article on value of games in education

• Our Mission

Games Can Have a Powerful Impact on Learning

A conversation between the writers of two new books on using games across the curriculum to promote social and emotional learning and civics skills.

For educators, it’s always nice to find like-minded colleagues who also study similar topics. For me, one of those people is Karen (Kat) Schrier, who like me is interested in using games to support learning.

As it happens, both Schrier and I have new books out on that topic. Mine, titled Gaming SEL: Games as Transformational to Social and Emotional Learning , builds on a publication I co-authored on leveraging technology for social and emotional learning programs. I map games like Kind Words , Awkward Moments , Florence , and Walden, a game , to SEL competencies.

Schrier’s new book, We the Gamers: How Games Teach Ethics and Civics , shares best practices for using games to teach ethics and civics skills, such as communication, critical thinking, empathy, and reflection. She connects games to civics and ethics frameworks and standards, and discusses board, card, and video games, like Minecraft , Executive Command , Fortnite , When Rivers Were Trails , PolitiCraft , Quandary , Civics! An American Musical , and Animal Crossing: New Horizons .

We hope our books guide teachers to make the most out of games, whether learning is in person or remote, and that they use them wisely, compassionately, and thoughtfully. Recently, Schrier and I spoke about these opportunities, as well as interesting findings from our books.

FARBER: With thoughtful guidance, games can help children manage emotions, demonstrate empathic concern, and exhibit prosocial behaviors—games can be effective as a practice space to cultivate these skills. I discovered that there was no book for teachers on how to integrate games to teach SEL through the curriculum, which was why I wrote mine. What brought you to write your book, and why now?

SCHRIER: The topic of my book—how to use games to teach ethics and civics—has been percolating in my head for 15 years because I think these skills are so important to teach. They should be practiced in K–12, but they’re also lifelong skills.

The topic has always been timely, but I think the past couple of years have shown us that ethics and civics skills are absolutely necessary. The world is grappling with multiple crises—a global pandemic, systemic racism, climate change. We need people who can work together to solve the pressing problems of our time. And we need to teach our students how to solve these types of problems wisely, ethically, equitably, and compassionately. How can we repair and restore our world? I think it is as timely as it gets to be teaching these kinds of skills, and what better way to teach them than through games?

A major part of my book is showing teachers how to use games in the classroom effectively and equitably. Another aspect of the book is to show how kids are already engaging in civics through games—they’re communicating, sharing, problem-solving, and designing. Playing is a form of civic engagement!

FARBER: There are many ways students can play games for learning: in teams—like in educational escape room games—individually, or as a whole class. In each of these approaches, games can be viewed as a shared experience. In my book, I compare good video game experiences to learning that takes place on field trips. How do you see games in classrooms as an opening to a conversation or discussion?

SCHRIER: I think that’s a great way of putting it, that games are an opening to a conversation. It’s not like, “Here, just play a game and you’ll learn!” The game is part of the journey, but there’s so much more than that. A teacher can use activities around the game, with the game, or through the game, and students can continue to discuss, deliberate, and apply the learning beyond the game.

For instance, we can use the game When Rivers Were Trails in the classroom to better understand and discuss Indigenous perspectives on history, land, and cultural practices. The game is based on the Anishinaabeg (the Anishinaabe peoples) and follows the player as they are displaced from their lands during the Allotment Act era of the 1890s. Players can explore the land and interact with other characters. Teachers can use the game as a starting point for discussing Indigenous cultural practices, or for having students express their own cultural practices.

Likewise, take a game like Mission US [Schrier is on the Mission US advisory board]. In the first module, you play as a printer’s apprentice in Revolutionary Era Boston, and you have a moment there where you come across an incident that we commonly call the Boston Massacre. But as a player of the game, you see a unique series of randomized perspectives of that incident. And everybody in your class actually sees a different set of perspectives of that incident.

The teacher can then facilitate a discussion as to why you each see different perspectives on this moment and how those differing perspectives may lead to differing interpretations of the Boston Massacre. The class begins to realize that history is not just one person’s account or one interpretation of the past—there could be multiple interpretations of an event. The teacher can then also help students apply that to a current event or something that might have happened that day in school. Practicing these discussion and interpretation skills contributes to our understanding of civic problems and ethical dilemmas, and helps us become critical, ethical thinkers. The game is just a start to that conversation.

FARBER: Both you and I are advisory board members for Quandary , and the game is featured in both of our books. Published by the nonprofit Learning Games Network, it presents players with a series of thought experiments—dilemmas that do not have concrete solutions. It’s designed for middle school and features lesson plans for Earth science and geography, history and social studies, and English language arts. How does Quandary teach ethics and perspective-taking?

SCHRIER: What I really like about Quandary is that what is valued is not getting to a so-called “right answer,” but rather how you use evidence and input from citizens to create a possible solution. Two students could arrive at the same solution, but they may use evidence differently. The game supports the practice of civics and ethics skills because you need to analyze evidence and perspectives and build an argument. It breaks down the steps that you might take to solve a real-world civics or ethics problem.

Quandary allows players to inhabit a new, fantastical world and think about the civic decisions we might make in it. Players are citizens in a fictional society on a new planet and need to think through the different decisions that this new society is facing. We have to solicit input from fellow citizens, weigh the pros and cons of different perspectives, and think through possible choices and consequences to make the best decisions. Teachers can also have students apply those skills to real issues in our society.

• Jan 26, 2023

The Value and Side-Effects of Games in Education

Games have been used as a learning tool for centuries, and in recent years, there has been a renewed interest in the use of games as an instrument of education (Gee, 2003), with video games having evolved as a source of entertainment for more than 20 years. Most obviously, huge technological developments have made it possible for designers to construct complex digital worlds with significantly better sound and graphics (Olbur, 2003). As a result of these significant technological advancements, games have been utilized in schools to engage students and make learning more interactive and fun (Gee, 2003). They are particularly effective in teaching subjects such as mathematics and science, as they can provide a hands-on and interactive way to learn complex concepts. The arts, like language and history, are also presented in engaging and interactive ways through visual sources to complement the literacy-heavy aspect of these subjects (Gee, 2003). While games in education have the potential to enhance student engagement and motivation and improve learning outcomes, excessive use of games can lead to negative side effects such as decreased attention span and lack of critical thinking, therefore, a balanced and appropriate use of games in education is crucial to fully utilize its advantages and minimize its lacking qualities (Gee, 2003).

One of the significant advantages of games in education includes effectiveness in increasing student motivation and engagement (Prensky, 2001). Some disciplines may be perceived by many students as being challenging, abstract, and dull. Students are supposed to learn while playing the curriculum's games, so they can enjoy the learning experience. The learning process will become enjoyable, captivating, and successful if fun is incorporated into it. An important analysis of educational games incorporates the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as the two types of motivation. Extrinsic motivation is linked to rewards, but intrinsic motivation is the desire to do the activity for one's own purpose because they find it enjoyable and hard. These two motives may have varying effects on students' learning outcomes, for example, students who played educational games were more likely to be engaged in the learning process (Gee, 2003), and had a better understanding of the material than those who did not partake in gaming (Prensky 2003).

Games can also be used to teach problem-solving skills, critical thinking, and collaboration, with a better understanding of teamwork achieved by students, in comparison to those who did not play the games (Gee, 2003). Games are entertaining and participatory, and students respond easily to this kind of learning environment, with a heightened motivation to learn which is integral to a beneficial education (Kirkland & O’Riordan, 2006). When played in pairs or groups, games have the effect of giving students safety in numbers. It is practically impossible to sit idly by and not become involved in games, particularly when they are interesting. They are naturally attracted together and bond in the cozy competitive setting of the game – inspired to learn through games as a social need (Kirkland & O’Riordan, 2006). Games can help with student integration and can promote a collaborative and social learning environment. For example, strategy games can help students learn how to think ahead and plan for multiple outcomes, while role-playing games can teach communication and teamwork (Gee,2003).

By giving students more influence over the learning process, setting clear goals, pushing them, encouraging cooperation, employing criterion-based assessments, and adding novelty to the environment, educators can learn from video games about how to improve learning settings (Olbur, 2003). In order to put students in states of "flow," well-designed learning environments make use of many of these design elements. Educational strategies like problem-based learning environments, case-based reasoning, learning through participation in communities of practice, or inquiry-based learning all put students in active roles while pursuing objectives that are important to them (Olbur, 2003).

Games integrate personalized learning experiences into the curriculum, and with the use of adaptive learning technology, games can adjust to the individual needs and abilities of each student. This can help to ensure that each student is working at their appropriate level and progressing at their own pace (Huitt, 2004). With instantaneous, real-time feedback from digital learning games on each player's performance, educators can use this information to modify their teaching methods to better meet the unique needs of each student (Huitt, 2004). This will result in a more targeted use of in-class instruction time and improved learning outcomes.

Although there are many positive sides to gaming in education, there are also negative aspects. One of the main concerns is that excessive gaming can lead to addiction – negatively impacting a student's overall well-being, including academic performance(Rooji et. al, 2011). Video games provide enticing, addictive features of competition and excitement that make them popular leisure activities for youngsters and teenagers (Toto & Limone, 2022). As a result, these players will stop at nothing to advance through the game's levels. In-game settings often make users feel valued, helpful, and at home, with the desire to participate to feel important looming overhead. This frequently happens when someone lacks social pleasure; as a result, playing video games becomes the focal point of their social life and boosts their self-esteem (Toto & Limone, 2022). Studies have shown that excessive gaming can lead to decreased academic achievement, as well as physical and mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders (Rooji et. al, 2011).

Social isolation and a lack of face-to-face communication skills is prevalent in students who excessively game (Rooji et. al. 2011). As students spend more time gaming, they may have less time for social interactions with friends and family, which can negatively impact their social development. Playing games for long periods meant that students were more likely to have poor social relationships (Rooji et. al. 2011). With these lacking social skills, impulsivity and awkwardness, children would retreat back into their games – spending even more time on the practice. The claim suggests a strong reliance on video games as a source of leisure. Bullying, issues at home, or issues at school can all lead to social isolation, and children may gravitate to video games when they feel cut off from their friends. Video games satisfy a child's need to succeed and a sense of belonging. In addition to being simpler than real relationships, video games also offer a phony form of social contact.

Games can also hurt academic performance, with students who played games for long periods being more likely to have lower grades (Rooji et. al. 2011). Students who played games for long periods were also more likely to have a lower level of academic achievement (Lemmens et. al. 2009). Gaming physically impacts academic achievement because students are too engrossed in the game to complete their assignments or prepare for class (Lemmens et. al. 2009). Gaming not only affects performance in a direct way but also increases hostility, which is frequently associated with behavioral issues at school and poor academic achievement. Playing video games takes time away from homework, social interactions, and other school-related tasks (Lemmens et. al. 2009).

In conclusion, there are various opportunities to include gaming in education. Games can be a valuable tool for improving student engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes in the classroom. However, it is important to note that excessive use of games in education may lead to negative side effects such as addiction, lack of critical thinking, and poor academic performance. In the long run, this can affect the overall performance and progress of the students. Therefore, it is important to use games in education in a balanced and appropriate manner and to consider the potential negative effects when implementing them in the classroom.

Bibliographic References

Evans, G. (2018). How Games are Designed to Increase Students’ Motivation in Learning Physics? A Literature Review . https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/335/1/012065/pdf

Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Huitt, W. (2004). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Kirkland, D., & O’Riordan, F. (2006). Games as an Engaging Teaching and Learning Technique: Learning or playing? http://icep.ie/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Kirkland_et_al.pdf

Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Development and validation of a game addiction scale for adolescents. Media Psychology, 12(1), 77-95.

Olbur, A. (2003). Video Games in Education . http://www.savie.ca/SAGE/Articles/1064_000_SQUIRE_2003.pdf

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29.

Toto, G. A., & Limone, P. (2022). Signs, mechanisms and consequences of videogame addictions: educational strategies and rehabilitation . https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3265/paper_4924.pdf Van Eck, R. (2006). Digital game-based learning: It's not just the digital natives who are restless. EDUCAUSE Review, 41(2), 16-30. Van Rooij, A. J., Schoenmakers, T. M., Vermulst, A. A., Van den Eijnden, R. J., & Van de Mheen, D. (2011). Problematic video game use among adolescents: The relationship with school performance and problem behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(11), 1437-1447.

Visual Sources

Cover Photo: HERs, t. (2022, March 6). the*gameHERs | How Gaming Can Help Your Creative Flow . The*gameHERs. https://thegamehers.com/blog/get-creative-how-gaming-can-help-you-to-achieve-your-creative-flow-state

Figure 1: Global, H. H. (2022, December 21). How To Write A Case Study: Topic Samples, Types, and Data Collection . Homework Help. https://www.homeworkhelpglobal.com/us/blog/how-to-develop-good-study-habits/

Figure 2: Freepik. (2021, December 5). Young students learning together during a group study Free Photo . https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/young-students-learning-together-during-group-study_21076687.htm

Figure 3: Lee, C. T. (2020b, November 2). Video game addiction not a problem for most kids, but some gamers face serious issues later in life . Study Finds. https://studyfinds.org/video-game-addition-gamers-face-serious-issues/

Figure 4: Karageorghis, A. (2021, August 18). How to cope with exam failure: putting it into perspective - MyTutor Blog . https://www.mytutor.co.uk/blog/students/exam-failure/

The life of a student is not easy. During academic study, students have endless lectures to attend, accomplish academic projects, participate in curricular activities, and prepare for exams. In a busy lifestyle, it can be challenging for students to concentrate on the writing task and prepare the desired quality work. Lack of confidence in their ability can make the writing task more difficult for students. Sometimes their academic lives bring so many hurdles for them that lose their interest and focus on the writing process. Getting support from Australian Assignment Help services is a great way to finish a project successfully. The experts in writing services provide valuable support to students in their writing tasks. Their guidance allows students to…

I'm James Williamson, a results-driven Digital Marketing Strategist with a passion for driving online success. At MyAssignment.Live , we redefine academic success, offering unparalleled services in online essays, writing, and assignments. With a commitment to excellence, I ensure every task is meticulously crafted, meeting the highest academic standards. Elevate your grades and experience top-tier assistance that goes beyond expectations. Connect with me to unlock a world of academic triumphs and embark on a journey towards unparalleled success!

Greetings! Thanks for the interesting article.I am sure that many of the games used in teaching allow students to learn the material better.However, I still find writing assignments difficult, and I hope that the experts in this field will be able to write my essay today . From the feedback, I found out that they can perform assignments in a couple of days at the best quality. Another advantage is not an expensive price, as my classmates paid much more for the same work.

we encourage you to visit this hip essay writing service called writehw.com if you need some help with homework as a college student.

Website: https://writehw.com/

Phone: +1(857)399-2684

Edikan Victoria Inemeh-Etete

Arcadia, has many categories starting from Literature to Science. If you liked this article and would like to read more, you can subscribe from below or click the bar and discover unique more  experiences  in our articles in many categories

Let the posts come to you.

Thanks for submitting!

The added value of game elements: better training performance but comparable learning gains

• Research Article
• Open access
• Published: 26 June 2023
• Volume 71 , pages 1917–1939, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Manuel Ninaus   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4664-8430 1 , 2 , 3   na1 ,
• Rodolpho Cortez 1 , 4   na1 ,
• Izabel Hazin 4 ,
• Kristian Kiili 5 ,
• Silke M. Wortha 6 ,
• Elise Klein 7 , 8 ,
• Elisabeth M. Weiss 2 &
• Korbinian Moeller 3 , 6 , 9  

1908 Accesses

2 Citations

6 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Even though game elements can increase motivation and engagement, they also might distract learners and thereby decrease performance and learning outcomes. In the current study, we investigated the effects of intrinsically integrated game elements on performance and learning outcomes. In a pre-post training study, 85 adult participants were randomly assigned either to the game-based or non-game-based training condition. Participants trained their fraction magnitude understanding with digital number line estimation tasks on five consecutive days (á 15–20 min). The learning outcomes were evaluated using a paper-based number line estimation task. While participants in both the game-based and non-game-based condition improved their fraction magnitude understanding from pretest to posttest, their improvement did not differ significantly. However, during the training, participants in the game-based condition responded more accurately but were slower than those in the non-game-based condition. The current results suggest that game elements might increase participants’ cognitive engagement and change their priorities or strategies (i.e., accuracy over speed) during learning. Nevertheless, better training performance did not lead to superior learning outcomes.

