wildlife conservation and management essay

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Ethics of Wildlife Management and Conservation: What Should We Try to Protect?

Developments in the Use and Management of Wild Animals

Values at stake in wildlife management.

Dilemmas and conflicts., underlying ethical approaches to wild animals: five perspectives, a contractarian perspective., a utilitarian perspective., an animal rights perspective., respect for nature perspectives., a contextual (or relational) view., hybrid views., in conclusion: balancing concerns, references and recommended reading, flag inappropriate.

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wildlife conservation and management essay

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Wildlife conservation.

Wildlife conservation aims to protect plant and animal species as the human population encroaches on their resources.

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Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting plant and animal species and their habitats . Wildlife is integral to the world’s ecosystems , providing balance and stability to nature’s processes. The goal of wildlife conservation is to ensure the survival of these species, and to educate people on living sustainably with other species. The human population has grown exponentially over the past 200 years, to more than eight billion humans as of November 2022, and it continues to rapidly grow. This means natural resources are being consumed faster than ever by the billions of people on the planet. This growth and development also endangers the habitats and existence of various types of wildlife around the world, particularly animals and plants that may be displaced for land development, or used for food or other human purposes. Other threats to wildlife include the introduction of invasive species from other parts of the world, climate change, pollution, hunting, fishing, and poaching. National and international organizations like the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation International, the Wildlife Conservation Society, the United Nations, and National Geographic, itself, work to support global animal and habitat conservation efforts on many different fronts. They work with the government to establish and protect public lands, like national parks and wildlife refuges . They help write legislation, such as the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 in the United States, to protect various species. They work with law enforcement to prosecute wildlife crimes, like wildlife trafficking and illegal hunting (poaching). They also promote biodiversity to support the growing human population while preserving existing species and habitats. National Geographic Explorers, like conservation biologist Charudutt Mishra and conservation technologist Rebecca Ryakitimbo, are working to slow the extinction of global species and to protect global biodiversity and habitats. Environmental filmmakers and photographers, like Thomas P. Peschak and Joel Sartore, are essential to conservation efforts as well, documenting and bringing attention to endangered wildlife all over the world.

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Research article
Open access
Published: 14 September 2020

Coexistence between human and wildlife: the nature, causes and mitigations of human wildlife conflict around Bale Mountains National Park, Southeast Ethiopia

Sefi Mekonen ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7712-9211 1

BMC Ecology volume 20 , Article number: 51 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Human–wildlife conflict occurs when the needs and behavior of wildlife impact negatively on humans or when humans negatively affect the needs of wildlife. To explore the nature, causes and mitigations of human wildlife conflict, the coexistence between human and wildlife assessment was conducted around Bale Mountains National Park. Data were collected by means of household questionnaires, focus group discussion, interview, field observation and secondary sources. The nature and extent of human wildlife conflict in the study area were profoundly impacted humans, wild animal and the environment through crop damage, habitat disturbance and destruction, livestock predation, and killing of wildlife and human. The major causes of conflict manifested that agricultural expansion (30%), human settlement (24%), overgrazing by livestock (14%), deforestation (18%), illegal grass collection (10%) and poaching (4%). To defend crop raider, farmers have been practiced crop guarding (34%), live fencing (26%), scarecrow (22%), chasing (14%), and smoking (5%). However, fencing (38%), chasing (30%), scarecrow (24%) and guarding (8%) were controlling techniques to defend livestock predator animals. As emphasized in this study, human–wildlife conflicts are negative impacts on both human and wildlife. Accordingly, possible mitigate possibilities for peaceful co-existence between human and wildlife should be create awareness and training to the local communities, identifying clear border between the closure area and the land owned by the residents, formulate rules and regulation for performed local communities, equal benefit sharing of the local communities and reduction of human settlement encroachment into the national park range. Generally, researcher recommended that stakeholders and concerned bodies should be creating awareness to local community for the use of wildlife and human–wildlife conflict mitigation strategies.

Introduction

Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) occurs when the needs and behavior of wildlife impact negatively on humans or when humans negatively affect the needs of wildlife. These conflicts may result when wildlife damage crops, threaten, kill or injure people and domestic animals [ 33 ]. These are as critical problems created by the growing rural population in and around wildlife habitats [ 34 ]. Human–wildlife conflict incidents are widespread but not evenly distribute because they are dependent on the proximity of wildlife. In addition, different species cause different types of damage at different times of the year. The damage caused has variable effects on the livelihood of households depending on their level of livelihood security at the time of the incident [ 27 ]. One major cause of human–wildlife conflict is increasing human population adjacent to wildlife habitats. As human population increases and the demand for resources grow, the frequency and intensity of such conflicts increases [ 29 ]. This can be manifested by increasing encroachment to wildlife habitats. As a result, the populations of those species which are unable to adapt to altered habitats may invade the marginal habitats or decline in number [ 26 , 29 ]. Human wildlife conflicts undermine human welfare, health, safety and have economic and social cost [ 31 ].

