what is the thesis statement of agreement between the u s and spokane

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Agreement between the u.s. and the spokane indians, - by digital public library of america.

"Spokane Indian Woman,1899" by Frank LaRoche is in the public domain.

Articles of agreement made and concluded at Spokane Falls, in the Territory of Washington, the 18th day of March, eighteen hundred and eighty-seven, by and between John V. Wright, Jarred W. Daniels, and Henry W. Andrews, Commissioners duly appointed and authorized, on the part of the United States, and the undersigned, Chiefs, Head-man and other Indians of the Upper and Middle bands of Spokane Indians, they being authorized to act for said bands by them. Article 1 The aforesaid bands of Spokane Indians hereby cede to the United States all right, title, and claim which they now have, or ever had, to any and all lands lying outside of the Indian reservations in Washington and Idaho Territories, and they hereby agree to remove to and settle upon the Coeur d'Alene Reservation in the Territory of Idaho. Article 2 It is further agreed by the parties hereto, that said Indians will be permitted to select their farms and homes on a tract of land to be laid off and surveyed and the boundaries marked in a plain and substantial manner under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, on said Coeur d'Alene Reservation, provided that in laying out said tract of land, the lands taken and occupied by the Indians now on said Coeur d'Alene Reservation shall not be interfered with; and it is further agreed that said Spokane Indians will take lands in severalty under and according to an act of Congress entitled "An act to provide for the allotments of land in severalty to Indians on the various reservations and to extend the protection of the laws of the United States and the Territories over the Indians, and for other purposes," which act was passed and approved during the second Session of the Forty-ninth Congress, and is known as the Allotment act. Article 3 It is further agreed that the homes and lands selected, as provided for in the foregoing article, are to be and remain the permanent homes of the Indians, parties hereto, and their children forever. Article 4 It is further agreed that in case any Indian or Indians, parties hereto, have settled upon any of the unoccupied lands of the United States outside of said reservation, and have made improvements thereon with the intention of perfecting title to the same under the homestead, pre-emption, or other laws of the United States, and residing on the same at the date of the signing of this agreement, he or they shall not be deprived of any right acquired by said settlement, improvement, or occupancy by reason of signing this agreement or removal to said Coeur d'Alene Reservation, and said tract or tracts of land shall continue to be held by said parties, and the same patented to them by the United States Article 5 In consideration of the foregoing cessions and agreements the United States agrees to expend for the benefit of said Indians, parties hereto, the sum of ninety-five thousand dollars as follows, to wit: For the first year, thirty thousand dollars; for the second year, twenty thousand dollars, and for each succeeding year thereafter for eight (8) years, five thousand dollars, said money to be expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior in the removal of the said Indians to the Coeur d'Alene Reservation, in erecting suitable houses, in assisting them in breaking lands, in furnishing them with cattle, seeds, and agricultural implements, saw and grist mills, thrashing-machines, mowers, clothing; provisions; in taking care of the old, sick, and infirm; in affording educational facilities, and in any other manner tending to their civilization and self-support: Provided, That in case any of the money herein provided for is not used or expended in any year for which the same is appropriated, said the Indians, parties hereto, to be used for their benefit under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior. Article 6 It is further agreed that in addition to the foregoing provisions the United States shall employ and furnish a blacksmith and a carpenter to do necessary work and to instruct the Indians, parties hereto, in those trades. Article 7 It is further agreed that in the employment of carpenters, blacksmiths, teamsters, farmers, or laborers, preference shall in all cases be given to Indians, parties hereto, who are qualified to perform the work or labor. Article 8 In order to encourage said Indians in taking allotments of land, and in preparing the same for cultivation, it agreed that when all of said Indians shall have selected and shall have broken five acres or more on each farm, the sum of $5,000 in money shall be given them out of the funds herein provided and distributed pro rata among them, provided that in the discretion of the Secretary of the Interior and the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, a pro rata payment out of said fund may be made to any ten families who shall have complied with the provisions of this article as to breaking land. Article 9 In consideration of the ages of Chiefs Louis, Spokane Garry, Paull Schulhault, Antarchan, and Enoch, the United States agrees, in addition to the other benefits herein provided, to pay to each of them for ten years the sum of $100 per annum. Article 10 In case any Indian or Indians, parties hereto, shall prefer and elect to remove either to the Colville or Jocko Reservations, instead of the Coeur d'Alene Reservation, and shall give reasonable notice of the same, after the ratification of this agreement by Congress, he or they shall be permitted to do so, and shall receive a pro rata share of all the benefits provided for in this agreement. Article 11 This agreement shall not be binding on either party until the same is ratified by Congress. In testimony whereof the said John V. Wright, Jarred W. Daniels, and Henry W. Andrews, on the part of the United States, and the chiefs, head-men, and other Indians, on the part of the Indians, parties hereto, have hereunto set their hands and affixed their seals the 15th day of March, A.D. 1887.

