literature review on value education

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Values education and holistic learning: Updated research perspectives

2011, International Journal of Educational Research

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Value free research is a highly controversial and subjective proposition. Aspects including epistemological, ontological, and political issues make it very difficult to achieve neutral based research. Issues that cause educational research to be rated as inferior and second best include the fact that besides being criticized as being non cumulative, it is unrealistic and distant from practice. Educational researchers are also shackled by the dogma of unattainable ideality of neutrality and non-partisanship. In the attempt to imitate and fit in the deterministic and empirical ways of the natural sciences they disregard the uniqueness of their research.

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The axiological foundations of innovation in STEM education – A systematic review and ethical meta-analysis

• Vedrenne-Gutiérrez, Fernand
• López-Suero, Carolina del Carmen
• De Hoyos-Bermea, Adalberto
• Mora-Flores, Lorena Patricia
• Monroy-Fraustro, Daniela
• Orozco-Castillo, María Fernanda
• Martínez-Velasco, José Francisco
• Altamirano-Bustamante, Myriam M.

Values are crucial in decision-making, including processes related to science and technology, despite scientists often being unaware of them. Because a goal of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is to foster innovation, values have become fundamental in directing science and technology policies and shaping organizational cultures to leverage innovation. However, most research on STEM education has focused on improving performance or access to STEM education while overlooking its axiological configuration. This study analyzes the different value systems emerging in the current literature on STEM higher education and identifies the relevant stakeholders. In this systematic review and ethical meta-analysis, we aimed to assess the most prominent studies on STEM education and its core values. We followed a Ricoeur-inspired hermeneutical methodology using Atlas ti 8.4.4. Values are identified and classified using a systematic approach to integrate axiological landscapes. The literature does not explicitly discuss the value of STEM education for innovation. However, social values appear to be at the intersection and the cornerstone of basic, economic, aesthetic, and epistemic values, as most social values also manifest these four systems. The most common manifestation of the value system is the capability approach to justice, followed by the beauty of recognition and success and, in third place, racism and social disparities. The analyzed literature emphasizes STEM education's social, political, and economic determinants. However, there is an epistemic gap in the indispensable value of innovating and assessing STEM education. We propose an organizational culture model for STEM education that considers the goals, ends, values, and behaviors of students, teachers, educational institutions, and the government. This model can help fill the axiological gaps in STEM education.

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Education Literature Review: Education Literature Review

What does this guide cover.

Writing the literature review is a long, complex process that requires you to use many different tools, resources, and skills.

This page provides links to the guides, tutorials, and webinars that can help you with all aspects of completing your literature review.

The Basic Process

These resources provide overviews of the entire literature review process. Start here if you are new to the literature review process.

• Literature Reviews Overview : Writing Center
• How to do a Literature Review : Library
• Video: Common Errors Made When Conducting a Lit Review (YouTube)  

The Role of the Literature Review

Your literature review gives your readers an understanding of the evolution of scholarly research on your topic.

In your literature review you will:

• survey the scholarly landscape
• provide a synthesis of the issues, trends, and concepts
• possibly provide some historical background

Review the literature in two ways:

• Section 1: reviews the literature for the Problem
• Section 3: reviews the literature for the Project

The literature review is NOT an annotated bibliography. Nor should it simply summarize the articles you've read. Literature reviews are organized thematically and demonstrate synthesis of the literature.

For more information, view the Library's short video on searching by themes:

Short Video: Research for the Literature Review

(4 min 10 sec) Recorded August 2019 Transcript 

Search for Literature

The iterative process of research:

• Find an article.
• Read the article and build new searches using keywords and names from the article.
• Mine the bibliography for other works.
• Use “cited by” searches to find more recent works that reference the article.
• Repeat steps 2-4 with the new articles you find.

These are the main skills and resources you will need in order to effectively search for literature on your topic:

• Subject Research: Education by Jon Allinder Last Updated Aug 7, 2023 5566 views this year
• Keyword Searching: Finding Articles on Your Topic by Lynn VanLeer Last Updated Sep 12, 2023 26547 views this year
• Google Scholar by Jon Allinder Last Updated Aug 16, 2023 17153 views this year
• Quick Answer: How do I find books and articles that cite an article I already have?
• Quick Answer: How do I find a measurement, test, survey or instrument?

Video: Education Databases and Doctoral Research Resources

(6 min 04 sec) Recorded April 2019 Transcript 

Staying Organized

The literature review requires organizing a variety of information. The following resources will help you develop the organizational systems you'll need to be successful.

• Organize your research
• Citation Management Software

You can make your search log as simple or complex as you would like.  It can be a table in a word document or an excel spread sheet.  Here are two examples.  The word document is a basic table where you can keep track of databases, search terms, limiters, results and comments.  The Excel sheet is more complex and has additional sheets for notes, Google Scholar log; Journal Log, and Questions to ask the Librarian.  

• Search Log Example Sample search log in Excel
• Search Log Example Sample search log set up as a table in a word document.
• Literature Review Matrix with color coding Sample template for organizing and synthesizing your research

Writing the Literature Review

The following resources created by the Writing Center and the Academic Skills Center support the writing process for the dissertation/project study. 

• Critical Reading
• What is Synthesis 
• Walden Templates
• Quick Answer: How do I find Walden EdD (Doctor of Education) studies?
• Quick Answer: How do I find Walden PhD dissertations?

Beyond the Literature Review

The literature review isn't the only portion of a dissertation/project study that requires searching. The following resources can help you identify and utilize a theory, methodology, measurement instruments, or statistics.

• Education Theory by Jon Allinder Last Updated May 17, 2024 665 views this year
• Tests & Measures in Education by Kimberly Burton Last Updated Nov 18, 2021 53 views this year
• Education Statistics by Jon Allinder Last Updated Feb 22, 2022 68 views this year
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Books and Articles about the Lit Review

The following articles and books outline the purpose of the literature review and offer advice for successfully completing one.

• Chen, D. T. V., Wang, Y. M., & Lee, W. C. (2016). Challenges confronting beginning researchers in conducting literature reviews. Studies in Continuing Education, 38(1), 47-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2015.1030335 Proposes a framework to conceptualize four types of challenges students face: linguistic, methodological, conceptual, and ontological.
• Randolph, J.J. (2009). A guide to writing the dissertation literature review. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation 14(13), 1-13. Provides advice for writing a quantitative or qualitative literature review, by a Walden faculty member.
• Torraco, R. J. (2016). Writing integrative literature reviews: Using the past and present to explore the future. Human Resource Development Review, 15(4), 404–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484316671606 This article presents the integrative review of literature as a distinctive form of research that uses existing literature to create new knowledge.
• Wee, B. V., & Banister, D. (2016). How to write a literature review paper?. Transport Reviews, 36(2), 278-288. http://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2015.1065456 Discusses how to write a literature review with a focus on adding value rather and suggests structural and contextual aspects found in outstanding literature reviews.
• Winchester, C. L., & Salji, M. (2016). Writing a literature review. Journal of Clinical Urology, 9(5), 308-312. https://doi.org/10.1177/2051415816650133 Reviews the use of different document types to add structure and enrich your literature review and the skill sets needed in writing the literature review.
• Xiao, Y., & Watson, M. (2017). Guidance on conducting a systematic literature review. Journal of Planning Education and Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X17723971 Examines different types of literature reviews and the steps necessary to produce a systematic review in educational research.

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• v.8(3); 2016 Jul

The Literature Review: A Foundation for High-Quality Medical Education Research

a  These are subscription resources. Researchers should check with their librarian to determine their access rights.

Despite a surge in published scholarship in medical education 1 and rapid growth in journals that publish educational research, manuscript acceptance rates continue to fall. 2 Failure to conduct a thorough, accurate, and up-to-date literature review identifying an important problem and placing the study in context is consistently identified as one of the top reasons for rejection. 3 , 4 The purpose of this editorial is to provide a road map and practical recommendations for planning a literature review. By understanding the goals of a literature review and following a few basic processes, authors can enhance both the quality of their educational research and the likelihood of publication in the Journal of Graduate Medical Education ( JGME ) and in other journals.

The Literature Review Defined

In medical education, no organization has articulated a formal definition of a literature review for a research paper; thus, a literature review can take a number of forms. Depending on the type of article, target journal, and specific topic, these forms will vary in methodology, rigor, and depth. Several organizations have published guidelines for conducting an intensive literature search intended for formal systematic reviews, both broadly (eg, PRISMA) 5 and within medical education, 6 and there are excellent commentaries to guide authors of systematic reviews. 7 , 8

• A literature review forms the basis for high-quality medical education research and helps maximize relevance, originality, generalizability, and impact.
• A literature review provides context, informs methodology, maximizes innovation, avoids duplicative research, and ensures that professional standards are met.
• Literature reviews take time, are iterative, and should continue throughout the research process.
• Researchers should maximize the use of human resources (librarians, colleagues), search tools (databases/search engines), and existing literature (related articles).
• Keeping organized is critical.

Such work is outside the scope of this article, which focuses on literature reviews to inform reports of original medical education research. We define such a literature review as a synthetic review and summary of what is known and unknown regarding the topic of a scholarly body of work, including the current work's place within the existing knowledge . While this type of literature review may not require the intensive search processes mandated by systematic reviews, it merits a thoughtful and rigorous approach.

Purpose and Importance of the Literature Review

An understanding of the current literature is critical for all phases of a research study. Lingard 9 recently invoked the “journal-as-conversation” metaphor as a way of understanding how one's research fits into the larger medical education conversation. As she described it: “Imagine yourself joining a conversation at a social event. After you hang about eavesdropping to get the drift of what's being said (the conversational equivalent of the literature review), you join the conversation with a contribution that signals your shared interest in the topic, your knowledge of what's already been said, and your intention.” 9

The literature review helps any researcher “join the conversation” by providing context, informing methodology, identifying innovation, minimizing duplicative research, and ensuring that professional standards are met. Understanding the current literature also promotes scholarship, as proposed by Boyer, 10 by contributing to 5 of the 6 standards by which scholarly work should be evaluated. 11 Specifically, the review helps the researcher (1) articulate clear goals, (2) show evidence of adequate preparation, (3) select appropriate methods, (4) communicate relevant results, and (5) engage in reflective critique.