Because HWC is a reciprocal process, humans and animals are negatively affected by the conflict, and it is one of the most complex and urgent issues facing wildlife management and conservation [ 10 ], especially outside PAs [ 38 ]. Scholars are seeking ways to refocus policy-relevant conflict research on finding pathways toward human–wildlife coexistence [ 23 ] and coadaptation [ 2 ]. According to König et al. [ 18 ], literature on HWCs, interaction, and coexistence has grown exponentially from 2000 to 2019, and work on conflict outpaces work on interactions and coexistence threefold. This may be because scholarship on human–wildlife interactions has focused mainly on conflict (i.e., negative outcomes for people, wildlife, or both) [ 3 ] or because new ways of thinking about these interactions now include a paradigm of coexistence [ 18 ]. Coexistence is defined as a dynamic but sustainable state in which humans and wildlife co-adapt to living in shared landscapes, where human interactions with wildlife are governed by effective institutions that ensure long-term wildlife population persistence, social legitimacy, and tolerable levels of risk [ 2 , 18 ]. The focus on human–wildlife conflict has often been a constraint to wildlife conservation, as practitioners have centered their attention on reducing negative interactions, rather than on increasing positive relations between humans and wildlife. To work toward solutions that maximize conservation success, it is necessary to include positive interactions, coexistence, and attitudes of tolerance toward wildlife [ 11 ].

Human wildlife conflict is a well-known phenomenon throughout sub Saharan Africa [ 34 ]. Reducing human–wildlife conflict is also an urgent conservation priority and key to coexistence between humans and animals in this region [ 37 ]. There are many human wildlife conflicts in Ethiopian protected areas which need solutions, but there is no enough empirical study done on issues pertaining to human wildlife conflict. Local communities do not enough benefit from wildlife resources and alienated from wildlife related economic enterprises. Like other parks or protected areas in Ethiopia, Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) is highly influenced by the human activities living in and around the Park. Due to this, local peoples around the park and the wildlife are being affected negatively as the result this interaction. From this perspective, it is imperative to assess the human–wildlife conflict that occurs with local communities living adjacent to BMNP. There was no detail investigation made to identify the cause of the conflict and its adverse consequences.

Identify potential ways to reduce or prevent conflicts for the better wellbeing of both people and wildlife is the main objective of conducting research on human–wildlife conflict [ 21 ]. A prerequisite for finding effective solutions is understanding the details, mechanisms, and nature of conflict [ 21 ]. Therefore, this particular study aims to investigate the nature, extent, roots and mitigations of human wildlife conflict in and around the park. Moreover, this study was serving as ideal or standard information for the coexistence between humans and wildlife. Local community, researchers and other organizations are benefited from the study by getting how to conserved or managed the wildlife in additional to ensure positive coexistence between people and wild animal in the interest of human and environmental wellbeing.

Materials and methods

Description of the study area.

The study area Bale Mountains National Park is located southeast of Ethiopia about 400 km by road from Addis Ababa, between 6 o 29′ and 7 o 10 o North and 39 o 28′ and 39 o 58 o East. It covers an area of 247,000 hectare of land with an altitudinal range from 1500 to 4377 m asl [ 8 ]. It was first proposed in the late 1960 s to protect Afroalpine habitat and populations of the rare, endemic and species of the mountain nyala ( Tragelaphus buxtoni ), the giant molerat ( Trachyoryctes macrocephalus ) and the Ethiopian wolf ( Canis simensis ) [ 16 ], [ 1 ]. Even if its establishment was for this Bale Mountains is one of the most important areas of the world for its number of threatened Ethiopian endemics in all taxa 26% of Ethiopia’s endemic species. Of the area’s recorded birds, 6% are Ethiopian endemics. In addition there are several rare and endemic amphibian species found only in Bale as well as 1321 species of flowering plants with 163 endemic (23 to Bale alone) to Ethiopia [ 16 ].

The Park, as part of the highlands of eastern Africa encompasses a variety of habitats that supports a diversity of wildlife species. The habitat types include grassland, woodland, heather moorland and Afro-alpine vegetation [ 14 , 15 , 24 ]. Bale Mountain National Park is undoubtedly one of the most unique areas on earth, with the largest piece of Afro-alpine habitats with the second largest moist tropical forest and the only cloud forest in Ethiopia [ 16 ]. And it is an Important Bird Area of immense importance comprising more than 256 species of birds with seven endemics from the afro tropical highland biome species which represents 80% of the species making the area the richest site for this biome assemblage [ 1 , 8 , 16 ].

