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The Role of Agriculture in Economic Development

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• First Online: 02 July 2022

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• Emelie Rohne Till 2  

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The book’s main research focus is the role of the agricultural sector in economic development. This chapter discusses the main theoretical underpinnings of this role based on the extensive body of literature on this subject. The chapter covers both the role of agriculture for economic development and the development of the agricultural sector itself with a focus on the macro-level drivers of agricultural development.

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• Agriculture for development
• Agricultural development

The book’s core research focus is to understand the role that the agricultural sector can play in economic development as well as the role of the agricultural transformation in the broader processes of economic and structural transformation. These processes involve the sectoral shift of output and employment away from low-productive agriculture into more productive activities. They are generally accompanied by a greater diversification of livelihoods both on- and off-farm, stronger rural and urban interaction, and the creation of more employment and investment opportunities outside the agricultural sector (Mellor, 1976 ; Timmer, 1988 ; Jayne et al., 2018 ).

Agriculture for Development

Agricultural and development economics both emerged as sub-fields in the middle of the twentieth century (Arndt, 1987 ; Barrett et al., 2010 ). Since then, the view of the role that agriculture can play in economic development has shifted over time. Early perspectives in the 1950s and 1960s emphasize a largely passive role of the agricultural sector (Lewis, 1954 ; Hirschman, 1958 ; Ranis & Fei, 1961 ; Jorgenson, 1961 ). In this view, agriculture’s contribution to development is to reallocate labor and indirectly contribute to much-needed savings and investments in the modern sector; the sector was mainly regarded as a reservoir of labor and transferable surplus. This was followed by research that further downplayed the role of agriculture in economic development based on the core concept of the Prebisch–Singer thesis, suggesting deteriorating terms of trade for primary products in relation to industrial goods (Singer, 1950 ; Prebisch, 1959 ; Preobrazhensky, 1965 ).

The mid-1960s saw a shift toward viewing agriculture as a potential engine of growth. This change in perspective followed the contributions of Johnston and Mellor ( 1961 ) on how agriculture can contribute to growth in the overall economy through various linkages (labor, food, foreign exchange, market, and domestic savings). In the 1980s, the view shifted again, this time toward an industrial focus. This tendency was followed by several studies in the 1990s and early 2000s, arguing that agricultural growth stems from, rather than leads to, overall growth (Estudillo & Otsuka, 1999 ; Gardner, 2000 ; Mundlak et al., 2004 ). However, since around 2005, the view that agricultural growth can drive overall growth has resurfaced. This perspective is exemplified by the 2008 World Development Report on agriculture (World Bank, 2007 ) and the signing of the Maputo Declaration in 2003, in which all African leaders of state committed to dedicating at least 10% of public spending to agriculture (AGRA, 2018 ).

Four main theoretical schools of thought can be identified as having influenced the shifting debate outlined above (see Andersson & Rohne Till, 2018 for an elaborated discussion). First, according to the “fifth wheel” school, agriculture is not by itself seen to stimulate economic development, although it might stifle the process if neglected (Lewis, 1954 ; Ranis & Fei, 1961 ; Jorgenson, 1961 ). Second, the Chicago school emphasizes rationality and anti-distortions, led by the work of Schultz ( 1964 ) and his followers (e.g., Krueger et al., 1988 , 1991 ; Anderson, 2009a , 2009b ). The third main school of thought focuses on the role of agriculture in trade; agriculture is seen as either a break (Prebisch, 1959 ) or an injection (Myint, 1958 ). The fourth school of thought views agriculture as a potential driver of growth. One strand of this diverse school of thought has its roots in structural change analysis, understanding the relative decline of agriculture in the process of long-term economic growth (Clark, 1940 ; Kuznets, 1961 , 1966 ; Chenery & Syrquin, 1975 ). A related strand emphasizes agricultural growth’s potential to strengthen the domestic market, thereby stimulating aggregate growth. Adelman ( 1984 ) explicitly theorizes this mechanism in her development of the concept of agricultural demand-led industrialization (ADLI).

The agriculture-for-development view has been a prominent perspective on the role of agriculture in economic growth since around 2005. While agriculture’s role in stimulating growth and reducing poverty has also been questioned during this time (Ashley & Maxwell, 2001 ; Hasan & Quibria, 2004 ; Ellis, 2004 ; Collier & Dercon, 2009 ), agriculture’s contribution to economic growth has much support in the economic history of today’s high-income countries in Europe and East Asia (Ohkawa & Rosovsky, 1960 ; Bairoch, 1973 ; Johnston & Kilby, 1975 ; Timmer, 1988 ; Lains & Pinilla, 2009 ). A core assumption of the agriculture-for-development perspective is that farmers in low-income countries, often working small plots, can be efficient producers capable of generating a surplus that can benefit the wider economy (Mellor, 1976 ; Lipton, 2005 ; World Bank, 2007 ; Diao et al., 2010 ). As such, increasing the productivity of these small farmers is a key concern. In addition to increases in agricultural productivity among farmers, a thriving rural nonfarm sector and diversification toward higher-productivity crops are also important elements of success. However, while the rural nonfarm sector can be a productive outlet, it is also a very diverse sector, including petty and under-capitalized activities with very low returns to labor and also productive activities that are better rewarded. The nature of the sector is likely linked to the dynamism of agriculture and the general economy (Wiggins et al., 2018 ).