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Historical Background

Land ceded by the Cherokee Nation to the U.S. at the Treaty of July 8, 1817 (detail)

View in National Archives Catalog

From 1774 until about 1832, treaties between individual sovereign American Indian nations and the United States were negotiated to establish borders and prescribe conditions of behavior between the parties.

The form of these agreements was nearly identical to the Treaty of Paris ending the Revolutionary War between the U.S. and Great Britain. The negotiations ended in a mutually signed pact that had to be approved by the U.S. Congress. Non-tribal citizens were required to have a passport to cross sovereign Indian lands.

From 1832 until 1871, American Indian nations were considered to be domestic, dependent tribes. Negotiated treaties between tribes and the U.S. had to be approved by the U.S. Congress.

In 1871, the House of Representatives ceased recognition of individual tribes within the U.S. as independent nations with whom the U.S. could contract by treaty. This ended the nearly 100-year-old practice of treaty-making between the U.S. and American Indian tribes.

The online exhibit " Rights of Native Americans " includes a visual timeline of the history of American Indian treaties and of Native American activism to defend tribal sovereignty.

Additional Resources

Published Government Sources Relating to Native Americans provides information about treaties, policies, Congressional hearings and debates, and the implementation of federal law.

American Indian Laws and Treaties , maintained by the  Archives Library Information Center (ALIC), includes links to other published sources about American Indian treaties and federal law.

U.S. Senate records related to American Indian treaties are described in Chapter 21 of the  Guide to Records of the United States Senate at the National Archives, 1789–1989, Bicentennial Edition .

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Writing a Paper: Thesis Statements

Basics of thesis statements.

The thesis statement is the brief articulation of your paper's central argument and purpose. You might hear it referred to as simply a "thesis." Every scholarly paper should have a thesis statement, and strong thesis statements are concise, specific, and arguable. Concise means the thesis is short: perhaps one or two sentences for a shorter paper. Specific means the thesis deals with a narrow and focused topic, appropriate to the paper's length. Arguable means that a scholar in your field could disagree (or perhaps already has!).

Strong thesis statements address specific intellectual questions, have clear positions, and use a structure that reflects the overall structure of the paper. Read on to learn more about constructing a strong thesis statement.

Being Specific

This thesis statement has no specific argument:

Needs Improvement: In this essay, I will examine two scholarly articles to find similarities and differences.

This statement is concise, but it is neither specific nor arguable—a reader might wonder, "Which scholarly articles? What is the topic of this paper? What field is the author writing in?" Additionally, the purpose of the paper—to "examine…to find similarities and differences" is not of a scholarly level. Identifying similarities and differences is a good first step, but strong academic argument goes further, analyzing what those similarities and differences might mean or imply.

Better: In this essay, I will argue that Bowler's (2003) autocratic management style, when coupled with Smith's (2007) theory of social cognition, can reduce the expenses associated with employee turnover.

The new revision here is still concise, as well as specific and arguable.  We can see that it is specific because the writer is mentioning (a) concrete ideas and (b) exact authors.  We can also gather the field (business) and the topic (management and employee turnover). The statement is arguable because the student goes beyond merely comparing; he or she draws conclusions from that comparison ("can reduce the expenses associated with employee turnover").