Similar content being viewed by others

A Fun-Accuracy Trade-Off in Game-Based Learning

Serious games in high-stakes assessment contexts: a systematic literature review into the game design principles for valid game-based performance assessment

Does Gamification Work? Analyzing Effects of Game Features on Learning in an Adaptive Scenario-Based Trainer

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

In the last ten years, the use of game-based learning has increased significantly (for a review, see Hwang & Chen, 2022 ). One line of research indicates that game-based learning (i.e., using game elements in learning materials) seems to encourage learners to invest more effort in an instructional task (e.g., Plass et al., 2015 ; for meta-analyses see Clark et al., 2016 ; Sailer & Homner, 2020 ), often referred to as engagement (Fredricks et al., 2004 ; Schwartz & Plass, 2020 ). This increased engagement might also improve learning outcomes, as demonstrated in meta-analyses (Sailer & Homner, 2020 ; Wouters et al., 2013 ). The use of game elements, however, might also be considered to be in contrast with common multimedia learning principles, which typically suggest keeping learning material as minimalistic as possible to reduce the cognitive load and working memory demands (e.g., Mayer & Fiorella, 2014 ). That is, additional (game) elements embedded in the learning material might distract learners and/or divert attention away from the essential content of the learning material and thus impair learning and/or performance—such distractors are often referred to as seductive details (e.g., Rey, 2012 ). Although recent studies have shown important advances in this research field, more details about the use of game elements in learning material are still necessary (e.g., Zainuddin et al., 2020 ).

As such, the current study set out to evaluate whether the integration of game elements to an already established math learning task (i.e., number line estimation) moderates learning and performance. Accordingly, in the following, we will first provide a brief overview of different theoretical rationales arguing for and against the inclusion of game elements in learning tasks. Subsequently, we summarize and discuss different research design approaches in the field of game-based learning and briefly describe the theoretical basis of using the number line estimation task as a training tool within the context of basic research on numerical cognition.

Engagement, cognitive load, and emotional design in game-based learning

The use of game elements or game-based learning is often justified by increasing the engagement of learners (e.g., Garris et al., 2002 ; Greipl et al., 2021 ; Mekler et al., 2017 ; Ninaus et al., 2015 ; Plass et al., 2015 ). Typically, engagement refers to actively participating in a task or learning activity, as opposed to being disinterested, apathetic, or only superficially involved (Newmann, 1992 ). In other words, engagement is considered to be the active and focused investment of effort in a task or learning environment (Schwartz & Plass, 2020 ). While there may be some variations in how engagement is defined, the most common view is that it involves three dimensions: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive (Fredricks et al., 2004 ). Although these dimensions are separate, they are also interconnected. Here, we will focus on cognitive engagement, which is often referred to as the degree of mental investment that learners put into their learning activities, which also includes thoughtful and strategic thinking to overcome problems, master difficult skills, or comprehend complex ideas (Fredricks et al., 2004 ; Meece et al., 1998 ). Accordingly, cognitive engagement can be assessed by, for instance, the number of solutions generated or the amount of time spent on a task (e.g., Schwartz & Plass, 2020 ). In the context of game-based learning, game elements might moderate users’ willingness to invest mental effort during task execution which leads to generative processing, i.e., cognitive processing aimed at making sense of the presented (learning) material (Mayer, 2019 ), and better performance. In game-based learning, different game elements or, following Bedwell’s taxonomy (e.g., Bedwell et al., 2012 ), game attributes such as immersion, game fiction, and challenge can be used. When a learning task with game elements becomes a learning game or remains “only” a gamified learning task is still a matter of debate (Plass et al., 2020 ; Tokac et al., 2019 ) and is beyond the scope of the current article.

Previous research on emotional design demonstrated that adding game elements to learning and cognitive tasks can increase cognitive engagement, thereby modulating learning and performance (Bernecker & Ninaus, 2021 s; Ninaus et al., 2015 ; Plass et al., 2015 ). However, using game elements may also have detrimental effects (for a review see Toda et al., 2018 ), such as lower scores in exams (de-Marcos et al., 2014 ), reduced motivation (Hanus & Fox, 2015 ), or even distract learners from the actual learning task (Kocadere & Çağlar, 2015 ).

According to the seminal cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988 ) and cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005 ), any information entering our cognitive system is processed in working memory before it is transferred to long-term memory. As working memory resources are limited, learners’ information processing capacity is limited and must be allocated among extraneous, essential, and generative processing (for a cognitive perspective on game-based learning, see Mayer, 2020 ). In this context, extraneous processing refers to cognitive processing that does not serve the instructional goal of the learning task or the game. Essential processing, on the other hand, is needed to hold and manipulate incoming information in working memory, while generative processing reflects making sense of this incoming information (learning material). Accordingly, instructional designers usually aim to optimize learning by decreasing extraneous processing, managing essential processing, and increasing generative processing. Importantly, it needs to be considered that this also means—at least according to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005 )—that although game elements increase extraneous processing, they may nevertheless foster generative processing by increasing engagement and the willingness to exert mental effort (Mayer, 2020 ). As such, a careful balance of game elements and instructional features is necessary not to hinder learning when using games. Intrinsic integration is a game design approach that is suggested to enhance learning (Habgood & Ainsworth, 2011 ; Kafai, 1996 ). It refers to the general idea that there must be an intrinsic association between the game’s core mechanics and the learning content or learning mechanic (Habgood & Ainsworth, 2011 ). Further, according to the RETAIN model (Gunter et al., 2008 ) which was developed to design and evaluate educational games, the tight coupling of learning content and the game’s fantasy and/or story (i.e., embedding content into the fantasy) is essential. In other words, learning effects might be enhanced if subject matter and learning content is reflected in the respective game actions in an engaging and pedagogically meaningful way. In line with this, Kiili et al. ( 2019b ) have suggested that also learning domain-specific instructional knowledge is another relevant factor to be utilized in intrinsic integration. All in all, the aim is that intrinsic integration leads to an interaction that facilitates engagement and immersion in academic learning content (Gunter et al., 2008 ). However, there is emerging evidence that many learning games suffer from a lack of intrinsic integration between the learning content and the core game mechanics (Kiili et al., 2019b ). It seems that either instructional or game design aspects dominate the design of learning games too strongly. However, the concept of intrinsic integration has not been studied extensively yet.

Nevertheless, Habgood and Ainsworth ( 2011 ) identified that an intrinsically integrated version of a math learning game improved learning significantly more than an extrinsically integrated version. The extrinsic game version was based on quiz mechanics, a convenient and thus popular way to integrate instructional material into a game. In this game version, participating children needed to answer a multiple-choice quiz solving divisions at the end of each game level in which zombie skeletons had to be defeated. In contrast, in the intrinsically integrated version of the game, math learning content was directly integrated into the game mechanics as players had to choose different types of attacks that represented a divisor (e.g., a single swipe of a sword to divide by 2, a shove with a shield to divide by 3) to defeat zombie skeletons with numbers printed on their chests by means of a division into equally sized portions. Interestingly, learning performance and long-term outcomes were better and children spent more time using the intrinsic version of the game.

In line with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005 ), extrinsically integrated game elements might increase extraneous processing, as these game elements do not directly serve the instructional goal. In contrast, intrinsically integrated game elements or games might reduce extraneous processing and ensure that players process essential learning content, a prerequisite for learning. The desired motivational effects of intrinsically integrated game elements are assumed to facilitate generative processing. Further, one might speculate that intrinsic integration should also support managing essential processing if relevant instructional approaches are successfully utilized in the integration. However, research on this conceptual issue is sparse, particularly to what extent intrinsic integration interacts with essential processing goes beyond the current study and needs to be investigated with well-controlled experimental manipulations in other studies. For instance, studies might want to systematically manipulate the degree of intrinsic integration and assess the different types of cognitive processing.

Another issue of the game-based learning research field seems to be the lack of systematic investigations of the specific benefits of game elements (cf. Boyle et al., 2016 ). In particular, a meaningful comparison between game-based and “conventional” learning is not a trivial task to achieve. Often, a game-based learning approach is compared to regular classroom activities, such as listening to lectures or working with books and PowerPoint slides (for meta-analyses see Sailer & Homner, 2020 ; Wouters et al., 2013 ). Importantly, however, this ignores many factors such as the underlying instructional approach, feedback opportunities, interpersonal interaction, use of technology, or instructor bias (Chen et al., 2021 ; Liao et al., 2010 ; Mayer, 2014 ). Consequently, even when positive/negative effects are found for game-based learning, it is often not clear whether this originated from the use of a game or specific game elements or might have other reasons (e.g., the presence of real-time feedback in game-based learning vs. delayed or even no feedback in regular classroom teaching). Accordingly, a well-matched and thus well-comparable control condition needs to be implemented to investigate the effects of game-based learning more specifically.

Number line estimation as a basic learning mechanic

Fractions are considered a particularly challenging topic in mathematics instruction in schools (Benbow & Faulkner, 2008 ; Booth & Newton, 2012 ), but even adults frequently fail to process them correctly (for a review, see Siegler et al., 2013 ). One of the major difficulties when dealing with fractions is the actual understanding of fraction magnitude. Importantly, fraction understanding was observed to be predictive for later more complex mathematical skills such as algebra (e.g., Booth & Newton, 2012 ). A lack of proper fraction understanding often persists into adulthood (Stigler et al., 2010 ).

A (mental) number line is a frequently employed metaphor for the mental representation of number magnitude. Consequently, the so-called number line estimation task is an often-used approach to measure and train the understanding of (fraction) number magnitude in children (e.g., Fazio et al., 2016 ) as well as adults (e.g., Sidney et al., 2019a ). While one might assume that the majority of research was done on children (cf. Schneider et al., 2018 for a review), age ranges vary considerably depending on the research question at hand, this means from children in kindergarten/preschool (e.g., Praet & Desoete, 2014 ) over primary (e.g., Link et al., 2013 ) and secondary school (Gross et al., 2018 , see also Nuraydin et al., 2023 for evidence from large-scale data) to adults (e.g., Gallagher-Mitchell et al., 2018 ; Sullivan et al., 2011 ) and elderly (e.g., Greipl et al., 2020 ; Matthews, et al., 2022 ) or even brain-damaged participants (e.g., Mihulowicz et al., 2015 ).

In this well-evaluated and established task (Link et al., 2013 ; Siegler & Opfer, 2003 ), the spatial position of a target number (e.g., 3/4) on a number line (e.g., ranging from 0 to 1) needs to be estimated (e.g., where goes 3/4 on a number line from 0 to 1?). It was repeatedly found that learners become more accurate (e.g., Fazio et al., 2016 ) and/or faster in their responses (e.g., Obersteiner et al., 2013 ; Wilson et al., 2009 ) when estimating or comparing the magnitude of numbers with training (for a review see Moeller et al., 2015 ). Importantly, number line-based training has also been shown to be effective in improving (conceptual) magnitude understanding of fractions and rational numbers (Fazio et al., 2016 ; Gunderson et al., 2019 ; Opfer et al., 2016 ; Siegler et al., 2013 ; van’t Noordende et al., 2016 ). Interventions using number line estimation as a basic learning mechanic have shown higher and better outcomes as compared to other instructional methods, such as area models (Hamdan & Gunderson, 2017 ). Moreover, compared to interventions working with part-whole and area models, only number line-based training approaches also led to transfer effects onto untrained tasks such as fraction magnitude comparisons and fraction arithmetic (Gersten et al., 2017 ; Hamdan & Gunderson, 2017 ; Sidney et al., 2019b ). Consequently, number line estimation constitutes a well-established and validated learning task with simple learning mechanics.

Present study

The use of game elements or game-based learning in education needs to be investigated carefully (Plass et al., 2020 ). On the one hand, some theoretical approaches argue that the use of game elements might increase extraneous processing (e.g., Mayer, 2005 ; Sweller, 1988 ). On the other hand, approaches motivated by the emotional design perspective (e.g., Plass et al., 2015 ; for a meta-analysis see Wong & Adesope, 2021 ), argue for the use of game elements to increase different aspects of engagement. Furthermore, the way game elements are integrated or how learning content is reflected by the game’s core mechanic (i.e., intrinsic integration) seems to be another important aspect to be considered in game-based learning research (e.g., Habgood & Ainsworth, 2011 ; Gunter et al., 2008 ; for a systematic review see Kiili et al., 2019b ). Finally, a lack of appropriate control conditions in game-based learning research further impeded clear recommendations on the use of game-based learning so far (for meta-analyses see Sailer & Homner, 2020 ; Wouters et al., 2013 ).

Therefore, the present study employed a simple yet effective math learning task (i.e., number line estimation) as the basic mechanic when designing a learning game to allow for intrinsic integration. That is, we utilized number line estimation as the game’s core mechanic and compared it to a conventional number line estimation task without game elements included. In particular, we compared differences in learning effects from a pretest to a posttest and performance during the training between a game-based version of the number line estimation task and its non-game-based equivalent.

Overall, we expected that both the game-based as well as the non-game-based version of the number line estimation training should yield significant learning effects. That is, participants in both training conditions should increase their fraction estimation accuracy from a pretest to a posttest using a paper–pencil version of the number line estimation task (Hypothesis 1) (Fazio et al., 2016 ).

On the other hand, as suggested from an emotional design and intrinsic integration perspective, we expected that learning and thus accuracy gains from pretest to posttest should be more pronounced for the game-based as compared to the non-game-based intervention (Hypothesis 2) (Habgood & Ainsworth, 2011 ; Wong & Adesope, 2021 ).

Finally, in line with the previous hypothesis and the assumption that the use of game elements leads to increased (cognitive) engagement (e.g., Bernecker & Ninaus, 2021 ; Plass et al., 2015 ), participants might invest more mental effort in solving the tasks in the game-based training. Accordingly, we expected that participants will perform better in the game-based version of the number line estimation during the actual training as compared to its non-game-based version (Hypotheses 3), as reflected by higher accuracy and faster response duration.

Participants

For this study, 90 students from a German university were recruited and randomly assigned to the game-based ( n  = 41) or the non-game-based training ( n  = 49). We excluded 5 participants from further analyses. Two participants (non-game-based training) were excluded because of extremely poor performance (more than 4 SD below the sample mean). Three participants (all in the non-game-based condition) were excluded because of problems with data acquisition (i.e., pretest items not recorded for one participant; training sessions missing for two participants).

Consequently, 85 adult students were considered in the analyses (game: n = 41; non-game: n = 44). All of these participants were German native speakers with normal or corrected to normal vision and reported no history of psychiatric or neurological disorders or drug abuse. Due to technical problems, records on the age of 37 participants were lost. The remaining participants had a mean age of 23.60 years ( SD  = 3.56, range 18 to 33 years). As all participants were recruited from a student population, it may well be assumed that age should be distributed comparably across those with missing data. The local Ethics Committee approved the study. All participants provided written informed consent before the study and received monetary compensation.

Study design

The experiment was conducted as a pre-post training study with five consecutive days of training between the pretest and posttest. For each training session, which lasted for approximately 15–20 min, depending on the participants’ performance, participants came to the lab at the university. The participants were randomly assigned to either the game-based (n = 41) or the non-game-based (n = 44) training condition. A paper–pencil-based number line estimation task was used as a pretest and posttest (see more below).

Training procedure

We used two different versions of a fraction number line estimation training (i.e., game-based vs. non-game-based training version). In both versions of the training, participants had to indicate the correct spatial position of a target fraction (e.g., 9/20) on a number line ranging from 0 to 1. That is, through the training, participants should improve in understanding the number magnitude of fractions. Both versions of the training employed the same task and numerical content. However, the game-based training utilized typical game elements (cf. Bedwell et al., 2012 ), such as visual aesthetics (i.e., game-like visual design), game fiction (i.e., game narrative), as well as a virtual incentive system (i.e., coins & life points). The non-game-based version of the training did not include any of these elements. The items in both versions were identical and used fractions with a numerator ranging from 1 to 25 and a denominator ranging from 2 to 30. Each training session employed the same 48 items which were completed twice (i.e., 96 trials) and in randomized order. In total, one training session consisted of 12 levels, each one involving eight items. Participants had to come to the lab for each training session and work on the items using a computer. Participants were instructed to answer as quickly and accurately as possible.