Failure to conduct a high-quality literature review is associated with several problems identified in the medical education literature, including studies that are repetitive, not grounded in theory, methodologically weak, and fail to expand knowledge beyond a single setting. 12 Indeed, medical education scholars complain that many studies repeat work already published and contribute little new knowledge—a likely cause of which is failure to conduct a proper literature review. 3 , 4

Likewise, studies that lack theoretical grounding or a conceptual framework make study design and interpretation difficult. 13 When theory is used in medical education studies, it is often invoked at a superficial level. As Norman 14 noted, when theory is used appropriately, it helps articulate variables that might be linked together and why, and it allows the researcher to make hypotheses and define a study's context and scope. Ultimately, a proper literature review is a first critical step toward identifying relevant conceptual frameworks.

Another problem is that many medical education studies are methodologically weak. 12 Good research requires trained investigators who can articulate relevant research questions, operationally define variables of interest, and choose the best method for specific research questions. Conducting a proper literature review helps both novice and experienced researchers select rigorous research methodologies.

Finally, many studies in medical education are “one-offs,” that is, single studies undertaken because the opportunity presented itself locally. Such studies frequently are not oriented toward progressive knowledge building and generalization to other settings. A firm grasp of the literature can encourage a programmatic approach to research.

Approaching the Literature Review

Considering these issues, journals have a responsibility to demand from authors a thoughtful synthesis of their study's position within the field, and it is the authors' responsibility to provide such a synthesis, based on a literature review. The aforementioned purposes of the literature review mandate that the review occurs throughout all phases of a study, from conception and design, to implementation and analysis, to manuscript preparation and submission.

Planning the literature review requires understanding of journal requirements, which vary greatly by journal ( table 1 ). Authors are advised to take note of common problems with reporting results of the literature review. Table 2 lists the most common problems that we have encountered as authors, reviewers, and editors.

Sample of Journals' Author Instructions for Literature Reviews Conducted as Part of Original Research Article a

Common Problem Areas for Reporting Literature Reviews in the Context of Scholarly Articles

Locating and Organizing the Literature

Three resources may facilitate identifying relevant literature: human resources, search tools, and related literature. As the process requires time, it is important to begin searching for literature early in the process (ie, the study design phase). Identifying and understanding relevant studies will increase the likelihood of designing a relevant, adaptable, generalizable, and novel study that is based on educational or learning theory and can maximize impact.

Human Resources

A medical librarian can help translate research interests into an effective search strategy, familiarize researchers with available information resources, provide information on organizing information, and introduce strategies for keeping current with emerging research. Often, librarians are also aware of research across their institutions and may be able to connect researchers with similar interests. Reaching out to colleagues for suggestions may help researchers quickly locate resources that would not otherwise be on their radar.

During this process, researchers will likely identify other researchers writing on aspects of their topic. Researchers should consider searching for the publications of these relevant researchers (see table 3 for search strategies). Additionally, institutional websites may include curriculum vitae of such relevant faculty with access to their entire publication record, including difficult to locate publications, such as book chapters, dissertations, and technical reports.

Strategies for Finding Related Researcher Publications in Databases and Search Engines

Search Tools and Related Literature

Researchers will locate the majority of needed information using databases and search engines. Excellent resources are available to guide researchers in the mechanics of literature searches. 15 , 16

Because medical education research draws on a variety of disciplines, researchers should include search tools with coverage beyond medicine (eg, psychology, nursing, education, and anthropology) and that cover several publication types, such as reports, standards, conference abstracts, and book chapters (see the box for several information resources). Many search tools include options for viewing citations of selected articles. Examining cited references provides additional articles for review and a sense of the influence of the selected article on its field.

Box Information Resources

• Web of Science a
• Education Resource Information Center (ERIC)
• Cumulative Index of Nursing & Allied Health (CINAHL) a
• Google Scholar

Once relevant articles are located, it is useful to mine those articles for additional citations. One strategy is to examine references of key articles, especially review articles, for relevant citations.

Getting Organized

As the aforementioned resources will likely provide a tremendous amount of information, organization is crucial. Researchers should determine which details are most important to their study (eg, participants, setting, methods, and outcomes) and generate a strategy for keeping those details organized and accessible. Increasingly, researchers utilize digital tools, such as Evernote, to capture such information, which enables accessibility across digital workspaces and search capabilities. Use of citation managers can also be helpful as they store citations and, in some cases, can generate bibliographies ( table 4 ).

Citation Managers

Knowing When to Say When

Researchers often ask how to know when they have located enough citations. Unfortunately, there is no magic or ideal number of citations to collect. One strategy for checking coverage of the literature is to inspect references of relevant articles. As researchers review references they will start noticing a repetition of the same articles with few new articles appearing. This can indicate that the researcher has covered the literature base on a particular topic.

Putting It All Together

In preparing to write a research paper, it is important to consider which citations to include and how they will inform the introduction and discussion sections. The “Instructions to Authors” for the targeted journal will often provide guidance on structuring the literature review (or introduction) and the number of total citations permitted for each article category. Reviewing articles of similar type published in the targeted journal can also provide guidance regarding structure and average lengths of the introduction and discussion sections.

When selecting references for the introduction consider those that illustrate core background theoretical and methodological concepts, as well as recent relevant studies. The introduction should be brief and present references not as a laundry list or narrative of available literature, but rather as a synthesized summary to provide context for the current study and to identify the gap in the literature that the study intends to fill. For the discussion, citations should be thoughtfully selected to compare and contrast the present study's findings with the current literature and to indicate how the present study moves the field forward.

To facilitate writing a literature review, journals are increasingly providing helpful features to guide authors. For example, the resources available through JGME include several articles on writing. 17 The journal Perspectives on Medical Education recently launched “The Writer's Craft,” which is intended to help medical educators improve their writing. Additionally, many institutions have writing centers that provide web-based materials on writing a literature review, and some even have writing coaches.

The literature review is a vital part of medical education research and should occur throughout the research process to help researchers design a strong study and effectively communicate study results and importance. To achieve these goals, researchers are advised to plan and execute the literature review carefully. The guidance in this editorial provides considerations and recommendations that may improve the quality of literature reviews.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Learning objectives.

At the conclusion of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Identify the purpose of the literature review in  the research process
• Distinguish between different types of literature reviews

1.1 What is a Literature Review?

Pick up nearly any book on research methods and you will find a description of a literature review.  At a basic level, the term implies a survey of factual or nonfiction books, articles, and other documents published on a particular subject.  Definitions may be similar across the disciplines, with new types and definitions continuing to emerge.  Generally speaking, a literature review is a:

• “comprehensive background of the literature within the interested topic area…” ( O’Gorman & MacIntosh, 2015, p. 31 ).
• “critical component of the research process that provides an in-depth analysis of recently published research findings in specifically identified areas of interest.” ( House, 2018, p. 109 ).
• “written document that presents a logically argued case founded on a comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge about a topic of study” ( Machi & McEvoy,  2012, p. 4 ).

As a foundation for knowledge advancement in every discipline, it is an important element of any research project.  At the graduate or doctoral level, the literature review is an essential feature of thesis and dissertation, as well as grant proposal writing.  That is to say, “A substantive, thorough, sophisticated literature review is a precondition for doing substantive, thorough, sophisticated research…A researcher cannot perform significant research without first understanding the literature in the field.” ( Boote & Beile, 2005, p. 3 ).  It is by this means, that a researcher demonstrates familiarity with a body of knowledge and thereby establishes credibility with a reader.  An advanced-level literature review shows how prior research is linked to a new project, summarizing and synthesizing what is known while identifying gaps in the knowledge base, facilitating theory development, closing areas where enough research already exists, and uncovering areas where more research is needed. ( Webster & Watson, 2002, p. xiii )

A graduate-level literature review is a compilation of the most significant previously published research on your topic. Unlike an annotated bibliography or a research paper you may have written as an undergraduate, your literature review will outline, evaluate and synthesize relevant research and relate those sources to your own thesis or research question. It is much more than a summary of all the related literature.

It is a type of writing that demonstrate the importance of your research by defining the main ideas and the relationship between them. A good literature review lays the foundation for the importance of your stated problem and research question.

Literature reviews:

• define a concept
• map the research terrain or scope
• systemize relationships between concepts
• identify gaps in the literature ( Rocco & Plathotnik, 2009, p. 128 )

The purpose of a literature review is to demonstrate that your research question  is meaningful. Additionally, you may review the literature of different disciplines to find deeper meaning and understanding of your topic. It is especially important to consider other disciplines when you do not find much on your topic in one discipline. You will need to search the cognate literature before claiming there is “little previous research” on your topic.

Well developed literature reviews involve numerous steps and activities. The literature review is an iterative process because you will do at least two of them: a preliminary search to learn what has been published in your area and whether there is sufficient support in the literature for moving ahead with your subject. After this first exploration, you will conduct a deeper dive into the literature to learn everything you can about the topic and its related issues.

Literature Review Tutorial

1.2 Literature Review Basics

An effective literature review must:

• Methodologically analyze and synthesize quality literature on a topic
• Provide a firm foundation to a topic or research area
• Provide a firm foundation for the selection of a research methodology
• Demonstrate that the proposed research contributes something new to the overall body of knowledge of advances the research field’s knowledge base. ( Levy & Ellis, 2006 ).

All literature reviews, whether they are qualitative, quantitative or both, will at some point:

• Introduce the topic and define its key terms
• Establish the importance of the topic
• Provide an overview of the amount of available literature and its types (for example: theoretical, statistical, speculative)
• Identify gaps in the literature
• Point out consistent finding across studies
• Arrive at a synthesis that organizes what is known about a topic
• Discusses possible implications and directions for future research

1.3 Types of Literature Reviews

There are many different types of literature reviews, however there are some shared characteristics or features.  Remember a comprehensive literature review is, at its most fundamental level, an original work based on an extensive critical examination and synthesis of the relevant literature on a topic. As a study of the research on a particular topic, it is arranged by key themes or findings, which may lead up to or link to the  research question.  In some cases, the research question will drive the type of literature review that is undertaken.

The following section includes brief descriptions of the terms used to describe different literature review types with examples of each.   The included citations are open access, Creative Commons licensed or copyright-restricted.

1.3.1 Types of Review

1.3.1.1 conceptual.

Guided by an understanding of basic issues rather than a research methodology. You are looking for key factors, concepts or variables and the presumed relationship between them. The goal of the conceptual literature review is to categorize and describe concepts relevant to your study or topic and outline a relationship between them. You will include relevant theory and empirical research.