Making a Unique Argument

This thesis draft repeats the language of the writing prompt without making a unique argument:

Needs Improvement: The purpose of this essay is to monitor, assess, and evaluate an educational program for its strengths and weaknesses. Then, I will provide suggestions for improvement.

You can see here that the student has simply stated the paper's assignment, without articulating specifically how he or she will address it. The student can correct this error simply by phrasing the thesis statement as a specific answer to the assignment prompt.

Better: Through a series of student interviews, I found that Kennedy High School's antibullying program was ineffective. In order to address issues of conflict between students, I argue that Kennedy High School should embrace policies outlined by the California Department of Education (2010).

Words like "ineffective" and "argue" show here that the student has clearly thought through the assignment and analyzed the material; he or she is putting forth a specific and debatable position. The concrete information ("student interviews," "antibullying") further prepares the reader for the body of the paper and demonstrates how the student has addressed the assignment prompt without just restating that language.

Creating a Debate

This thesis statement includes only obvious fact or plot summary instead of argument:

Needs Improvement: Leadership is an important quality in nurse educators.

A good strategy to determine if your thesis statement is too broad (and therefore, not arguable) is to ask yourself, "Would a scholar in my field disagree with this point?" Here, we can see easily that no scholar is likely to argue that leadership is an unimportant quality in nurse educators.  The student needs to come up with a more arguable claim, and probably a narrower one; remember that a short paper needs a more focused topic than a dissertation.

Better: Roderick's (2009) theory of participatory leadership  is particularly appropriate to nurse educators working within the emergency medicine field, where students benefit most from collegial and kinesthetic learning.

Here, the student has identified a particular type of leadership ("participatory leadership"), narrowing the topic, and has made an arguable claim (this type of leadership is "appropriate" to a specific type of nurse educator). Conceivably, a scholar in the nursing field might disagree with this approach. The student's paper can now proceed, providing specific pieces of evidence to support the arguable central claim.

Choosing the Right Words

This thesis statement uses large or scholarly-sounding words that have no real substance:

Needs Improvement: Scholars should work to seize metacognitive outcomes by harnessing discipline-based networks to empower collaborative infrastructures.

There are many words in this sentence that may be buzzwords in the student's field or key terms taken from other texts, but together they do not communicate a clear, specific meaning. Sometimes students think scholarly writing means constructing complex sentences using special language, but actually it's usually a stronger choice to write clear, simple sentences. When in doubt, remember that your ideas should be complex, not your sentence structure.

Better: Ecologists should work to educate the U.S. public on conservation methods by making use of local and national green organizations to create a widespread communication plan.

Notice in the revision that the field is now clear (ecology), and the language has been made much more field-specific ("conservation methods," "green organizations"), so the reader is able to see concretely the ideas the student is communicating.

Leaving Room for Discussion

This thesis statement is not capable of development or advancement in the paper:

Needs Improvement: There are always alternatives to illegal drug use.

This sample thesis statement makes a claim, but it is not a claim that will sustain extended discussion. This claim is the type of claim that might be appropriate for the conclusion of a paper, but in the beginning of the paper, the student is left with nowhere to go. What further points can be made? If there are "always alternatives" to the problem the student is identifying, then why bother developing a paper around that claim? Ideally, a thesis statement should be complex enough to explore over the length of the entire paper.

Better: The most effective treatment plan for methamphetamine addiction may be a combination of pharmacological and cognitive therapy, as argued by Baker (2008), Smith (2009), and Xavier (2011).

In the revised thesis, you can see the student make a specific, debatable claim that has the potential to generate several pages' worth of discussion. When drafting a thesis statement, think about the questions your thesis statement will generate: What follow-up inquiries might a reader have? In the first example, there are almost no additional questions implied, but the revised example allows for a good deal more exploration.

Thesis Mad Libs

If you are having trouble getting started, try using the models below to generate a rough model of a thesis statement! These models are intended for drafting purposes only and should not appear in your final work.

• In this essay, I argue ____, using ______ to assert _____.
• While scholars have often argued ______, I argue______, because_______.
• Through an analysis of ______, I argue ______, which is important because_______.

