student Activities

Step 1 Problem Oriented Students are given environmental problems surround them. Students understand the details of the issues to be discussed.

Step 2 Organized Oriented At this stage, students can group the details of the issues discussed and find out how to solve problems. Step 3 Investigations Guide as Individual or Group Students conduct an investigation to solve the environmental problems. Students can investigate the

problem individually or in groups. Step 4 Attainments Development and Presentations

Students explicate the results of the problem solving through class presentations. At this stage, students can compare steps to solve other problems and find steps to solve the most appropriate problem.

Step 5 Problem Solving Analysation and Evaluation

Students perform an analysis and evaluation on the process of overcoming the environmental problems. Students can conclude the correct and appropriate problem solving.

Problem of Study

The research problem was the low students' critical thinking skills and students' environmental attitudes. The PBL model in this study was implemented in a Geography lesson, particularly for a sustainable development topic that discusses the environmental syndrome around the students. This research was conducted to discuss problems;

• Is there an effect of problem-based learning model on students' critical thinking skill?

• Is there an effect of problem-based learning model on students' environmental attitude?

Research Model

The method of the study is quasi experiment. The reason of using quasi experiment model is triggered by the fact that the writer cannot fully control both groups that are studied since it is impossible to control all external variables. Thus, the alteration occurred is not completely affected by the treatment given. The quasi experiment design employed in this study is the pretest-posttest control group design (Campbell & Stanley, 1973; Sugiyono, 2011) as seen in table 2 below.

The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

Group Pretest Treatment Posttest

Experimental O1 X O2

Control O3 O4

O1: Pretest for experimental class O2: Posttest for experimental class

Participants

The research subjects were students of Social Science Education Program, Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia, academic year 2018/2019. They have taken a geography course with sub-material of Sustainable Environmental Development. The sampling technique used purposive sampling, where subjects were taken based on the characteristics of the same academic ability between the experimental and the control class. The subjects in this study, namely class A as an experimental class amounted to 25 students and class B as a control class amounted to 25 students.

Data Collection

Critical Thinking Skill Test (CTST): The instrument for assessing critical thinking used essay test based on the indicators of critical thinking skill by Ennis (1995) as in table 3. The critical thinking skill test has been tested for validity with correlation techniques of product moment and reliability with the method of Kuder Richardson 20 (Purwanto, 2005). The test result of the instrument showed that the item of critical thinking skill test was valid (table 4) and reliable (KR20=0.756).

The Indicators of Critical Thinking Skill

No. Critical Thinking Skill Indicator

1. Formulate the problem - Formulate in the form of questions to give the directions and to

get answers

2. Give the argumentation - Give the argumentation that suitable with the reason

- Show the differences and the similarities of it - Give a complete argument

3. Perform deduction - Deduct logically

- Interpretation logical condition for statements.

4. Perform induction - Investigate/collect data.

- Make generalizations from data - Create the table and graphic. - Explain the logical assumption

5. Perform evaluation - Evaluation is given based on fact.

- Evaluation is given based on principle and orientation - Give an alternative

6. Determine and implement - Choose the possible solution

- Determine the implemented possibilities

The Result of Validity Test for Critical Thinking Skill

Item Number r Count r Table Classification

1 0.882 0.496 Valid 2 0.578 0.496 Valid 3 0.731 0.496 Valid 4 0.622 0.496 Valid 5 0.587 0.496 Valid 6 0.653 0.496 Valid

The assessment instrument of environmental attitude used questionnaires that measured with Likert scale with a value 1–5. The indicators of environmental attitude consists of 1) protect the environmental sustainability; 2) provide the information about environmental management; 3) protect and improve the environment; and 4) share the solutions for the environmental problems (Yaumi, 2016). The instrument of environmental attitude has been tested for validity with correlation techniques of product moment and reliability with the method of Cronbach’s Alpha. The test result of the instrument showed that the item of environmental attitude test was valid (table 5) and reliable (Alpha=0.740).

The Result of Validity Test for Environmental Attitude

1 0.760 0.4869 Valid

2 0.632 0.4869 Valid

3 0.601 0.4869 Valid

4 0.514 0.4869 Valid

Data Analysis

Data analysis in this study used normality test, homogeneity test, and independent sample t-test with significance of 0.05. Hypothesis testing of critical thinking skill in this research was as follows.

H0: there was no difference in critical thinking skill of the students before and after the implementation of the PBL

H1: there was a difference in critical thinking skill of the students before and after the implementation of the PBL

Hypothesis testing of environmental attitude in this research was as follows.

H0: there was no difference in environmental attitude of the students before and after the implementation of the

H2: there was a difference in environmental attitude of the students before and after the implementation of the PBL

model. The criteria are:

If there is sig. ≥ 0.05, H0 is accepted.

If there is Sig. < 0.05, H0 is rejected.