The concept of ADLI is of special importance for the current research, given the connection between Adelman’s academic concept of ADLI and Ethiopia’s implementation of ADLI. Drawing on Singer ( 1979 ), Adelman ( 1984 ) developed ADLI as a development strategy emphasizing the importance of agricultural growth in stimulating overall production and growth. Under ADLI, agricultural growth arising from increased agricultural productivity (stemming, in turn, from increased rural investment and technological innovation) stimulates aggregate growth; agricultural growth increases farmers’ incomes, which generates demand for locally produced non-tradable products. This farm demand for domestic non-tradables is the main link between agricultural growth (raising farmers’ incomes) and nonagricultural growth.

Empirically, ADLI was first tested in Adelman’s ( 1984 ) seminal paper, in which she simulated growth scenarios comparing an export-led (in essence, manufacturing-led) industrialization strategy and ADLI, for South Korea in 1963. She found that while both strategies would generate growth, ADLI would lead to better overall development compared to export-led growth, as ADLI led to higher labor absorption, more equal distribution of income, less poverty, and a higher rate of per capita economic growth (Adelman, 1984 , p. 939). These results mainly stemmed from the linkages generated by the agricultural sector that were stronger than those generated outside of agriculture, as farm households demanded more goods and services from domestic food and nonfood industries than other households. In the simulations, the same amount of investment was channeled into the export sector or the agricultural sector. This led Adelman to conclude that ADLI at some stages of development both generated better economic development and yielded a higher rate of return, and should therefore be prioritized. Other studies that have explicitly tested ADLI include Vogel ( 1994 ) and Bautista et al. ( 1999 ). Moreover, much of the work on calculating agricultural multipliers and linkages (as summarized by Haggblade et al., 2007 ) shares a similar rationale as Adelman’s study. Overall, this literature finds that an ADLI strategy can contribute considerably to overall economic growth.

Adelman’s ADLI strategy was intended to be an alternative development strategy for low-income countries. However, Adelman did not claim that ADLI was always the right choice for this type of countries. Instead, the strategy mainly targets countries that have (1) a potentially large domestic market and (2) an industrial base with established supply responsiveness. Adelman and Vogel ( 1991 ) explored the implications of these criteria for successful ADLI implementation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). They found that while agriculture has relatively strong linkages in SSA, most countries do not fulfill the second criteria of established supply responsiveness (because the manufacturing production capacity is quite limited, many types of consumer goods are not produced domestically, and most intermediates and machinery are imported). Therefore, they concluded that an ADLI strategy was unlikely to be successful in most SSA contexts. Thirty years later, it seems that the Ethiopian implementation of ADLI may be proving their pessimistic predictions wrong.

Agricultural Development

As the realization of agriculture for development depends on agricultural growth, this section provides a brief contextualization of the literature on agricultural development. The literature on the drivers and features of agricultural change is vast, and much important work has been done on the subject in the post-war era (Barrett et al., 2010 ). In general, the macro-level conditions needed for agricultural development are well-known: a reasonably stable macro-economic and political environment, effective technology transfer, and product and factor markets that are functional and accessible (Mosher, 1966 ; Tsakok, 2011 ). However, these insights do not allow for a specific understanding of how on-the-ground, micro-level change is engendered. Agriculture is, in essence, a private activity undertaken by millions of individual actors (Mellor, 2018 ). Therefore, village-level studies and analyses of localized production systems are needed to get closer to an understanding of what drives agricultural production and productivity increases (Wiggins, 2000 ; Andersson Djurfeldt & Djurfeldt, 2013 ).

However, while agriculture is a predominantly private activity taking place at the micro-level, the success of individual farmers is conditioned by public and macro-level forces. Agricultural growth—and its potential benefits—depends on favorable developments in the economic and political environment, technology transfer, and product and factor markets. The literature on what drives these conditions is large, and at least four major drivers are proposed in the literature: factor relations (Binswanger & Ruttan, 1978 ; Hayami & Ruttan, 1971 , 1985 ), population dynamics (Boserup, 1965 ), technology availability (Otsuka & Kijima, 2010 ; Estudillo & Otsuka, 2013 ; Otsuka & Muraoka, 2017 ), and the state (Djurfeldt et al., 2005 ; Hazell, 2009 ; Henley, 2012 ; Frankema, 2014 ). This book is particularly concerned with the strand of the literature on macro-level agricultural development concerning the role of the state, as elaborated on in Chap. 3 . However, this focus should not be seen as a quest to identify one single driver of agricultural growth. Such a quest would be futile, as the process is much too complex, and multiple factors both drive growth and affect each other. The macro-level forces of agricultural change are not substitutes; in any context of agricultural change, the state, factor and product markets, technology, and population dynamics are complements that act and react in the same environment.

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Rohne Till, E. (2022). The Role of Agriculture in Economic Development. In: Agriculture for Economic Development in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07901-6_2

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The title of the defense is Risk Perception, Bias, and Resistance fo New Food Technology: The Case of GMOs , Wanlass, Michael.

Precision Agriculture Technology Adoption and Usage in North Dakota , Cossette, Max.