Data collection methods

The data were collected through primary and secondary methods. Primary data was collected from household questionnaires, interview and field observation. Household questionnaires were implemented to gather the data related to assess HWC cause, the nature of conflict and management and mitigation strategies to reduce conflict in the area. The study was based on mainly park office and sample kebele household cross sectional survey using pre-test structure questioner organizing in logical order of presentation. Key informant interviews were conducted with selected informants who are depending on park resources. Interview was held with park scout, park manager and local community to explore the nature of HWC and human and wildlife coexistences. In focus group discussions, the researcher is just a facilitator and the respondents provide information. Focus groups therefore, provided an opportunity for the researcher to interact with the local community and gain relevant information about their knowledge, opinions, and attitudes regarding human–wildlife conflicts and to determine effective HWC management and control methods used by local people. Field observation was mainly used to confirm the respondent’s responses, so that accurate and reliable information would be collected during filed observation. The observation was carried out in three purposive selected kebeles (Dinsho Kebele 01, Goba and Rira kebele). To make the research more reliable and to obtain an objective data which is got from primary data was supported by the secondary one. Secondary data collection sources are data obtained from books, internet searches, libraries, journal, progress reports, Park office and articles.

Sampling size and sampling technique

It is obvious that Bale Mountains National Park is surrounded by five Districts such as: Adaba (west), Dinsho (north), Goba (northeast), Mana-Angetu (south) and Berbere (east). However, the extent of exposure of local people and their agricultural area to wildlife is not the same throughout the five Districts rather it greatly differs from one to another. Therefore, two Districts (Dinsho and Goba Woreda) were selected using systematic random sampling technique through careful identifications in which those which have high extent of exposure with the park boundaries. In addition, random sampling technique was employed to identify sample households. In this heads of households were randomly selected from sample kebeles/villages of the two Districts which were selected using systematic random sampling after the completion of preliminary survey which is helpful to identify specific villages which are highly affected as a result of the conflict with wildlife. 5% of the total households from each sample village were selected randomly.

The sampling size of the study was determined based on formula adapted from Israel (1962) as follows.

where; N = the total population; n = the required sample size; e = the precision level which is = (± 10%), where confidence interval is 90% at p = + 10 (maximum variability) which is = (± 10%) n = 1850/1+1850(0.1) 2 = 95.

Accordingly, from the total (1850) population of three villages, a total of 95 respondents were selected and the questionnaire was transferred purposefully. The respondents were selected purposively based on their ability, awareness, adjacent to an area and knowledge contributes to the overall research objectives.

Data analysis

The data was analyzed by using simple descriptive (qualitative) method and quantitative (numerical) method. The study was interpreting the data based on the survey questionnaire, interview and filed observation. The data was analyzed by using simple descriptive statistics such as mean percentage and the data was present on tables, charts, picture and percentage also further represented by using graphs and other diagram in order to analyses more information about our research study.

Nature and extent of human wildlife conflict

The nature and extent of human wildlife conflict in and around Bale Mountains National Park have profoundly impacted humans, wild animal and the environment in many ways through crop damage, habitat disturbance and destruction, livestock depredation, killing of wildlife and human and the like. As a result, local communities disliked wildlife inhabiting in and around their surroundings. This has a great negative impact in conservation of the wildlife.

Crop damage

The result showed that not all crops were equally affected by crop raiders (herbivore wild animals) in the studies area. Olive baboon ( Papio anubis ), warthog ( Phacochoerus aethiopicus ), common mole rat ( Tachyoryctus splendens ), porcupine ( Hystrix cristata ), grey duiker ( Sylvicapra grimmia ), mountain nyala ( Tragelaphus buxtoni ) and bohor reedbuck ( Redunca redunca ) were mentioned as important crop raiders. According to farmers, Olive baboon ( Papio anubis ) was the most commonly reported crop raiders which cause more damage and ranked first followed by warthog ( Phacochoerus aethiopicus ). They damage crops early in the morning and evening when people are absent near farmlands. While, respondents were putted porcupine ( Hystrix cristata ) are as third crop raiders followed by bohor reedbuck ( Redunca redunca ). Human and wildlife have been in conflict because farming crops generally offer a rich food source for wildlife as well as for people. Large wild herbivores compete for fallow resources with livestock and can act as reservoirs of livestock diseases. The respondents claimed that Wheat (30%) and barley (24%) was the most vulnerable crop to raiders’. Whereas respondents reported that potato, Maize, Teff and legume are damaged by wild animals on rank 18%, 14%, 10% and 4%, respectively (Fig. 1 ).