To evaluate potential performance improvement across all five training sessions, we calculated the mean Percentage Absolute Error (PAE; [|estimate—actual location| /numerical range] * 100; cf. Booth & Siegler, 2006 ) and response duration for the first answer (time of item onset to response) on each trial for each session (see below). The following will give a more detailed description of the game-based and non-game-based training tasks.

Game-based number line estimation training

For the game-based training version, we used the Semideus rational number environment, which was already successfully utilized in previous studies for evaluating fraction knowledge in Finnish and German schoolchildren (Kiili et al., 2018a , 2018b ; Ninaus et al., 2021 ).

In the game-based version, the number line from 0 to 1 was implemented and visualized as a walkable platform in the game (see Fig.  1 ). Regarding the game’s fantasy context, participants controlled the character Semideus, who tries to recover gold coins that a goblin has stolen from Zeus and hidden along the trails of Mount Olympos. Semideus has discovered notes that mark (in the form of fractions) where the gold coins are hidden along the path. Regarding the core mechanic of the game, participants could move the avatar along the walkable platform—i.e., the number line—to the correct position with the help of the arrow keys of a computer keyboard. By walking on the path, participants could experience fraction magnitudes in a meaningful context (walking distance on the path). After reaching the estimated position, participants should press the space bar to lock that position and dig coins from the ground. Participants had 10 s to estimate the correct position. In case they failed to answer or answered incorrectly (i.e., 94% accuracy or less), the avatar was struck by lightning and lost virtual life points, which were represented by an orange bar on the right of the screen. For correct answers, participants found coins, i.e., earned points—the more precise their answer, the more points they earned (i.e., 100–99% accuracy would earn 500 coins, 98–97% accuracy would earn 300 coins, 96–95% accuracy would earn 100 coins). Moreover, as feedback, the correct position (100% accuracy) was shown with a vertical, green line (see also Fig.  1 , Panel C). Participants had to estimate the location of each fraction/trial until it was estimated correctly before they could proceed to the next task. On the left of the screen, a green bar showed participants how far they had progressed in the level they were currently working on. At the end of each level, participants also received delayed feedback about their performance (3-star rating). For completing the level, they earned one star; for collecting at least 2000 points, they could earn a second star; and for maintaining at least 80% of the life points, they could earn a third star.

Examples of the game-based version. The onset of the number line estimation task ( A ); negative feedback ( B ); positive feedback ( C ); overall feedback showed at the end of each level ( D )

Non-game-based number line estimation training

For the non-game-based version, we again used the Semideus rational number environment but stripped from all game elements described above. That is, we created a conventional, digital version of the number line estimation task with minimalistic implementation. In particular, we used a simple grey background with a black number line from 0 to 1 (see Fig.  2 ). The non-game-based training did neither utilize the narrative of Semideus (fantasy context) nor any virtual incentives (i.e., coins, life points). Participants had to move a white slider along the number line to the position of the respective target fraction by using the arrow keys of the computer keyboard—identical to the game-based training. Again, participants had 10 s to estimate the correct position by pressing the space bar at the selected position. In case they failed to answer, or their estimation was not accurate enough (i.e., 94% accuracy or less), a red cross was shown, and—identical to the game-based training—they had to repeat the trial until it was solved correctly. For correct estimations (i.e., 100–95% accuracy), participants were rewarded by simply showing a green checkmark, and the correct position (100% accuracy) was shown with a vertical green line as feedback (see also Fig.  2 ).

Examples of the non-game-based version. The onset of the number line estimation task ( A ); negative feedback ( B ); positive feedback ( C ); overall feedback showed at the end of each level ( D )

Pre-post measures

Participants performed a paper–pencil version of a number line estimation task before (pretest) and after (posttest) the training. The number line ranged from 0 to 1 with the start and endpoint specified and included 96 items/fractions. Participants had to indicate the correct spatial position on the number line for all items. The items used comprised fractions with a numerator ranging from 1 to 25 and a denominator ranging from 2 to 30. That is, the items included one (e.g., 3/7) and two-digit fractions (e.g., 7/27). To investigate any potential improvements, we calculated the mean percentage absolute estimation error (PAE; Booth & Siegler, 2006 ).

Data preprocessing and analyses were performed using R (R Version 4.0.5, R Core Team, 2021 ). Statistical requirements were checked and confirmed before running the planned analyses (i.e., linearity, homogeneity of variance, and normality of residuals) using the R package “performance” (Lüdecke et al., 2021 ). Prior to evaluating any potential training effects, possible performance differences between the two conditions (game-based vs. non-game-based training) at the pretest were examined using a Welch Two Sample t -test. A linear mixed-effects model was fitted to examine potential performance changes in PAE from pretest to posttest. Moreover, changes in PAE and response duration across the five training sessions were also examined by fitting separate linear mixed-effect models.

Linear mixed-effects models were fitted using “lmer” from the “lme4” R package (Bates et al., 2015 ). Linear mixed models provide various methodological and statistical advantages over mixed ANOVAs (Hilbert et al., 2019 ). Importantly, simulation studies show that linear mixed-effects models are very robust even if the distributional assumptions are violated (Schielzeth et al., 2020 ). The p -values for linear mixed-effects models were calculated using Satterthwaite’s degrees of freedom method available with the R package “lmerTest” (Kuznetsova et al., 2017 ). Marginal means were extracted using the “ggeffects” R package (Lüdecke, 2018 ). To support reporting, we used the “report” R package (Makowski et al., 2021 ). The R package ggplot2 (Wickham, 2016 ) was used for visualizing results.

Pretest differences

The Welch Two Sample t -test evaluating the difference of PAE at pretest between the game ( mean  = 4.33, sd  = 1.56) and non-game-based training condition ( mean  = 4.68, sd  = 1.20) did not show a significant difference (difference = 0.35%, 95% CI [-0.95, 0.26], t (74.84) = -1.15, p  = 0.255; Cohen’s d  = 0.25, 95% CI [-0.68, 0.18]).

Pre-post differences—learning outcome

Differences in PAE from pretest to posttest were analyzed by fitting a linear mixed model (see also Fig.  3 ) using Restricted Maximum Likelihood [REML]) to predict PAE with condition (i.e., game-based vs. non-game-based training) and time (pre vs. post) as fixed factors. The model also included a random intercept to account for participants’ individual differences.

PAE changes from pretest to posttest for game-based (petrol) and non-game-based conditions (grey). Points show the PAE of each individual. Squares represent the estimated marginal means. Error bars denote 1 ± standard error

The model’s total explanatory power was substantial (conditional R 2  = 0.50), and the part related to the fixed effects alone (marginal R 2 ) was 0.08. The effect of time was statistically significant ( beta  = -0.54, 95% CI [− 0.91, − 0.16], t (164) = − 2.81, p  = 0.005; Std. beta  = − 0.22, 95% CI [− 0.38, − 0.07]) and indicated that PAE significantly decreased due to the training from pretest to posttest. Neither the effect of condition ( beta  = 0.35, 95% CI [− 0.15, 0.85]; t (164) = 1.36, p  = 0.173; Std. beta  = 0.20, 95% CI [− 0.15, 0.55]) nor the interaction between time and condition was statistically significant ( beta  = − 0.20, 95% CI [− 0.72, 0.32], t (164) = − 0.76, p  = 0.449; Std. beta  = − 0.08, 95% CI [− 0.30, 0.13]).

Training session performance

Descriptive data on PAE and duration across all five training sessions are reported in Table 1 .

PAE : Differences in PAE across the five training sessions were analyzed using a linear mixed-effect model (see Fig.  4 ). In particular, we fitted a linear mixed model using REML to predict PAE by condition (i.e., game-based vs. non-game-based training) and training sessions (i.e., five training sessions) as fixed factors. The model included a random intercept to account for participants’ individual differences in baseline performance and a random slope to account for individual differences in learning rate.

PAE change across training sessions for game-based (petrol) and non-game-based condition (grey). Points show the PAE of each individual. Squares represent the estimated marginal means. Error bars denote 1 ± standard error

The model’s total explanatory power was substantial (conditional R 2  = 0.76), and the part related to the fixed effects alone (marginal R 2 ) was 0.17. The effect of the training session was statistically significant and indicated that PAE decreased significantly over training sessions and, thus, participants improved across training sessions (beta =  − 0.24, 95% CI [− 0.31, − 0.17], t(417) =  − 6.82, p  < 0.001; Std. beta  =  − 0.30, 95% CI [− 0.39, − 0.21]). Furthermore, the effect of the condition was statistically significant (beta = 0.66, 95% CI [0.18, 1.14], t (417) = 2.71, p  = 0.007; Std. beta  = 0.59, 95% CI [0.26, 0.92]) reflecting that participants in the game-based condition committed smaller PAE during the training. However, the interaction effect of session and condition was not statistically significant ( beta  = 0.00742, 95% CI [− 0.09, 0.10], t (417) = 0.15, p  = 0.881; Std. beta  = 0.00915, 95% CI [− 0.11, 0.13]).

Duration : Differences in response duration across the five training sessions were analyzed using a linear mixed-effect model (see Fig.  5 ). In particular, we fitted a linear mixed model using REML to predict response duration by condition (i.e., game-based vs. non-game-based training) and training sessions (i.e., five training sessions) as fixed factors. The model included a random intercept to account for participants’ individual differences in baseline response duration and a random slope to account for individual differences in learning rate.

Change of response duration across training sessions for game-based (petrol) and non-game-based condition (grey). Points show the response duration of each individual. Squares represent the estimated marginal means. Error bars denote 1 ± standard error

The model’s total explanatory power was substantial (conditional R 2  = 0.89) and the part related to the fixed effects alone (marginal R 2 ) was 0.13. The effect of training session was statistically significant indicating that participants became significantly faster across training sessions ( beta  =  − 186.55, 95% CI [− 237.79, − 135.32], t (417) =  − 7.14, p  < 0.001; Std. beta  =  − 0.28, 95% CI [− 0.36, − 0.21]). Furthermore, the effect of condition was statistically significant (beta =  − 421.25, 95% CI [− 822.39, − 20.10], t (417) =  − 2.06, p  = 0.040; Std. beta  =  − 0.46, 95% CI [− 0.83, − 0.09]) and indicated that participants in the game-based condition took more time to respond. Again, however, the interaction effect of session and condition was not statistically significant ( beta  =  − 3.70, 95% CI [− 74.92, 67.51], t (417) =  − 0.10, p  = 0.919; Std. beta  =  − 0.00565, 95% CI [− 0.11, 0.10]).

The current training study compared learning effects for a game-based and an equivalent non-game-based version of a number line estimation task. The results indicated that participants successfully improved their fraction magnitude estimation from pretest to posttest, but no significant differences were identified between training conditions. Furthermore, looking specifically at the training sessions, results revealed that participants estimated fraction magnitudes more accurately in the game-based condition as compared to the non-game-based condition. However, estimation also took more time in the game-based condition compared to the non-game-based condition. In the following, these results will be discussed in more detail.

Pre-Posttest comparisons

In line with our first hypothesis, participants in both conditions improved their fraction estimation accuracy from a paper-based pretest to a posttest. This demonstrates that a digital number line estimation task is an effective instructional approach to foster fraction magnitude estimation skills—even in educated university students who already showed a rather high performance at the pretest. This result is in line with previous studies examining the overall effectiveness of number line-based fraction instruction in general (e.g., Gersten et al., 2017 ; Gunderson et al., 2019 ; Opfer et al., 2016 ; Siegler et al., 2013 ) and game-based instruction in particular (e.g., Fazio et al., 2016 ; Kiili et al., 2018a , 2018b ).

However, in contrast to our second hypothesis, improvements in estimation accuracy from the pretest to the posttest were not significantly more pronounced for the game-based as compared to the non-game-based training. The lack of a statistically significant learning difference between task versions seemed to suggest those game elements—even though not beneficial—did not significantly hamper learning either. Therefore, it seems that game elements cannot always be considered seductive, or at least the potential negative effects were smaller than could be expected in light of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005 ). The current game design was guided by an intrinsic integration approach. That is, the game events were tied to Greek mythology; the number line was implemented as the walkable platform (trails) on the Mount Olympus, and the avatar was seeking hidden coins on the trails. In other words, the learner could experience fraction magnitudes as specific distances on the trails. In the non-game-based version, the learner also could experience the magnitudes, but in a more abstract way, as the mountain scenery and the walking character were not available. This might be a reason that game elements did not disturb learners, which would substantiate the results of Habgood and Ainsworth ( 2011 ), who demonstrated the beneficial effects of intrinsic integration. However, in the current study, we did not compare an intrinsic and extrinsic version of the game. Therefore, to better understand the effects of intrinsic integration, future studies are necessary.

In a similar vein, Schneider et al. ( 2016 ), investigated the effect of decorative pictures and found that not all types of decorative pictures were seductive. Given the right design choices, this means, pictures that evoke motivational and/or (positive) emotional states, as used in emotional design (for a meta-analysis see Wong & Adesope, 2021 ), can also be conducive to learning. In their systematic review on the use of game elements in cognitive assessment, Lumsden and colleagues (2016a) also highlighted that the integration of game elements into tasks needs to be done very carefully. The concept of intrinsic integration (Habgood & Ainsworth, 2011 ; Kafai, 1996 ) might be one way of achieving a balance between the potential positive (i.e., generative processing) and negative (i.e., extraneous processing) effects of game elements (cf. Mayer, 2020 ).

Nevertheless, the current implementation of game elements into a number line estimation task did not yield a significantly larger training effect than a conventional, non-game-based version of the same task. We need to note here though, that the overall performance of participants at the beginning of the training can be considered rather high and thus room for improvement over the course of the training was limited. Consequently, it is also rather unlikely to identify differential effects as the skill level was already high. That is, a study using more difficult fractions or less skilled participants might reveal different results. The study should be replicated with pupils who are less experienced with the use of fractions. Moreover, as the pre-post measure was paper-based, no response duration was recorded, which could have acted as another indicator for learning (e.g. faster response times in the posttest).

The fact that the pre-post measure was paper-based and did not include any game elements, might also explain the lack of differential learning effects (i.e., higher estimation accuracy). Participants in the game-based condition as compared to participants in the non-game-based condition estimated more accurately and took more time per estimation in the training, which might be indicative of increased cognitive engagement (for a more detailed discussion see below). However, as the pre-post measure was done on paper (i.e., different modality) and without game elements, a potential positive effect of game elements on cognitive engagement and, thus, participants’ willingness to invest mental effort might not have carried over to the posttest. At the same time, the potential positive effect of game elements on cognitive engagement during the training might not have been strong enough to be reflected in the learning outcome as assessed with the pre-post measures. Future studies should also consider using delayed posttests to study potential (differential) long-term effects and consolidation processes, which are hardly studied in this field of research. That is, one might find (more) positive or negative effects of game-based learning not immediately but only after longer retention intervals.

Performance in training sessions

Even though we were not able to identify any differential effects on the learning outcome between the two training conditions, our third hypothesis was partly confirmed. Participants indeed were significantly more accurate across training sessions in the game-based training as compared to participants in the non-game-based training. Sailer and Sailer ( 2021 ) reported similar results when comparing flipped classroom learning groups with and without game elements present. They also did not find any differences between the groups in a posttest but identified beneficial effects of using game elements during the learning/training phase on performance. This underscores the importance of studying the actual learning process when investigating the effects of game elements rather than analyzing learning outcomes alone (i.e., pretest–posttest differences).

In the current study, increased performance was only reflected in higher estimation accuracy but not, for instance, by faster response durations. In fact, participants in the game-based training provided more accurate responses but also took longer to estimate their responses across training sessions. Consequently, we can only partly confirm our third hypothesis. Overall, in both conditions, accuracy increased and response duration decreased significantly across training sessions. While this general improvement in accuracy and speed is in line with previous studies on number line estimation training (e.g., Fazio et al., 2016 ; Kiili et al., 2018a , 2018b ; Obersteiner et al., 2013 ; Wilson et al., 2009 ; Wortha et al., 2020 ), the higher accuracy but slower response duration in game-based vs. non-game-based training paint a more complex picture.