Interest Rate and Commodity Price Impacts on Farm-Level Financials , Denk, Ann.

The Role of Politically Linked Agricultural Policy and Trade on the Performance of Turkish Agriculture , Ergun, Ekrem.

Trade in CRISPR/Gene-Edited Wheat: A Partial Equilibrium Analysis , Fosu, Prince.

The Effects of Futures Markets on the Spot Price Volatility of Storable Commodities , Goetz, Cole Louis, April.

Optimal Inventory Strategy Under Risk: A Contingent Claims Approach,  Klebe, Jesse, April.

Investing in United States Farmland: A Capital Asset Pricing Model Analysis , Messner, Bryce.

The Role of Trade Facilitation Indicators and Genetically Engineered Restrictive Index on U.S. State Exports and Efficiency,  Addey, Kwame, April .

Bidding Competition and Supply Chain Risk in Soybean Exports , Bisbee, Seth, November.

Economic Efficiency of Occupational Health and Safety Investiments at Agricultural Cooperatives,  Kankanamge, Thilani, June.

The impact of the African Growth and Opportunity Act on Sub-Sahara African value added agricultural exports, Mwagura, Joseph

Comparing Genetic Modification and Genetic Editing Technologies: Minimal Required Acreage , Neadeau, Joseph, November.

Estimating the Economic Benefits of Automatic Section Control in the North Dakota Prairie Pothole Region,  Rahman, Baishali, May.

How Diversified is our Market Indices? Application of Machine Learning and Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM ), Sakouvogui, Kekoura.

Yield Efficiency Using a Stochastic Frontier Approach for Corn, Soybeans, and Hard Red Spring Wheat in North Dakota , Badarch, Bayarbat, March.

A Study of North Dakota Crop Basis Volatility: A Mixed Model Approach to Temporally and Spatially Analyze Unobserved Basis Determinants , Mobarok, Mohammad, April.

China's Urban Household Food Consumption, Nutrition, and Health , Wang, Yan, April.

Real Option Analysis of Primary Rail Contracts in Grain Shipping , Landman, Daniel, April.

Determinants for Biofuel Policies in the Americas , Weisser-Gomez, Franco, July.

Charitable Donations , Gamage, Danindu, August.

An Analysis of Financial Risk Measures within Agricultural Cooperatives , Schweiss Kristi, September.

Economic Freedom and Philanthropy , Pritchard, Ian, October.

Optimization of Soybean Buying Strategies Using Derivatives , Moody, Nathaniel, December.

Determining Farmers' Preferences for a Working Wetlands Program , Addo, Nana, May.

V aluation of Licensing Agreements in Agriculture Biotechnology , Churchill, Jason, May.

Rail Car trip transit time and the effects on grain trading company profits , Gesme, Nathaniel, April.

Effect of Abnormal Loan Growth on U.S. Credit Union Performance , Han, Dahye, April.

Minimum Cost Beef Backgrounding Ration Utilizing Alternative Feedstuffs & Stochastic Prices , Helmuth, Levi, December.

Hedging Default and Price Risks in Commodity Trading , Kimura, Norifumi, November.

Hispanics Immigrants on the Fields: Is Discrimination a Barrier to Get Non-agricultural Jobs? , Lopez Barrera, Emiliano, June.

Measures of Bank Performance, Liquidity Risk and Their Relationship with Farm Income Volatility , Olek, Caitlin, August.

Comparative Analysis of the Profit Risk in the Cultivation of Energy , Wijesinghe, Asanka, April.

Understanding Changes in the Distribution of House Prices in Beijing, China , Yi, Yimin, June.

Effect of Economic Freedom on Social Capital: Panel Evidence from U.S. Contiguous States , Kyaw Min Maw, Aka, April.

Dhingra, Neeraj, May.

Costs and Risks of Testing and Blending for EAA in Soybean , Heartsgaard, David, June.

Effect of Chapter 11 Bankruptcy Protection on Airfares in the U.S. Domestic Airline Industry , Malalgoda, Narendra, November.

Risk Balancing in the Banking Sector , Hulinsky, Nathan, December.

Impact of trade openness on technical efficiency: Agricultural sector of the European union , Hart, Jarrett, January.

North Dakota banking efficiency: A DEA application to agricultural and non-agricultural banks pre- and post-financial crisis 2002-2012 , Froelich, Samantha, April.

The impact of the Panama Canal expansion on U.S. soybean exports , Gallagher, Brian, April.

Determining the optimal commodity and hedge ratio for cross-hedging jet fuel , Turner, Peter, May

The Effects of Exchange Rate on Bilateral Trade Between the United States and South Korea,  Lee, Dasul, October.

Applying serf analysis to rank procurement strategies for a North Dakota green field pea processor,  Sanderson, Bryant, October.

A historical analysis of natural gas demand , Dalbec, Nathan, November.

Estimating U.S. residential demand for fuelwood in the presence of selectivity , Daly, Ryan, November.

Survival analysis of foreclosures by housing and neighborhood characteristics,  Dias, Resha, November.

Effect of Deregulation and Off-Balance Sheet Activities on the X-Efficiency of U.S. Credit Unions , Hossain, Md. Daulat, November.

A multivariate approach to forecasting dairy imports,  Laufmann, Regina, November.