Data of Critical Thinking Skill in Experimental and Control Class

Data of critical thinking skill is tested using normality test with One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test method and homogeneity test with Levene’s Test method (Purwanto, 2005). The result shows that data of critical thinking skill is normally distributed (table 6) and has homogeneous variety (table 7).

The Result of Critical Thinking Skill DataNormality Test

One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Gain Score

Normal Parametersa Mean 18.5000

Std. Deviation 12.00553

Most Extreme Differences Absolute .095

Positive .095

Negative -.091

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z .669

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .761

Based on table 6, it shows sig. = 0.761 > α = 0.05. It means that the data is normally distributed. Table 7.

The Result of Critical Thinking SkillData Homogeneity Test

Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.

.615 1 48 .437

Based on table 7, it shows sig. = 0.437 > α = 0.05. It means that the data is homogeneous variety.

The data of critical thinking skill that has been tested using normality test and homogeneity test is tested again using an independent sample t-test. The summary of the t-test analysis result can be seen in table 8.

The Result of Critical Thinking SkillT-Test Analysis

Variable N Mean T Df SD Sig. (2-tailed)

Experimental Class 25 22.80 7.878 48.00 12.16895 0.010

Control Class 25 14.20 7.878 46.83 10.37625 0.010

Based on table 8, there is a significant difference between the gain score of the critical thinking skill in experimental class and control class. It is proven by the calculation of the independent sample t-test valued at sig. = 0.010 < sig. = 0.050. It means that H0 was rejected and H1 was accepted. Thus, it can be concluded that there is differences in critical thinking skill of the students before and after the implementation of the PBL model. The average of gain score of the experimental class was higher, 22.80, than the control class, 14.20. Thus, it shows that the PBL model has an effect on improving critical thinking skill of students.

Data of Environmental Attitude in Experimental and Control Class

The result shows that data of environmental attitude is normally distributed (table 9) and has homogeneous variety (table 10).

The Result of Environmental Attitude Data Normality Test

One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Unstandardized Residual

Normal Parametersa Mean .0000000

Std. Deviation 1.05689922

Most Extreme Differences Absolute .132

Positive .132

Negative -.085

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z .662

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .773

Based on table 9, It shows sig. = 0.773 > α = 0.05. It means that the data is normally distributed. Table 10.

The Result of Environmental Attitude Data Homogeneity Test

.009 1 48 .926

Based on table 10, It shows sig. = 0.926 > α = 0.05. It means that the data is homogeneous variety.

The data of environmental attitude that has been tested using an independent sample t-test. The summary of the t-test analysis result can be seen in table 11.

The Result of Environmental Attitude T-Test Analysis

Experimental Class 25 16.44 4.168 48,00 1.93821 0,000

Control Class 25 14.16 4.168 47,99 1.92959 0,000

Based on table 11, there is a significant difference between the score of the environmental attitude in experimental class and control class. It is proven by the calculation of the independent sample t-test valued at sig. = 0.000 < sig. = 0.050. It means that H0 was rejected and H2 was accepted. Thus, it can be concluded that there is differences in

environmental attitude of the students before and after the implementation of the PBL model. The average of gain score of the experimental class was higher, 𝑋̅= 16.44, than the control class, 𝑋̅= 14.16. Thus, it shows that the PBL model has an effect on improving students’ environmental attitude.

The comparison of the average score of students' environmental attitude in the two classes is visualized in Figure 1 below.

The Average Value of Environmental Attitude

Based on figure 1, there are differences in the average score of environmental attitudes between the experimental class and control class. In general, the average score of environmental attitude in the experimental class is higher than the control class in all indicators. The average score of environmental attitude on 1) indicator of protecting the environmental sustainability in the experimental class amount 𝑋̅= 17.23 and in the control class amount 𝑋̅= 15.08; 2) indicator of providing the information about environmental management in the experimental class amount 𝑋̅= 15.36 and in the control class amount 𝑋̅= 13.21; 3) indicator of protecting and improving the environment in the experimental class amount 𝑋̅= 16.43 and in the control class amount 𝑋̅= 13.84; and 4) indicator of sharing the solutions for the environmental problems in the experimental class amount 𝑋̅= 16.73 and in the control class amount

𝑋̅= 14.49. The conclusion from the data shows that the PBL model has a higher effect on the environmental attitude in the experimental class than the control class.

PBL Model Effects on Critical Thinking Skills

High critical thinking skill obtained because students are more active during the learning in the class by using the PBL model. This is inseparable from the learning characteristics of PBL, viz, 1) problem based (Arends, 2004; Sumarmi, 2012); 2) problem solving (Hmelo-Silver, 2004); and 3) reflective in transferring knowledge (Anderson, 2007; Gwee, 2009). PBL model provides the convenience to the students in solving problems, because it presents contextual problems that occur in their surrounding environment. Students are active in constructing their knowledge through discussions and questions based on real problems (Narmaditya, Wulandari, & Sakarji, 2018). Students are able to understand the environmental problems encountered and make it easy for them to investigate for obtaining the data to find the solution the problems. This encourages the critical thinking skill of the students maximally because they can develop their curious attitude more. They can also how to be objective, independent, critical, and analytical both in individual and in group (Sumarmi, 2012). Learning of PBL is focused on the problems that makes students can develop their own knowledge, develops their inquiry skill and develops their critical thinking skill. Students must be able to formulate the temporary answers for the problems that require logical intelligence, courage, and active solutions in real situation (Mulyanto, Gunarhadi, & Indriayu, 2018).