In hindsight, the resulting pattern of increased accuracy and response duration makes sense from a cognitive engagement perspective. That is, participants were willing to invest more effort into accurate estimations, which also required more time. In other words, cognitively engaged participants might have been more thoughtful about their estimation strategies to optimize their accuracy leading to longer response durations. Schwartz and Plass ( 2020 ), for instance, consider the amount of time spent on a task an important indicator for cognitive engagement in games. Consequently, the game narrative/fantasy, visual appearance, and virtual incentives increased participants’ willingness to invest more mental effort as compared to participants in the non-game-based training. This is in line with the RETAIN model (Gunter et al., 2008 ) as it emphasizes the importance of properly integrating the educational content into the game story/fantasy, which can influence the perception of relevance in a learning task, consequently impacting the learners’ level of engagement and their behavior during the learning process.

However, the pattern might also indicate that participants in the game-based training might have prioritized accuracy over response duration across training sessions. The opposite appears to be true for participants in the non-game-based training—at least compared to participants in the game-based condition. It seems unlikely that participants in the game-based condition had an overall better understanding of fraction magnitude, as neither in the pretest nor the posttest participants in the game-based condition were more accurate than participants in the non-game-based condition (see also Fig.  3 ). That is, only in the training participants in the game-based condition were more accurate than participants in the non-game condition.

In general, the higher accuracy in game-based training might be a result of increased cognitive engagement, which is defined as the level of mental investment of a learner in a learning activity (Fredricks et al., 2004 ; Schwartz & Plass, 2020 ). While many studies measure cognitive engagement using questionnaires (Greene, 2015 ), the current study needs to rely on behavioral indicators, i.e., performance in the training sessions. Accordingly, the interpretation that the higher accuracy in game-based training is the result of higher cognitive engagement needs to be treated with caution. Nevertheless, previous studies have demonstrated that game elements can increase participants’ level of cognitive engagement so that they invest more mental effort leading to deeper essential and generative processing (e.g., Bernecker & Ninaus, 2021 ; Chang et al., 2016 ; Ninaus et al., 2015 ; Plass et al., 2015 ). Bernecker and Ninaus ( 2021 ), for instance, showed that using game elements in a working memory task reduced task disengagement, which indirectly affected task accuracy via subjective effort. Similarly, Lumsden et al., ( 2016a , 2016b ) showed that participants indicated investing less effort in a cognitive task when no game elements were present compared to when game elements were used in the task. Mekler et al. ( 2017 ) demonstrated that users invested more effort in a task (i.e., quantity and quality of tags in an image annotation task) when game elements were present.

At the same time, increased cognitive engagement might have also led to the observed increased response durations in the game-based training. Wiley et al., ( 2020 ) showed that the use of points—a popular and often extrinsically integrated game element—in a cognitive task increased response durations but also increased error rates as compared to a basic version without game elements. In a different condition, the authors included a narrative to the cognitive task, which did not affect performance metrics. The current study used multiple game elements (i.e., visual aesthetics, game narrative, and a virtual incentive system) and realized principles of intrinsic integration, which might explain the different findings. As such, specific constellations of game elements might shape participants’ behavior in diverse ways. This interpretation, however, goes beyond the current study and needs to be studied more comprehensively and in a systematic fashion in the future. That is, future studies might systematically modulate the presence or absence of single vs. multiple game elements as well as their degree of intrinsic integration.

The fact that the participants spent more time on each task/fraction in the game-based training, however, is in sharp contrast to the extensive literature on the so-called time-on-task hypothesis, i.e., a positive association between learning outcomes and time-on-task (Carroll, 1963 ). Recent evidence suggests, though, that the correlation between time-on-task and learning is weak and that time-on-task is necessary for learning to occur but not sufficient (Godwin et al., 2021 ). In fact, the authors argued that measurements used for time-on-task and learning vary considerably across studies, and so do the associations found. In the current study, we only measured the response duration for each item/fraction, which is only one part of the overall interaction time with the training. Accordingly, it might not be surprising that we did not find results that align with the time-on-task hypothesis (Carroll, 1963 ). An alternative interpretation related to the missing relation between time-on-task and learning outcome might be related to the used pre/posttest. Paper–pencil versions of a number line estimation task were used with no game elements present. In case game elements lead to increased cognitive engagement, participants’ willingness to invest mental effort in the pre/posttest might not have been the same as during the game-based training.

The longer response duration in the game-based learning condition might, in fact, also indicate that participants had to process the provided narrative (i.e., novelty, extraneous processing of visuals), which was not necessary for the non-game-based condition. However, response duration only reflected the time from item onset to the first answer/response of the participants. The actual narrative used in the game-based condition was already provided before starting the actual training levels. Furthermore, the more extensive delayed feedback (i.e., 3-star rating) was shown after each level only, and the coins for correct responses were awarded directly after participants’ responses, and therefore the processing of these features should not have affected response duration directly. Only the visual appearance of the task (game-based vs. non-game based), which remained constant across all training sessions, differed during task execution. Thus, the potential additional processing necessary for the visually more extensive game-based version, if indeed the case, should be limited to the first training or even just the first few trials. The response duration differences across training sessions between game-based and non-game-based conditions, however, remained rather stable (see Table 1 ). Accordingly, the difference in response duration should mainly indicate that participants invested more time estimating the fractions in the game-based compared to the non-game-based training. Nevertheless, future studies will need to systematically investigate the interaction between intrinsic/extrinsic integration of game elements, time-on-task, and different kinds of cognitive processing (i.e., extraneous, essential, and generative processing). The use of eye-tracking measures, for instance, might be particularly helpful to determine which game elements are processed and for how long. In the current study, we could only rely on the performance metrics (i.e., accuracy and response duration) acquired during the training. Thus, our interpretation as to why the used game elements increased accuracy and response duration remains speculative.

A speculative but more likely explanation of the observed pattern of results might be that the used game elements changed participants’ priorities or even strategies in performing the game-based or non-game-based tasks, which might explain the observed pattern in accuracy and response duration. In particular, the provided feedback during the training might have been perceived to be more salient and/or relevant in the game-based as compared to the non-game-based condition. In particular, in the game-based condition, the avatar communicated success with jubilant gestures, and participants were awarded virtual coins, while in the non-game-based condition, only a green check mark was shown. As such, the fantasy in the game-based condition made the feedback more meaningful to the participants and thereby affected participants’ way of interacting with the learning content, which is in line with the RETAIN model proposed by Gunter et al. ( 2008 ).

This effect might have been even magnified because of the overall high performance of the participants or the rather seemingly simple task. That is, participants in the non-game-based condition might have not seen practical value in optimizing their already high estimation accuracy. In contrast, the game elements in the game-based condition might have provided additional value to participants to further optimize their accuracy. That is, choosing a more challenging task for the participants might reveal a different pattern. Furthermore, in our study, correct/incorrect feedback was only determined by estimation accuracy and not response duration, participants in the game-based condition might have been more focused on receiving positive feedback than participants in the non-game-based condition. However, future studies are needed to substantiate this interpretation empirically. For instance, future studies might wish to consider utilizing think-aloud protocols or self-explanations when solving tasks in the game-based vs. non-game-based conditions to better understand the strategies employed (e.g., Kiili et al., 2019a ) and whether they differ between the game-based and non-game-based condition.

Conclusions

The current study showed that a game-based, as well as a non-game-based version of the number line estimation training, improved participants’ fraction magnitude understanding, which confirmed our first hypothesis. The results substantiated and extended earlier findings that games relying on intrinsic integration can be successfully used in fraction instruction. However, contrary to our second hypothesis, participants did not learn significantly more from completing the game-based as compared to the non-game-based training. Nevertheless, participants performed better in the game-based as compared to the non-game-based training as reflected by higher accuracy. At the same time, participants in the game-based training took longer to respond as compared to participants in the non-game-based training. It seems that the processing of the task was altered by the use of intrinsically integrated game elements, which might have increased both essential and generative processing. Accordingly, participants in the game-based training might have invested more cognitive effort in their estimations, hence, were more cognitively engaged. Further, in the current task, game elements might have altered participants’ priorities. That is, participants might have prioritized accuracy over speed in the game-based condition leading to more careful selection and use of estimation strategies. Furthermore, the current study highlighted the relevance of studying the actual learning/training process rather than relying on learning outcomes alone (i.e., pretest–posttest differences).

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software . https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01

Article   Google Scholar  

Bedwell, W. L., Pavlas, D., Heyne, K., Lazzara, E. H., & Salas, E. (2012). Toward a taxonomy linking game attributes to learning. Simulation & Gaming, 43 (6), 729–760. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878112439444

Benbow, C. P., & Faulkner, L. R. (2008). Rejoinder to the Critiques of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel Final Report. Educational Researcher, 37 (9), 645–648. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X08329195

Bernecker, K., & Ninaus, M. (2021). No pain, no gain? Investigating motivational mechanisms of game elements in cognitive tasks. Computers in Human Behavior, 114 , 106542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106542

Booth, J. L., & Newton, K. J. (2012). Fractions: Could they really be the gatekeeper’s doorman? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37 (4), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.07.001

Booth, J. L., & Siegler, R. S. (2006). Developmental and individual differences in pure numerical estimation. Developmental Psychology, 42 (1), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.189

Boyle, E. A., Hainey, T., Connolly, T. M., Gray, G., Earp, J., Ott, M., Lim, T., Ninaus, M., Ribeiro, C., & Pereira, J. (2016). An update to the systematic literature review of empirical evidence of the impacts and outcomes of computer games and serious games. Computers & Education, 94 , 178–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.003

Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 64 (8), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146816306400801

Chang, M., Evans, M. A., Kim, S., Norton, A., Deater-Deckard, K., & Samur, Y. (2016). The effects of an educational video game on mathematical engagement. Education and Information Technologies, 21 (5), 1283–1297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-015-9382-8

Chen, Y. C., Lu, Y. L., & Lien, C. J. (2021). Learning environments with different levels of technological engagement: A comparison of game-based, video-based, and traditional instruction on students’ learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 29 (8), 1363–1379. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2019.1628781

Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S. (2016). Digital games, design, and learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 86 (1), 79–122. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315582065

de Marcos, L., Domínguez, A., de Saenz Navarrete, J., & Pagés, C. (2014). An empirical study comparing gamification and social networking on e-learning. Computers & Education, 75 , 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.01.012

Fazio, L. K., Kennedy, C. A., & Siegler, R. S. (2016). Improving children’s knowledge of fraction magnitudes. Plos One., 11 (10), e0165243. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165243

Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74 (1), 59–109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059

Gallagher-Mitchell, T., Simms, V., & Litchfield, D. (2018). Learning from where ‘eye’ remotely look or point: Impact on number line estimation error in adults. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71 (7), 1526–1534. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2017.1335335

Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, Motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33 (4), 441–467. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878102238607

Gersten, R., Schumacher, R. F., & Jordan, N. C. (2017). Life on the number line: Routes to understanding fraction magnitude for students with difficulties learning mathematics. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50 (6), 655–657. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219416662625

Godwin, K. E., Seltman, H., Almeda, M., Davis Skerbetz, M., Kai, S., Baker, R. S., & Fisher, A. V. (2021). The elusive relationship between time on-task and learning: Not simply an issue of measurement. Educational Psychology, 41 (4), 502–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2021.1894324

Greene, A. (2015). Measuring cognitive engagement with self-report scales: Reflections from over 20 years of research. Educational Psychologist , 50 (1), 14–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.989230

Greipl, S., Klein, E., Lindstedt, A., Kiili, K., Moeller, K., Karnath, H.-O., Bahnmueller, J., Bloechle, J., & Ninaus, M. (2021). When the brain comes into play: Neurofunctional correlates of emotions and reward in game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 125 , 106946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106946

Greipl, S., Moeller, K., Kiili, K., & Ninaus, M. (2020). Different performance, full experience: A learning game applied throughout adulthood. International Journal of Serious Games., 7 (3), 79–98. https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v7i3.359

Gross, S. I., Gross, C. A., Kim, D., Lukowski, S. L., Thompson, L. A., & Petrill, S. A. (2018). A comparison of methods for assessing performance on the number line estimation task. Journal of Numerical Cognition, 4 (3), 554–571. https://doi.org/10.5964/jnc.v4i3.120

Gunderson, E. A., Hamdan, N., Hildebrand, L., & Bartek, V. (2019). Number line unidimensionality is a critical feature for promoting fraction magnitude concepts. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 187 , 104657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2019.06.010

Gunter, G. A., Kenny, R. F., & Vick, E. H. (2008). Taking educational games seriously: Using the RETAIN model to design endogenous fantasy into standalone educational games. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56 (5–6), 511–537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-007-9073-2

Habgood, M. P. J., & Ainsworth, S. E. (2011). Motivating children to learn effectively: Exploring the value of intrinsic integration in educational games. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 20 (2), 169–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2010.508029

Hamdan, N., & Gunderson, E. A. (2017). The number line is a critical spatial-numerical representation: Evidence from a fraction intervention. Developmental Psychology, 53 (3), 587–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000252

Hanus, M. D., & Fox, J. (2015). Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: A longitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort, and academic performance. Computers & Education, 80 , 152–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.08.019

Hilbert, S., Stadler, M., Lindl, A., Naumann, F., & Bühner, M. (2019). Analyzing longitudinal intervention studies with linear mixed models. TPM Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 26 , 101–119. https://doi.org/10.4473/TPM26.1.6

Hwang, G.-J., & Chen, P.-Y. (2022). Interweaving gaming and educational technologies: Clustering and forecasting the trends of game-based learning research by bibliometric and visual analysis. Entertainment Computing, 40 (43), 100459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2021.100459

Kafai, Y. B. (1996). Learning design by making games: children’s development of design strategies in the creation of a complex computational artifact. In Y. B. Kafai & M. Resnick (Eds.), Constructionism in practice designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world (1st ed., pp. 71–96). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203053492

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Kiili, K., Koskinen, A., Lindstedt, A., & Ninaus, M. (2019a). Extending a Digital Fraction Game Piece by Piece with Physical Manipulatives. In M. Gentile, M. Allegra, & H. Sobke (Eds.), Games and Learning Alliance, GALA 2018 : Vol. 11385 LNCS (Issue 7th Games and Learning Alliance (GALA) Conference). pp. 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11548-7_15

Kiili, K., Koskinen, A., & Ninaus, M. (2019b). Intrinsic integration in rational number games—A systematic literature review. CEUR Workshop Proceedings, 2359 (January), 35–46.

Google Scholar  

Kiili, K., Moeller, K., & Ninaus, M. (2018a). Evaluating the effectiveness of a game-based rational number training—In-game metrics as learning indicators. Computers & Education, 120 , 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.01.012

Kiili, K., Ojansuu, K., Lindstedt, A., & Ninaus, M. (2018b). Exploring the educational potential of a game-based math competition. International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 8 (2), 14–28. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJGBL.2018040102

Kocadere, S. A., & Çağlar, Ş. (2015). The design and implementation of a gamified assessment. Journal of E-Learning and Knowledge Society, 11 (3), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/1070

Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. B. (2017). lmerTest package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. Journal of Statistical Software . https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v082.i13

Liao, Y., Chang, L. E., & Chang, C.-C. (2010). Game-based Learning vs. Traditional Instruction: A Meta-Analysis of Thirty-Eight Studies from Taiwan. Technology and Teacher Education Annual Vo—Conf 21 , March 2010 , 1491.