Rank of vulnerable crops in the order of destruction by crop raider

Habitat disturbance

Habitat disturbance is destruction of the home of the wild animals. Humans kill or chase wild animals by digging, cutting, sealing by stones and smoking their natural habitat. This method is a main cause to decrease or to extinct of wild animals. The major components of habitat disturbance in the study area were settlement in and around the national park, over grazing by livestock, frequent fire and bush encroachment, tree cutting for charcoal, sale and construction of huts. Tree cutting was mainly associated with new settlement, which resulted deterioration of the remaining vegetation cover of the area. This minimizes the feeding ground, nesting and mating site of the wild animals so you have to be happened conflict between human and wild animal.

Livestock depredation

According to the respondents a total of three (namely, leopard (50%), Common Jackal (28%) and spotted hyenas (22%)) common problematic wild animals were reported in terms of livestock depredation from the villages although their effect is differing from village to village (Fig. 2 ). Leopards were reported to attack cattle, donkeys, goats, sheep and domestic dog in the study area. Common jackals are attack sheep; goat and spotted hyena caused the most pronounced problems and the local communities’ loss their oxen, cows, donkeys, mules, domestic dog and horses. Carnivores are attacking domestic livestock due to declining number of herbivorous in the wild due to prolonged droughts and habitat degradation.

Major livestock depredation wild animal in the study area

Killings of wildlife

Because of lack of compensated for crop losses, and domestic animal killing or loss the local communities are more suffered by wild animals and then they straggled to kill wild animals. This study was showed that Crop-raiding undermines food security and intolerance of wildlife within neighboring human communities in the study area. The inability to mitigate crop-raiding and absence of composition for crop losses lead to killing of animals.

Root causes of human–wildlife conflicts

According to the respondents and field observation, the main root causes of human wildlife conflict in the study area were: agricultural expansion (30%), human settlement (24%), overgrazing by livestock (14%), deforestation (18%), illegal grass collection (10%) and poaching (4%) (Figs. 3 and 4 ).

Cause for Human wildlife conflict in and around the study area

Habitat Degradation, Agricultural Expansion and human settlement

Deforestation is another major cause of human wildlife conflict in the study area mainly caused by cutting of trees for expansion of farm land, fire wood collection and livestock grazing send fire for the purpose of charcoal production (Fig. 5 ). Over grazing also was another major cause of human wildlife conflict the in the study area. This cause was due to the local communities were farming and livestock production are the main activities.

Over grazing and tree logging by livestock

Minimizing and mitigations of human wildlife conflict

According to the respondents, different methods are used by farmers to defend crop raider from their crop include crop guarding (34%), live fencing (26%), and scarecrow (22%), chasing (14%), whereas 5% was used smoking to repeal the crop raiders from their crop mostly in the night time which was the lowest method (Table 1 ).

As below Fig. 6 showed, the local community used different controlling techniques to defend livestock predator animals, such as fencing (38%), chasing (30%), scarecrow (24%), guarding (8%), and smoking (0%) based on respondents rank. These traditional controlling techniques of the most effective methods are fencing and chasing, the second most effective methods are scarecrow and guarding (especially common jackal) and the least effective traditional controlling techniques are smoking.

Traditional controlling techniques of livestock predation animal

Wildlife damage to agricultural crops is a serious concern affecting much of the world today [ 30 ]. Primates are one of the most frequently cited crop pests [ 13 ], so primates and humans are always in potential conflict over crops. This conflict is particularly interesting in that it arises from a positive desire to contact monkeys and then people discover that the contact poses risks from bites, theft of non-provisioned food or more general health issues such as exposure to simian viruses [ 6 ]. The result was agreed with finding of [ 36 ] who reported that wheat (ripe and dried) was the most frequently eaten crop by crop raiding in West Africa. Study conducted in Rwandan Forest Fragment indicated that maize, potato, beans, cabbage, sweet potato and tomato were raided by wild animals [ 12 ].

A research conducted in and around the study area showed that Olive baboon, warthog, common mole rat and bohor reedbuck (Redunca redunca), were identified as destructive animals, mainly feeding commonly on wheat, barley, potato, maize, teff and legume. Similar finding with the current study was observed in Filinga Range of Gashaka Gumti National Park of Nigeria. Monkeys, Baboons, Birds and Rodents were listed among wild animals that attack crops including Maize, Cassava, Rice and Banana [ 7 ].