When the students discuss in their group, they can solve the living environmental problems that happened around them. It is because they students try hard to solve the problems. This encourages their critical thinking skill developing (Akınoğlu & Tandoğan, 2007) because they can empower, sharpen, test, and develop their thinking skill (Kamil, Velina, & Kamelia, 2019). The use of PBL model can develop students' critical thinking skill, besides enriching knowledge. The thinking process is a series of skills such as gathering information/data, reading data, and others application that requires practice and habituation (Sumarmi, 2012).

15.08 13.21 13.84 14.49 17.23 15.36 16.43 16.73 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Protect the environmental sustainability Provide the information about environmental management

Protect and improve

the environment Share the solutions forthe environmental

PBL model enables students to learn about how to solve the problems through group discussion. It can be seen on the stages of research and investigation of the group. They can practice and share their ideas when they try to solve the problems in the group. Using PBL model also makes the students doing discussion and doing a question and answer activity so that they can increase their understanding (Koestiningsih, 2011). Solving environmental problems require the activities that suitable with the indicators of critical thinking such as analyze and evaluate (Saputra, Joyoatmojo, Wardani, & Sangka, 2019). The contributions of ideas from the members of the group make their knowledge increase. Therefore, they can share their suggestion about how to solve the environmental problems. Reasoning skill and the contribution of their ideas indicate the students' critical thinking processes (Birgili, 2015).

Students plan the problem in PBL to support their critical thinking development. Learning using PBL provides the students with opportunity to explore their thinking, so they have to write down systematic solution and actively discuss during the learning process (Saregar et al. 2018). They can explore the problem in order to accelerate their critical thinking to find the solution in a form of scientific writing (Camacho & Christiansen, 2018). The writing process trains them to think critically, since they have to present their ideas in group and find a solution for the problem (Herzon, Budijanto & Utomo, 2018).

The use of real world problem in the learning process becomes one characteristic of PBL approach to train the student to think more critically and to be able to solve problems (Al-Fikry, Yusrizal & Syukri, 2018). PBL model guides students to find facts, make a hypothesis, and draw conclusion during problem solving. After that, they have to choose the best solution and make an operational idea in detail. Related activities through PBL model steps indirectly train the students to concentrate (Yulia, Farida & Yuni, 2018) PBL model guides students to find facts, make a hypothesis, and draw conclusion during problem solving. After that, they have to choose the best solution and make an operational idea in detail. Related activities through PBL model steps indirectly train the students to concentrate

(Sari, Jamil & Jayanti, 2017). They actively build their knowledge and habit to think critically during PBL model (Yanto & Yerizon, 2018). It enables the, to survive when they face daily problems (Istikomah, Basori & Budiyanto, 2017).

The focus of PBL model is on the chosen problem, so the students have an opportunity to learn concepts related with the problem itself and scientific method to develop their critical thinking. PBL model prepare the students to think critically and analytically in using suitable learning source (Pebriana & Disman, 2017). They collect information by reading relevant references to solve problems in their environment (Widiawati, Joyoatmojo & Sudiyanto, 2018). It is in accordance with Marni, Suyono, Roekhan & Harsiati (2019) stating that PBL model prepare students to be communicative, collaborative, creative, innovative, critical, and analytical in thinking and able to solve real world problem effectively.

PBL Model Effects on Environmental Attitude

PBL model on sustainable environment material implemented in the experimental class consists of examples on environmental problems. Environmental problem solving needs to be done repeatedly to motivate the students to take care their sustainable environment and to build their environmental attitude (Zecha, 2010). The attitude is built because the students feel that they have a responsibility to take care their environment (Wesnawa, Christiawan &

Suarmanayasa, 2017).

Based on the result findings, PBL model has a positive effect on environmental attitude. The high score of environmental attitudes after PBL model shows that students’ environmental attitude can improve. The mean score of environmental attitude of the experimental class is higher since PBL consists of several learning stages to do involving students to actively think in order to solve environmental problems (Hadzigeorgiou & Skoumios, 2013). Students actively build their background knowledge from the beginning until the end of the learning process. Learning activities done by the students lead to a more complex, permanent and integral result in understanding the environmental problems (Kuvac & Koc, 2018).