Link, T., Moeller, K., Huber, S., Fischer, U., & Nuerk, H.-C. (2013). Walk the number line—An embodied training of numerical concepts. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 2 (2), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2013.06.005

Lüdecke, D. (2018). ggeffects: Tidy data frames of marginal effects from regression models. Journal of Open Source Software., 3 (26), 772. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.00772

Lüdecke, D., Ben-Shachar, M. S., Patil, I., Waggoner, P., & Makowski, D. (2021). performance: An R package for assessment, comparison and testing of statistical models. Journal of Open Source Software, 6 (60), 3139. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.03139

Lumsden, J., Edwards, E. A., Lawrence, N. S., Coyle, D., & Munafò, M. R. (2016). Gamification of cognitive assessment and cognitive training: A systematic review of applications and efficacy. JMIR Serious Games., 4 (2), e11. https://doi.org/10.2196/games.5888

Lumsden, J., Skinner, A., Woods, A. T., Lawrence, N. S., & Munafò, M. (2016). The effects of gamelike features and test location on cognitive test performance and participant enjoyment. PeerJ, 4 , e2184. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2184

Makowski, D., Ben-Shachar, M., Patil, I., & Lüdecke, D. (2021). Automated Results Reporting as a Practical Tool to Improve Reproducibility and Methodological Best Practices Adoption. CRAN . Retrieved March 17, 2022, from https://github.com/easystats/report

Matthews, N., Mattingley, J. B., & Dux, P. E. (2022). Media-multitasking and cognitive control across the lifespan. Scientific Reports, 12 (1), 4349. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07777-1

Mayer, R. E. (2005). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 31–48). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511816819.004

Mayer, R. E. (2019). Computer games in education. Annual Review of Psychology, 70 (1), 531–549. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102744

Mayer, R. E. (2020). Cognitive foundations of game-based learning Richard E. Mayer Introduction. In J. L. Plass, R. E. Mayer, & B. D. Homer (Eds.), Handbook of game-based learning (1st ed., pp. 83–110). The MIT Press.

Mayer, R. E., & Fiorella, L. (2014). Principles for reducing extraneous processing in multimedia learning: Coherence, signaling, redundancy, spatial contiguity, and temporal contiguity principles. In R. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 279–315). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139547369.015

Meece, J. L., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Hoyle, R. H. (1998). Students’ goal orientations and cognitive engagement in classroom activities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80 , 514–523.

Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Tuch, A. N., & Opwis, K. (2017). Towards understanding the effects of individual gamification elements on intrinsic motivation and performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 71 , 525–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.048

Mihulowicz, U., Klein, E., Nuerk, H.-C., Willmes, K., & Karnath, H.-O. (2015). Spatial displacement of numbers on a vertical number line in spatial neglect. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9 , 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00240

Moeller, K., Fischer, U., Nuerk, H.-C., & Cress, U. (2015). Computers in mathematics education—Training the mental number line. Computers in Human Behavior, 48 , 597–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.048

Newmann, F. M. (1992). Student engagement and achievement in American secondary schools . New York: Teachers College Press.

Ninaus, M., Kiili, K., Wortha, S. M., & Moeller, K. (2021). Empirische Arbeit: Motivationsprofile bei Verwendung eines Lernspiels zur Messung des Bruchverständnisses in der Schule—Eine latente Profilanalyse. Psychologie in Erziehung Und Unterricht, 68 (1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.2378/peu2021.art03d

Ninaus, M., Pereira, G., Stefitz, R., Prada, R., Paiva, A., Neuper, C., & Wood, G. (2015). Game elements improve performance in a working memory training task. International Journal of Serious Games., 2 (1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v2i1.60

Nuraydin, S., Stricker, J., Ugen, S., Martin, R., & Schneider, M. (2023). The number line estimation task is a valid tool for assessing mathematical achievement: A population-level study with 6484 Luxembourgish ninth-graders. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 225 , 105521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105521

Obersteiner, A., Reiss, K., & Ufer, S. (2013). How training on exact or approximate mental representations of number can enhance first-grade students’ basic number processing and arithmetic skills. Learning and Instruction, 23 (1), 125–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.08.004

Opfer, J. E., Thompson, C. A., & Kim, D. (2016). Free versus anchored numerical estimation: A unified approach. Cognition, 149 , 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2015.11.015

Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., & Kinzer, C. K. (2015). Foundations of game-based learning. Educational Psychologist, 50 (4), 258–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2015.1122533

Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., Mayer, R. E., & Kinzer, C. K. (2020). Theoretical foundations of game-based and playful learning. In J. L. Plass, R. E. Mayer, & B. D. Homer (Eds.), Handbook of game-based learning (1st ed., pp. 3–24). The MIT Press.

Praet, M., & Desoete, A. (2014). Number line estimation from kindergarten to grade 2: A longitudinal study. Learning and Instruction, 33 , 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.02.003

R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing . Retrieved March 17, 2022, from https://www.r-project.org/

Rey, G. D. (2012). A review of research and a meta-analysis of the seductive detail effect. Educational Research Review, 7 (3), 216–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2012.05.003

Sailer, M., & Homner, L. (2020). The gamification of learning: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 32 (1), 77–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09498-w

Sailer, M., & Sailer, M. (2021). Gamification of in-class activities in flipped classroom lectures. British Journal of Educational Technology, 52 (1), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12948

Schielzeth, H., Dingemanse, N. J., Nakagawa, S., Westneat, D. F., Allegue, H., Teplitsky, C., Réale, D., Dochtermann, N. A., Garamszegi, L. Z., & Araya-Ajoy, Y. G. (2020). Robustness of linear mixed-effects models to violations of distributional assumptions. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 11 (9), 1141–1152. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.13434

Schneider, M., Merz, S., Stricker, J., De Smedt, B., Torbeyns, J., Verschaffel, L., & Luwel, K. (2018). Associations of number line estimation with mathematical competence: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 89 (5), 1467–1484. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13068

Schneider, S., Nebel, S., & Rey, G. D. (2016). Decorative pictures and emotional design in multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 44 , 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.03.002

Schwartz, R. N., & Plass, J. L. (2020). Types of engagement in learning with games. In J. L. Plass, R. E. Mayer, & B. D. Homer (Eds.), Handbook of game-based learning (1st ed., pp. 53–80). The MIT Press.

Sidney, P. G., Thalluri, R., Buerke, M. L., & Thompson, C. A. (2019a). Who uses more strategies? Linking mathematics anxiety to adults’ strategy variability and performance on fraction magnitude tasks. Thinking & Reasoning, 25 (1), 94–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2018.1475303

Sidney, P. G., Thompson, C. A., & Rivera, F. D. (2019b). Number lines, but not area models, support children’s accuracy and conceptual models of fraction division. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 58 (March), 288–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.03.011

Siegler, R. S., Fazio, L. K., Bailey, D. H., & Zhou, X. (2013). Fractions: The new frontier for theories of numerical development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17 (1), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.11.004

Siegler, R. S., & Opfer, J. E. (2003). The development of numerical estimation. Psychological Science, 14 (3), 237–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.02438

Stigler, J. W., Givvin, K. B., & Thompson, B. J. (2010). What community college developmental mathematics students understand about mathematics. Mathematics Teacher, 1 (3), 4–16.

Sullivan, J. L., Juhasz, B. J., Slattery, T. J., & Barth, H. C. (2011). Adults’ number-line estimation strategies: Evidence from eye movements. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18 (3), 557–563. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-011-0081-1

Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12 (2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7

Toda, A. M., Valle, P. H. D., & Isotani, S. (2018). The dark side of gamification: an overview of negative effects of gamification in education (pp. 143–156). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97934-2_9

Book   Google Scholar  

Tokac, U., Novak, E., & Thompson, C. G. (2019). Effects of game-based learning on students’ mathematics achievement: A meta-analysis. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 35 (3), 407–420. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12347

Van’t Noordende, J. E., van Hoogmoed, A. H., Schot, W. D., & Kroesbergen, E. H. (2016). Number line estimation strategies in children with mathematical learning difficulties measured by eye tracking. Psychological Research, 80 (3), 368–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-015-0736-z

Wickham, H. (2016). ggplot2. Media Issue July (Vol. 35). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24277-4

Wiley, K., Vedress, S., & Mandryk, R. L. (2020). How Points and Theme Affect Performance and Experience in a Gamified Cognitive Task. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376697

Wilson, A. J., Dehaene, S., Dubois, O., & Fayol, M. (2009). Effects of an adaptive game intervention on accessing number sense in low-socioeconomic-status kindergarten children. Mind, Brain, and Education, 3 (4), 224–234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-228X.2009.01075.x

Wong, R. M., & Adesope, O. O. (2021). Meta-analysis of emotional designs in multimedia learning: A replication and extension study. Educational Psychology Review, 33 (2), 357–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09545-x

Wortha, S. M., Bloechle, J., Ninaus, M., Kiili, K., Lindstedt, A., Bahnmueller, J., Moeller, K., & Klein, E. (2020). Neurofunctional plasticity in fraction learning: An fMRI training study. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 21 , 100141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2020.100141

Wouters, P., van Nimwegen, C., van Oostendorp, H., & van Der Spek, E. D. (2013). A meta-analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105 (2), 249–265. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031311

Zainuddin, Z., Chu, S. K. W., Shujahat, M., & Perera, C. J. (2020). The impact of gamification on learning and instruction: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Educational Research Review, 30 , 100326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100326

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the financial support by the University of Graz.

Open access funding provided by University of Graz.

Author information

M. Ninaus and R. Cortez contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria

Manuel Ninaus & Rodolpho Cortez

Department of Psychology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria

Manuel Ninaus & Elisabeth M. Weiss

LEAD Graduate School and Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany

Manuel Ninaus & Korbinian Moeller

Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, Brazil

Rodolpho Cortez & Izabel Hazin

Faculty of Education and Culture, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland

Kristian Kiili

Centre for Mathematical Cognition, School of Science, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK

Silke M. Wortha & Korbinian Moeller

Université de Paris, LaPsyDÉ, CNRS, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France

Elise Klein

Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany

Individual Development and Adaptive Education for Children at Risk Centre, Frankfurt Am Main, Germany

Korbinian Moeller

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Manuel Ninaus .

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Ninaus, M., Cortez, R., Hazin, I. et al. The added value of game elements: better training performance but comparable learning gains. Education Tech Research Dev 71 , 1917–1939 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-023-10263-8

Download citation

Accepted : 02 June 2023

Published : 26 June 2023

Issue Date : October 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-023-10263-8

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Game-based learning
• Game elements
• Intrinsic integration
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Impact of educational games on academic outcomes of students in the Degree in Nursing

Contributed equally to this work with: María-José Castro, María López, María-José Cao, José-María Jiménez

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Nursing Faculty, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain, Endocrinology and Clinical Nutrition Research Centre (ECNRC), University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] (ML); [email protected] (JMJ)

Affiliation Nursing Faculty, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain

Roles Conceptualization, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Validation, Writing – review & editing

¶ ‡ These authors also contributed equally to this work.

Affiliation University Hospital Clinic of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain

• María-José Castro, 
• María López, 
• María-José Cao, 
• Mercedes Fernández-Castro, 
• Sara García, 
• Manuel Frutos, 
• José-María Jiménez

• Published: July 29, 2019
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220388
• Reader Comments

The aim of using the game-based tool Kahoot! was to evaluate and reinforce the contents taught in the subject of Management and Administration of Nursing, Ethics and Health Legislation Services included in the Degree in Nursing, during the 2016–2017 academic year.

A prospective quasi-experimental study was carried out on a sample of 116 students. 10 multiple-choice questions were designed, with only one possible correct answer and a 20-second-limited response time for each of the questions. Four of these questions previously answered in the classroom using this game were chosen (20% of the exam). Each one of them corresponded to one unit of the topics taught in the subject.

In order to participate in the educational game, students needed their smartphones or electronic devices. After completing the game, the students’ satisfaction level derived from its use was assessed.

The correct answer rate in the educational game was greater than 50% for all questions except for one, in which the rate was 28.8% (P<0.05). Response time as related to score presented statistically significant differences, and higher scores for those questions with lower response time (P<0.001).

The questions included in the final test which had been previously answered using Kahoot! showed a significantly higher difficulty index than the rest of the final exam questions (P<0.05). Question 3 was the easiest, while being the one in which the highest-scoring students obtained more wrong answers.

For the students this tool was easy to use (89.6%) and they positively valued the content acquisition and comprehension, as well as the teacher-student interaction (P<0.05).

The implementation of educational games which consider response time and correct answers favors competitiveness and motivates students to actively participate in their learning process.

Citation: Castro M-J, López M, Cao M-J, Fernández-Castro M, García S, Frutos M, et al. (2019) Impact of educational games on academic outcomes of students in the Degree in Nursing. PLoS ONE 14(7): e0220388. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220388

Editor: Jamie L. Jensen, Brigham Young University, UNITED STATES

Received: January 17, 2019; Accepted: July 15, 2019; Published: July 29, 2019

Copyright: © 2019 Castro et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The use of simulation games for the Degree in Nursing is increasingly common. Its usage aims to promote learning, self-efficacy and confidence in clinical situations, as well as to help students to acquire skills in empathy, critical thinking, patient safety, and clinical practice [ 1 – 5 ].

Students’ learning needs have varied due to the influence of new technologies [ 6 ], with games being a feasible option for getting the attention of students while achieving a deep learning of information [ 7 ], mainly through lab simulations or virtual serious games [ 8 ].

The use of multimedia resources is presented to teachers as an opportunity to gain motivation-based learning [ 9 ], fun [ 10 ], repetition-based learning, experience and reflection [ 11 ]. It could be said that the implementation of games in the classroom favors reflective practice, decision-making, new ways of thinking, acting and role-playing that helps students to understand complex concepts [ 12 , 13 ].

Some studies have detected the need to improve the academic learning environment [ 14 ], which is often oriented towards the technical and rational side of the profession more than to the teaching of professional care. This situation is sometimes hindered by an increase in the number of students and by the lack of resources [ 15 ]. In order to improve this aspect, it is necessary to involve students in their learning process in an active manner, away from the passive attitude of master classes, and supported by oral and written reflection [ 16 ]. Debates, brainstorming, group discussions and open questions represent some of the interactive methods that can be included in the educational practice so as to promote learning [ 17 ]. Another interesting measure would be the creation of small work groups, in which a guided learning oriented to specific needs could be developed [ 18 ].

Within this framework, the University of Valladolid (Spain) favors this type of methodological strategies, encouraging and supporting the design and development of teaching projects which aim to improve the training and qualification of students. The implementation of new educational methodologies can foster motivation and participation, thus stimulating a way of learning in which students internalize contents and understand them through their own experimentation and observation [ 19 ]. Serious games favor socialization as well as teacher-student and student-student interaction. Moreover, teachers have the opportunity to choose if they prefer to conduct group work or individualized work in order to promote cooperation and help among students [ 10 ]. In fact, students’ professional future relies on creating a good work team, in which each member contributes his/her originality and creativity within a common objective. In addition to promoting learning, educational games also favor immediate feedback and improve collaboration among students [ 7 ].

Within the range of active learning games, it is necessary to consider classroom response systems (CRS) or audience response systems (ARS), also known as clickers. These systems are bidirectional devices which allow the creation of questions and the management of the answers, which are projected on a monitor in the form of a histogram or bar chart. The use of clickers in the classroom promotes student stimulation in the classes through a more successful learning experience as it increases participation and attention [ 20 ]. These clickers are expensive tools which require specific software. Moreover, their control command system limits the number of participants in the game. In order to solve these problems, there are web pages—such as Kahoot!—that operate on the internet and allow the use of smartphones, tablets and computers instead of complex controls and software. Kahoot! was developed in 2013 by Professor Alf Inge Wnag [ 21 ] and is a free student response system which favors the use of games through questions and multiple-choice answers. In this learning tool, students use their mobile phones or other electronic devices to get connected and answer the questions posed by the teacher. The game can be played individually or by teams, through the projection of questions and answers on the virtual platform. Students will obtain a better score depending on their speed of response and, of course, on the highest number of correct answers [ 22 ]. Certain competitiveness is generated by having a limited response time and by the challenge of achieving better scores and results in the game than the rest of the classmates. This can contribute to learning in a positive way [ 23 ].

An increase in the number of digital games, as well as their inclusion as teaching materials, makes it necessary to assess them as learning tools. The identification of educational dynamics which facilitate learning—both at a methodological level and at a digital level—will introduce better training programs at the curricular level [ 24 ] and will also allow a validation of the learning outcomes [ 7 ].

Gallegos et al. point out that studies on educational games in nursing are scarce. Therefore, research on this topic should be conducted in order to detect which educational content is most suitable for these games, analyze whether they promote students’ active participation and motivation, and compare the learning outcomes [ 21 ].

This paper presents an assessment of the acquisition of contents using the game-based tool Kahoot!. The contents correspond to the course in Management and Administration of Nursing, Ethics and Health Legislation Services included in the Degree in Nursing. In addition, it is also intended to analyze the students’ satisfaction resulting from the use of this educational method.