Hence, common jackal and leopards could easily penetrate the fences and drag out the sheep and goat and any other animals. So, most of the predation by leopard happened during Both Night and Day Time but common jackal happened in day time and Spotted Hyena during happened in the night time within the settlement. This result is the same as with [ 25 ] that reported Leopard, Spotted Hyena and Common jackal were the major predators for domestic animals in and around Semen Mountains National park of Ethiopia. They were responsible for loss of Sheep, Goats, Oxen, Cows, Donkeys and Mules. Eight problematic wild animals in terms of domestic animal loss were identified in Chebera Churchura National Park southwestern part of Ethiopia [ 5 ]. Among those hazardous wild animals three of them i.e. Leopard, Jackal, and hyena were same with the present finding.

Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate sources. Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife resulting in conflict [ 39 ]. Byproducts of human existence offer un-natural opportunity for wildlife in the form of food and sheltered interference and potentially destructive threat for both man and animals. Competition for food resources also occurs when humans attempt to harvest natural resources such as fish and grassland pasture. Another cause of conflict comes from conservation biased toward flagship or game species that often threatens other species of concern [ 20 ].

According to the respondent’s response (10%), the local people cut grass illegally to feed their cattle, sell in the market and for thatching houses. This might cause scarcity of grass for herbivores and disturb the natural behavior of wildlife in the Park. Like any other Park in Ethiopia, local people exploit the resource from BMNP as well. Forest exploitation inside the Park and traditional farming activities close to the Park might cause strong impacts on the wildlife. Wild animals are highly restricted in some parts of the Park because of human and livestock encroachment.

Therefore the researcher was concluded that Agricultural Expansion (30%) and human settlement (24%) are the major causes of human wildlife conflict in and around the study area (Figs. 3 , 4 , and 5 ), while poaching (4%) are the lowest cause of HWC. Recently there was agricultural practice and human settlement inside and outside the park. Similar sources for Human wildlife were reported from Tsavo Conservation Area, Kenya. Agricultural Expansion, human settlement, deforestation, illegal grass collection, poaching was reported as the main causes of Human wildlife conflicts [ 22 ]. Different causes for human wildlife conflict were reported from different parts of Africa. For instance, animal death, loss of human life, crop damage, and damage to property, injuries to people and wildlife, encroachment of forest areas for agriculture, developmental activities, and livestock grazing are some key reasons for increment of the conflict in countries such as Kenya, Namibia, Mozambique, Zambia and Nigeria [ 19 ].

Many traditional repelling techniques are fairly effective if formalized, but are labor intensive. But where an animal can be repelled adequately using conventional methods it seems in appropriate, and certainly not particularly cost effective to try to introduce more expensive techniques requiring greater technological input or backup [ 4 ]. Another approach that has been used successfully to manage Human wildlife conflict involves changing the perceptions of people experiencing the damage, thus, increasing their willingness to tolerate damage [ 35 ]. Agricultural producers already are receptive to this argument and appreciate the wildlife on their farms to enhance wildlife habitat and their tolerance for some wildlife damage. This tolerance can be enhanced by providing economic incentives [ 25 ].

There was percentage difference between respondents using the different traditional methods in which of the respondents were used to defend their crop from crop raiders. This result agrees with the finding of [ 17 ] who founds that guarding and live fencing away of animals was ranked first and second in protecting crop raiders from crops. According to [ 13 ], the most viable options to reduce crop loss were increasing vigilance by farmers. This has been shown to make a considerable difference in the amount of crops lost, increasing farmer tolerance for a pest species and lost crops and increasing the ability of farmers to repel crop raiders using existing local methods. This has a number of obvious benefits, if these methods do not make a considerable impact on crop loss, and larger impact interventions such as electric fencing, lethal control of pest animals or moving farmers from the conflict zone can be considered [ 35 ].

Selection of the different strategies depends on the type of species, behavior of species and size of species. These results were similar to reported from Kenya Nyeri district [ 28 ]. The most effective strategy of the local communities used in preventing crop damage was guarding (34%), which is time consuming [ 7 ]. Similarly, the communities in the present study reported that permanent Guarding by adults is the most effective strategy to control both crop and livestock from wildlife when asked the most effective deter strategy among practiced by the local people. Active guarding by famers and members of their families was found to be the sole mode of protection from crop raiding [ 12 ].

No single management strategy can prevent all crop raiding and the goal of management should not only to be reducing the levels of crop raiding but also to raise the tolerance level of crop raiding by lessening its impact to farmers [ 33 ]. No solution will work without site-specific knowledge of what is possible, practical, or acceptable in any particular area. Unfortunately, human–wildlife conflict situations are often complex so are unlikely to be resolved quickly and cannot be solved solely by technical means. Human wildlife conflict can be managed through a variety of approaches. Prevention strategies endeavor to avoid the conflict occurring in the first place and take action towards addressing its root causes [ 13 ]. The main difference between the options is the moment at which the measure is implemented. By definition, management techniques are only cost-effective if the cost of implementing the technique is less than the value of the damage, taking into account the fact that a short period of active management may have a continued effect, by instating longer-term protection of crops or herds [ 9 ]. The various management possibilities are presented according to the characteristics of conflict whether they relate to humans, production, animals and the environment, rather than according to their ability to prevent or mitigate damage [ 20 ].