PBL model provides students with a comprehensive understanding to study environmental problems (Dochy et

al. 2005). The study starts from mapping the problem, determining the problem priority, conducting field

investigation, discussing group work, and presenting the work related with environmental problems. Such learning encourages students to analyze various facts, events, and environmental problems. They will be able to solve problems, to build logical and critical thinking framework, curiosity, inquiries, and other cognitive skills in order to find the solution for their environmental problems (Sumarmi, 2012).

The students’ environmental attitude will improve when they face real problems in their environment (Bergman, 2016). It will trigger them to have a positive attitude toward their environment. The attitude will shape their positive

self-concept in responding and showing behavior which is in accordance with ecological principles (Pe’er, Goldman & Yavetz, 2007).

The new knowledge achieved after PBL model can be used as a consideration in taking decision to behave toward the environment. The research finding of Darmawan (2015) showed that the improvement of environmental attitude on PBL class is higher than that of non-PBL class may due to the fact that the students deal with a real daily problems. They have to solve the problems in group. The open problems in PBL lead students to solve them using various ways of data collection and discussion (Dewi, Sumarmi & Amirudin, 2016). The various information and data can be used to determine various alternative for solving the problems. The new knowledge on environmental destruction prevention can be a foundation for students to behave toward their environment (Tikka, Kuitunen & Tynys, 2000).

The improvement of environmental attitude may also due to the learning process using PBL model in the experimental class. It consists of five stages namely 1) to make problem orientation, the students are given sustainable environmental problems; 2) to organize students to learn and study the material on sustainable environmental problems; 3) to guide individual/group experience, students work in group and agree the discussion result, provide solution for the problem solving process and produce a poster showing environmental attitude; 4) to present and develop a scientific writing, the students in group present a report in a form of discussion result and environmental attitude poster in front of the class; and 5) to evaluate the problem solving process. Using PBL steps, the students are able to achieve the theories and remember them and also to act as problem solver for their environmental problems

(Kuvac & Koc, 2018).

Even though learning and character building have been implemented, the result is not as good as it is expected. Character building needs a longer time and process (Bechtel & Churchman, 2002; Levine & Strube, 2012). The development of environmental attitude is through a socialization process and a long duration and it is affected by various factors such as care for environment and role models at home, school and in the society (Raharjo, 2010). The evaluation of environmental attitude needs a deepening process and reflection, to find out its strength and weakness (Abun, 2017). It is supported by the research of Pratiwi, Sarwi & Nugroho (2013), stating that character building needs a longer time to emphasize habits which should be done continuously.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Based on the research result that first, the calculation statistic of the independent sample t-test of critical thinking sklill valued at sig. = 0.010 < sig. = 0.050. It means that learning activity using PBL model affects the students’ critical thinking. The students' high critical thinking skills in the experimental class caused that during PBL learning, students are trained to think critically to solve real problems in groups (Akınoğlu & Tandoğan, 2007; Kamil, Velina, & Kamelia, 2019). Second, the result of environmental attitude t-test is sig. = 0.000 < sig. = 0.050. It means that the learning activity using PBL model affects the students’ environmental attitude. The problem-solving process in PBL learning encourages students to care about their environment. Using PBL steps, the students are able to achieve the theories and remember them and also to act as problem solver for their environmental problems (Kuvac & Koc, 2018). The use of problem-based learning models in activities to solve environmental problems encourages students' critical thinking skills to foster an environmental attitude.

Recommendations for further studies are needs to be done research on the effect of PBL model on other variables such as spatial thinking ability, learning outcomes, students' social sensitivity on the environment, motivation, etc. Further research recommendations can also be carried out in the context of qualitative, quantitative, or development research.

Recommendations for applicants such as lecturers and teachers to implement PBL model, especially in solving problems, because this model is proven to be able to improve students' critical thinking skills and environmental attitude when solving environmental problems. In addition, the researcher recommends that the use of the PBL model in the teaching and learning process should be collaborated with e-learning or through blended learning because the investigation and attainments development stage requires a long time.

Acknowledgements

Conflict of Interest; Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest within this research, publication paper, and funding support. This research was supported by Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia.

Biodata of the Authors

Saiful Amin, M.Pd was born inMalang, Indonesia. He is lecturer at Departement of Social Science Education, Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang. Currently, he is studying a doctoral program in Department of Geography Education, State University of Malang. Field of expertises are in geography learning, education & teacher training, social studies education.