Materials and methods

Study design.

A prospective quasi-experimental study was carried out on a sample of 116 students, 29 men (25.7%) and 87 women (74.2%), with an average age of 21.5 years. They were third-year students enrolled in a course in Management and Administration of Nursing, Ethics and Health Legislation Services, included in the Degree in Nursing at the University of Valladolid (Spain), during the 2016–2017 academic year, in which 120 students were enrolled.

This course is taught during the third year of the degree, in the first semester, and is equivalent to 6 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits. The teaching method is based on master classes, along with the development of classroom practices in which students actively participate. Upon completion of each of the four theoretical units that constituted the contents of the subject, the game-based learning tool Kahoot! was used to reinforce and evaluate them individually with the subsequent resolution of the questions in the class.

The final assessment of this subject was conducted according to the academic calendar of the University of Valladolid, one month after the use of Kahoot! in the classroom. The final exam consisted of 20 multiple-choice questions (70%)—in which our research is based on—and of a practical group project (30%).

Game-based learning tool

The game-based learning tool Kahoot! was implemented during the 2016–2017 academic year as an innovative teaching method, with the aim of improving already acquired skills and competences and continuous assessment. Considering the contents which had to be evaluated in the course, 10 multiple-choice questions were designed, with only one possible correct answer with a limited response time of 20 seconds.

The 10 questions evaluated with Kahoot! S1 Table . correspond to the theoretical contents taught in the 4 units of the subject and were distributed as follows: 2 questions corresponding to unit 1, 3 questions corresponding to unit 2, 2 questions corresponding to unit 3 and 3 questions corresponding to unit 4.

Before starting to use the educational game, the students were explained its instructions and given the possibility of either downloading the application on their mobile devices or using it online. When each of the teaching units was completed, the students were invited to actively participate in the classroom using Kahoot! in order to encourage interaction, competitiveness, skill and competence acquisition and doubt resolution.

Variables analyzed

The correct answer rate for each question, the response time (in seconds), and the score obtained in each of the questions were analyzed in order to conduct a continuous assessment of the acquisition of educational contents for each of the teaching units. Score is calculated depending on the speed of response and on the time limit for each question. Therefore, calculation is determined as follows:

• All questions are worth 1000 points if answered in under 0.5 seconds.
• To calculate points, round (1000 * (1 –(([response time] / [question timer]) / 2)))

The final test of the subject consisted of 20 questions related to the 4 thematic units. In this final test, 4 questions (20% of the exam) of those previously answered in Kahoot! were included. The difficulty and discrimination indexes were determined in every question of the final test.

The difficulty index was provided by the Information and Communications Technology Service of the University of Valladolid, and calculated as follows:

• Limit: 30% of the total number of students attending the exam.
• Correct answers (strong): Number of correct answers to the questions among the n best students per score, where n is determined by the value of the calculated ‘limit’.
• Correct answers (weak): Number of correct answers to the questions among the n students with worse score, where n is determined by the value of the calculated ‘limit’.
• Difficulty = [(correct answers (strong) + correct answers (weak))* 100] / 2 * limit

Then, the discrimination index was calculated as follows:

• Discrimination = [2 * (correct answers (strong)—correct answers (weak))] / 2 * limit

An assessment of the satisfaction level from the use of this game-based tool was conducted at the end of the course, prior to the final exam. It was carried out through a survey using Kahoot! and was composed of 10 questions, which assessed its ease of use, interaction between students and teachers, motivation for the course and whether the learning tool facilitated the acquisition of the contents previously studied in class. Depending on the question type, the response options were Yes/No or a four-score scale (1 = dissatisfied, 2 = not really satisfied, 3 = quite satisfied, 4 = very satisfied) to measure satisfaction.

All students were over 18 years of age and participated voluntarily in the study after giving their verbal consent, according to the current legislation, Organic Law 3/2018 of December 5, on Personal Data Protection and digital rights guarantee. Their anonymity was always preserved as no personal or socioeconomic data were collected, as stated in the Teaching Innovation Project approved by the University of Valladolid entitled "INTERDISCIPLINARY GAMIFICATION", with code: PID74.

Statistical analysis

The collection of data was conducted through the preparation of an anonymized data collection table using Excel (Microsoft Office 2013). Then, data were recorded and exported by a single researcher and analyzed using the statistical program IBM SPSS Statistics 24.0 for Windows.

On the one hand, quantitative variables were presented as average ± standard deviation and their normality was established by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. On the other hand, qualitative variables were described using absolute and relative frequencies (percentages).

In order to study the association between qualitative variables, the Chi-square test along with Fisher’s exact test or the likelihood ratio test were used, depending on the conditions for their application. Either the Student’s t-test or the Mann-Whitney U test was used, depending on the conditions for the application, to study the differences between means for 2 groups. For more than 2 groups, moreover, either the ANOVA or the Kruskal-Wallis H test was used. The level of significance for all the tests was P≤ 0.05.

In each of the 10 questions analyzed, the percentage of correct answers, the response time and the score obtained were assessed.

Table 1 shows the results obtained in each question of the quiz. A correct answer rate greater than 50% was observed in all questions except for question 10, in which the correct answer rate was 28.8% (P<0.05).

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220388.t001

Questions 2 and 6 showed the highest correct answer rate—82.8% and 89.8% respectively—, and the highest score compared to the rest of questions—643.68 ± 317.41 and 786.16 ± 279.35—(P<0.05).

When comparing correct answers with respect to response time, only question 4 exhibited a significant correlation (P<0.001). As previously said, question 6 showed the highest correct answer rate (89.8%)—with the shortest response time—and the highest score. However, question 10 showed the lowest correct answer rate (28.8%)—with an average time similar to the rest of questions—and the lowest score.

Response time as related to score in each of the questions analyzed presented statistically significant differences in all of them. In addition, higher scores for those questions with lower response time were observed (P<0.001).

The difficulty index for the final exam questions of the course was calculated. The final exam consisted of 20 questions, the first four of which had been previously answered using the dynamics of the Kahoot! quiz game. Table 2 shows the results of the difficulty index, being the results with a difficulty index closer to 100% those corresponding to the easiest questions to answer. It can be observed in the table that the easiest question of the final exam was question 3, which had been previously answered in class with Kahoot!. The other first three questions—also included in the Kahoot! quiz game played in class—showed a significantly higher difficulty index than the rest of the exam questions (P<0.05).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220388.t002

However, question 16—not included in the Kahoot! quiz game played in class—showed the lowest item difficulty index (3.23), determined by a high number of blank answers.

The discrimination index tracks the difference between the proportion of ‘good’ students (high scoring group) who answered correctly to a question and the proportion of ‘poor’ students (low scoring group) who answered correctly to the same question. Thus, high and positive discrimination indices indicate that many more students from the high scoring group answered the question correctly compared to the students from the low scoring group. Question 3 was the easiest question to answer and the only one with a negative discrimination index.

Table 3 shows the results obtained in the four first questions of the final exam of the course separately. As previously mentioned, these questions were included in the Kahoot! quiz game played in class before the exam. It was observed that question 3 had the highest proportion of correct answers in both the final exam and the Kahoot! quiz game played in class. Moreover, the proportion of correct answers to each of the four first questions was higher in the final exam than in the Kahoot! quiz game, being the difference between them not statistically significant.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220388.t003

Kahoot! was used to evaluate and enhance the contents taught in the lectures of the subject. A total of 67 students completed the survey (57.75%). All participants considered that Kahoot! was an easy-to-use tool and 89.6% of them would recommend its incorporation in other courses of the degree. The students were asked if they would include the results obtained with Kahoot! as part of the final grade of the subject. 32.3% agreed, while 22.6% preferred the evaluation of content only by means of a final exam.

The rest of the items included in the survey provided the students with a four-score scale (1 = dissatisfied; 2 = not really satisfied; 3 = quite satisfied; 4 = very satisfied). ( Fig 1 ) shows the participants’ responses to each item. The items with the highest percentage of positive responses were those related to content comprehension, and teacher-student interaction (P<0.05).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220388.g001

Table 4 includes the mean satisfaction score, obtaining the highest average score in the assessment of ‘Kahoot! is a useful tool in the learning process’, followed by ‘Kahoot! increases teacher-student interaction’.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220388.t004

Discussion and conclusions

In this work about the use of the teaching methodology with the Kahoot! tool in a Nursing Degree course, it is worth noting that the students liked Kahoot! since they regarded it as useful and motivating to participate more actively in their learning process.

Only two questions of the quiz—question 2 and question 6—showed the highest correct answer rate, being the latter the one which registered the lowest response time in the quiz. Response time in Kahoot! quiz games is a key element in the Degree in Nursing, because in addition to promoting competitiveness, it is an essential factor for solving problems in the clinical practice of healthcare professionals [ 25 ].

One of the main advantages of using Kahoot! in class is that it provides a response time and a ranked score based on the number of correct answers, promoting a certain degree of competitiveness among students.

Overall, the use of clickers in class increases student engagement and participation by promoting content acquisition and comprehension and critical thinking skills. Moreover, as results are shown immediately, students have the opportunity to discuss results and solve doubts forthwith [ 20 ]. Clicker-based learning technologies as Kahoot! are beneficial to students because they are easy to use and they provide real-time feedback within a safe environment [ 26 ]. Nevertheless, there are students who prefer passive learning and are resistant to in-class games [ 7 ].

The results of our study show that the four Kahoot! questions included in the final exam were significantly the easiest questions for students. We consider that incorporating in-class games into the Degree in Nursing might be a useful educational strategy to encourage learning within a low-risk learning environment [ 27 ]. This observation is in keeping with that of Strickland et al. These authors reported that nursing students obtained 15 percent more correct answers in their final exams compared to the previous year, when an in-class game had not been implemented as a comprehensive review strategy yet. Moreover, students responded positively to the use of educational games in the learning process [ 11 ].

Our findings in this study are consistent with those of Corell et al., who found that learning with competition improved the students’ academic results, and competitive learning tools motivated them to participate more actively in their learning process [ 23 ].

One of the Kahoot! questions included in the final exam presented the highest difficulty index (question 3), since it achieved the highest correct answer rate. Interestingly, we found however that the high scoring students in the final exam obtained more wrong than correct answers for that question compared to those in the lowest-scoring group. This observation suggests that students who master the subject content are overconfident about easy questions, and therefore they obtain worse results than those who have not studied the subject in depth.

The results of this study show that it is necessary to think carefully about all elements involved in education before taking a decision about learning; it is essential to make a critical analysis of the results obtained in Nursing Education [ 6 ], as well as to obtain objective and subjective data about learning and teaching outcomes in the biosciences [ 5 ] by describing in detail the educational interventions implemented—contents, effective pedagogical solutions, learning contexts and settings and assessment tools [ 28 ]. More recently, Kalaian reported that students with higher academic performance obtained higher scores and better academic outcomes, had high levels of intrinsic motivation and experienced low anxiety in exams [ 18 ]. Overall, there is a significant relation among academic performance, hours of self-study and motivation [ 29 ]. Therefore, it is surprising that high scoring students in our study obtained worse results in the easiest question of the final exam.

Moreover, Salvage-Jones et al. found that the practice-learning materials—designed to ensure content comprehension—were considered ‘very useful’ or ‘useful’ by most of nursing students. Nevertheless, students did not perceive an impact on their assessment outcomes [ 5 ]. In our study, however, an improvement in the final assessment was observed, especially in the questions previously studied with Kahoot!.

In general, students showed a high level of satisfaction with Kahoot!, being items 1 and 7 the highest rated in the survey. In other words, students considered that Kahoot! increased teacher-student interaction and was a useful tool in the learning process. Our results are consistent with Boctor et al., who reported that students positively assessed the use of educational games and considered that games were useful learning strategies, which could catch their attention and engage them in the learning process [ 7 ].

In addition, despite the educational nature of the Kahoot! tool, most of students in the survey believed that this tool was neither a motivating method for reviewing the contents previously studied in class nor an effective tool for boosting debate. It is essential to point out that the teaching method normally used in theory classes encourages debate and participation among students; for this reason, students did not considered Kahoot! extraordinarily motivating. Our findings in this study are similar to those of Gallegos et al., who reported that game scores and rankings were not a motivating element for nursing students, despite the competitive nature of online games. These authors concluded that nursing students might have a high level of intrinsic motivation, so they may not need a gaming component to improve their performance [ 2 ].

Besides, the results of this study indicated that game-based methodologies were perceived as useful tools to increase teacher-student interaction. Nevertheless, the role played by teachers is vital: they should understand the game-based learning teaching practices and feel comfortable with them before implementing in-class games. In addition, teachers should be highly engaged with the students’ learning process and be receptive to them [ 30 ]. According to Walker et al., collaborative learning favors satisfaction among nursing students, since it enhances both teacher-student and student-student interaction [ 31 ].

Overall, based on this study, we believe that educational games are supplementary tools for education, but they cannot replace traditional teaching-learning methods [ 4 ]. Nevertheless, educational games in nursing education should be validated, in order to analyze their viability, make them more attractive and capable of combining theory and practice [ 12 ]. Students positively assess immediate feedback given by educational games, as they include a personal response system that increases content acquisition and comprehension, as well as motivation in nursing [ 2 ].

The main limitation of this study is the lack of randomness of the selected sample. The response rate was high, although the students were not obliged to answer the questions. On the other hand, the planning of the study was determined by both the schedule of classes and the academic calendar. The design of the quasi-experimental study with a single group allows the researcher to manage the exposition, but it does not include a comparison group. Each subject acts as their own control. There is a possibility that there will be Hawthorne effect of generating a response induced by the knowledge of the participants knowing that they are being studied. Students’ higher academic performance in the final test cannot be attributed exclusively to the use of the Kahoot! because other uncontrolled variables come into play: the student's study time, academic performance, affinity with the taught syllabus, previous knowledge, etc.

In conclusion, a game-based learning methodology could be used to foster the active participation of students and to increase competitiveness among them. Moreover, the content-based questions included both in the final exam and in the Kahoot! quiz game played in class showed the highest response index. Finally, the general satisfaction level of students was very positive, as they consider that game-based learning tools not only improve the learning process and facilitate content acquisition and comprehension, but also promote teacher-student interaction.

Supporting information

S1 table. questions evaluated on kahoot..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220388.s001

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank students for their participation, engagement and enthusiasm in using game-based methodologies in class.

• View Article
• PubMed/NCBI
• Google Scholar
• 21. Holguín P, Madera G, Ruiz-valdepeñas H, López del Hierro M. Kahoot en docencia : una alternativa practica a los clickers. XI Jorn Int Innovación Univ Educ para Transform Univ Eur Madrid. 2015;322–9.

Value of Games in Education

In the current educational sphere, games, especially video games, have surfaced as a crucial implement for augmenting educational experiences. Previously regarded solely as entertainment outlets, the educational opportunities in gaming are presently identified and welcomed. This article investigates the importance of games in education, shedding light on how video games are educational, the perks of incorporating gaming into education, and the changing viewpoint video games can be educational.

The Rising Acceptance of Games in Learning

The integration of games into educational settings marks a shift from traditional methods to interactive learning. This move is driven by the realization that games offer educational value beyond entertainment. As games gain more acknowledgment for their capacity to captivate and instruct, they are becoming more extensively integrated into classrooms and curricula. In parallel, the use of educational assistance services, such as an assignment writing service Australia , has grown, suggesting a wider pattern towards varied educational supports.

Video Games as Educational Tools

Video games stand out for their complex narratives and problem-solving challenges, providing unique learning opportunities. They can transform abstract concepts into tangible and engaging experiences, making learning both enjoyable and effective. This approach empowers students to handle real-life scenarios necessitating discerning thought and decision-making, simulating genuine real-world problem-solving and Boosting grasp and memory retention.

Harnessing Technology for Educational Innovation

The progression of digital technology has empowered the formation of video games that are enjoyable and instructive. Developed with teaching as the primary aim, these games present a fresh method for understanding complicated subjects by rendering them approachable and captivating. By leveraging the absorbing nature of video games, educators can develop surroundings that encourage involvement, critical thinking, and problem-solving, yielding a deeper grasp of academic content.