According to Hill et al. [ 13 ], conflict resolution/management methods have the following possible goals: reducing the amount of crop losses to wildlife; improving local people’s attitudes and perceptions towards protected area and its wildlife; helping affected farmers to improve agricultural production; increasing the amount of crops being harvested locally. Through improved local yields and reducing levels of poaching. Those wise it is very important that farmers be involved in the process of developing new solutions from the beginning [ 35 ]. Not only does this foster a sense of commitment and involvement amongst them, but it is also vital that they be involved from the beginning. Because they understand how the situation affects them and what kinds of intervention are likely to be acceptable and feasible with in the local culture, providing there is adequate representation from the different types of stakeholder involved [ 32 ].

The present study showed that human wildlife conflict is apparent in the study area. The conflict becomes the main causes to the continued survival of wild animal species in the area. Not only causes for wild animals but also the conflict causes high impact in economic loss of the people in and around the study area. Therefore, human–wildlife conflicts are negative impacts on both human and wildlife as highlighted in this study. It is also a serious obstacle to wildlife conservationists. Based on these reasons, mitigation strategies are very essential to reduce the cause and impact of HWC. Accordingly, possible mitigate possibilities for peaceful co-existence between human and wildlife are presented as follows:- Create awareness and organize training program to the local communities, identifying clear border between the closure area and the land owned by the residents, rules and regulations of the park, translocate the problematic animal to another area, equal benefit sharing of the local communities, to reduce or minimize agricultural practice inside and outside the national park, reduce deforestation by formulate rules and regulation for performed local communities, relocate agricultural activity out of the national park range, zoning or change the location of crop fields, Reduction of human settlement encroachment into the national park range.

Conclusions

The result of the present study has clearly shown that there was a strong conflict between human and wildlife living in and around the study area. The cause of human wildlife conflict was human settlement, agricultural expansion, illegal grass collection, over grazing by livestock and deforestation in national park. As a result, local communities disliked wildlife inhabiting in and around their surroundings. This has a great negative impact in conservation of the wildlife. The main effects for the presence of strong human wildlife conflict in the study area include crop damage, livestock depredation, killing of wildlife and habitat disturbance. Therefore, determination of possible solutions to mitigate Human wildlife conflict in the study area is mandatory for peaceful coexistence of human and wildlife.

Based on the obtained results of the present study, the following points are recommended in the study area:

Farmers should cooperatively keep their farm against crop raiders to minimize crop loss by using most effective method in an area.

The park authority should provide compensation for wildlife induced damage in and around the park.

Palatable and nutritive crops should not be grown near the park edge.

The concerning body should work hard to increase the awareness of the local people about the importance of wildlife conservation.

The park authority should provide fence or other method that used to protect crops, peoples and livestock from threat.

Stakeholders should reduce human settlements around the forest, expansion of farmland and cattle grazing in and around the National Park.

To reduce the dependency of the local people in and around the national park, it is better to encourage the local people to plant trees for their various types of utilization.

Further investigation must be conducted to identify alternative crops that can be rejected by crop raiders in the area.

Availability of data and materials

The data used and analyzed during the current study is available from the corresponding author on a reasonable request, without disclosure of the interviewees.

Abbreviations

Institute of Biodiversity Conservation

Bale Mountains National Park

Human wildlife conflict

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Acknowledgements

I would like to offer my sincere thanks to Bale Mountains National Park office staff member, local communities and Scouts for giving me an opportunity to pursue this research.

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Mekonen, S. Coexistence between human and wildlife: the nature, causes and mitigations of human wildlife conflict around Bale Mountains National Park, Southeast Ethiopia. BMC Ecol 20 , 51 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12898-020-00319-1

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As long as this earth remains Intact, we can continue to hunt. However, the boundaries between the two resources are not fixed and determinate all the renewable and non-renewable resources depend upon the complex cyclic flow of non-living and living materials through the ecosystem.

All the renewable resources depend upon this flow of non-living materials for sustaining life. If the flow of nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon dioxide, water, air and iron are abruptly stopped, the renewable resource also can no longer be regarded as renewable. Thus, here is the importance of ecosystem and balance of nature and it forms the main principle of our conservation and development strategy.