Affiliation: Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia. Gajayana Street 50 Malang, East Java, Indonesia. Doctoral Student in State University of Malang, Semarang Street No.5, Malang, East Java, Indonesia. E-mail: [email protected], Phone: (+62)85815388569, Orcid ID: 0000-0001-5408-2898, Scopus ID: 57213147709 WoS Researcher ID: -

Prof. Dr. Sugeng Utaya, M.Si was born in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He is a professor, lecturer, and researcher at Department of Geography Education, Faculty of Social Science, State University of Malang, Indonesia. Field of expertises are in physical geography, hydrology, and environmental geography. Affiliation: State University of Malang, Semarang Street 5 Malang, Indonesia. E-mail: [email protected], Orcid ID: 0000-0003-3239-5273,

Scopus ID: 57205504005 WoS Researcher ID: -

Syamsul Bachri, S.Si, M.Sc., Ph.D was born in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He is an associate professor, lecturer, and researcher at Department of Geography Education, Faculty of Social Science, State University of Malang, Indonesia. Field of expertises are in disaster especially volcano, watershed management and geomorphology. Affiliation: State University of Malang, Semarang Street 5 Malang, Indonesia. E-mail: [email protected], Orcid ID: 0000-0003-4576-5616, Scopus ID: 48961044300 WoS Researcher ID: -

Prof. Dr. Sumarmi, M.Pd was born in Jombang, Indonesia. She is a professor, lecturer, and researcher at Department of Geography Education, Faculty of Social Science, State University of Malang, Indonesia. Field of expertises are in environmental geography, geography learning, and environmental education based on local wisdom.

Affiliation: State University of Malang, Semarang Street 5 Malang, Indonesia. E-mail: [email protected], Orcid ID: 0000-0002-3102-0376, Scopus ID: 57210109291 WoS Researcher ID: -

Dr. Singgih Susilo, M.S., M.Si was born in Magelang, Indonesia. He is an associate professor, lecturer, and researcher at Department of Geography Education, Faculty of Social Science, State University of Malang, Indonesia. Field of expertises are in population sciences, demographic science, and population geography. Affiliation: State University of Malang, Semarang Street 5 Malang, Indonesia. E-mail: [email protected], Orcid ID: 0000-0003-2487-5138, Scopus ID: 57192383013 WoS Researcher ID: -

Abun, D. (2017). Measuring Environmental Attitude and Environmental Behavior of Senior High School Students of Divine Word Colleges in Region I, Philippines. International Journal of Educational Research , 1 (2), 33–69. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.24188.59522

Agussalim, A., Setyosari, P., Kamdi, W., & Dasna, I. W. (2019). Improving Competency Management of Public Health Center In Indonesia Using The Problem Based Learning Model. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists , 7 (3), 681–696. https://doi.org/10.17478/jegys.613484

Ahmadi, R. (2018). Hubungan Pengetahuan Lingkungan Hidup dengan Sikap Peduli Lingkungan Hidup pada Siswa Kelas VIII SMP Negeri 3 Tumijajar . Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Lampung.

Akınoğlu, O., & Tandoğan, R. Ö. (2007). The Effects of Problem-Based Active Learning in Science Education on Students’

Academic Achievement, Attitude and Concept Learning. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education , 3 (1), 71–

81. https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/75375

Al-Fikry, I., Yusrizal, Y., & Syukri, M. (2018). Pengaruh Model Problem Based Learning Terhadap Kemampuan Berpikir Kritis Peserta Didik Pada Materi Kalor. Jurnal Pendidikan Sains Indonesia , 6 (1), 17–23. https://doi.org/10.24815/jpsi.v6i1.10776 Allison, J., & Pan, W. (2011). Implementing and Evaluating the Integration of Critical Thinking into Problem Based Learning in

Environmental Building. Journal for Education in the Built Environment , 6 (2), 93–115. https://doi.org/10.11120/jebe.2011.06020093

Amir, M. T. (2013). Inovasi Pendidikan Melalui Problem Based Learning: Bagaimana Pendidik Memberdayakan Pemelajar di Era Pengetahuan . Kencana Prenada Media Group.

Anderson, J. C. (2007). Effect of Problem-Based Learning on Knowledge Acquisition, Knowledge Retention, and Critical Thinking Ability of

Agriculture Students in Urban Schools (Thesis, University of Missouri--Columbia). Retrieved from

https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/handle/10355/4832 Arends, R. (2004). Learning to Teach . London: McGraw-Hill.

Bashith, A., & Amin, S. (2017). The Effect of Problem Based Learning on EFL Students’ Critical Thinking Skill and Learning

Outcome. Al-Ta Lim Journal , 24 (2), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.15548/jt.v24i2.271

Bechtel, R. B., & Churchman, A. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of Environmental Psychology . New York: J. Wiley & Sons.

Bergman, B. G. (2016). Assessing Impacts of Locally Designed Environmental Education Projects on Students’ Environmental

Attitudes, Awareness, and Intention to Act. Environmental Education Research , 22 (4), 480–503. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2014.999225

Birgili, B. (2015). Creative and Critical Thinking Skills in Problem-based Learning Environments. Journal of Gifted Education and Creativity , 2 (2), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.18200/JGEDC.2015214253

Camacho, H., & Christiansen, E. (2018). Teaching Critical Thinking within an Institutionalised Problem Based Learning Paradigm

– Quite a Challenge. Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education , 6 (2), 91–109.

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1973). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research . R. McNally College Publishing Company.

Darmawan, F. A. (2015). Penerapan Model Problem Based Learning Pada Subtema Pelestarian Lingkungan untuk Meningkatkan Kemandirian dan Hasil Belajar Siswa Kelas V SD Negeri Halimun . Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung.