Regional Differences in Beverage and Fruit Consumption in China , Wu, Xiaotian, November.

Determinants of Capital Structure in Agricultural Cooperatives in North Dakot a, Shang, Ran, March.

Adolescent Food Consumption in Urban China: Factors Influencing BMI and School Meals , Anfinson, Carl, April.

ChangMin, Kim, April.

Risk Management Strategies for Commodity Processors , Chen, Songjiao, May.

Food Away From Home Consumption in Urban China: Household Composition and Dining Location Effects , Liu, Haiyan, June.

Switching options: The value of flexibility provided by geographical diversification , Johansen, Stephan, July.

Intermarket trading strategies and risk , Skadberg, Kristopher, July.

D eveloping A Model to Value Germplasm Using Real Options , Simonson-Paschke, Marit, July.

Evaluating the Role of Trade Openness and Trade Openness Risk on Agricultural Production Technical Efficiency: An Empirical Analysis of Sub-Saharan African Countries , Erjok, Erjok, October.

North Dakota Banking Efficiency: A DEA Application to Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Banks Pre- and Post-Financial Crisis 2002-2012 , Froelich, Samantha Ann, November.

A Study on Factors Affecting U.S. Bilateral Trade with Her Major Trading Partners, Cho, Won Joo, May.

A Study on Consumers' Purchasing Intention According to Message Frame Regarding Food Safety Issues, Han, Dae Hee, June.

Effects of Winter Weather Risk on the Profitability of Beef Feedlots in North Dakota, Armbrust Shae, BillieJo, November.

Filling in Missing Values in the North Dakota Land Valuation Model, Laufmann, Laura, November.

The Relationship Between Water Pollution and Economic Growth Using the Environmental Kuznets Curve: A Case Study in South Korea, Choi, Jaesung, November.

Transporting and Disposing of Wastewater from North Dakota Oil, Yin, Qingqing, December.

2011: U.S. Bilateral Trade with its Major Trading Partners and Russia,  Belousova, Valentina, February.

Oberholtzer, Daniel, February. Contribution of Public Investments and Innovations to Total Factor Productivity,  Glazyrina, Anna, March. Accounting for Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Toxic Air Pollutants in Trucking, Efficiency and Productivity,  Heng, Yan, March . The Effect of Food Safety and Quality on the Consumption and Price of Meat in Beijing, China , Shang, Xia, March.

Van Winkle, Andrea, October 2010 : Creating a Transportation Strategy for North Dakota Exporters,  Goldade, Ashley Lynn, May. Globaliztion and Obesity , Liogier, Anais, November. The Effect of Export Promotion Programs on Establishing Export Markets , Och, Nathan Ronald, April. Grains, Trains and Aqua-Mobiles , Ritteman, Thomas Arthur, May. 2009: The Effects of Ethanol Policy on Cattle Production,  Braun, Dane Curtis, November . The Effect of Lender-Imposed Sweeps on an Ethanol Firm's Ability to Invest in New Technology , Fewell, Jason Edward, July. A Stochastic Simulation of the North Dakota Ethanol Production Incentive , Kurth, Andrew Hamilton, May. Valuing and Pricing of Random & Non-Persistent Genetically Modified Traits (Corn & HRSW),  Shakya, Sumadhur, August. Price Recovery, Productivity, and Contributors of Railroad Profitability, 1996-2007 , Shi, Xiao Feli, December. The Impacts of Expected Structural Changes in Demand for Agricultural Commodities in China and India on World Agriculture , Tangen, Alyssa, December. 2008:

Examination of North Dakota's Production, Cost, and Profit Functions: A Quantile Regression Approach , Marroquin, Jacklin Beatriz, December.

Productivity Growth in the U.S. Trucking Industry , Condon, Steven, May.

Time-Varying Estimation of Crop Insurance Program in Altering North Dakota Farm Economic Structure , Chow-Coleman, Jane Amy, December. The Valuation of Agricultural Biotechnology: The Real Options Approach , Flagg, Ian Marshall, May. Impact of Agriculutral Productivity Changes on Agricultural Exports , Gurung, Ananda Bahadur, December. Impact of Climate Change and Weather Variability on North Dakota Agriculture , Mayom, Chol Permina, November. Logistic Strategies for an Herbaceous Crop Resideu-based Ethanol Production Industry: An Application to Northeastern North Dakota , Middleton, Jason Enil, December. Impact of Economic, Political, and Socio-Demographic Factors on the Parliamentary Election Outcomes in Central and Eastern European Countries , Zhelo, Inessa, November.

A Game Theory Analysis of Firm Reaction to External Organizational Demands: The Case of Animal Welfare Standards , Tzul, Sheril Sherine, December.

An Econometric Analysis of Cost Changes in U.S. Trucking and the Implications of Implementing the NAFTA Trucking Provisions , Peterson, Erica Kay, April.

An Empirical Analysis of U.S. Foreign Direct Investment and Exports of Processed Food Industries , Haque, Mohua, November.

A Reference Price Model of Sugar Consumption with Implications on Obesity , Effertz, Cary Marshall, April.

Economic Feasibility of Producing Ethanol from Dry Pea and Corn as Feedstock in North Dakota: A Risk Perspective , Goel, Abhishek, December.