Words to Avoid and to Embrace

When drafting your thesis statement, avoid words like explore, investigate, learn, compile, summarize , and explain to describe the main purpose of your paper. These words imply a paper that summarizes or "reports," rather than synthesizing and analyzing.

Instead of the terms above, try words like argue, critique, question , and interrogate . These more analytical words may help you begin strongly, by articulating a specific, critical, scholarly position.

Read Kayla's blog post for tips on taking a stand in a well-crafted thesis statement.

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8.4: Creating and Revising a Thesis Statement

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HOW CAN I CREATE A THESIS?

TOPIC + OPINION + SO WHAT? = THESIS

Step 1 : Brainstorm Topics

Here are some questions that could help you:

• What in the text inspired, confused, angered, excited, annoyed, and/or surprised you?
• What in the text was important for you to understand or you feel others should be aware of?
• What does the prompt/assignment ask you to focus on and explore?

Brainstorm the issues, ideas, and themes raised in the reading (create at least 15 for a range of options):

Step 2 : Select a topic

Choose one of the topics that most interest you and you want to explore further:

Step 3 : Create complex questions about your topic

Create complex questions to be answered with opinion, not facts or yes/no answers. Here are some question formats that could help you: How is (topic) connected to (outside issue)? How do the flaws in the author’s arguments on (topic) result in (outcome)? What angles on (topic) have been overlooked? How can we apply the information about (topic)? How did/will (effect) occur because/if (cause) happened or will happen? How can (problem) be addressed or changed for (topic)?

Step 4 : Answer your best question with your opinion.

This creates a rough thesis statement.

Step 5 : Ask yourself “so what?” So what is the impact, importance, outcomes, or larger implications?

This strengthens and deepens your thesis statement.

Step 6 : Using your answer with its significance, write a 1-2 sentence thesis statement.

This refines and focuses your thesis statement.

Step 7 : Test the thesis by seeing if you can gather good evidence to support it.

Go through the main text(s) you are writing on and list all the passages (using page numbers) that directly prove and/or illustrate your argument: List potential outside evidence, such as research, outside sources, real-life examples, personal knowledge, personal examples that could possibly further prove and/or illustrate your argument: If you cannot find strong or sufficient evidence, then rethink your thesis statement.

Step 1 : Brainstorm Topics Here are some questions that could help you:

Reading and writing as dangerous

How is control of human beings connected to writing and reading?

Why were the slaveholders so fearful of slaves learning to read and write?

When has reading lead to violence and uprising?

What about becoming educated leads to Douglass’s despair?

Slaves were controlled by not being able to read and write because they could not learn by reading the arguments and experiences of others and from history what is fair, just and reasonable and what is not.

So what? We should be concerned because in certain parts of the world today, what the public can read and write is controlled and as a result the rights of the people are violated and they are powerless or ignorant of this.

The control and limitations over reading and writing during slavery sought to make slaves like Douglass ignorant, powerless, and more easily controlled, and this control over literacy and education is still happening in the world today.

Go through the main text(s) you are writing on and list all the passages (using page numbers) that directly prove and/or illustrate your argument:

• Douglass discovers that “… education and slavery were incompatible with each other.” (1)
• On page 2 it describes how Douglass read in “The Columbian Orator” how a slave used logic and persuasive argument so well that his master freed him (shows education can lead to change).
• Reading and education makes one intolerant of injustice: “The more I read, the more I was led to abhor and detest my enslavers” (2).
• Douglass says: “…that very discontentment which Master Hugh had predicted would follow my learning to read had already come, to torment and sting my soul to unutterable anguish. As I writhed under it, I would at times feel that learning to read had been a curse rather than a blessing. It had given me a view of my wretched condition, without the remedy. It opened my eyes to the horrible pit, but to no ladder upon which to get out. In moments of agony, I envied my fellow-slaves for their stupidity” (2) (But Douglass did not give up and later was instrumental in abolishing slavery)

List potential outside evidence, such as research, outside sources, real-life examples, personal knowledge, personal examples that could possibly further prove and/or illustrate your argument:

• Mukhtar Mai in her memoir In the Name of Honor , tells how as a woman in Pakistan, she was not allowed to learn to read and write. As a result, when she was publically gang raped in 2002 by members of a more powerful clan, she went to the police and they wrote down an incorrect statement of the account so after years of going through the court system, the men were acquitted. Since then she has learned to read and write, she has started schools to educate girls, and remains today an outspoken advocate for women’s rights.
• In Alex S. Jones’s Losing the News: The Future of the News that Feeds Democracy he argues that in the United States we are losing funding and support for investigative journalism so Americans are getting sound bites of news and no real understanding of what is going on politically or financially so we don’t protest and don’t understand the sources for the larger societal problems like the recent financial collapse.
• Jonathan Kozol in Savage Inequalities , looks at different cities and sees how many of the urban poor, most of whom are black and Latino, are not given an equal education because school funding is based on income and property tax. As a result, there is an enormous dropout rate and many of these kids can barely read and write.

HOW CAN I REVISE AND STRENGTHEN A THESIS?

Changing ineffective thesis statements to effective ones:.

1. A strong thesis statement takes a stand: your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject.

WEAK THESIS: Douglass makes the interesting point that there are some negative and positive aspects to reading.

This is a weak thesis statement. It fails to take a stand and the words interesting and negative and positive aspects are vague.

STRONGER THESIS:

2. A strong thesis statement justifies discussion: your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion.

WEAK THESIS: Christians practiced slavery in the United States.

This is a weak thesis statement because it merely states a fact, so your reader won’t be able to tell the point of the statement.

3. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea: Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis statement expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your readers about the subject of your paper.

WEAK THESIS: People should not follow unjust laws and showing strong determination is what helped Douglass to be successful.

This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the paper is about unjust laws or strong determination. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become clearer. STRONGER THESIS:

4. A strong thesis statement is specific: A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about and the argument should be narrow enough to be concretely proven.

WEAK THESIS: Slavery in the United States damaged many lives.

This is a weak thesis statement for two reasons. First, slavery can’t be discussed thoroughly in a short essay. Second, damaged is vague and many lives is very general. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. STRONGER THESIS:

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Introduction to Free Trade and Comparative Advantage

Because of the economic principle of comparative advantage, free trade between countries is typically beneficial for all parties involved. One nation has a comparative advantage over another if it is able to carry out economic activity in a specific field at a lower opportunity cost in comparison to another country. For example, if country A can produce either 100 loaves of bread or 400 t-shirts in an hour, while country B can produce either 200 loaves of bread or 300 t-shirts in an hour, country B has a comparative advantage in the production of bread while country A has a comparative advantage in the production of t-shirts. In this scenario, and oftentimes in the real world, trade between country A and country B is mutually beneficial as country B can specialize in the production of bread, country A can specialize in the production of t-shirts, and they can each trade the good they produce for the other good that they do not.

Methods for Industry Protection

Sometimes free trade runs counter to a nation’s economic or political goals, like when an industry in one country is out-competed by an industry abroad. In these instances, the home country of the struggling industry may take a variety of actions to try to maintain their stake in the industry, such as:

• Applying a tariff, a common trade restriction. Tariffs are taxes that are placed on certain imports on a product from another country, which typically increase the price of the good in markets in the importing country, encouraging consumers to buy products domestically rather than abroad. 
• Applying a quota, or placing a restriction on the quantity of goods that are imported. This limits the supply of the good and can increase the cost of making the product within the exporting country. 
• Providing home industries with subsidies, or monetary assistance. Rather than taking action against another country’s goods, the importing country can assist their industries by using government money to cover a portion of the cost of production. Subsidies can decrease the cost of supplies for the production of goods and thus allow the struggling industries to sell their goods at a lower price and still remain profitable.