Examples of a Conceptual Review:

• Education : The formality of learning science in everyday life: A conceptual literature review. ( Dohn, 2010 ).
• Education : Are we asking the right questions? A conceptual review of the educational development literature in higher education. ( Amundsen & Wilson, 2012 ).

1.3.1.2 Empirical

An empirical literature review collects, creates, arranges, and analyzes numeric data reflecting the frequency of themes, topics, authors and/or methods found in existing literature. Empirical literature reviews present their summaries in quantifiable terms using descriptive and inferential statistics.

Examples of an Empirical Review:

• Nursing : False-positive findings in Cochrane meta-analyses with and without application of trial sequential analysis: An empirical review. ( Imberger, Thorlund, Gluud, & Wettersley, 2016 ).
• Education : Impediments of e-learning adoption in higher learning institutions of Tanzania: An empirical review ( Mwakyusa & Mwalyagile, 2016 ).

1.3.1.3 Exploratory

Unlike a synoptic literature review, the purpose here is to provide a broad approach to the topic area. The aim is breadth rather than depth and to get a general feel for the size of the topic area. A graduate student might do an exploratory review of the literature before beginning a synoptic, or more comprehensive one.

Examples of an Exploratory Review:

• Education : University research management: An exploratory literature review. ( Schuetzenmeister, 2010 ).
• Education : An exploratory review of design principles in constructivist gaming learning environments. ( Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009 ).

1.3.1.4 Focused

A type of literature review limited to a single aspect of previous research, such as methodology. A focused literature review generally will describe the implications of choosing a particular element of past research, such as methodology in terms of data collection, analysis and interpretation.

Examples of a Focused Review:

• Nursing : Clinical inertia in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A focused literature review. ( Khunti, Davies, & Khunti, 2015 ).
• Education : Language awareness: Genre awareness-a focused review of the literature. ( Stainton, 1992 ).

1.3.1.5 Integrative

Critiques past research and draws overall conclusions from the body of literature at a specified point in time. Reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way. Most integrative reviews are intended to address mature topics or  emerging topics. May require the author to adopt a guiding theory, a set of competing models, or a point of view about a topic.  For more description of integrative reviews, see Whittemore & Knafl (2005).

Examples of an Integrative Review:

• Nursing : Interprofessional teamwork and collaboration between community health workers and healthcare teams: An integrative review. ( Franklin,  Bernhardt, Lopez, Long-Middleton, & Davis, 2015 ).
• Education : Exploring the gap between teacher certification and permanent employment in Ontario: An integrative literature review. ( Brock & Ryan, 2016 ).

1.3.1.6 Meta-analysis

A subset of a  systematic review, that takes findings from several studies on the same subject and analyzes them using standardized statistical procedures to pool together data. Integrates findings from a large body of quantitative findings to enhance understanding, draw conclusions, and detect patterns and relationships. Gather data from many different, independent studies that look at the same research question and assess similar outcome measures. Data is combined and re-analyzed, providing a greater statistical power than any single study alone. It’s important to note that not every systematic review includes a meta-analysis but a meta-analysis can’t exist without a systematic review of the literature.

Examples of a Meta-Analysis:

• Education : Efficacy of the cooperative learning method on mathematics achievement and attitude: A meta-analysis research. ( Capar & Tarim, 2015 ).
• Nursing : A meta-analysis of the effects of non-traditional teaching methods on the critical thinking abilities of nursing students. ( Lee, Lee, Gong, Bae, & Choi, 2016 ).
• Education : Gender differences in student attitudes toward science: A meta-analysis of the literature from 1970 to 1991. ( Weinburgh, 1995 ).

1.3.1.7 Narrative/Traditional

An overview of research on a particular topic that critiques and summarizes a body of literature. Typically broad in focus. Relevant past research is selected and synthesized into a coherent discussion. Methodologies, findings and limits of the existing body of knowledge are discussed in narrative form. Sometimes also referred to as a traditional literature review. Requires a sufficiently focused research question. The process may be subject to bias that supports the researcher’s own work.

Examples of a Narrative/Traditional Review:

• Nursing : Family carers providing support to a person dying in the home setting: A narrative literature review. ( Morris, King, Turner, & Payne, 2015 ).
• Education : Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. ( Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997 ).
• Education : Good quality discussion is necessary but not sufficient in asynchronous tuition: A brief narrative review of the literature. ( Fear & Erikson-Brown, 2014 ).
• Nursing : Outcomes of physician job satisfaction: A narrative review, implications, and directions for future research. ( Williams & Skinner, 2003 ).

1.3.1.8 Realist

Aspecific type of literature review that is theory-driven and interpretative and is intended to explain the outcomes of a complex intervention program(s).

Examples of a Realist Review:

• Nursing : Lean thinking in healthcare: A realist review of the literature. ( Mazzacato, Savage, Brommels, 2010 ).
• Education : Unravelling quality culture in higher education: A realist review. ( Bendermacher, Egbrink, Wolfhagen, & Dolmans, 2017 ).

1.3.1.9 Scoping

Tend to be non-systematic and focus on breadth of coverage conducted on a topic rather than depth. Utilize a wide range of materials; may not evaluate the quality of the studies as much as count the number. One means of understanding existing literature. Aims to identify nature and extent of research; preliminary assessment of size and scope of available research on topic. May include research in progress.

Examples of a Scoping Review:

• Nursing : Organizational interventions improving access to community-based primary health care for vulnerable populations: A scoping review. ( Khanassov, Pluye, Descoteaux, Haggerty,  Russell, Gunn, & Levesque, 2016 ).
• Education : Interdisciplinary doctoral research supervision: A scoping review. ( Vanstone, Hibbert, Kinsella, McKenzie, Pitman, & Lingard, 2013 ).
• Nursing : A scoping review of the literature on the abolition of user fees in health care services in Africa. ( Ridde, & Morestin, 2011 ).

1.3.1.10 Synoptic

Unlike an exploratory review, the purpose is to provide a concise but accurate overview of all material that appears to be relevant to a chosen topic. Both content and methodological material is included. The review should aim to be both descriptive and evaluative. Summarizes previous studies while also showing how the body of literature could be extended and improved in terms of content and method by identifying gaps.

Examples of a Synoptic Review:

• Education : Theoretical framework for educational assessment: A synoptic review. ( Ghaicha, 2016 ).
• Education : School effects research: A synoptic review of past efforts and some suggestions for the future. ( Cuttance, 1981 ).

1.3.1.11 Systematic Review

A rigorous review that follows a strict methodology designed with a presupposed selection of literature reviewed.  Undertaken to clarify the state of existing research, the evidence, and possible implications that can be drawn from that.  Using comprehensive and exhaustive searching of the published and unpublished literature, searching various databases, reports, and grey literature.  Transparent and reproducible in reporting details of time frame, search and methods to minimize bias.  Must include a team of at least 2-3 and includes the critical appraisal of the literature.  For more description of systematic reviews, including links to protocols, checklists, workflow processes, and structure see “ A Young Researcher’s Guide to a Systematic Review “.

Examples of a Systematic Review:

• Education : The potentials of using cloud computing in schools: A systematic literature review ( Hartmann, Braae, Pedersen, & Khalid, 2017 )
• Nursing : Is butter back? A systematic review and meta-analysis of butter consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and total mortality. ( Pimpin, Wu, Haskelberg, Del Gobbo, & Mozaffarian, 2016 ).
• Education : The use of research to improve professional practice: a systematic review of the literature. ( Hemsley-Brown & Sharp, 2003 ).
• Nursing : Using computers to self-manage type 2 diabetes. ( Pal, Eastwood, Michie, Farmer, Barnard, Peacock, Wood, Inniss, & Murray, 2013 ).

1.3.1.12 Umbrella/Overview of Reviews

Compiles evidence from multiple systematic reviews into one document. Focuses on broad condition or problem for which there are competing interventions and highlights reviews that address those interventions and their effects. Often used in recommendations for practice.

Examples of an Umbrella/Overview Review:

• Education : Reflective practice in healthcare education: An umbrella review. ( Fragknos, 2016 ).
• Nursing : Systematic reviews of psychosocial interventions for autism: an umbrella review. ( Seida, Ospina, Karkhaneh, Hartling, Smith, & Clark, 2009 ).

For a brief discussion see “ Not all literature reviews are the same ” (Thomson, 2013).

1.4 Why do a Literature Review?

The purpose of the literature review is the same regardless of the topic or research method. It tests your own research question against what is already known about the subject.

1.4.1 First – It’s part of the whole. Omission of a literature review chapter or section in a graduate-level project represents a serious void or absence of critical element in the research process.

The outcome of your review is expected to demonstrate that you:

• can systematically explore the research in your topic area
• can read and critically analyze the literature in your discipline and then use it appropriately to advance your own work
• have sufficient knowledge in the topic to undertake further investigation

1.4.2 Second – It’s good for you!

• You improve your skills as a researcher
• You become familiar with the discourse of your discipline and learn how to be a scholar in your field
• You learn through writing your ideas and finding your voice in your subject area
• You define, redefine and clarify your research question for yourself in the process

1.4.3 Third – It’s good for your reader. Your reader expects you to have done the hard work of gathering, evaluating and synthesizes the literature.  When you do a literature review you:

• Set the context for the topic and present its significance
• Identify what’s important to know about your topic – including individual material, prior research, publications, organizations and authors.
• Demonstrate relationships among prior research
• Establish limitations of existing knowledge
• Analyze trends in the topic’s treatment and gaps in the literature

1.4.4 Why do a literature review?

• To locate gaps in the literature of your discipline
• To avoid reinventing the wheel
• To carry on where others have already been
• To identify other people working in the same field
• To increase your breadth of knowledge in your subject area
• To find the seminal works in your field
• To provide intellectual context for your own work
• To acknowledge opposing viewpoints
• To put your work in perspective
• To demonstrate you can discover and retrieve previous work in the area

1.5 Common Literature Review Errors

Graduate-level literature reviews are more than a summary of the publications you find on a topic.  As you have seen in this brief introduction, literature reviews are a very specific type of research, analysis, and writing.  We will explore these topics more in the next chapters.  Some things to keep in mind as you begin your own research and writing are ways to avoid the most common errors seen in the first attempt at a literature review.  For a quick review of some of the pitfalls and challenges a new researcher faces when he/she begins work, see “ Get Ready: Academic Writing, General Pitfalls and (oh yes) Getting Started! ”.