Factors Influencing Potato Production in North Dakota , Roberson Zetina, Zoe Taryn Margaux, May.

How U.S. Agriculture Adjusts to Energy Price Changes , Gong, Jian, May.

Identifying Beneficial Attributes of Water Management Organizations,  Kritsky, Craig Charles, August.

Pricing Genetically Modified Output Traits and Effects on Competing Technologies , Johnson, Adam Michael, May.

The Impact of Multilateral Trade Association Membership on Agricultural and Food Trade , McKoy Shahera Diane, December.

An Economic Assessment of Genetic Information: Leptin Genotyping of Breeding Cattle , Mitchell, Jay Douglas, October.

Case Studies in Farm Management , Jodock, Karl Nelson, September.

Determining and Evaluating Cost-Effective Food Safety Risk Reduction Strategies at Retail Meat Facilities , Lehrke, Linda, November.

Identifying Market Preferences for High Selenium Beef , Hovde, Scott Curtiss, December.

Interdependency of Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth: Evidence From the Developing Countries of Asia , Aravindhakshan, Sijesh Chavarattil, November.

Optimal Grain Production and Distribution in China,  Huang, Fengqin, April.

Private and Social Costs of Hazardous Material Transportation: A Model for Anhydrous Ammonia Distribution in North Dakota , Zimanski, Michael Robert, May.

Spatial Price Effects of the Adoption of Moderate Scab Resistant Hard Red Spring Wheat Varieties , Motuba, Diomo, May.

The Effects of Deregulation on Rail Rates: A Study on Wheat, Barley, Corn, Oat, and Soybean , Vinje, Daniel Martin, April.

Using Stochastic Optimization and Real-options Models to Value Private Sector Incentives to Invest in Food Protection Measures , Lewis, Andrew M., October.  

Utilizing Geographic Information System-Based Crop Coverages and Digital Soil Surveys to Improve Agricultural Land Value Models in North Dakota , Kermes, Kevin Eugene, July.

An Economic Analysis of Fed Cattle Marketing using Real-time Ultrasound , Pointier, Fabienne; June.

Comparing Alternative Opinion Survey Based Estimates with Actual Land Sales in North Dakota , Fluhrer, Jedediah O.; August.

Economic Factors Affecting the Increase in Obesity in the United States: Differential Response to Price , de Chastenet, Hélène; June.

Economics of Leptin Genotyping of Finishing Cattle , Bullinger, Jared R.; May.

Investor's Expectations of New Generation Cooperatives' Equity , Akono, Jean H.C.; April.

Impact of Changes in Dietary Preferences on U.S. Retail Demand for Beef: Health Concerns and the Role of Media , Mostad, Daniel A.; November.

Marketing Mechanisms to Facilitate Co-existence of GM and Non-GM Crops , Henry, Benjamin, July.

Recent Development in Infrastructure and its Impact on Agricultural and Non-agricultural Trade, Park, Mi-Hee, February.

Societal Perceptions of the Role of the U.S. Government in Support for Agriculture , Svangstu, Brooke A.; October.

An Economic Comparison of Reduced-input and Intensive Crop Rotations in the Red River Valley , Foissey, Thomas; August.

Costs, Risks, and Contracting Strategies for European Union Traceability Requirements , Henry, Xavier; August.

Customer Willingness to Pay for Breads Marketed as "Low-Carbohydrate" Breads , Johnston, Gretchen R.; December.

Evaluating Farmers' Preferences for Crop and Health Insurance Products , Orth, Michael P., May.

Factors Influencing Blackbird Damage to Sunflowers in Stutsman County, North Dakota,  Ronning, Brent A.; May.

Financial Impacts of a Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy Outbreak on North Dakota Agricultural Banks , Anderson, Ryan H.; October.

Genetically Modified Wheat: Price Impacts on Competing Technologies and Strategies of Agbiotechnology Firms , Huso, Scott R.; November.

Impact of Transportation on Business Location Decisions in Rural Upper Great Plains , Burdina, Mariya; May.

Inventory Valuation Decisions and Strategy Analysis , Osowski, Nicholas R., July.

North Dakota College Students' Perceptions of GM and Organic Food , Anderson, Jon C., November.

Predicting Food Safety Losses in Turkey Processing , Siaplay, Mounir; November.

An Analysis of Financial Management Strategies for New Generation Cooperatives Under Conditions of Risk , Streifel, Bradley J.; March.

Contracting Strategies and Marketing Mechanisms for Genetically Modified Wheat , Maxwell, Brett J., December.

Crops Marketing Education Program Targeted to Farmwomen , Schaunaman, Crystal M., December.

Evaluation of North Dakota Farm Production Efficiency and Financial Performance Over Time , Bayda, Volodymyr V.; May.

Marginal Impact of Education, Financial Performance, and Government Programs on the Adoption of Precision Agriculture Technology , Friedrichsen, Mary S.; December.

Optimal Testing Strategies for Genetically Modified Commodities , Jabs, Eric J.; May.

Shuttle Train Adoption Strategy , Huang, Weijun; June.

Value at Risk: Agricultural Processor Procurement and Hedging Strategies , Hawes, Cullen R.; April.

2002 : Characterization of the Canadian Commercial Walleye Fishery , Lemm, Leslie P.; December.