Dewi, S., Sumarmi, S., & Amirudin, A. (2016). Penerapan Model Pembelajaran Problem Based Learning untuk Meningkatkan Keaktifan dan Keterampilan Sosial Siswa Kelas V SDN Tangkil 01 Wlingi. Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan ,

1 (3), 281–288. https://doi.org/10.17977/jp.v1i3.6148

Ditjen Sumber Daya Iptek Dikti. (2018). Formula 4C untuk Bertahan pada Era Revolusi Industri 4.0 . Jakarta: Sumber Daya Riset Dikti. Djuandi, D. (2016). Pengaruh Pembelajaran Berbasis Masalah Terhadap Sikap Siswa Pada Lingkungan (Studi Eksperimen Quasi Pada Mata Pelajaran Geografi di SMA Negeri 1 Purwadadi). Jurnal Geografi Gea , 16 (1), 24–33. https://doi.org/10.17509/gea.v16i1.3465

Dochy, F., Segers, M., Bossche, P. V. D., & Struyven, K. (2005). Students’ Perceptions of a Problem-Based Learning Environment. Learning Environments Research , 8 (1), 41–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-005-7948-x

EL-Shaer, A., & Gaber, H. (2014). Impact of Problem-Based Learning on Students`Critical Thinking Dispositions, Knowledge Acquisition and Retention. Journal of Education and Practice , 5 (14), 74–85.

Ennis, R. H. (1995). Critical Thinking . Illionis: University of Illionis.

Fua, J., Wekke, I., Sabara, Z., & Nurlila, R. (2018). Development of Environmental Care Attitude of Students through Religion Education Approach in Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science , 175 , 012229. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012229

Gwee, M. C.-E. (2009). Problem-Based Learning: A Strategic Learning System Design for The Education of Healthcare Professionals in the 21ST Century. The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences , 25 (5), 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1607-551X(09)70067-1

Hadzigeorgiou, Y., & Skoumios, M. (2013). The Development of Environmental Awareness through School Science: Problems and Possibilities. International Journal Of Environmental & Science Education , 8 , 405–426.

Hemker, L., Prescher, C., & Narciss, S. (2017). Design and Evaluation of a Problem-Based Learning Environment for Teacher Training. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning , 11 (2). https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1676

Herzon, H. H., Budijanto, B., & Utomo, D. H. (2018). Pengaruh Problem-Based Learning (PBL) terhadap Keterampilan Berpikir Kritis. Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan , 3 (1), 42—46.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn? Educational Psychology Review , 16 (3), 235–

266. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3

Huijser, H., Kek, M. Y. C. A., & Terwijn, R. (2015). Enhancing Inquiry-Based Learning Environments with the Power of Problem-Based Learning to Teach 21st Century Learning and Skills. Innovations in Higher Education Teaching and Learning , 4 , 301–320. Retrieved from https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/S2055-364120150000004017/full/html

Istikomah, I., Basori, B., & Budiyanto, C. (2017). The Influences of Problem-Based Learning Model with Fishbone Diagram to

Students’s Critical Thinking Ability. IJIE (Indonesian Journal of Informatics Education) , 1 (2), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.20961/ijie.v1i2.11432

Kamil, B., Velina, Y., & Kamelia, M. (2019). Students’ Critical Thinking Skills in Islamic Schools: The Effect of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Model. Tadris: Jurnal Keguruan Dan Ilmu Tarbiyah , 4 (1), 77–85.

Koestiningsih, N. (2011). Perbedaan Hasil Belajar Siswa Yang Belajar Dengan Menggunakan Strategi Problem Based Learning (PBL) dan Konvensional Siswa Kelas X di SMKN 1 Blitar. (Tesis). DISERTASI dan TESIS Program Pascasarjana UM , 0 (0).

Kronberg, J. R., & Griffin, M. S. (2000). Analysis Problems—A Means to Developing Students’ Critical-Thinking Skills: Pushing the Boundaries of Higher-Order Thinking. Journal of College Science Teaching , 29 (5), 348–352. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/42990302

Kuvac, M., & Koc, I. (2018). The Effect of Problem-Based Learning on The Environmental Attitudes of Preservice Science Teachers. Educational Studies , 45 (1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2018.1443795

Lestari, R. P. (2015). Pengaruh Model Pembelajaran Problem Based Learning (PBL) Terhadap Sikap Peduli Lingkungan Siswa SMAN 6 Malang (Thesis). Universitas Negeri Malang, Malang, Indonesia.

Levine, D. S., & Strube, M. J. (2012). Environmental Attitudes, Knowledge, Intentions and Behaviors Among College Students.