As you begin your own graduate-level literature review, try to avoid these common mistakes:

• Accepts another researcher’s finding as valid without evaluating methodology and data
• Contrary findings and alternative interpretations are not considered or mentioned
• Findings are not clearly related to one’s own study, or findings are too general
• Insufficient time allowed to define best search strategies and writing
• Isolated statistical results are simply reported rather than synthesizing the results
• Problems with selecting and using most relevant keywords, subject headings and descriptors
• Relies too heavily on secondary sources
• Search methods are not recorded or reported for transparency
• Summarizes rather than synthesizes articles

In conclusion, the purpose of a literature review is three-fold:

• to survey the current state of knowledge or evidence in the area of inquiry,
• to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area, and
• to identify gaps in knowledge in that research area.

A literature review is commonly done today using computerized keyword searches in online databases, often working with a trained librarian or information expert. Keywords can be combined using the Boolean operators, “and”, “or” and sometimes “not”  to narrow down or expand the search results. Once a list of articles is generated from the keyword and subject heading search, the researcher must then manually browse through each title and abstract, to determine the suitability of that article before a full-text article is obtained for the research question.

Literature reviews should be reasonably complete, and not restricted to a few journals, a few years, or a specific methodology or research design. Reviewed articles may be summarized in the form of tables, and can be further structured using organizing frameworks such as a concept matrix.

A well-conducted literature review should indicate whether the initial research questions have already been addressed in the literature, whether there are newer or more interesting research questions available, and whether the original research questions should be modified or changed in light of findings of the literature review.

The review can also provide some intuitions or potential answers to the questions of interest and/or help identify theories that have previously been used to address similar questions and may provide evidence to inform policy or decision-making. ( Bhattacherjee, 2012 ).

Read Abstract 1.  Refer to Types of Literature Reviews.  What type of literature review do you think this study is and why?  See the Answer Key for the correct response.

Nursing : To describe evidence of international literature on the safe care of the hospitalised child after the World Alliance for Patient Safety and list contributions of the general theoretical framework of patient safety for paediatric nursing.

An integrative literature review between 2004 and 2015 using the databases PubMed, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Scopus, Web of Science and Wiley Online Library, and the descriptors Safety or Patient safety, Hospitalised child, Paediatric nursing, and Nursing care.

Thirty-two articles were analysed, most of which were from North American, with a descriptive approach. The quality of the recorded information in the medical records, the use of checklists, and the training of health workers contribute to safe care in paediatric nursing and improve the medication process and partnerships with parents.

General information available on patient safety should be incorporated in paediatric nursing care. ( Wegner, Silva, Peres, Bandeira, Frantz, Botene, & Predebon, 2017 ).

Read Abstract 2.  Refer to Types of Literature Reviews.  What type of lit review do you think this study is and why?  See the Answer Key for the correct response.

Education : The focus of this paper centers around timing associated with early childhood education programs and interventions using meta-analytic methods. At any given assessment age, a child’s current age equals starting age, plus duration of program, plus years since program ended. Variability in assessment ages across the studies should enable everyone to identify the separate effects of all three time-related components. The project is a meta-analysis of evaluation studies of early childhood education programs conducted in the United States and its territories between 1960 and 2007. The population of interest is children enrolled in early childhood education programs between the ages of 0 and 5 and their control-group counterparts. Since the data come from a meta-analysis, the population for this study is drawn from many different studies with diverse samples. Given the preliminary nature of their analysis, the authors cannot offer conclusions at this point. ( Duncan, Leak, Li, Magnuson, Schindler, & Yoshikawa, 2011 ).

Test Yourself

See Answer Key for the correct responses.

The purpose of a graduate-level literature review is to summarize in as many words as possible everything that is known about my topic.

A literature review is significant because in the process of doing one, the researcher learns to read and critically assess the literature of a discipline and then uses it appropriately to advance his/her own research.

Read the following abstract and choose the correct type of literature review it represents.

Nursing: E-cigarette use has become increasingly popular, especially among the young. Its long-term influence upon health is unknown. Aim of this review has been to present the current state of knowledge about the impact of e-cigarette use on health, with an emphasis on Central and Eastern Europe. During the preparation of this narrative review, the literature on e-cigarettes available within the network PubMed was retrieved and examined. In the final review, 64 research papers were included. We specifically assessed the construction and operation of the e-cigarette as well as the chemical composition of the e-liquid; the impact that vapor arising from the use of e-cigarette explored in experimental models in vitro; and short-term effects of use of e-cigarettes on users’ health. Among the substances inhaled by the e-smoker, there are several harmful products, such as: formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acroleine, propanal, nicotine, acetone, o-methyl-benzaldehyde, carcinogenic nitrosamines. Results from experimental animal studies indicate the negative impact of e-cigarette exposure on test models, such as ascytotoxicity, oxidative stress, inflammation, airway hyper reactivity, airway remodeling, mucin production, apoptosis, and emphysematous changes. The short-term impact of e-cigarettes on human health has been studied mostly in experimental setting. Available evidence shows that the use of e-cigarettes may result in acute lung function responses (e.g., increase in impedance, peripheral airway flow resistance) and induce oxidative stress. Based on the current available evidence, e-cigarette use is associated with harmful biologic responses, although it may be less harmful than traditional cigarettes. (J ankowski, Brożek, Lawson, Skoczyński, & Zejda, 2017 ).

• Meta-analysis
• Exploratory

Education: In this review, Mary Vorsino writes that she is interested in keeping the potential influences of women pragmatists of Dewey’s day in mind while presenting modern feminist re readings of Dewey. She wishes to construct a narrowly-focused and succinct literature review of thinkers who have donned a feminist lens to analyze Dewey’s approaches to education, learning, and democracy and to employ Dewey’s works in theorizing on gender and education and on gender in society. This article first explores Dewey as both an ally and a problematic figure in feminist literature and then investigates the broader sphere of feminist pragmatism and two central themes within it: (1) valuing diversity, and diverse experiences; and (2) problematizing fixed truths. ( Vorsino, 2015 ).

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Literature Reviews for Education and Nursing Graduate Students Copyright © by Linda Frederiksen is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What is a Literature Review?

Basics of a literature review, types of literature reviews.

• Citing Your Information (Attribution)

A Literature Review is a systematic and comprehensive analysis of books, scholarly articles and other sources relevant to a specific topic providing a base of knowledge on a topic. Literature reviews are designed to identify and critique the existing literature on a topic to justify your research by exposing gaps in current research .  This investigation should provide a description, summary, and critical evaluation of works related to the research problem and should also add to the overall knowledge of the topic as well as demonstrating how your research will fit within a larger field of study.  A literature review should offer critical analysis of the current research on a topic and that analysis should direct your research objective. This should not be confused with a book review or an annotated bibliography both research tools but very different in purpose and scope.  A Literature Review can be a stand alone element or part of a larger end product, know your assignment.  Key to a good Literature Review is to document your process. For more information see:

Planning a Literature Review .

There are many different ways to organize your references in a literature review, but most reviews contain certain basic elements.

• Objective of the literature review - Clearly describe the purpose of the paper and state your objectives in completing the literature review.
•   Overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration – Give an overview of your research topic and what prompted it.
• Categorization of sources – Grouping your research either historic, chronologically or thematically
• Organization of Subtopics – Subtopics should be grouped and presented in a logical order starting with the most prominent or significant and moving to the least significant
• Discussion – Provide analysis of both the uniqueness of each source and its similarities with other source
• Conclusion   - Summary of your analysis and evaluation of the reviewed works and how it is related to its parent discipline, scientific endeavor or profession

As Kennedy (2007) notes*, it is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews.

Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are several approaches to how they can be done, depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study. Listed below are definitions of types of literature reviews:

Argumentative Review      This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review      Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.

Historical Review      Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review      A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study.

Systematic Review      This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review      The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

* Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147.

All content is from The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee USC

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Top-ranked U.S. and U.K.’s universities’ first responses to GenAI: key themes, emotions, and pedagogical implications for teaching and learning

• Open access
• Published: 30 July 2024
• Volume 3 , article number  115 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Rita Gill Singh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5540-3593 1 &
• Cindy Sing Bik Ngai   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0664-075X 2  

The emergence of ChatGPT, a Generative AI program, has sparked discussions about its teaching and learning value, and concerns about academic integrity in higher education (HE). An extant review of the literature indicates that a scarcity of research exists on GenAI, specifically a synthesis of the official views, guidelines and articles of top-ranked universities on the use, limitations, challenges, and opportunities brought by ChatGPT in the early phase when ChatGPT was released in 2022 until early May 2023, which can offer insights into the concerns and recommendations for educators. Using the corpus assisted discourse analysis approach, this study identified the key themes and emotions elicited by evaluations of the ChatGPT situation from a self-built corpus containing 151 articles from 47 top-ranked U.S. universities and 34 U.K. ones. Our findings indicated three prominent themes discussed on official websites, including ChatGPT as a text and content generator, use of ChatGPT in teaching and learning, and potential implications and opportunities of using ChatGPT in HE. Further examination revealed that bias, concern, worry, threat, fear, and trust were the prevailing emotions relating to ChatGPT. Illustrated with examples collected from our corpus, this paper offers an in-depth discussion of universities’ first responses to the use of ChatGPT. The insights gained have some pedagogical implications for academics, researchers and educators and may inform policy and practice in HE on the use of GenAI.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Generative AI (GenAI) is a kind of artificial intelligence technology that is capable of generating a variety of content including text, videos, images and others [ 1 ] and has many applications in the Higher Education (HE) sector [ 2 ]. The advent of ChatGPT, designed by OpenAI and launched on 30 November 2022, has attracted tremendous attention [ 3 ]. ChatGPT is a GenAI program or tool that contains a language database to generate human-like text-based input and has immense potential in understanding language and retaining knowledge; it can simulate human-like conversations with users, and users can ask questions while the system replies speedily [ 4 , 5 ]. Research on GenAI has thus become a significant topic in HE.

GenAI has led to a transformation in teaching and learning in HE, yet mixed views still surround GenAI and its implications for practice. While some academics contend it should be banned as academic integrity issues arise [e.g. 6], others believe that it can promote teaching and learning e.g. [ 2 , 7 , 8 ]. Indeed, GenAI can provide personalized learning experiences, create content, and minimize language barriers for socially disadvantaged students, thereby facilitating learning [ 7 , 9 ]. There are also calls to modify assessment practices to keep up with GenAI developments alongside equipping students with the digital competence to use it appropriately [ 4 , 5 ]. In contrast, some educators are not quite receptive to adopting GenAI stemming from concerns about job displacement and a negative perception of GenAI’s impact on HE [ 9 ].