The protection of environment or the nature is itself linked with the future of human race. So, the scope of wildlife management is very vast. From the view point of an economist, wildlife management includes efficient utilization of the natural resources to the maximum human benefit, through the process of scientific studies of the population of these animals and their habitat pattern.

In fine, we can say that wildlife management is the judicious use of the wildlife resources towards the attainment of scientific, ecological, economical, ethical, aesthetic and recreational objectives for the benefit of human-beings and for the improvement of nature, upon which all the components of ecosystem depend.

It also includes planning and studying of habitat and behaviours of wild animal’s population. Thus, wildlife management is the science and art of manipulation of structure, dynamics and relations of the wild populations, its habitats and the concerned people in order to achieve specific human goals by means of wildlife resource.

According to “Wildlife Management Techniques” a book edited by Robert H. Giles (1984) “Wildlife Management is the science and art of changing the characteristics and interactions of habitats, wild populations, and such in order to achieve specific human goals by means of wildlife resource. These goals may frequently be sport-recreation, but may also include or be restricted to aesthetic, economic and ecological goals. Those working in the area of wildlife management are ultimately involved in the manipulation of the complex man-land-animal triad”.

Further Giles (1969) expanded on Leopold’s definition by stating “Wildlife Management is the science and art of changing the characteristics and interactions of habitats, wild animal population, and men in order to achieve specific human goals by means of the wildlife resource” .

According to Indian Forest Records (1965), “Wildlife Management is a branch of conservation which handles wildlife as a renewable natural resource. Concerned primarily with production, it also undertakes control measures that will preserve a species or hold its population in bounds. Wildlife forms an integral part of the land and hence wildlife management involves a type of land-use.”

On ecological basis, “Wildlife Management is an ecologic science, the relation of an organism to its environment including other living things that co-inhabit the same basic resources of soil, water, vegetation, and atmosphere”.

The scientific approach of wildlife management includes the observation, hypothesis and application of the tested principles of the hypothesis for the better management objectives. The art of Wildlife Management includes the natural aspects of it, which directly emanates from our sub-conscious mind and hearts and which work on the scientific observations and mould them in such a way that more human desires are satisfied.

The scientific method is a widely accepted and recognized approach to Wildlife Management.

The six basic components of scientific methods are:-

(i) Observation:

Firstly, it is to observe the things clearly.

(ii) Hypothesis:

Based on the observations, some tentative conclusions are drawn and explanations for the observation are made. The hypothesis is a statement of the problem whose essence is a general principle or relation of cause and effect.

(iii) Test of the Hypothesis:

The hypothesis is tested scientifically.

(iv) Religion and Science:

The basic difference between religion and science lies in the fact that religion gives innumerable wrong hypothesis whereas science only gives tested and correct one.

(v) Interpretations of results.

(vi) Conclusion and reporting of the results.

All these are kept in mind when scientific research is carried on upon wild animals.

From Gile’s definition, it is clear that there is slight difference in objectives between wildlife conservation and wildlife management. In wildlife conservation, the objective is that the wildlife is to be conserved in such a way that it may remain in the nature in peak status. The benefits meeting through the wildlife are met in this condition also but to get the benefit is not the main objective rather the main objective is to maintain natural-balance.

In wildlife management, there is conservation of wildlife but along with this they are also managed in such way that they can meet the specific objectives of human-beings. Hence, in wildlife management, the wildlife resource is managed along with conservation in such a way that the specific benefits may be obtained from them.

The definition of Giles is vast and denotes towards the broadness and difficulties of the subject (wildlife management). Hence, it is essential to clear the different components of the definition. According to him, Wildlife Management is the science as well as art.

It is the science up to the boundary in which there is long time detailed studies and observation of life and ecology of wildlife to get scientific records, to formulate principles and research is carried out; and on these basis the system of management is evolved (estimated) in such a way that by applying these at different places, the specific goal may be achieved.

But when this theoretical knowledge or the system based upon this is used along with the different technologies of land-uses and human-behaviours; the art of wildlife management starts. Different wildlife managers at different places on the basis of applying their capacity of art can get different types of results. The definition also says that wildlife management is done for the specific goals of human-beings.

Therefore, it is essential that the benefit, which is expected from the wildlife, should be already fixed and then the planning of management should be planned so that the specific goal may be achieved; otherwise the management will be aimless and its evaluation will be also impossible.

There is also an important part of the definition that though the management is to be done for wildlife but there are two aspects of wildlife such as its habitat and related people. The main objective of the Wildlife Management is to establish favourable and lovely balance among these three aspects (wildlife, habitat and people) by manipulating their structure, dynamics and relations.

These three aspects are wildlife population itself, its habitat (which includes food, water, space, cover, shelter etc.) and related people who remain in and around the habitats or often come there. Requisite manipulation or change is essential for successful management of wildlife by seeing that as to what type of attitude the people have towards wildlife.