Trade Agreements

Leaning too heavily on these protectionist measures can often escalate to countries using increasingly harsh trade restrictions, crippling foreign economies and decreasing economic efficiency. In order to avoid this outcome, countries will often establish trade agreements which outline rules of international trade that all members can agree upon and allow for fair competition. Established by the United Nations in 1947, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is an example of such an agreement. To resolve internal issues regarding dispute resolution, the GATT was replaced by a trade governing body known as the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. The formal organization structure of the WTO and its amended rules were largely viewed as an improvement over the GATT. Currently the WTO consists of 164 member states, including the United States, meaning that it governs the vast majority of international trade.

The United States is also involved in numerous trade agreements with specific countries . The US establishes many Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) or Trade Promotion Agreements (TPAs) which allow for the free flow of trade between nations with minimal restrictions. In many of these agreements the US maintains a significant trade surplus, meaning that the US exports more to the other nation than it imports from them. Even in trade agreements where the US has a trade deficit, importing more than it exports, the US still gains valuable commodities and foreign investment in the economy. For example, in the US-South Korea FTA , the US has a trade deficit of $7.6 billion, but the volume of trade is valuable. The US exports $56.5 billion worth of goods while importing $77.5 billion. This trade agreement also creates about 358,000 jobs in the US economy. It is important to remember in these examples that trade is not a “zero-sum” game where the more you export the better. Imports can provide lower prices for consumers, greater variety, and an influx of materials necessary for the production of other goods.

Another type of trade agreement the US establishes with other countries are Trade and Investment Framework Agreements (TIFAs). These agreements outline the framework for future discussions on trade and investment between the two countries. These agreements allow for annual council meetings between the countries involved to negotiate on a wide range of trade issues without the agreement setting any explicit trade rules. The US also partakes in many Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs) with countries where investor rights are not already protected through other trade agreements. These treaties are designed to encourage the countries involved to adopt free-market policies that allow for more open investment by private companies. 

BITs require that those who sign onto the agreement:

• Treat US investments as favorably as domestic investments.
• Have clear limits on foreign governments claiming investments (including repayment for any investments that are seized)
• Don’t use performance requirements for operating an investment
• Allow investors to work with the top managerial personnel of their choice when negotiating an investment. 

Most importantly, BITs allow for investors of either party to advocate for their rights by submitting an investment dispute with the government of the other party to be settled by an international court.

NAFTA and US Trade

One of the most important US trade agreements in the last decades has been the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). NAFTA facilitated a large increase in goods trade between the US, Canada, and Mexico. In NAFTA’s first ten years, trade in goods increased from $293 billion in 1993 to $627 billion in 2003. By 2016, this value had increased to nearly $800 billion. Created in 1994, NAFTA was the world’s largest free trade agreement until it was replaced in March of 2020. Due to the Trump administration perceiving a disadvantage in America’s production of different industries relative to Mexico and Canada, namely in agriculture and automobile production, the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) was established. Most concerning to the Trump Administration were trade deficits of $101 billion to Mexico and $27 billion to Canada as of 2019. The USMCA introduced several rule changes to automobile manufacturing, labor standards, the Canadian dairy and wine market, intellectual property, pharmaceuticals, and dispute resolution. This agreement went into effect on July 1, 2020. As of June 2021, the US trade deficit with Mexico has decreased to $52.9 billion and the trade deficit with Canada has decreased to $19.4 billion.

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Spokane County Commissioner Al French proposes ambitious PFAS solution for new water source on the West Plains. Some remain skeptical

Spokane County Commissioner Al French is proposing an ambitious plan to bring a new water source to the PFAS-contaminated West Plains – possibly as soon as next summer.

First discovered by Fairchild Air Force Base in 2017, the dangerous chemicals saturate the groundwater across the West Plains. While cleanup planning has begun at Fairchild and Spokane International Airport, making water west of Spokane safe is still years away.

Known as “forever chemicals,” perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances are a set of man-made chemicals used in thousands of products over the decades, including firefighting foam used at the airport and Air Force base. High levels of the chemicals have since been linked to cancers, heart disease, high cholesterol, thyroid disease, low birth weight and other diseases.