A review of studies on GenAI, specifically ChatGPT, has indicated that very few academic studies were published on how ChatGPT was viewed by the global HE sector from November 2022 when it was released to the emergence of ChatGPT 3 and 4 until early May 2023. Most research at that time revolved around discussions, commentaries and newspaper articles about how GenAI might affect educators’ evaluation of students’ learning [ 8 , 10 ]. Concerning the limited studies done in HE at that time, one focused on news articles on how ChatGPT was affecting HE in Australia, New Zealand, the U.K. and U.S., indicating there were divided discussions and university responses to ChatGPT, focusing mainly on academic integrity and the need for modifying assessments [ 10 ]. In fact, educators and policymakers are the most important stakeholders in HE apart from students, and thus, it is essential to comprehend GenAI’s impact on HE from educators’ and policymakers’ perspective. Since it is not feasible to analyze all views towards ChatGPT by universities worldwide, our study focused on the top-ranked universities in the U.K. and U.S. recognised by the QS World University Rankings. Official views and policies exhibited on websites from top-ranked universities often draw considerable public attention and serve as models to other HE institutions in terms of guidance and policymaking, as well as have some impact on the teaching and learning policies and practices adopted by other institutions [ 11 ]. University websites serve an important role in explicitly indicating the institution’s policies, practices, mission, stance; this information is helpful to prospective students, educators, and stakeholders such as the public and government officials [ 12 ].

It should be noted that university educators and policymakers may have little knowledge of GenAI, which can be disruptive and emerging, and therefore, mixed views on GenAI are evident among HE institutions, centering on discussions about its impact on teaching, policy development, and assessments [ 2 ]. There is scarce research on key stakeholders’ perspectives, specifically the official viewpoints of educators and policymakers, which can offer insights into the impact that GenAI will have on HE in the areas of learning, teaching, assessment, and administration. A synthesis of views from top-ranked universities in the U.S. and U.K. can contribute to a more nuanced analysis of the opportunities, challenges, and implications of GenAI for teaching and learning in HE in the future. This paper is framed as a historical study that documents the first responses of leading universities in the U.S. and U.K. when ChatGPT was released in November 2022 until early May 2023, given that ChatGPT during that time generated some panic. To the best of our knowledge, this study is one of the first investigations into how GenAI, specifically ChatGPT, is viewed by top-ranked U.S. and U.K. universities, which has some practical significance for universities in the global context.

Our study focuses on two key areas, namely exploring the official viewpoints, news/articles, and guidelines on ChatGPT expressed by leading U.S. and U.K. universities on their official websites, by using Corpus Assisted Discourse Analysis (CADA) to uncover the prominent keywords, themes and sub-themes. It is one of the first studies investigating the coverage of ChatGPT in two different nations by examining their themes exhibited in their messages on their websites. We also deemed that it is worth exploring the emotions embedded in the official discourse of the ChatGPT issue to provide more in-depth insights into the topic. The following section reviews prior research on GenAI. The research design is then explained followed by the findings and discussion. This paper offers pedagogical implications of GenAI alongside opportunities for integrating it into teaching and learning in HE based on the findings.

2 Diverse views towards the use of GenAI

GenAI, more specifically ChatGPT, is a versatile tool considering that it can explain complex concepts, generate educational materials, offer personalized feedback on assignments, automate administrative tasks to save educators’ time, and support students’ self-directed learning [ 5 , 10 , 13 ]. Prior research has focused on applying ChatGPT to teaching and learning in different fields in HE [ 4 , 5 , 14 ]. For example, ChatGPT3 could provide a reference guide for self-directed study for Chinese medicine students taking pharmacology courses in Malaysia [ 15 ], while it performed like year 3 medical students in answering questions on the U.S. Medical Licensing examination, and hence, the researchers concluded that ChatGPT can serve as a medical education tool [ 16 ]. Dowling and Lucey [ 17 ] suggested that ChatGPT can facilitate research on finance by helping students brainstorm ideas, synthesize the literature and collate the data, and it can also help compose medical discharge summaries of patients [ 18 ].

Research on GenAI suggests mixed views with some being in favor of it whereas others being concerned about the academic integrity problems that arise with its use. In particular, GenAI’s capacity to create content, engage in conversations, and provide correct, speedy texts has prompted concerns about how students might use it unethically for their assessments, thus raising concerns about academic integrity [ 6 , 7 , 19 ]. Further, the text generated by GenAI may be inaccurate or biased, thereby leading to misleading information [ 9 ]. These issues pose a threat to HE [ 20 ], prompting academics to formulate policies guiding the use of AI tools ethically to mitigate the risks stemming from GenAI [ 21 ].

Previous literature on GenAI has explored the perspectives of different stakeholders such as students and scholars using qualitative research, or mainly centered on sentiment analysis, or offered opinion-based discussions about the potential benefits, opportunities, and challenges brought by GenAI. For example, a study involving 21 scholars’ and students’ views on ChatGPT was done using thematic analysis where it was found that the learning and education systems were evolving, the role of educators was changing, and GenAI had an impact on assessment [ 22 ]. Malik et al. [ 23 ] conducted interviews with 15 staff and 14 students from April–May 2023 to examine how students and academic staff perceived GenAI in HE; it was found that both parties acknowledged the use of GenAI to facilitate learning but academic staff experienced difficulties in designing assessments that would deter students from using GenAI and students felt that the guidance and policy on how they could use AI tools was unclear. Chiu’s [ 2 ] research focused on students’ perspective by examining the impact of ChatGPT on students’ learning outcomes and assessments, offering a range of recommendations such as equipping students with AI literacy. Other research has followed an opinion-based narrative, offering general guidance on the use of GenAI and opportunities and challenges associated with its use. For example, Kasneci et al. [ 7 ] and Alasadi and Baiz [ 8 ] explored the potential benefits and challenges of ChatGPT in education, while Willems [ 24 ] focused on the ethical implications of using GenAI in HE. Rudolph et al.’s review of the literature [ 5 ] highlighted ChatGPT’s potential impact on traditional assessments and its useful features in HE. Halaweh [ 25 ] argued for the ethical use of ChatGPT in education and Crawford et al. [ 26 ] suggested that appropriate leadership is required for the ethical use of ChatGPT in education. Other studies have conducted sentiment analysis, for example, Tlili et al. [ 27 ] found that public views on ChatGPT were generally positive on Twitter.

Only few studies have used a combination of different types of analyses to investigate the effect of GenAI on HE. Of these, an analysis of key themes in 100 news articles on how GenAI, specifically ChatGPT, was impacting HE in Australia, New Zealand, the U.K. and U.S. from November 2022-February 2023, conducted by Sullivan et al. [ 10 ], suggests that most views expressed in the news were divided, and university responses to ChatGPT were primarily concerned with academic integrity and designing new assessments to deter students from using it, rather than using it to promote teaching and learning. Sentiment analysis from this study revealed that a similar number of articles contained positive and negative language. We contend that it is worth examining the GenAI issue from a unique angle by exploring the discourse of policymakers and educators in HE to offer a more comprehensive perspective on how they viewed the concerns and benefits of Gen AI, providing the HE sector valuable insights. We focused on uncovering the key themes and sub-themes that illustrate the nature of discussions on ChatGPT or first responses to ChatGPT by leading U.S. and U.K. universities on their official websites as well as identifying the predominant emotions embedded in their discourse when ChatGPT was released in November 2022 until early May 2023 amidst the anxiety and panic associated with this new type of GenAI. As indicated, official views and policies on university websites draw plenty of public attention and serve as models to other HE institutions [ 11 ], and hence, it is worth analyzing them to offer insights into the potential, limitations, and opportunities for utilizing GenAI in HE in future. Our study stands apart from other studies in two ways. First, we applied Corpus Assisted Discourse Analysis (CADA) to uncover the prominent keywords, themes and sub-themes exhibited in messages on university websites. Second, we analyzed the emotions embedded in the official university discourse on their websites to further provide useful insights and practical implications.

Emotions are often evoked by new controversial topics and crises, and can affect attitudes and behavior; such emotions can be positive like pride [ 28 ] or negative like fear and anxiety [ 29 ]. ChatGPT, a GenAI program, is a controversial issue generating heated discussion in HE given that academics have to grapple with ethical issues, and modify assessments while leveraging its use. The following research questions (RQ) are thus posed:

RQ 1: What are the key themes and sub-themes exhibited in the official news, viewpoints, articles, and guidelines relating to ChatGPT disseminated on the official websites of top-ranked U.S. and U.K. universities?

RQ 2: What predominant emotions are exhibited in the views on ChatGPT embedded in the official news, viewpoints, articles, and guidelines disseminated on the official websites of top-ranked U.S. and U.K. universities?

3.1 Data source and collection

To determine the themes of discussion of ChatGPT, this study manually screened and captured the official news, viewpoints, articles, and guidelines relating to the use of ChatGPT from the official websites of the top 50 U.S. and U.K. universities ranked in the QS World University Rankings index. Research on ChatGPT studies in professional contexts, unofficial news, informal guidelines for students, and events such as webinars were excluded. The screening and capturing of the texts were undertaken by a postgraduate student majoring in communication studies in late May 2023. Ten hours of training on website screening and capturing, and supervision during the collection period were provided by the first author, who has substantial experience in conducting empirical research in media and communication studies. From the time ChatGPT was released in November 2022 until early May 2023, texts from the top 50 U.S. and U.K. universities ranked in the QS index were screened and captured. This period was selected as there was a lot of panic surrounding the ChatGPT issue at that time.

Of the 100 universities examined, 47 U.S. and 34 U.K. universities (n = 81, 81%) published official news, viewpoints, articles, and guidelines on the use of GenAI on their official websites. All the related texts were captured for the creation of a study corpus of ChatGPT. 96 pieces of news, articles, and guidelines from U.S. universities and 55 pieces from U.K. universities were archived. By combining the 151 pieces of texts from both U.S and U.K. universities, a study corpus of 165,683 tokens was created. See Appendix I for the U.S. and U.K. universities, article titles and source links of the texts.