Crop Insurance and Quality Uncertainty Due to Scab and Vomitoxin , Tiapo, Napoleon M.; May.

The Economic Analysis of Alternative Financing Methods for Value-Added Beef Finishing Operations in North Dakota , Zutz, Christina L.; November.

Effects of Environmental Impact Information on Willingness to Pay for Genetically Modified Products , VanWechel, Tamara R.; May.   

Equity Valuation for New Generation Cooperatives , Umarov, Alisher A.; August. Estimation of the Demand for Grain Transportation in North Dakota , Dybing, Alan G.; November.

Free Trade Area of the Americas: Effects on the U.S. Sugar Industry , Carlson-Goodman, Melissa J.; November.

The Influence of Labor Constraints on Optimal Calving Season for Mixed Production Operations in the Northern Great Plains , Hawkins, Renee M.; March.

Procurement Strategies for End-users to Meet Functional Characteristics , Peterson, Del A., December

Socioeconomic Impacts of Agricultural and Non-agricultural Economic Development in North Dakota,  Schepp, Angela L.; November

Logistical Strategies for Differentiated Wheat Classifications , Schlecht, Shannon M.; April.

Marketing and Crop Insurance Combined to Manage Risk on a Cass County Representative Farm , Clow, Aaron D.; July.

Quantification of Historic Flood Damage in the Maple and Wild Rice Watersheds of the Red River of the North Basin,  Kjelland, Michael E.; March.

Risk Management Strategies for Grain Traders and Processors , Wagner, Robert; April.

Applying Option Theory to Guaranteed Rail Mechanisms , Lee, Jonathan A., May.

International Market Entry Strategies for Value-added Wheat Products , Syvrud, Prairie A., March. 1998: Economic Assessment of Wetland Mitigation in Minnesota , Sip, Robert L., February. 1996: Analysis of Export Targeting of Canadian Wheats , Young, Christopher E., May.

Economic Empact of Leafy Spurge on North Dakota Grazing Land , Thompson, Flint Dean, March.

Information Used by Farmers for Decision Making , Stearns, Larry Donald, June.

Assessment of Two Conservation Reserve Program Objectives in North Dakota , Skjelstad, Jo, July.

An Economic Comparison of Zero and Conventional Tillage for Small Grain Production in North Dakota , Swenson, Andrew L., August.

A Market Structure Study of the Queretaro Fluid Milk Industry , Ramirez, Francisco Soto, July.

Small Farms: A Selected List of References, Briefly Annotated , Ramirez, Francisco Soto, July.

A Description of Determinants of the Average Physical Product of Labor for the Lignite Coal Surface Mining Industry of North Dakota , Struck, Jeffrey K., May.

A Dynamic Economic Systems Community Impact Model Applied to Coal Development in the Northern Great Plains , Temple, George Sterling, May.

Interregional Energy Transportation Model for Evaluating North Dakota's Comparative Advantage for Producing Lignite Coa l, Sheldon, Norman Lee, January.

Human Resource Implications of the Production Process in Underground Bituminous Extraction, Especially for Utah , Stradley, Scot Arthur.

Potato Pricing Determinants in the United States and in the Red River Valley , Shephard, Lyle C., April.

Costs and Returns Associated with the Production of Milk in North Dakota , Thiel, Richard J., May.

Solid Waste Disposal in Cass County, North Dakota , Sem, John Homer, December.

An Economic Analysis of Rice Prices in the Republic of Korea , Shim, Kyou Bo, July.

Economic Analysis of Performance Testing for Two Beef Herds in Morton County, 1958-1965 , Stine, James F., May.

Income Distribution on Selected Types of Illinois Farms and Implications for Tenure Adjustments , Strohbehn, Roger Wallace.

Economies of Scale in the Local Government of Kansas , Shepherd, Robert Edwin.

The Organization of Country Markets for Grain in North Dakota , Velde, Paul Dwight, August.

Adjustment Implications of Government Cotton Programs for Southwestern Oklahoma , Sobering, Frederic David.

The Federal Crop Insurance Program in Eastern Nebraska--Saunders County, A Case Study,  Starr, Gayle David, August.

An Analysis of Dairy Herd Replacements in Grady and Lincoln Counties , Sparks, Donald Eugene, May.

Linear Program Analysis of Roughage Systems for Grade A Dairy Farms in Grady and Lincoln Counties , Smith, Frederick John, May.

Minimum Resource Requirements and Resource Adjustments for Specified Farm Income Levels, Low Rollling Plains of Southwestern Oklahoma , Strickland, Percy Leo, Jr., May.

Farm Administration and Farm Labor , Viken, Edward, June.

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Browse agriculture topics/papers by subfields, agriculture research papers/topics, hyphaene compressa, an important palm in the arid and semi-arid regions of kenya.

Abstract Background: Peasant agroecosystems in Kenya are considered to be a continuum of integrated traditional farming systems and natural ecosystem conservancy programs. Hyphaene compressa (doum palm) exists in arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) of Kenya. While research in these areas is focusing on new plants to be brought to the areas, there is no focus on doum palm, which is already adapted to these areas. Scanty ethnobotanical knowledge exists in the form of unpublished material. The stud...