French’s solution is not to treat the groundwater that has been contaminated but to bring a new water source to the West Plains. The county currently treats eight million gallons a day at the Spokane County Regional Water Reclamation Facility. The Spokane Valley facility treats sewage and then distributes the clean water into the Spokane River.

By bringing a whole new source of drinking water to the area, French hopes to avoid having to tackle the difficult prospect of treating the contamination. As a representative of the West Plains and a member of the airport board, French has local ties to the area and indicated that he is among those with a responsibility to try to find solutions. Even so, his plan involves numerous obstacles and would require many agreements from other stakeholders.

Central to French’s pitch is that the West Plains cannot rely on the Environmental Protection Agency or state Department of Ecology to come in and provide a solution to PFAS contamination.

“You look at the EPA, you look at Ecology – they are both enforcement agencies. They’re not agencies that design solutions. They regulate what the solutions are,” French said. “Nobody’s coming to help us. We’ve got to develop our own solutions and our own path forwards to address the contamination.”

Instead of bringing the water into the ecosystem as a whole, French wants to divert the water from the Spokane River to the West Plains. According to him, the many millions of gallons a day processed by the county are enough to support 80,000 residents, more than all those currently living on the West Plains.

Trust agreement with tribes

Since the former wastewater is no longer property of Spokane County once it is deposited in the river, the county would need to develop a trust agreement with an entity that has water rights to the Spokane River.

In Washington, a water right is needed to use water systems for commercial and personal uses. The aim is to develop a trust with Spokane River water rights holders to take out the 8 million gallons of water they put in the river each day. In this way, the river would be used as a conveyor belt bringing the water from the valley to the west of the city of Spokane.

To French, the most logical partners in this endeavor are one or both of the tribes with ancestral land in the area that have the most senior water rights of all. According to French, he has spoken with representatives of both the Spokane Tribe and Kalispel Tribe about the idea.

Spokane Tribe of Indians Council Chair Greg Abrahamson said he has had a meeting with French to discuss his plan. Since that time, the tribal council has not met to discuss whether to enter into a trust agreement. Asked what the provisions of a possible trust agreement could be, Abrahamson said discussions were in their “very early stages” and it was “premature” to discuss specifics.

A representative for the Kalispel Tribe did not immediately answer a request for comment from The Spokesman-Review.

French noted that either or both tribes would be compensated if a trust agreement is made, although he declined to speculate what costs such a move would entail for the county. If both of the tribes decline his offer, he would move down the list of water rights holders, including the state government.

“We would be putting water in and taking water out. We’ll never take more water out than we’ll put in,” he said of the proposed water trust.

If that first major hurdle in French’s plan is reached, the county would need a mechanism by which the water would go from the Spokane River to Airway Heights, and then all the private well owners in the West Plains who have been impacted by PFAS contamination.

Fairchild on French plan

Though Fairchild Airforce Base was the first to discover PFAS in the groundwater in and around the base, Fairchild never has used that water for its operations. Instead, the base has a well at Seven Mile Road that pipes water to the base nearly 20 miles away.

French claims the Air Force has already appropriated funds to expand their piping system to take the water out of the Spokane River at Seven Mile and then bring it to Airway Heights’ municipal water system.

“The Department of Defense has said through the Air Force that they will pay for the drilling of a new well and pay for the construction of the pipe to get from that well up to Airway Heights,” French said, noting construction is on hold until a water trust is agreed upon.

Fairchild spokesperson Sidney Walters said the Air Force is “aware” of French’s plan and “appreciates all local elected leaders and governmental agencies who are working towards long-term solutions.”

“The Air Force is committed to supporting appropriate long-term solutions once the feasibility and legalities have been sufficiently evaluated. However, it is too early in the process to endorse or commit to funding of a particular plan. We look forward to continued discussions with all stakeholders, as it will take the participation of elected leaders and governmental agencies collectively to work these long-term solutions,” Walters said in a statement.

The plan also would need approval from Ecology at the state level. Department spokesperson Erika Beresovoy said Ecology has not yet received a formal proposal from French.