3.2 Data analysis

To reveal the themes and emotions of ChatGPT from leading U.S. and U.K. universities, this study employed Corpus Assisted Discourse Analysis (CADA) approach, a widely adopted approach in theme and sentiment analysis [ 29 ] to examine the extensive corpus of collected data. Unlike traditional thematic analysis relying on researchers’ interpretation of the text for coding, CADA offers a bottom-up approach to reduce researchers' bias [ 30 ] and enables qualitative analysis of the ideologies and meanings embedded in texts [ 29 ].

The corpus linguistics software, Wmatrix 5.0 [ 31 ] was used to perform CADA. Wmatrix is a software tool for corpus analysis and comparison which supports a wide range of corpus linguistics methodologies, including USAS and CLAWS corpus annotation tools, keyness analysis, and key semantic domain categorizations, especially the "Emotion" (E) domain [ 31 ]. Wmatrix is recognized for its robustness in identifying keywords and key semantic categories since its overall accuracy rate in semantic tagging is 91% [ 31 ].

To perform data analysis using the corpus linguistics software mentioned, we first inputted and tagged the self-collected GenAI corpus (aka the study corpus) into the web interface of WMatrix. American English 2006 (AmE06), a one-million-word corpus consisting of published general written American English, was chosen as the reference corpus because the majority of texts were collected from U.S. universities (i.e. 96 texts out of a total of 151 texts).

For thematic analysis, we employed WMatrix to generate a list of keywords using the keyness function where keywords were identified based on their frequency, clusters or categories in the study corpus against the reference corpus [ 30 ]. The output of keywords was ranked based on their log-likelihood (LL) values, with higher LL suggesting a greater difference between the relative frequencies of a word based on the sizes of the two corpora [ 32 ] and keywords with LL value over 7 having 99% confidence level [ 33 ]. Using 100 as the cut-off value of LL, the top 178 keywords were harvested for concordance analysis whereby words, phrases and collocates related to the keywords in the concordance lines were displayed according to their occurrence in the corpus [ 34 ]. See Appendix II for the keywords with LL value over 100. Although keyness and concordance were employed, the thematic analysis in the discourse relied heavily on the researchers’ interpretation. The integrated use of these corpus linguistics methods provided a more comprehensive view on the keywords in context that facilitated our identification and interpretation of the key themes [ 35 ].

For emotion analysis, we first investigated the sentiments embedded in the semantic category of emotion using WMatrix. WMatrix is recognized for its ability to tag and group the tokens denoting emotional actions, states, and processes in a systematic way in which the domain of emotion was further subdivided into 6 subcategories with 14 descriptive labels (See Table  1 ) [ 34 , 35 ].

By examining the list of emotion words generated by WMatrix, we uncovered the subcategories of emotions that yielded significant LL values (p-value of < 0.0001) when compared to the reference corpus [ 31 ]. Apart from the emotion subcategories with significant difference of LL, we scrutinized the emotion words with high frequency/occurrences. Then we used the concordance function of Wmatrix to retrieve the concordance lines of the key tokens in the emotion sub-categories that yielded significant LL to carefully examine the evaluation of ChatGPT in terms of the emotions aroused. To further explain the results, we included some examples from the study corpus below to illustrate the key emotion token.

4.1 ChatGPT-related key themes exhibited on official websites of leading U.S. and U.K. universities

For RQ1 regarding the most prevalent themes illustrating the nature of discussions about ChatGPT exhibited on the official websites of top-ranked U.S. and U.K. universities, three key themes and ten sub-themes from the corpus linguistics analysis of the keywords with high LL values were found (See Table  2 for the Key Themes, Sub-themes and related Keywords identified). The first predominant theme was concerned with the emergence, design and function of the new digital AI chatbot in HE: ChatGPT as an AI text and content generator. It consisted of three sub-themes: (1.1) the emergence of ChatGPT as a new technology that will impact the future of HE, (1.2) ChatGPT as a generative AI chatbot trained on language models released by OpenAI, and (1.3) ChatGPT as a content creation tool which can generate human-like text. These results are aligned with prior discussions and news about the development of the AI chatbot [ 3 ], ChatGPT’s possible impact on HE [ 5 , 9 ], and the ability of ChatGPT to create text-based input requested by users and simulate human-like conversations with users [ 4 , 5 ]. By using the CADA approach to uncover the themes, our research findings contribute to the literature on ChatGPT in HE and add weight to the current discussions.

Some example sentences exhibiting the three sub-themes are indicated below with the keywords italicized:

1.1 AI has also quietly been taking an increasing role in Higher Education.

1.2 In the words of ChatGPT, ChatGPT is a large language model developed by  OpenAI.

1.3 It is trained on a massive amount of text data and is designed to generate human -like text.

The second salient theme revolved around the use of ChatGPT in teaching and learning. Four sub-themes were subsumed under this theme: (2.1) how students can use ChatGPT to write and support their learning in a course, (2.2) how educators/instructors can use ChatGPT to guide teaching and learning, (2.3) the use and impact of ChatGPT in assessment design and practice, particularly assignments and exams, and (2.4) using ChatGPT to teach writing skills and develop critical research and thinking skills.

See the following example sentences showing the sub-themes with the keywords in italics:

2.1 ChatGPT and other generative AI technologies can help students learn things that aren’t always easy to teach. There are many ways to write a book summary, and it’s sometimes hard to help students see they have a range of choices and perspectives.

2.2 Some educators may want to make explicit use of AI (e.g. asking students to analyse and critique the content it generates), while others may specify that AI should not be used, or only used in specific ways, and that is appropriate.

2.3 In such cases, consider designing assignments that ask students to engage with AI tools and AI-generated materials.

2.4 What these tools can provide, however, is an opportunity to build critical analysis and evaluation skills —perhaps by studying and critiquing what they produce, and making judgements about whether what they produce is actually valid and believable.

While there are discussions that assessments should focus more on critical thinking skills so that students are unable to rely on ChatGPT for generating answers [ 36 ], our study uncovered the sub-theme that top-ranked universities had concrete guidelines on using ChatGPT to develop students’ capacity to think critically and conduct research, which is not consistent with the existing literature. This indicates that ChatGPT is being leveraged by these universities to train students’ critical thinking and research skills. Additionally, the sub-theme of using ChatGPT in assessment design departs from prior findings [ 4 , 10 ], which indicate that educators need to outsmart ChatGPT by modifying assessments that are not likely to generate answers using ChatGPT prompts. Other findings are aligned with previous studies suggesting that ChatGPT can support students by offering personalized feedback on writing and explaining complex concepts, while for educators, it can provide various resources for students [ 10 , 13 ].

The third theme revolving around the potential implications and opportunities of using ChatGPT in HE comprised three sub-themes: (3.1) how ChatGPT has transformed or disrupted work and industries, (3.2) how ChatGPT may help with materials and assessment development as a new educational tool, and (3.3) the potential threat to academic integrity like academic dishonesty, misconduct, cheating, plagiarism caused by the misuse of ChatGPT.

See the following example sentences exhibiting the sub-themes with the keywords in italics:

3.1 In contrast if we take this opportunity to reflect on what we might use this technology for as scholars and why ,  this could herald an exciting shift in how we work which reduces the time spent on routine tasks and contributes to a more creatively fulfilling life of the mind.

3.2 These models could be a useful tool for educators, in terms of structuring teaching or learning design, incorporating it into more interactive and engaging learning materials, providing more personalised instruction and immediate feedback. These tools could even be used to help mark assignments and exams, providing more ‘accurate’ and consistent evaluations, reducing subjectivity across markers (and hence have the potential to reduce complaints about ‘generous’ or ‘harsh’ markers).

3.3 There’s definitely an issue with regulation and we have to be respectful of the need for universities and schools to protect academic and educational integri ty. That’s why some universities have taken the view that if students use ChatGPT to generate content, it’s misconduct.

Discussion relating to how ChatGPT may displace jobs exists [ 9 ], particularly during the early phase when ChatGPT was released, so our uncovering of this sub-theme confirms this. However, ChatGPT’s potential value for assessment development has not been highlighted since prior research mainly called for redesigning assessments in ways that ChatGPT will find it difficult to generate answers and students will be discouraged from using it [ 5 , 10 ]. Therefore, our study contributes to the literature by highlighting the potential value of ChatGPT for assessment development. As revealed from the findings, there was widespread panic about academic integrity issues arising from ChatGPT when it was released [ 6 , 7 , 19 ]. This is because it can draft grammatically accurate essays and generate text on different topics, and some students might use the generated text and submit it as their assignments, thus sparking concerns about plagiarism, dishonesty, and cheating [ 37 , 38 ].

4.2 Analysis of ChatGPT through emotion keywords

Regarding RQ2 which examined the emotion keywords exhibited in the study corpus, we identified two subcategories of emotions that yielded significant LL values, namely E2 + Like and E6- Worry. The frequency, LL. % of difference and typical tokens are displayed in Table  3 . The first responses of top-ranked U.S. and U.K. universities from November 2022 to early May 2023 were mainly negative possibly due to the panic created by ChatGPT. A predominance of negative emotions was evoked by evaluations of the ChatGPT issue. In the following, some typical tokens from the two significant emotion subcategories are elaborated, and examples are drawn from the study corpus to reveal the evaluations of ChatGPT by faculty from top universities in the U.K. and U.S.

4.2.1 The emotion token of bias

In the positive emotion keyword list, the number of occurrences of bias(s/ed) accounted for 83 (bias: n = 39, 47%; biases: n = 26, 31%; biased: n = 18, 22%) which largely outweighed the others based on their frequency and LL. These occurrences mainly focused on the content bias produced by ChatGPT in four aspects: the cause of the bias, the consequences of biased content created, measures to reduce bias, and correct usage of ChatGPT. As indicated from the concordance lines, biases in ChatGPT could be associated with gender, race, minority group, culture, language, and ideology (n = 11, 13.3%). Since GenAI programs are trained on large language models and databases from the Internet and other sources, they may inherit biases from the training database and human analysts, particularly when the data collected is highly skewed (n = 41, 49.4%). As a result, the content synthesized from all sources and created by ChatGPT might be prone to bias as it does not check its source for bias nor factuality, while it may not even notice that biased answers were produced. See the extracted example below:

“Owing to the way the tool operates, it sometimes generates untruths and presents them as facts. This is a particular risk for anyone without sufficient knowledge to identify these untruths e.g. students. Due to bias in its training and the way it was trained, ChatGPT does not always provide ethical, unbiased answers and can provide answers which perpetuate bias and discrimination, e.g. cultural, racial, gender.” (University A)

Although gender, race, and cultural biases were often discussed in the concordance lines, 9 (10.8%) occurrences indicated linguistic bias. Linguistic bias embedded in English language is also ingrained in ChatGPT which leads one to overcomplicate things by adding for improvement instead of subtraction. Researchers from University B warned that: "The positive addition bias in the English language is something we should all be aware of. It can influence our decisions and mean we are pre-disposed to add more layers, more levels, more things when in fact we might actually benefit from removing or simplifying." (University B ).