Unpacking the Value of Games in Education

Games in education extend beyond mere play, serving as powerful tools that cater to various learning styles and preferences. Their value is multifaceted, encompassing cognitive development, motivation, and practical skills acquisition.

Cognitive Benefits and Skill Development

Research has continually demonstrated that certain video games can improve cognitive skills, such as spatial awareness, reasonableness, recollection, and insight. These games compel players to exercise critical reasoning, make swift choices, and resolve intricate issues, replicating the cognitive functions engaged in learning.

• Critical Thinking and Problem Solving: A plethora of games are centered around puzzles and challenges that games oblige players to apply critical analysis and formulate strategic plans, polishing their problem-solving capabilities.
• Creativity and Imagination: Games typically feature freeform landscapes that inspire discovery and experimentation, encouraging inventive thinking and creativity.

Motivation and Engagement

One of the central benefits of gaming in education is the enhanced motivation and engagement it sparks in the learning process. Games inherently include aspects of rivalry,, accomplishment, and reward, which can render learning more captivating and rewarding for students.

• Immediate Feedback: Video games offer immediate responses to players’ actions, enabling students to acknowledge their errors, adjust their approaches, and feel a sense of advancement and achievement.
• Personalized Learning Experience: Games can scale to accommodate the player’s expertise, providing challenges that strike a balance between being neither overly simple nor overly complicated, and therefore sustaining a perfect degree of involvement.

Social Connections and Collaborative Learning

Games in education also encourage interpersonal communication and teamwork among students. Numerous video games necessitate players to collaborate to attain shared objectives, fostering group collaboration and strong communication capabilities.

• Community and Teamwork: Multiplayer games create communities of players who share strategies, learn from each other, and collaborate, reflecting the collaborative nature of learning.
• Cultural Awareness: Games with global player bases expose students to diverse perspectives and cultures, enhancing their cultural awareness and empathy.

Addressing Misconceptions: How Are Video Games Educational?

Despite the growing evidence supporting the educational value of games, misconceptions persist. Critics often question, “How are video games educational?” The answer lies in the design and application of these games. Educational video games are specifically crafted to align with curricular goals, incorporating learning objectives into their gameplay mechanics. Furthermore, even non-educational games can stimulate cognitive and social development, provided they are used judiciously and integrated thoughtfully into educational frameworks.

The Future of Gaming in Education

In light of the continuous transformation of the education sector, the role of games in learning is poised to grow. Advancements in technology and game development are expected to produce novel forms of educational games that are even more engrossing, participatory, and crafted to achieve specific learning goals.

Harnessing the Full Potential

For games to realize their full potential in education, educators and game developers must collaborate closely. This partnership can ensure that educational games are not only engaging but also aligned with educational standards and objectives.

Promoting Digital Literacy

Incorporating games into education also presents an opportunity to teach digital literacy and responsible gaming habits. As students navigate game-based learning environments, they can develop critical thinking skills about digital content and media.

The importance of games in education is unquestionable. By virtue of their capacity to improve cognitive abilities, encourage and engage learners, and nurture social connections, games provide a dynamic supplement to standard educational systems. As society persists in recognizing that video games are educational, the incorporation of gaming in the educational environment is likely to become more widespread, converting the way teachers approach teaching and learning. By embracing the benefits of gaming in education, we can open new possibilities for student success and prepare learners for achievement in the digital age.

Post Your Comments

Name ( required )

Email ( required; will not be published )

• FIFPlay Facebook
• FIFPlay Twitter
• FIFPlay Instagram
• FIFPlay Youtube

Colleges are now closing at a pace of one a week. What happens to the students?

Most never finish their degrees, and graduates wonder about the value of degrees they’ve earned.

It was when the shuttle bus stopped coming that Luka Fernandes began to worry.

Fernandes was a student at Newbury College near Boston, where enrollment had declined in the previous two decades from more than 5,300 to about 600.

“Things started closing down,” Fernandes remembered. “The food went downhill. It felt like they didn’t really care anymore.”

The private, nonprofit school had been placed on probation by its accreditors because of its shaky finances. Then the shuttle bus connecting the suburban campus with the nearest station on the public transportation system started running late or not showing up at all.

“That was one of the things that made us feel like they were giving up,” Fernandes said.

After students went home for their winter holiday, an email came: Newbury would shut down at the end of the next semester.

“It was, ‘Unfortunately we have to close after all these many years, and blah, blah, blah,’” said Fernandes, who was a junior. “I was very angry.”

The loans that students had taken out to pay the college weren’t forgiven, which Fernandes said was “infuriating.”

“I had already put so much money into my education, and my family didn’t have that money,” he said. “How am I going to apply this to my future if it doesn’t exist?”

This and other questions are on the minds of more and more students this spring as the pace of college closings dramatically speeds up.

About one university or college per week so far this year, on average, has announced that it will close or merge. That’s up from a little more than two a month last year , according to the State Higher Education Executive Officers Association, or SHEEO.

So many colleges are folding that some students who moved from one to another have now found that their new school will also close, often with little or no warning. Some of the students at Newbury, when it closed in 2019, had moved there from nearby Mount Ida College, for example, which shut down the year before.

Most students at colleges that close give up on their educations altogether. Fewer than half transfer to other institutions , a SHEEO study found. Of those, fewer than half stay long enough to get degrees. Many lose credits when they move from one school to another and have to spend longer in college, often taking out more loans to pay for it.

The rest join the growing number of Americans — now more than 40 million , according to the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center — who spent time and money to go to college but never finished.

“I was asking my dad, ‘Can I not go back?’” said Fernandes, who eventually decided to continue at another college and now works as a patient coordinator at a hospital.

“I’m glad I did,” he said. “But it honestly scares me for the future of education. I’m not sure where education’s going to go if all of these colleges keep closing.”

That is almost certain to happen. As many as 1 in 10 four-year colleges and universities are in financial peril , the consulting firm EY Parthenon estimates.

“It’s simply supply and demand,” said Gary Stocker, a former chief of staff at Westminster College in Missouri and the founder of College Viability, which evaluates institutions’ financial stability. The closings follow an enrollment decline of 14 percent in the decade through 2022, the most recent period for which the figures are available from the Education Department. A decline of as much as 15 percent is projected to begin next year.

Already this year, and within a span of a few days, Birmingham-Southern College in Alabama, Fontbonne University in St. Louis and Eastern Gateway Community College in Ohio all announced that they would close — Birmingham-Southern in May, Fontbonne next year and Eastern Gateway by June, unless it gets a financial bailout.

The for-profit University of Antelope Valley in California was ordered by the state to shut down because of financial shortfalls. Lincoln Christian University in Illinois and Magdalen College in New Hampshire will close in May, Johnson University of Florida in June and Hodges University in Florida by August. The College of Saint Rose in New York, Cabrini University in Pennsylvania, Oak Point University in Illinois, Goddard College in Vermont and the Staten Island campus of St. John’s University will all be shuttered by the end of this semester.

Notre Dame College in Ohio will also close its doors at the end of this semester, stranding for a second time students who transferred there from Alderson Broaddus University in West Virginia, which shut down just days before classes were scheduled to begin last year.

Seven out of 10 students at colleges that have closed got little or no warning. Of those, a smaller proportion were likely to continue their educations than students at colleges that gave more notice and ended operations in an “orderly” way, the SHEEO study found.

Tatiana Hicks was at her laptop preparing for her final exams in the nursing program she attended at for-profit Stratford University in Virginia when her group chat with fellow students started to blow up. “The only thing that was going through my mind was studying for finals, but my phone would not stop ringing,” said Hicks, who was going to school while working 12-hour shifts three days a week as a nurse assistant in a hospital to pay for it.

An email had just gone out saying Stratford had lost its accreditation and was closing, effective immediately. Students had a month to get their transcripts, it said. But within a day, the university’s phones and email were shut down, said Hicks, now 27, who lives in Gainesville, Va.

“I started panicking. I cried. I cried for hours that day,” said Hicks, who lost all of the 94 credits she had earned and owed $30,000 in student loans, though they would later be forgiven after more than a year of red tape.

“I thought, this just proved I shouldn’t have gone to college in the first place,” she said.

Hicks eventually enrolled in a new program, beginning again from scratch on her way to a degree in respiratory therapy.

More common is the experience of Misha Zhuykov, who ended his formal education when Burlington College in Vermont shut down during his junior year there.

“There was always this ramshackle feeling” at Burlington, he said. “I thought, ‘Just hold out for another two years and I’m out of here.’”

Instead, Zhuykov and the last 100 or so other undergraduates were given less than two weeks’ notice that the college would be closing. He said he found that not all of his credits would be accepted if he transferred.

Like many of his classmates, Zhuykov never took his formal education any further. He now works as a graphic designer in New Hampshire. “A lot of folks just kind of dropped off,” Zhuykov said. “They were banking on that degree. I have a friend who’s working at a gas station.”

Even those who graduated from colleges that later closed run into uncomfortable questions. Laila Ali, who was in the last group of students to graduate from Newbury College, started a new job in December, but her employer couldn’t verify her education. “I didn’t really know what route to take,” she said. “Who do I contact?” The employer ultimately accepted the physical degree that she was handed when she walked at graduation.

It triggered unwelcome memories.

“I remember graduation and my last semester being gloomy,” said Ali, now 27 and living in Atlanta. She said Newbury’s closing came as a surprise. “They could have given us a warning.”

How much difference a warning can make was evident at Presentation College in South Dakota, which — before announcing that it would close — contracted with the nonprofit College Possible to help its 384 remaining students continue their educations.

Ninety percent of those last students either graduated before the college closed its doors for good or transferred to another institution, said Catherine Marciano, College Possible’s vice president for partnerships — a far higher proportion than at closed colleges elsewhere.

That kind of an experience is an exception to the rule, however. “Some colleges literally padlock the door, and that’s their announcement,” said Paula Langteau, the last president of Presentation, who now works as a consultant to help other colleges through the process — a sign of how frequently it’s happening.

Mergers are also picking up, though they almost always end with the struggling partner fading away. Woodbury University is being merged into the University of Redlands, and St. Augustine College in Chicago into Lewis University. The Pennsylvania College of Health Sciences was absorbed by St. Joseph’s University in January. Salus University will become part of Drexel University in June and stop running as a separate institution next year. Bluffton University in Ohio will be integrated into the University of Findlay, also next year.

New rules from the federal Education Department that take effect in July will require institutions to report if they are entering bankruptcy or facing expensive legal judgments, and to set aside reserves to cover the cost of student loans if they go under.

It’s also growing more important that consumers understand the financial status of colleges they consider, said Stocker, of College Viability.

“If a restaurant has health complaints, we don’t want to go there,” said Stocker. “If a car manufacturer is having trouble, why would we want to buy that car? Same thing for colleges.”

This story about college closings was produced by the Hechinger Report , a nonprofit, independent news organization focused on inequality and innovation in education. Additional reporting by Sara Hutchinson. Sign up for its higher education newsletter . Listen to its higher education podcast .

• Election 2024
• Entertainment
• Newsletters
• Photography
• Personal Finance
• AP Investigations
• AP Buyline Personal Finance
• AP Buyline Shopping
• Press Releases
• Israel-Hamas War
• Russia-Ukraine War
• Global elections
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East
• Election Results
• Delegate Tracker
• AP & Elections
• Auto Racing
• 2024 Paris Olympic Games
• Movie reviews
• Book reviews
• Personal finance
• Financial Markets
• Business Highlights
• Financial wellness
• Artificial Intelligence
• Social Media

A Nigerian chess champion plays the royal game for 60 hours — a new global chess record

A Nigerian chess champion and child education advocate is attempting to achieve a Guinness World Record for the longest chess marathon. Tunde Onakoya started the attempt on Wednesday in New York City’s Times Square and aims to use it to raise $1 million to fund education for vulnerable children across Africa. He aims to play nonstop for 58 hours to beat the current record of 56 hours, 9 minutes and 37 seconds. (AP video: John Minchillo)

Tunde Onakoya, 29, a Nigerian chess champion and child education advocate, plays a chess game in Times Square, Friday, April 19, 2024 in New York. (AP Photo/Yuki Iwamura)

• Copy Link copied

Tunde Onakoya, a Nigerian chess champion and child education advocate, plays a chess game in Times Square, Friday, April 19, 2024, in New York. (AP Photo/Yuki Iwamura)

Tunde Onakoya, center, Nigerian chess champion and child education advocate, plays a chess game in Times Square, Friday, April 19, 2024, in New York. (AP Photo/Yuki Iwamura)

Tunde Onakoya, right, a Nigerian chess champion and child education advocate, plays a chess game in Times Square, Friday, April 19, 2024, in New York. (AP Photo/Yuki Iwamura)

NEW YORK (AP) — A Nigerian chess champion and child education advocate played chess nonstop for 60 hours in New York City’s Times Square to break the Guinness World Record for the longest chess marathon.

Tunde Onakoya, 29, hopes to raise $1 million for children’s education across Africa through the record attempt that began on Wednesday.

He had set out to play the royal game for 58 hours but continued until he reached 60 hours at about 12:40 a.m. Saturday, surpassing the current chess marathon record of 56 hours, 9 minutes and 37 seconds, achieved in 2018 by Norwegians Hallvard Haug Flatebø and Sjur Ferkingstad.

The Guinness World Record organization has yet to publicly comment about Onakoya’s attempt. It sometimes takes weeks for the organization to confirm any new record.

Onakoya played against Shawn Martinez, an American chess champion, in line with Guinness World Record guidelines that any attempt to break the record must be made by two players who would play continuously for the entire duration.

Support had been growing online and at the scene, where a blend of African music kept onlookers and supporters entertained amid cheers and applause. Among the dozens who cheered Onakoya on at the scene was Nigerian music star Davido.

The record attempt is “for the dreams of millions of children across Africa without access to education,” said Onakoya, who founded Chess in Slums Africa in 2018. The organization wants to support the education of at least 1 million children in slums across the continent.

“My energy is at 100% right now because my people are here supporting me with music,” Onakoya said Thursday evening after the players crossed the 24-hour mark.

On Onakoya’s menu: Lots of water and jollof rice, one of West Africa’s best-known dishes.

For every hour of game played, Onakoya and his opponent got only five minutes’ break. The breaks were sometimes grouped together, and Onakoya used them to catch up with Nigerians and New Yorkers cheering him on. He even joined in with their dancing sometimes.

A total of $22,000 was raised within the first 20 hours of the attempt, said Taiwo Adeyemi, Onakoya’s manager.

“The support has been overwhelming from Nigerians in the U.S., global leaders, celebrities and hundreds of passersby,” he said.

Onakoya’s attempt was closely followed in Nigeria , where he regularly organizes chess competitions for young people living on the streets.

More than 10 million school-age children are not in school in the West African country — one of the world’s highest rates.

Among those who have publicly supported him are celebrities and public office holders, including Nigeria’s former Vice President Yemi Osinbajo, who wrote to Onakoya on the social media platform X, “Remember your own powerful words: ‘It is possible to do great things from a small place.’”

This version corrects that Osinbajo is Nigeria’s former vice president, not current vice president.

Asadu reported from Abuja, Nigeria.

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Upgraded Museums Add New Value to College Campuses

Educational institutions across the United States are spending more money to renovate museums and make them a more integral part of learning.

By Alina Tugend

Reporting from New Haven, Conn.

This article is part of our Museums special section about how institutions are striving to offer their visitors more to see, do and feel.

Michigan State University and Yale University are very different types of higher education institutions, but they have at least one thing in common: They have been spending millions of dollars to revamp their museums.

So have New York University . And Princeton . And Penn State . And Utah State University.

At a time when many museums and colleges are grappling with financial challenges as well as their changing role in society, it may seem surprising that universities and donors are willing to shell out lots of money to make their museums showcases.

There is no exact number of how many college museums are being renovated or even how many exist nationwide. The Association of Academic Museums and Galleries is conducting a census to get a more accurate count, but its latest estimate is that there are 659 such museums in the United States. the majority are art museums but include history, natural history, science and anthropology.

And even while some are unveiling shiny new buildings, others are closing their doors. Nonetheless, a surprising number of university museums are undergoing major upgrades.