High-Density Linkage Map Construction and Mapping of Salt-Tolerant QTLs at Seedling Stage in Upland Cotton Using Genotyping by Sequencing (GBS)

Abstract/Overview Over 6% of agricultural land is affected by salinity. It is becoming obligatory to use saline soils, so growing salt-tolerant plants is a priority. To gain an understanding of the genetic basis of upland cotton tolerance to salinity at seedling stage, an intra-specific cross was developed from CCRI35, tolerant to salinity, as female with Nan Dan (NH), sensitive to salinity, as the male. A genetic map of 5178 SNP markers was developed from 277 F2:3 populations. The map sp...

Communication and Uptake of Integrated Soil Fertility Management and Soil Water Conservation Technologies by Farmers in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya

Abstract Integrated soil fertility management and soil water conservation practices are possible solutions to persistent soil quality decline and low availability of soil moisture which are affecting agricultural productivity in the dry lands of Tharaka-Nithi County. Nonetheless, the rate of uptake of these technologies and practices by smallholder farmers has stagnated over the years despite recommendations for their use. Lack of effective communication between the extension agents and rese...

Gender Influence on Soil Fertility and Water Management Technologies Uptake among Smallholder Farmers in Tharaka Nithi County

Abstract Degraded landscapes and soil water stress are long-standing problems to smallholder agriculture in the drylands. Despite the important roles of soil and water conservation in restoring degraded landscapes and improving agricultural productivity, the technologies are yet to be adopted to their fullest extent. This can be attributed to gender-linked disparities in agricultural technology utilization. This study, therefore, sought to evaluate gender-specific choice and use-intensity de...

Technology Adoption, Production and Market Participation among Smallholder Indigenous Chicken Farmers in Tigania West Sub-County, Meru County

Abstract Majority of the Kenyan population resides in rural areas and are characterised by high levels of poverty due to low income and food insecurity. Poultry production and in particular indigenous chicken has been recognised as an avenue to improve livelihoods among rural households through provision of income. Besides, the enterprise contributes to socioeconomic and nutritional requirements of rural and peri-urban populations. Despite this potential, chicken production continues to enco...

Farm-Level Supply and Value Addition of Mangoes among Small-Scale Producers in Machakos County

Abstract Mango (Mangifera indicia L.) is one of the most suitable fruit crops in arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya. Its production in Machakos County has generally been fluctuating over the past few years, such that there is no consensus whether the production is increasing or decreasing. In addition, there is a paucity of knowledge about the quantity of mangoes supplied by small-scale farmers. Upon harvest, the mango fruit is highly perishable, therefore farmers have taken up farm-level val...

On the Computationally Efficient Numerical Solution to the Helmholtz Equation

Abstract Named after Hermann L. F. von Helmholtz (1821-1894), Helmholtz equation has obtained application in many elds: investigation of acaustic phenomena in aeronautics, electromagnetic application, migration in 3-D geophysical application, among many other areas. As shown in [2], Helmholtz equation is used in weather prediction at the Met O ce in UK. Ine ciency, that is the bottleneck in Numerical Weather Prediction, arise partly from solving of the Helmholtz equation. This study investig...

Qtl Mapping for Salt Tolerance in an Intra-Specific Upland Cotton at Seedling Stage Using Ssr Markers

Abstract/Overview Cotton is a moderately salt-tolerant crop, but its salt tolerance threshold is not more than 7.7 ds•m−1. The seedling stage of cotton is the highly sensitive to salinity and the effects can be quantified by measuring morphological and physiological traits. The purpose of this study was to identify QTLs related with salinity tolerance at seedling stage. Meanwhile where they were localized in the genome, investigate the relationships between the traits at seedling stag...

A comparison of CO2 fluxes via eddy covariance measurements with model predictions in a dominant subtropical forest ecosystem

Abstract/Overview CO2 fluxes were measured continuously for twelve months (2003) using eddy covariance technique at canopy layer in a dominant subtropical forest in South China. Our results showed that daytime maximum CO2 fluxes of the whole ecosystem varied from −15 to −20 µmol m−2 s −1 5 . The peaks of CO2 fluxes appeared earlier than the peaks of solar radiation. Contribution of CO2 fluxes in a subtropical forest in the dry season was 53% of the annual total from the whole for...

Seasonal dynamics in carbon dioxide fluxes of the herbaceous layer of a moist Kenyan savannah

Abstract/Overview Strong seasonal variability in African carbon source/sink relationship is considered the continent’s most significant contribution to the global carbon cycle. Alternating dry and wet periods dictate ecosystem carbon exchange and productivity of tropical African savannah. We examined the seasonal and daily trends in ecosystem CO2 exchange in the herbaceous layer of a humid Kenyan savannah devoid of grazing. Microclimate, soil moisture, soil and tissue nitrogen, abovegro...

Functional convergence in water use of trees from different geographical regions: a meta-analysis

Abstract/Overview Functional convergence in water use of trees across species from diverse geographic locations was examined using data on tree water use parameters, with the intention of gaining an understanding on the capacity for water transport for trees with varying structural and functional traits. Wood density (ρw), which is reported to have a negative exponential relation with sap flow density (SFD), showed a bell-shaped curve when the daily SFD data from 101 tree species belongi...