“We’re supportive of creative thinking to identify a long-term water supply solution for communities in the West Plains. But it is important to note that any adjustment to the County’s eight (million gallons a day) wastewater discharge would require a thorough investigation and evaluation. We’re committed to additional conversations as the workgroup Commissioner French is putting together explores options for clean drinking water,” Beresovoy said in a statement.

Could the West Plains become a superfund?

The last and perhaps biggest hurdle of French’s plan is how to get this new water source from Airway Heights to the hundreds of private well owners across the West Plains who are without clean drinking water. For this final phase, French hopes to harness the power of the EPA.

The West Plains has not been listed as a federal superfund site, the program through which the EPA forces responsible parties to conduct cleanup of contamination or to pay for it. Instead, the cleanup at Spokane International Airport is being overseen by the state Department of Ecology, while the federal government is overseeing its own cleanup at Fairchild.

EPA Region 10 spokesperson Bill Dunbar said the EPA has not been presented with French’s plan, and they are not considering a superfund designation for the West Plains.

“We’ve not heard anything about this. We are not contemplating a superfund listing. It is not part of any discussion we’ve had,” Dunbar said.

If the West Plains is declared a superfund site by the EPA, French hopes to use federal funds to build piping to all of the private wells affected by PFAS. According to French, the use of a superfund designation to get funds for his plan was suggested in a conversation earlier this year with EPA Region 10 administrator Casey Sixkiller, who oversees the federal agency in Alaska, Idaho, Oregon and Washington.

Dunbar disputed French’s characterization.

“Regional Administrator Sixkiller was not presented with a formal or informal proposal by Commissioner French. Rather, he expressed support for the creativity the multiple parties have used to address the problems in West Plains and Airway Heights, including EPA’s unique use of emergency response funds to quickly sample West Plains wells,” he said in a statement.

French said he has a 20-year history with Sixkiller and he had not misinterpreted their conversations. French additionally claimed he and Sixkiller had a second private discussion about a superfund designation while at an Airway Heights news conference in March .

Once this new water source is in place, it remains unclear under what framework the water would be distributed. French suggested a regional water utility could be created to manage the water supply. But that raises the question whether this new water would be freely distributed to those hurt by PFAS or would be a new expense placed upon them.

Asked whether residents would need to pay for the water like any other utility, French said it was too early to know.

“You’re asking me to speculate on a concept. I don’t know,” French said.

With whatever solution is found, French emphasized the federal government needs to be the one funding the solution to the problem they created mandating airports use firefighting foam laced with PFAS.

While French’s ambitious plan has many roadblocks before it can be put in place, the county commissioner says it is the only “only solution” of which he is aware.

“I’ll push it until somebody comes along with a better idea. But at this point, there’s nobody coming to save us if we don’t develop a solution and a mechanism to get clean water ourselves,” he said.

How long until a new water source comes to the West Plains?

French has presented the broad outlines of his plan to Friends of Palisades, an organization based around the preservation of Palisades Park.

In this meeting, French also claimed this project could be completed by the end of next summer – just over a year from now. Several West Plains residents have expressed skepticism French could coordinate all of these governmental entities and construct the necessary piping and wells in just a year.

West Plains Water Coalition President John Hancock said he “applauds the goal of the plan” but said French was “minimizing the difficulty” of the project.

West Plains resident Chuck Danner was more blunt in his assessment.

“There’s no way it could work, especially in that timeline. It’s ridiculous on its face,” he said. Danner dismissed the whole plan as “campaign talk” of a politician up for re-election in the fall.

Molly Marshall, French’s opponent in the race for Spokane County Commissioner, called his PFAS plan “very broad with not a lot of specifics.” Asked how she would tackle the issue differently, Marshall said she would have more transparency than French and hold meetings with all stakeholders.

Asked about the summer 2025 deadline, French clarified what he meant in the April 23 meeting with his constituents.

“I said, from my standpoint, I’d like to have this thing in place by next summer. That’s what I’m pushing for. Now, will people stand in my way? Probably,” he said. “I’d love to be able to do it by next summer. If it takes to the summer after that or the summer after that, then it’s because somebody else has stood in my way.”

Reporter Nick Gibson contributed to this article.

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