The perpetuated biases in the generated output could adversely affect the learning process and objectives, and attitudes of students (n = 1, 1.2%). Despite the major shortcomings discussed, most faculty was positive about the use of ChatGPT as it is the "quantum leap in writing technology" (University C).

4.2.2 The emotion token of concern and worry

Regarding evaluations relating to the subcategory of Worry, a high frequency of use (n = 172) was exhibited in the emotion word of concern(s/ed) and worry(ied/ ies ). Concerns (n = 103, 59.9%), concern (n = 48, 27.9%) and concerned (n = 21, 12.2%) in the emotion sub-category largely outweighed the remaining emotion tokens. Of the 172 occurrences of concern (s/ed), 48 (27.9%) indicated that faculty was concerned about academic integrity, honesty, ethics and misconduct, especially how students may be tempted to commit cheating or plagiarism, or produce unauthentic work. See the extract below:

"The immediate concern (dating back to the release of GPT-2 in 2019) is the use of this technology for cheating. And in fact, we are hearing those concerns from colleagues as well as people outside academia." (University D)

Another major concern pertained to ChatGPT itself (n = 34, 19.8%). Faculty was concerned about the accuracy of ChatGPT’s response, particularly when fake, deceptive, plausible or biased content was generated based on skewed and biased training data used. The possible spread of misinformation via GenAI also worried faculty. Some universities’ faculty expressed concerns about the transparency and robustness of the AI training method, control of AI, and the increasing dominance of AI corporations.

"the most controversial developments identified by UK experts concern the underlying technical architecture of contemporary AI and how it is currently controlled by a limited number of powerful tech companies. The experts said that people should be most concerned about lack of public knowledge and oversight around the origins of the data AI is trained on; for example, where the data comes from and whether consent has been obtained to use that data." (University E)

Some universities’ faculty were concerned about students' misuse of GenAI as a shortcut in their learning (n = 17, 9.9%) in that students may rely on such tools to write their essays and produce passable and mediocre work.

“I'm not opposed to it in general. The reason I wanted to start working on it right away was because I was concerned about students using it as a shortcut, rather than as a tool to their learning." (University F)

Other concerns comprised job displacement and ethical issues related to labor practices, privacy, and intellectual property violations (n = 8, 5%). See the examples below:

“show "Westworld" to tools like the AI writing assistant Grammarly. But ChatGPT is on a different scale, spurring concerns about white-collar job displacement, the ethics of certain applications, disinformation and more.” (University G) “The use of AI in academia raises ethical concerns around labor practices, privacy, and intellectual property violations, and there is inconsistent guidance on how to properly cite and acknowledge AI in academic work, highlighting the need for transparency and more discussion as the technology evolves.” (University H)

Unlike the emotion word of concern(s/ed) which was mainly related to academic integrity, accuracy, and safety of the AI tools and job displacement, worry (ied/ies) were mostly related to how GenAI should be used in HE. Most occurrences of worry (ied/ies) were related to how GenAI should be used in a safe, effective and appropriate manner. Faculty worried about how GenAI was used in assessed work such as essay writing in humanities or college admissions (n = 5, 16.1%). Five occurrences (16.1%) focused on the issue of academic integrity/honesty as faculty worried that the emergence of ChatGPT may tempt students to commit academic misconduct and lead to plagiarism. See the extracted example below:

… “to answer follow-up questions and provide personalised information to its users. However, Universities have been worried that this may tempt students to commit academic misconduct and lead them to plagiarisation in their work.” (University I)

Some faculty (n = 3, 9.7%) worried that the emphasis placed on guiding, policing and monitoring student work for possible ChatGPT use may damage the learning environment and undermine the teacher-student relationship, as evidenced in the extract below:

“Despite the enthusiasm some will no doubt feel for ChatGPT, a large number of teachers feel a potential loss of engagement, purpose, and identity as they learn about the power of ChatGPT,” said Jim Burke, an educator and author of several books on teaching writing who attended the webinar and shared his thoughts afterward... Along with these problems, teachers worry that such applications as ChatGPT will fundamentally change the nature of their relationship with their discipline and students, forcing them (as many already feel the need to do now) to worry more about catching than teaching kids,” Burke added.” (University C)

A few occurrences were related to the worry of people losing their thinking skills (n = 1, 3.2%) and human gullibility towards biased answers generated in a neat manner (n = 1, 3.2%). Others (n = 2, 6.4%) worried about the possible job disruption brought by GenAI for traditional white-collar professions.

4.2.3 The emotions of threat, fear, and trust

Apart from the emotion subcategories which yielded significant difference from the reference corpus, some emotion keywords with high frequency of use like threat(s) (frequency: 32; relative frequency: 0.01) from the subcategory of E3- Violent/ Angry, fear(s) (frequency: 28; relative frequency: 0.01) from the subcategory of E5- Fear/shock, and trust (frequency: 14; relative frequency: 0.01) from the subcategory of E6 + Confident were also worth noting.

4.2.4 The emotion token of threat

Out of the 32 occurrences of threat(s), 17 (53.1%) highlighted the threat of GenAI including the threat to academic integrity (n = 7, 21.8%), teaching and learning such as writing instruction and assessment design (n = 5, 15.6%), knowledge workers and job disruption (n = 2, 6.3%), global health management (n = 1, 3.1%), human intelligence (n = 1, 3.1%), and cybersecurity (n = 1, 3.1%). It is not surprising to observe that many faculty expressed concerns about academic integrity issues arising from ChatGPT:

"What are some potential threats that ChatGPT or other generative language models can pose to assessment practices in higher education ? One of them would be causing academic integrity issues including plagiarism and cheating in and outside the classroom." (University J)

Yet there were also voices that provided a more balanced view on the use of ChatGPT (n = 12, 37.5%). Some faculty suggested that ChatGPT brought both opportunities and threats (n = 6, 18.8%) and a few even advised against viewing ChatGPT as a threat (n = 4, 12.5%). There were faculty who urged others in HE to rethink and reflect on how ChatGPT could be integrated or used in HE teaching and learning (n = 2, 6.3%). See the extracts below:

“Obviously, these kinds of situations represent a challenge for universities and business schools; but instead of taking ChatGPT as a t hreat, educators and their institutions should nevertheless analyze its advantages and use them in favor of the student to achieve their educational objectives.” (University K) "This quotes several French lecturers excited by the opportunities presented by this new tool rather than focusing solely on the potential t hreat to academic integrity." (University D)

4.2.5 The emotion token of fear

28 occurrences of fear centered on two themes: (1) the use of ChatGPT leading to academic misconduct and intrusion on teaching and learning (n = 13, 46.4%), and (2) fear of ChatGPT in replacing humans (n = 8, 28.6%). For the former, 8 (28.6%) occurrences were directly related to the fear of students using ChatGPT to behave dishonestly like using ChatGPT to write their assignments, or cheating or plagiarizing. Universities’ faculty feared that ChatGPT may impair students' critical thinking skills. The examples below reveal such fears:

"Some highlight the possible opportunities such software could offer staff, for instance in writing lesson plans or policy documents. However, when it comes to students, the conversation is dominated by fears that it will be used to ‘cheat’ on assignments, leading some to take extreme measures." (University L)

Eight (28.6%) occurrences of fear suggested that over-reliance on technology may lead to the replacement of humans by AI, resulting in job displacement and disruption in the long-term. See the extract below:

“One of the biggest concerns about AI in higher education is the potential for job displacement. As AI becomes increasingly sophisticated, there is a growing fear that many jobs will be automated, leaving people without work.” (University M)

4.2.6 The emotion token of trust

It is interesting to note that 8 out of 14 (57%) occurrences of "trust" were related to faculty-student trust. Faculty worried that doubts raised about the authenticity and originality of students’ work may harm faculty-student trust (see the extracts below). This could be aggravated by teachers who focus too much on the authenticity of students’ work rather than teaching effectiveness.

“This issue not only affects the quality of student writing, but can undermine the faculty-student trust on whether a student is producing original work or not. Taken a step farther, this can even shake the confidence in the quality of higher learning in general.” (University N) "…Trust is essential for collective growth, vulnerability and compassion; traits essential for human development. Without foundational trust, it can create a tone where instructors become suspicious of the authenticity and originality of a students work instead of focusing on effectively teaching their course. What’s more, even developers of ChatGPT readily mention its limitations, which is clearly stated on its website.” (University N)

Concerns also revolved around the misuse of GenAI in information environments that may push people towards an increasingly homogenous community (n = 2, 14%). Other concerns included over-trusting GenAI and over-depending on technology (n = 1, 1%), with the possibility of job disruption (n = 1, 1%), and the need for AI developers to earn trust from system users, governments and the public (n = 1, 1%).

… “human judgement, critical thinking, and the ability to question or challenge the status quo. "By placing too much trust in AI and blockchain we risk creating a society that's overly dependent on technology, susceptible to manipulation, and disengaged from ethical considerations.” (University E)

5 Discussion and pedagogical implications

This article investigated the salient themes exhibited in the discourse on the websites of world-leading U.S. and U.K. universities which indicated these universities’ first responses to GenAI, specifically ChatGPT, in the early phase when it was released, and how this ChatGPT issue evoked a variety of emotions from faculty. The motivation for this study stemmed from the lack of a synthesis of views expressed by top-ranked universities on ChatGPT to offer evidence-based practice and some pedagogical implications to educators and practitioners in HE globally. The predominant identified themes were: (1) the emergence, design and function of the new digital AI chatbot in HE: ChatGPT as an AI text and content generator, (2). use of ChatGPT in teaching and learning, and (3) potential implications and opportunities of using ChatGPT in HE. While some themes uncovered resonate with discussions in prior studies [ 5 , 10 ], previous studies on ChatGPT followed opinion-based discussions, involved a qualitative study or conducted a literature review e.g. [ 4 , 22 , 23 ] without offering a rigorous research design to identify the key themes embedded in ChatGPT discourse. By utilizing the CADA approach, our findings affirm the important themes, contributing to the literature on ChatGPT in HE. Notably, our results highlight that ChatGPT can be leveraged as a tool to develop students’ critical thinking and research skills and for assessment design, which diverges from existing studies that advocate modifying assessments so that students will be deterred from using ChatGPT [ 5 , 10 , 23 ]. This was seen in the discourse of universities even in the early phase of the release of ChatGPT, suggesting that ChatGPT was embraced despite generating negative emotions. However, the findings should be interpreted with caution as they only apply to the sample of universities that we studied in the U.K. and U.S.