Effects of nitrogen deposition on soil organic carbon fractions in the subtropical forest ecosystems of S China

Abstract/Overview Experiments were conducted between 2003 and 2008 to examine how N additions influence soil organic C (SOC) and its fractions in forests at different succession stages in the subtropical China. The succession stages included pine forest, pine and broadleaf mixed forest, and old‐growth monsoon evergreen broadleaf forest. Three levels of N (NH4NO3)‐addition treatments comprising control, low‐N (50 kg N ha–1 y–1), and medium‐N (100 kg N ha–1 y–1) were est...

Seed dispersal by Tana River mangabeys in fragmented gallery forests

Abstract/Overview Data collected on a free ranging group of Tana River mangabeys (Cercocebus galeritus) indicates that this endangered primate species, which has previously been regarded as a seed predator, plays an important role in seed dispersal and do contribute to the regeneration of a highly fragmented gallery forest. We observed fruit handling behavior and the post-dispersal fate of seeds ingested by the mangabeys. The two main fruit handling behaviors observed, fruit swallowing an...

A global synthesis of the effects of diversified farming systems on arthropod diversity within fields and across agricultural landscapes

Abstract/Overview Agricultural intensification is a leading cause of global biodiversity loss, which can reduce the provisioning of ecosystem services in managed ecosystems. Organic farming and plant diversification are farm management schemes that may mitigate potential ecological harm by increasing species richness and boosting related ecosystem services to agroecosystems. What remains unclear is the extent to which farm management schemes affect biodiversity components other than speci...

Performance Evaluation of Proximal Sensors for Soil Assessment in Smallholder Farms in Embu County, Kenya

Abstract Four proximal soil sensors were tested at four smallholder farms in Embu County, Kenya: a portable X-ray fluorescence sensor (PXRF), a mobile phone application for soil color determination by photography, a dual-depth electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensor, and a LED-based soil optical reflectance sensor. Measurements were made at 32–43 locations at each site. Topsoil samples were analyzed for plant-available nutrients (N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, and Fe), pH, total nitroge...

Agriculture is the cultivation of land and breeding of animals (livestock), plants and fungi to produce food, feed, fiber and many other desired products to sustain and enhance life. The study of agriculture can lead to a variety of careers, including those associated with consulting, farming, management and research. Afribary publishes latest agriculture topics for students. Browse through Agriculture projects, agriculture project topics, Agriculture thesis, seminars, research papers etc. All papers and research works in agriculture and its sub-fields.

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Biosystems & Agricultural Engineering: Literature Review

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What is a literature review

The term "literature review" can mean different things in different contexts.  All share in common the idea of examining the scholarly literature on a topic.  It is the end result that differs:

An Annotated Bibliography is " a bibliography that includes brief explanations or notes for each reference" (from Dictionary.com )  The notes may be evaluative or simply a summary.

A literature review can be free-standing article. "A review article or review of the literature article considers the state and progress of current literature on a given topic or problem by organizing, integrating, and evaluating previously published books and articles. In short, a review article is a critical evaluation of material that has already been published." ( Writing Literature Reviews )  "The purpose is to offer an overview of significant literature published on a topic." (Write a Literature Review )

A literature review is a vital part of research papers including theses and dissertations.  "Surveying the literature is necessary because scholarship is cumulative -- no matter what you write, you are standing on someone else's shoulders. Scholars must say something new while connecting what they say to what has already been said." ( Writing Literature Reviews );

Below are some useful links for writing a literature review.

Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting It - University of Toronto

Online Articles & Chapters on Lit Reviews

• Conducting a Literature Review — The Example of Sustainability in Supply Chains Dr. Stefan Seuring et al. Research Methodologies in Supply Chain Management 2005, pp 91-106. [Chapter]
• Writing a Literature Review by Roy F. Baumeister. The Portable Mentor, 2013, pp 119-132. [Chapter]
• Literature Reviews: Analysis, Planning, and Query Techniques. by Wilhelm, William J. and Kaunelis, Davis. Delta Pi Epsilon Journal; Spring / Summer 2005, Vol. 47 Issue 2, p91-106, 16p more... less... This article presents proper techniques for planning, organizing and conducting a reliable literature search using electronic databases that index business education scholarly publications.
• A Critical Realist Guide to Developing Theory with Systematic Literature Reviews. Okoli, Chitu. Rochester: Social Science Research Network, 2012. [Working Paper]
• Doing a Literature Review Knopf, Jeffrey W. PS, Political Science & Politics 39.1 (2006): 127-32. [Article]

• Literature Review / Richard Race Source: The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods / Lisa M. Given (2008). Database: Sage Research Methods

Related interest

• Research Writing Teams as a Form of Mentoring for Graduate Students by Fanni L. Coward, Stacy A. Jacob . Dimensions in Mentoring, 2012, pp 167-179 [Chapter]
• Practical recommendations to help students bridge the research-implementation gap and promote conservation. Pietri, D. M., et al. (2013). Conservation Biology, 27(5), 958-967.

Video Summarizing the Literature Review Process

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Courtesy of the University of North Carolina State University Libraries

Ebooks on lit reviews

Print resouces on lit reviews

Systematic Review compared to a Literature Review

Kysh, Lynn (2013): Difference between a systematic review and a literature review. [figshare]. Available at:  http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.766364

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