Each institution has different reasons for renovating and expanding, but “it comes down to relevancy,” said Devon Akmon, director of Michigan State University’s art museum. “How do we remain relevant and how do we create programs for the communities we serve and how do we welcome people into a space?”

This is a quandary for all museums, but university museums have different challenges because they are often a bridge between the community and the campus. The question is how to serve both constituencies in a balanced way.

“There is that tension,” Akmon said. “Are you primarily focused first on extending beyond the academy? Or are you first and foremost looking at the needs of your faculty and students? If I’m being very honest, I think we were neglecting our students and our faculty.”

The same is true at the Yale Peabody Museum , which opened its newly designed building on March 26, and incorporated many changes aimed at attracting more students and instructors.

With a $160 million donation , the Peabody has expanded to 44,000 square feet from 30,000 square feet. It now has five classrooms; the previous building had none. Although students have always been involved in the museum in various capacities, “this represents a huge pedagogical shift,” said David Heiser, the museum’s director of student programs. “We’re really using the museum’s collections within teaching and bringing the collections to the classroom, as opposed to bringing a class into the collection storage and maybe opening up some drawers to look at things.”

The museum’s new building also includes a study gallery where faculty members can put museum objects on display for a semester as part of their courses, and a student-curated gallery, which is now showing an exhibition called “Fakes and Fictions? Unraveling Museum Narratives.” It grew out of a course, Heiser said, about how approaches to interpreting and displaying collections in museums like the Peabody are rapidly changing. These students wrestled with why taxidermy and models in the fields of zoology and paleontology are often considered skilled reproductions, while in anthropology models made by traditional artisans are considered fakes.

Both the student gallery and the study gallery are off the central gallery, which is “prime real estate space,” Heiser said. That means that the public will learn more about students’ work and that the students will have the “opportunity to share their own curatorial voice with the public.”

Academic museums are also interested in attracting students from outside the obvious fields of art and museum studies. For example, Northwestern Michigan College is a rare community college that has an academic museum, the Dennos Museum Center. It was established in 1991 and doubled its size in 2018.

It pulls in drawing, painting and printmaking students, but also police cadets and nursing students from the college, who learn how to do close observation, said Craig Hadley, the museum’s director.

He is also hoping to partner with students from more disciplines, such as culinary students. “Ideally, what we’d love to do is to be able to host a reception or be able to work with them on an exhibition that focuses on something like the culinary arts and science of food,” he said. He wants all students “to be able to visit the museum and have an experience thinking about museums and visual literacy very broadly and how that can apply in a positive way to their field,” he added.

Not all university museums are thriving — the University of New Hampshire, citing sweeping budget cuts, closed its arts museum this year.

“It’s very painful,” said Kristina Durocher, the museum’s former director and the current president of the Association of Academic Museums and Galleries. “It’s such a loss to the campus, the community and to the region itself.”

One aspect of university museums that is often overlooked is that they amass work by artists related to the institution or region that isn’t collected elsewhere, Durocher said.

For example, a major exhibition currently at the Metropolitan Museum of Art on the Harlem Renaissance borrowed heavily from museums at historically Black colleges and universities such as Fisk, Howard, Clark Atlanta and Hampton Universities.

In some regions, especially rural ones, the academic museum may be the only one available to local people. In a 2022 survey conducted by the Association of Academic Museums and Galleries and Wilkening Consulting, of the 196 museums that responded, the majority were in small cities or towns where they were one of the principal local cultural amenities.

Hadley that said in his area, the next comparable museum to the Dennos is a two-and-a-half-hour drive away. “This could be the student’s first interaction with a museum of any kind and could be the only museum experience they ever have if they stay up here in northern Michigan,” he said.

Penn State’s Palmer Museum of Art has the largest collection of art between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, said Erin Coe, the museum’s director. It is scheduled to open its completely remodeled and expanded facility in June.

On the opposite side of the spectrum is New York University’s Grey Art Museum, formerly the Grey Art Gallery. In a city awash with museums, the Grey has to differentiate itself. First established in 1975, a bequest allowed it to move to a more visible place off Washington Square Park. It reopened on March 2.

The new quarters incorporate a large study space that will be available by appointment to students, faculty and researchers, something the museum’s director, Lynn Gumpert, called her dream.

“A study center for me is the raison d’être of the university art museum,” she said.

Its opening exhibition, “Americans in Paris” — showing until July 20 — focuses largely on former soldiers who moved to Paris to paint, using the newly enacted G.I. Bill to pay for tuition and living expenses.

Many of the museums that increase their space say it will allow them to better highlight some of their special collections. For the Grey, that means visitors can see a bit more of the 1,000 works of modern Iranian, Indian and Turkish art donated in 1975.

“After consulting with experts on both Iranian and Turkish modernism, starting back in 2002, we realized that the Grey housed the largest institutional holdings of Turkish and Iranian modern artworks outside those respective countries,” Gumpert said.

And the Palmer Museum at Penn State will now have double the space for its standout collection of American art from the late 18th century to the present, Coe said.

The goal at Michigan State’s new museum is to be at the nexus of arts and sciences. Akmon said it had experimented with that goal before but is now “going full blast.”

“It’s less about art or science and more about the pressing issues of our times,” he said.

And confronting those issues is something university museums are uniquely situated to do, he said: “The university environment is about experimentation and discovering from failures and that’s why a museum inside a university should take that approach — moving away from a perfect process toward a more iterative and experimental approach.”

An earlier version of this article described incorrectly a sum of $160 million received by the Yale Peabody Museum. The money was a donation, not a bequest.

How we handle corrections

Welcome to the United Nations

Breaking gender barriers through education

Get monthly e-newsletter.

Roseline Adewuyi  is a fervent advocate for gender equality in Nigeria, driven by a passion for dismantling entrenched gender stereotypes. She spoke to Africa Renewal’s  Kingsley Ighobor on the need to empower girls through education. This is in line with the African Union’s theme for 2024: Educating and skilling Africa for the 21 st   Century.

Roseline Adewuyi believes that fighting gender inequality requires raising awareness and empowering young women and girls through education.

“My goal is to help break those barriers that limit our potential,” she told  African Renewal  in an interview. “I am talking about issues related to land rights, access to education, economic empowerment, leadership, and trust me, gender discrimination.”

Gender discrimination, she explains, is heightened during times of severe economic constraints such as now, when the tendency is often to invest in boys over girls. “That’s when parents often choose to send their sons to school or provide them start-up funding for business ventures, while daughters are expected to focus on house chores and wait for marriage. It’s absolutely absurd.” she insists. 

Roseline has her work cut out for her. “We are constantly finding ways to help women and girls break free from these constraints.” 

She founded the Ending Gender Stereotypes in Schools (ENGENDERS) project, which is dedicated to unlearning gender stereotypes in educational institutions.

“We reach the students, boys and girls in high schools and universities, and we do community engagement, speaking to parents and other influential community inhabitants,” she explains.

Already, she claims to have reached tens of communities and over 6,000 young girls through seminars and webinars, while her  blog , featuring over 300 articles on gender equity, has garnered a wide audience.

Currently pursuing a Ph.D. in French Literature with a focus on women, gender, and sexuality studies at Purdue University in Indiana, US, Roseline now aims to merge academic rigour with passionate advocacy.

“It’s an interesting intersection,” she says, adding that “The body of knowledge that we pass on to future generations is full of gender stereotypes. Our books need to be gender conscious.

“In most African literature, characters often depict women or girls as housemaids and men as pilots or engineers. It reinforces stereotypes; we need to root it out,” she stresses.

Roseline's journey into gender advocacy began in her childhood, fueled by a belief in the transformative power of education. She recognized the systemic challenges faced by African women and girls, including limited access to education and entrenched cultural biases.

“When I served as a prefect in secondary school, the belief among boys and even some girls was that I did not merit the position, that leadership was reserved for the boys. That experience sparked my curiosity as to why girls weren’t perceived as equally competent as boys.”

In 2019, she worked as a translator and interpreter for the African Union (AU), having been selected as one of 120 young people from various African countries to participate in the AU Youth Volunteer Corps. 

Her exposure to continental leaders' efforts to address gender-related challenges reinforced her conviction that gender equality is essential for achieving sustainable peace and security.

“At the AU, I also realized the connection between gender and peace and security. When there is a crisis, it is women who suffer the most. Therefore, women must be at the centre of efforts to achieve peace in our societies,” she adds.

Her international exposure includes being a participant in the Young African Leaders Initiative in 2016 (YALI – Regional Leadership Center West Africa), as well as being a Dalai Lama fellow in 2018. She says these experiences exposed her to gender best practices and strengthened her resolve to advocate for change in her home country.

Although some advances have been made in gender equality in Nigeria, Roseline highlights that the remaining hurdles include challenges in female land ownership, financial inclusion, and access to education.

“For example, we have laws [in Nigeria] that provide for women’s rights to land, but many communities still prevent them from owning a piece of land. We also have situations in which widows are not allowed to inherit the properties of their husbands. 

She says: “So, we have a lot more work to do. We need effective community engagement in raising awareness among women about their rights.

“Importantly, we need to provide women with access to education to equip them with the knowledge and skills to assert their rights effectively.”

In her ongoing advocacy work, she acknowledges facing cyberbullying, which she attributes to resistance from elements of a patriarchal society reluctant to embrace progress.

Roseline's final message to young African women and girls is for them to drive positive change, stand up for their rights, and challenge gender norms.

Also in this issue

Guiding the Future: UN launches new panel on critical energy transition minerals

We must do more to prevent genocide

Football saved me from genocide; now I promote peace with it

Transforming Artisanal Mining Can Be Beneficial for People and the Planet

30 years on, South Africa still dismantling racism and apartheid’s legacy

Kwibuka30: Learning from the past, safeguarding the future against genocide

Many African nations are making progress in the rule of law

Streamlining Egypt’s food value chain through technology

Lessons post the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda: we must speak out against discrimination and prejudice

We shouldn’t have to beg or negotiate for women rights

Creating credible carbon market in Africa

REMEMBER.UNITE.RENEW.

Claver Irakoze: Bridging Generations Through the Memory of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda

More from Africa Renewal

Advancing the Women, Peace and Security Agenda

Empowering change: Safeguarding women in Sierra Leone

Intra-African trade provides an opportunity for inclusive economic growth

Racheal’s resolve: Championing disability rights in Uganda

Apple TV+’s epic animated adventure “WondLa” to premiere globally on Friday, June 28

Today, Apple TV+ announced the premiere date for first installment of its highly anticipated animated adventure trilogy “WondLa,” hailing from Skydance Animation and based on the New York Times bestselling book series “The Search for WondLa” by Tony DiTerlizzi. Showrun and executive produced by Bobs Gannaway and featuring a star-studded voice cast, the seven-episode first season of “WondLa” will premiere globally on Apple TV+ on Friday, June 28.

“WondLa” centers around Eva, voiced by Jeanine Mason (“Roswell, New Mexico”), a curious, enthusiastic and spirited teenager being raised in a state-of-the-art underground bunker by Muthr, a robot caretaker, voiced by Emmy Award nominee Teri Hatcher (“Desperate Housewives”). On her 16th birthday, an attack on Eva’s bunker forces her onto the Earth’s surface, which is now inhabited by aliens and covered with otherworldly fauna, and there are no other humans to be found. In fact, it’s no longer called Earth, but Orbona. Otto, a lovable giant waterbear with whom Eva shares telepathic powers, voiced by Emmy Award winner Brad Garrett (“Everybody Loves Raymond”), and Rovender, a cantankerous alien with a troubled past, voiced by Gary Anthony Williams (“Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows”), join Eva as she leads the team on a dangerous quest to find humans, her home and her true destiny.

Also lending their voices to the cast are Chiké Okonkwo (“The Birth of a Nation,” “La Brea”) as Besteel, the greatest hunter in all of Orbona; D.C. Douglas (“Sharknado 2: The Second One,” “Black Ops”) as Omnipod, Dynasty Corporation’s sentient hand-held device, issued to every human at the age of six; and Emmy Award nominee Alan Tudyk (“Resident Alien”) as Cadmus Pryde, founder of Dynastes Corporation.

The epic trilogy premieres with an adventure-packed seven-episode season and is executive produced by DiTerlizzi and Gannaway alongside Ellen Goldsmith-Vein, Jeremy Bell, Julie Kane-Ritsch, and Skydance Animation’s John Lasseter, David Ellison and Dana Goldberg. The series is also produced by Tony Cosanella.

Apple and Skydance Animation previously partnered to release the Apple Original Films animated feature film “Luck.” The award-winning slate of original series and films for kids and families on Apple TV+ also includes the celebrated live-action animated hybrid special, “The Velveteen Rabbit”; the Academy Award and BAFTA Award-winning animated short film “The Boy, the Mole, the Fox and the Horse”; and BAFTA Award-winning and Academy Award-nominated animated film “Wolfwalkers.”

Apple TV+’s all-age offerings now streaming globally on Apple TV+ include the BAFTA Award and Humanitas Prize-winning “El Deafo,” BAFTA Award-winning “Lovely Little Farm,” “Duck & Goose,” “Get Rolling With Otis,” Spin Master Entertainment’s “Sago Mini Friends,” GLAAD Media Award-nominated “Pinecone & Pony,” “Frog and Toad,” The Jim Henson Company’s Emmy Award-winning “Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock,” “Harriet the Spy” and “Slumberkins,” Sesame Workshop’s “Helpsters,” Joseph Gordon-Levitt, HITRECORD and Bento Box Entertainment’s “Wolfboy and the Everything Factory,” Jack McBrayer and Angela C. Santomero’s Emmy Award-nominated “Hello, Jack! The Kindness Show,” Peanuts and WildBrain’s Emmy Award-nominated “Snoopy in Space,” “The Snoopy Show,” Scholastic’s “Eva the Owlet” and Peabody and Emmy Award-winning series “Stillwater.” Live-action offerings include Bonnie Hunt’s DGA and WGA Award-nominated “Amber Brown,” DGA Award-winning “Best Foot Forward,” “Surfside Girls,” WGA Award-winning “Life by Ella,” Sesame Workshop and Sinking Ship’s Emmy Award-winning “Ghostwriter,” Emmy Award and Environmental Media Association Award winning “Jane,” and Scholastic’s “Puppy Place.”

Also included are “Here We Are: Notes for Living on Planet Earth,” the Emmy Award-winning television event based on the New York Times bestselling book and TIME Best Book of the Year by Oliver Jeffers, and specials from Peanuts and WildBrain including Emmy Award-nominated “Snoopy Presents: It’s the Small Things, Charlie Brown,” “Snoopy Presents: Lucy’s School,” Humanitas and Emmy Award-nominated “Snoopy Presents: To Mom (and Dad), With Love,” “Snoopy Presents: One-of-a-Kind Marcie,” “Snoopy Presents: Welcome Home, Franklin,” Emmy Award-winning “Snoopy Presents: Who Are You, Charlie Brown?” and “Snoopy Presents: For Auld Lang Syne.”

Apple TV+ offers premium, compelling drama and comedy series, feature films, groundbreaking documentaries, and kids and family entertainment, and is available to watch across all of a user’s favorite screens. After its launch on November 1, 2019, Apple TV+ became the first all-original streaming service to launch around the world, and has premiered more original hits and received more award recognitions faster than any other streaming service in its debut. To date, Apple Original films, documentaries and series have been honored with 488 wins and 2,143 award nominations and counting, including multi-Emmy Award-winning comedy “Ted Lasso” and historic Oscar Best Picture winner “CODA.”

About Apple TV+

Apple TV+ is available on the Apple TV app in over 100 countries and regions, on over 1 billion screens, including iPhone, iPad, Apple TV, Apple Vision Pro, Mac, popular smart TVs from Samsung, LG, Sony, VIZIO, TCL and others, Roku and Amazon Fire TV devices, Chromecast with Google TV, PlayStation and Xbox gaming consoles, and at tv.apple.com , for $9.99 per month with a seven-day trial. For a limited time, customers who purchase and activate a new iPhone, iPad, Apple TV, Mac or iPod touch can enjoy three months of Apple TV+ for free.*

For more information, visit  apple.com/tvpr  and see the full list of   supported devices .

Press Contacts

• Kristine Karaca [email protected]
• Nicole Mateo [email protected]
• Susana Voets Outside of the U.S. [email protected]

Apple TV+ Press