The Journal of Social Psychology , 152 (3), 308–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2011.604363

Marni, S., Suyono, S., Roekhan, R., & Harsiati, T. (2019). Critical Thinking Patterns of First-Year Students in Argumentative Essay. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists , 7 (3), 733–747. https://doi.org/10.17478/jegys.605324

Masek, A., & Yamin, S. (2011). The Effect of Problem Based Learning on Critical Thinking Ability: A Theoretical and Empirical Review. International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities , 2 (1), 215–221.

Mulyanto, H., Gunarhadi, G., & Indriayu, M. (2018). The Effect of Problem Based Learning Model on Student Mathematics Learning Outcomes Viewed from Critical Thinking Skills. International Journal of Educational Research Review , 3 (2), 37–45. https://doi.org/10.24331/ijere.408454

Mundilarto, M., & Ismoyo, H. (2017). Effect of Problem-Based Learning on Improvement Physics Achievement and Critical Thinking of Senior High School Student. Journal of Baltic Science Education , 16 (5), 761–779.

Narmaditya, B. S., Wulandari, D., & Sakarji, S. R. B. (2018). Does Problem-Based Learning Improve Critical Thinking Skills?

Cakrawala Pendidikan , 37 (3), 378–388.

Nasution, U. S. Z., Sahyar, & Sirait, M. (2016). Effect of Problem Based Learning and Model Critical Thinking Ability to Problem Solving Skills. Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika , 5 (2), 112–117. https://doi.org/10.22611/jpf.v5i2.4409

Orozco, J. A., & Yangco, R. T. (2016). Problem-Based Learning: Effects on Critical and Creative Thinking Skills in Biology. Asian Journal of Biology Education , 9 , 3–10.

Pebriana, R., & Disman, D. (2017). Effect of Problem Based Learning to Critical Thinking Skills Elementary School Students in Social Studies. PrimaryEdu - Journal of Primary Education , 1 (1), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.22460/pej.v1i1.487

Pe’er, S., Goldman, D., & Yavetz, B. (2007). Environmental Literacy in Teacher Training: Attitudes, Knowledge, and

Environmental Behavior of Beginning Students. The Journal of Environmental Education , 39 (1), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOEE.39.1.45-59

Pratiwi, T. R., Sarwi, -, & Nugroho, S. E. (2013). Implementasi Eksperimen Open Inquiry untuk Meningkatkan Pemahaman Konsep dan Mengembangkan Nilai Karakter Mahasiswa. UPEJ Unnes Physics Education Journal , 2 (1). https://doi.org/10.15294/upej.v2i1.1625

Purwanto, E. (2005). Evaluasi Proses dan Hasil dalam Pembelajaran, Aplikasi dalam Bidang Studi Geografi . Malang: UM Press.

Pusparini, S. T., Feronika, T., & Bahriah, E. S. (2018). Pengaruh Model Pembelajaran Problem Based Learning (PBL) Terhadap Kemampuan Berpikir Kritis Siswa pada Materi Sistem Koloid. JRPK: Jurnal Riset Pendidikan Kimia , 8 (1), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.21009/JRPK.081.04

Puspitasari, E., Sumarmi, S., & Amirudin, A. (2016). Integrasi Berpikir Kritis dan Peduli Lingkungan melalui Pembelajaran Geografi dalam Membentuk Karakter Peserta Didik SMA. Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan , 1 (2), 122–126. https://doi.org/10.17977/jp.v1i2.6106

Raharjo, S. B. (2010). Pendidikan Karakter Sebagai Upaya Menciptakan Akhlak Mulia. Jurnal Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan , 16 (3), 229–

238. https://doi.org/10.24832/jpnk.v16i3.456

Ramadhani, R., Huda, S., & Umam, R. (2019). rPoblem-Based Learning, Its Usability and Critical View as Educational Learning Tools. Journal of Gifted Education and Creativity , 6 (3), 193–208. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/jgedc/issue/50605/637355 Rolando. (2019). Hari Peduli Sampah Nasional, Menteri LHK Bersih-Bersih di Pantai Kendal. Retrieved October 8, 2019, from

Detiknews website: https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4441524/hari-peduli-sampah-nasional-menteri-lhk-bersih-bersih-di-pantai-kendal

Saputra, M. D., Joyoatmojo, S., Wardani, D. K., & Sangka, K. B. (2019). Developing Critical-Thinking Skills through the Collaboration of Jigsaw Model with Problem-Based Learning Model. International Journal of Instruction , 12 (1), 1077–1094. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12169a

Saregar, A., Irwandani, I., Abdurrahman, A., Parmin, P., Septiana, S., Diani, R., & Sagala, R. (2018). Temperature and Heat Learning Through SSCS Model with Scaffolding: Impact on Students Critical Thinking Ability. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists , 6 (3), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.17478/JEGYS.2018.80

Sari, Y. I., Jamil, A. M. M., & Jayanti, M. A. (2017). Effect of PBL Learning Model on Critical Thinking Skills Students Learning Course Design of Geography. Proceedings of the Lst International Cohference on Geography and Education (ICGE 2016) , 79 , 316–319. https://doi.org/10.2991/icge-16.2017.60

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning , 1 (1), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002

Savin-Baden, M., & Major, C. H. (2004). Foundations of Problem-Based Learning . McGraw-Hill Education (UK).