Despite most themes illustrating the potential benefits of GenAI for teaching and learning, a greater prevalence of negative emotions was evidenced in these universities’ first responses to ChatGPT. This might be attributed to faculty still grappling with the challenges and risks posed by ChatGPT when it was released in 2022 until May 2023. Specifically, responses to ChatGPT evoked many negative emotions such as bias, concern, worry, threat, fear, and trust, and our study offered an in-depth understanding of these emotions. Biases linked to ChatGPT focused on content bias comprising gender, race, culture and language, adversely affecting students’ learning. Several measures were suggested to tackle the biased information from the corpus. One way involves training GenAI programs with unbiased data. Other measures comprise: (1) developing students' AI literacy by discussing with students how the tools are made and work, their strengths and limitations, and advising students to check the accuracy of the information presented and interpret it carefully; and (2) making AI models' information such as model cards, model evaluations, risks, limitations, and biases more accessible and transparent.

Negative evaluations of ChatGPT by faculty triggered concerns and fear about students’ submitted assessments/essays and academic dishonesty, as well as the accuracy of ChatGPT responses which may impair students’ writing, critical thinking, and creativity. This resonates with the literature that GenAI may affect students’ critical thinking [ 7 , 8 ], thereby posing a threat to HE; yet our study found empirical support for this from leading universities’ faculty. Concerns and fear about job displacement were observed while other concerns consisted of ethical issues related to labor practices and intellectual property violations. Another noteworthy finding is that worries and feelings related to trust were evoked since faculty had concerns that an over-emphasis on academic integrity issues such as cheating and plagiarism may negatively affect the teacher-student trust relationship. These issues have rarely been discussed in prior literature, so our findings enrich our understanding of universities’ first responses to ChatGPT in HE.

Compared with a predominance of positive sentiments in the public discourse on ChatGPT on Twitter in Tlili et al.’s [ 27 ] study, where users felt that GenAI can revolutionize the way people learn, our study revealed mostly negative emotions. This may be attributed to university website discourse which is more concerned with preparing students for the future workplace, where they are expected to possess a range of skills such as critical thinking, less biased thinking and integrity, so faculty and policymakers might be concerned that GenAI may undermine students’ development in these areas. Other concerns and fear were related to the impact on society, specifically relating to white-collar job displacement brought by the ability of GenAI to perform many tasks for educators in HE, and intellectual property violation, which could compromise academic research. The former might indicate a sense of insecurity among HE faculty in keeping up with the pace of technological advances in GenAI and the latter is a prevalent concern about GenAI in relation to how the inputted data is used.

Although this study investigated the ChatGPT discourse of leading universities in the U.K. and U.S. from late November 2022 to early May 2023 when the release of ChatGPT in general generated panic and brought disruption in academia, some pedagogical implications emerging from this study can still inform current practice. Considering that many negative emotions triggered by evaluations of ChatGPT were associated with concern, worry, threat, fear, and trust among faculty involving the misuse of ChatGPT in learning, and students’ academic integrity issues, it is recommended that students be equipped with AI literacy [ 2 ]. This consists of: (1) technological skills in using GenAI effectively and appropriately with integrity alongside impressing upon students the need for checking the accuracy of generated information, (2) pedagogical skills in using GenAI for feedback and self-directed learning, and most importantly, (3). critical social awareness involving an understanding of how GenAI tools such as ChatGPT are made and how they work, their strengths, limitations, biases, privacy, and ethical issues. Likewise, faculty needs to possess AI literacy. To allay faculty’s worries, fear, and concerns about students’ academic integrity and to foster trust between faculty and students in the learning environment, HE institutions should formulate clear policies and guidelines on using GenAI in assessments [ 23 ], how GenAI sources used should be properly cited by students, while keeping up with the pace of GenAI developments to minimize the fear of staff being displaced. Most importantly, it is vital for AI corporations to train GenAI programs with unbiased data relating to culture, gender, race, and other aspects so that there is less content bias in GenAI, as well as providing more transparency and accountability of GenAI training methods to the public.

Indeed, GenAI offers vast potential and opportunities to facilitate students’ learning in HE. For example, in relation to writing, GenAI can help students brainstorm ideas, offer personalized feedback, present ideas in a coherent way before students further develop more robust arguments [ 2 , 8 ]. Faculty need to remind students that GenAI should be used as a tool to develop their writing skills rather than a replacement of their own writing. The focus by faculty can then be placed more on developing students’ critical thinking and research skills by teaching them to check the accuracy of generated information, identify if there is any biased content, and raise their awareness of how GenAI is trained. For faculty, design of course materials and even assessments can be done, important knowledge can be summarized, and automatic feedback can be given on students’ essays [ 8 ]. As for the future, assessment design will require more critical thinking, creativity and research skills, alongside authentic and personalized assessments.

6 Limitations, further research and conclusion

Despite offering evidence-informed findings to contribute to the literature on ChatGPT’s themes discussed by world-leading universities in the U.K. and U.S., a limitation of this study is that only universities’ official views were studied, mainly focusing on faculty voices. Universities in other countries such as Asian ones were not examined. Future studies can examine students’ discourse on GenAI in HE in different cultural contexts to provide more insights by considering different voices. Data were collected from the launch of ChatGPT in 2022 until early May 2023, and would warrant further studies at other times given that new advances in ChatGPT are made very quickly. More research attention should be accorded to GenAI’s impact on job displacement in HE. Even with these limitations, the implications are valuable for other HE contexts to leverage GenAI for teaching and learning, assessment design, and equipping students with AI literacy, as well as the need for AI corporations to train GenAI programs with unbiased data on culture, gender, race, and other areas so that there is less content bias in GenAI. The insights potentially inform policy and practice in HE with respect to teaching and learning, assessment design, academic integrity, and ethical use of GenAI.

Data availability

Included in the appendices.

Code availability

Not applicable.

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Singh, R.G., Ngai, C.S.B. Top-ranked U.S. and U.K.’s universities’ first responses to GenAI: key themes, emotions, and pedagogical implications for teaching and learning. Discov Educ 3 , 115 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-024-00211-w

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Book Review: Call the script doctor! ‘Feh’ explores the toxic storyline of a religious education

This book cover image released by Riverhead shows “Feh” by Shalom Auslander. (Riverhead via AP)

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A few years ago, the writer Shalom Auslander was hospitalized with a potentially fatal case of pancreatitis after taking a banned performance-enhancing drug to lose weight. His psychiatrist said he was trying to kill himself. Auslander, then unemployed, in his 40s, with a wife and two children, disagreed. He said he did it because he was tired of hating himself for being fat and believed that if he were thinner, it might be easier to find work and provide for his family.

Auslander relates this tale at the beginning of his latest memoir, “Feh,” a poignant, profane, and scabrously funny exploration of the way that organized religion, but also scientists and philosophers, conspire to teach us that we are “feh,” a Yiddish expression of contempt. If you don’t believe this, he argues, consider the fact that according to Genesis, the first human was called Adam, whose name derives from “adamah,” the Hebrew word for dirt.

Auslander says he was inspired to write this sequel of sorts to his acclaimed 2007 memoir, “Foreskin’s Lament,” by his friendship with Philip Seymour Hoffman, who died of a drug overdose in 2014. In the Irish Catholic actor, Auslander perceived a kindred soul raised with the same story of “feh” that was drilled into him by the rabbis in charge of his religious education in the ultra-Orthodox Jewish community of Monsey, New York (Auslander originally wrote the since-cancelled Showtime series, “Happyish,” for Hoffman.)

As Auslander attempts to exorcise his demons and rewrite his origin story in a more positive light, the book takes on a “meta” flavor in line with the narrative we humans have been telling ourselves lately about the way we use storytelling to make sense of our lives.

One of his favorite storytellers is Franz Kafka. He recalls falling in love with his stories, the way he laughed at shame and mocked his accusers. “Critics… claimed he was attacking bureaucracy or government or the justice system, but I knew he wasn’t. He was attacking `feh.’ Kafka was the inmate in the cell beside mine, tapping on our shared wall, letting me know I wasn’t alone. This, I had thought, is writing. This is the secular, the free, the accepting.”

For now, Auslander’s story seems to have a happier ending than Hoffman’s, transformed and redeemed by his love for his family and desire to see his boys grow up without the self-loathing he has carried around since he first learned at age 6 that God created man out of dirt and the angels said “feh.”

AP book reviews: https://apnews.com/hub/book-reviews

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A structured narrative literature review of the broader value of adult immunisation programmes.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 3.1. assessment of the evidence base for the value of adult immunisation programmes, 3.2. value of adult immunisation programmes for population health, 3.2.1. value of adult immunisation programmes for vaccinated populations.

3.2.2. Value of Adult Immunisation Programmes for Reducing Disease Transmission

3.3. value of adult immunisation programmes for healthcare systems.

3.4. Value of Adult Immunisation Programmes to Society

3.4.1. productivity value of adult immunisation programmes.

3.4.2. Social Equity Value of Adult Immunisation Programmes

3.4.3. role of adult immunisation programmes in the fight against anti-microbial resistance (amr), 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

El Banhawi, H.; Bell, E.; Neri, M.; Brassel, S.; Chowdhury, S.; Steuten, L. A Structured Narrative Literature Review of the Broader Value of Adult Immunisation Programmes. Vaccines 2024 , 12 , 852. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12080852

El Banhawi H, Bell E, Neri M, Brassel S, Chowdhury S, Steuten L. A Structured Narrative Literature Review of the Broader Value of Adult Immunisation Programmes. Vaccines . 2024; 12(8):852. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12080852

El Banhawi, Hania, Eleanor Bell, Margherita Neri, Simon Brassel, Sulayman Chowdhury, and Lotte Steuten. 2024. "A Structured Narrative Literature Review of the Broader Value of Adult Immunisation Programmes" Vaccines 12, no. 8: 852. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12080852

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