Selçuk, G. S. (2010). The Effects of Problem-Based Learning on Pre-Service Teachers’ Achievement, Approaches and Attitudes

towards Learning Physics. International Journal of the Physical Sciences , 5 (6), 711–723. Sugiyono. (2011). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif dan R&D . Bandung: Alfabeta. Sumarmi. (2012). Model-Model Pembelajaran Geografi . Malang: Aditya Media.

Supriatna, N. (2016). Ecopedagogy Membangun Kecerdasan Ekologis dalam Pembelajaran IPS . Bandung: Rosdakarya.

Susanti, S., Masriani, M., & Hadi, L. (2017). Pengaruh Model Problem Based Learning Terhadap Sikap Peduli Lingkungan Siswa SMP Negeri 6 Pontianak. Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Pembelajaran , 6 (11). Retrieved from http://jurnal.untan.ac.id/index.php/jpdpb/article/view/22762

Suwarto, W. A. (2013). Pengembangan Pendidikan Berwawasan Lingkungan Hidup melalui Budaya Bersih di Sekolah dan Pemanfaatan Lingkungan sebagai Sumber Belajar . Prosiding Seminar Nasional Pendidikan Universitas Sebelas Maret.

Tikka, P. M., Kuitunen, M. T., & Tynys, S. M. (2000). Effects of Educational Background on Students’ Attitudes, Activity Levels,

and Knowledge Concerning the Environment. The Journal of Environmental Education , 31 (3), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958960009598640

Trianto. (2009). Mendesain Model Pembelajaran Inovatif-Progresif: Konsep, Landasan, dan Implementasinya pada KTSP . Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group.

Wesnawa, I. G. A., Christiawan, P. I., & Suarmanayasa, I. N. (2017). Membangun Perilaku Sadar Ekologis dan Ekonomis Ibu Rumah Tangga Melalui Reorientasi Pemanfaatan Sampah Perumahan di BTN Banyuwangi Indah. Jurnal Abdimas , 21 (1), 29–

40. Retrieved from https://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju//index.php/abdimas/article/view/10962 Wibowo, A. (2013). Manajemen Pendidikan Karakter . Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.

Widiawati, L., Joyoatmojo, S., & Sudiyanto, S. (2018). Higher Order Thinking Skills as Effect of Problem Based Learning in the 21st Century Learning. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding , 5 (3), 96–105.

Yanto, E. A., & Yerizon, Y. (2018). Effect of Problem Based Learning Model towards Student’s Critical Thinking and Learning

Competences in Grade VIII in SMPN 21 Padang. International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies (IJPSAT) , 9 (2), 199–

Yaumi, M. (2016). Pendidikan Karakter: Landasan, Pilar & Implementasi . Prenada Media.

Yuan, H., Kunaviktikul, W., Klunklin, A., & Williams, B. A. (2008). Promoting Critical Thinking Skills through Problem-Based Learning. Chiang Mai University Journal of Social Science and Humanities , 2 (2), 85–100.

Yulia, Y., Farida, F., & Yuni, Y. (2018). Influence Model Problem based Learning against Critical Thinking Skills in Learning Thematic Integrated Class IV. Proceedings of the International Conferences on Educational, Social Sciences and Technology - ICESST 2018 , 823–828. https://doi.org/10.29210/20181119

Zecha, S. (2010). Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes and Actions of Bavarian (Southern Germany) and Asturian (Northern Spain) Adolescents. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education , 19 (3), 227–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2010.496982

Related documents

Sidey, D.; McNabb, D.D.; Patterson, R.W.; Fishburn, J.; Banweg, A.; Dooley, R.B.: Corrosion Fatigue Boiler Tube Failures in Waterwalls and Economizers. 4: Summary Report and

– With percutaneous or sharps injuries from an HIV-infected source, the risk of HIV infection averages 3/1000 , but varies greatly depending on the inoculum size (source viral load and

The movement to mobile and digital learning reflects the exploding popularity of mobile devices among consumers and the parallel growth in wireless network services to

Today, enterprises use ADCs to optimize application availability, end-user performance, data center resources and security across a growing variety of enterprise applications....

Comparison of noise indicators in an urban context, Proceedings of Internoise 2016, Ham- bourg (Allemagne), 21-24 August, 2016. Noise is a major environmental issue, which gave birth

Pro posouzení vývoje a současného stavu finanční situace podniku je důležitá znalost finanční analýzy. Finanční analýza podává spolehlivý obraz o stavu

This allows the sqlops method access to the nodes table where it builds a list of tuples containing each entry regarding the information for each node entered into the nodes table..

membership of the management committee at any time by giving notice in writing to the secretary but such resignation shall take effect at the time such notice is received by