In brief, it can be said that in Wildlife Management; the planning or project for the improvement in wildlife status and for enhancement in its population, can be formulated by thinking the total ecosystem of wildlife and doing requisite favourable manipulation in it so that specific goal may be achieved.

Hence, it is clear that there are three aspects of Wildlife Management viz. wildlife itself (wildlife-population), its habitat and the related people. The management or conservation of wildlife is possible only by establishing the relations among all these three components and for this the managers should have detailed knowledge about the structure, dynamics and relations of these components.

2. Essay on the History of Wildlife Conservation/Management :

The history of wildlife conservation in India is as old as the origin of man on this earth planet. Our saints were always anxious that man should not interfere with the nature. They always taught to adopt the doctrine/inculcation of non-violence and thus to save wildlife. Hence, when human civilization was in its earliest stage, the relationship between wild animals and humans was harmonious and complementary taking enjoyment and benefiting each other.

Wild animals and man maintained a balance between its necessities and the use of natural resources by him. But in span of time, due to industrial revolution, technological innovations and scientific advancement; the traditional life style got thorough change throughout the world and started to exploit the natural resources with accelerated speed to meet the demands of new materialistic life.

It can be said that the period of Second World War was the most devastating period for wildlife because the soldiers wherever halted exploited and spoiled them. Afterwards, the human population started to increase as explosion since few decades demanding developments in various spheres resulting directly or indirectly ongoing disturbances in the natural resources/ecosystems in India.

The rapid growth of cities, construction of dams, hydroelectric powers, buildings and roads, encroachment and conversion of forest lands for agriculture, mining operation, ruthless killing and hunting of wild animals are the main reasons of direct disturbances in our ecosystems. Such shortsighted activities imbalance the nature creating problems for the survival of wildlife and destruction of habitat of the animals.

A large number of beautiful and important wild animals got extinction which will never reappear on this earth. The extinction of the majestic and fastest creature i.e. Cheetah from India; many other beautiful animals like lion, brow-antlered deer, slow Loris, lesser panda etc. are on the verge of extinction along with several rare and threatened species. Thus, a renewable resource (wildlife) of vital interest is being vanished and depleted.

We know that, from wildlife status point of view, tropical rain forests produce luxuriant vegetation upon which most of the wild animals of the world survive. But due to destruction of these forests; wildlife lost its habitat, deteriorated and many species became endangered. India is a vast tropical country and naturally it has a great variety of flora and fauna.

The geographical variations and distinctions ranging from rain forests of Assam to the snows of the Himalaya and the deserts of Rajasthan, from deciduous forests of Central Highlands to the mangrove swarms of Sunderbans, have their own typical and specific faunal coverage.

These floral and faunal varieties have played and also playing key role in the development of human culture and civilization. In the earliest stage, wildlife was a source of food, cloth, tool, religious belief etc. and at that time more or less equilibrium was maintained between man and the wild creatures.

With the development of agriculture; some species were domesticated for the purpose, others were hunted for their meat, horns, skins etc. Under the advancement of human civilization, industrialization and modernization, his-needs increased more and more.

Modern technology started to exploit the various resources of the ecosystem carelessly and ceaselessly, without having the idea of its devastating consequences. Thus, the relationship and interaction between man and wildlife began to change with great speed resulting deterioration in the quality of the environment/ecosystems.

Wildlife in India has passed through three phases, viz. mythological phase, exploitation phase and conservation phase.

(i) Mythological Phase:

It was the first phase in which wild animals were getting priority of protection through the religious myth and sentiment. There are many stories and instances in this regard. King Pandu in the Mahabharata was cursed by the hind deer for shooting her stag in mating; Rama was helped by Hanuman against Ravana, the flying of deer hunted by Kalidas to the safety of the rishi’s ashram, the eight celestial points of the compass being supposed to be guarded by Indira’s elephant, lion is one of the many incarnations of God Vishnu, the tiger has place being mentioned in the later Vedic texts, the mangoose noticed in the Mahabharata as a teacher of wisdom to King Yudhistira, the deer is always associated with God Brahma and the constant companion of God Mahadeva, the wild boar is referred to as the “Boar of Heaven”.

Some thirty different mammals are mentioned by name in the samhitas (the four principal Vedas). It is of much interest for the world to know that the earliest measures taken for the protection and conservation of animals come from India. All these protective measures have secured safety for wildlife in the Indian thoughts.

Kautilya’s “Arthshastra” refers to the Abhayaranya or Forest Sanctuary where animals could roam about without any fear. The first approach in changing direction is found at the time of Emperor Ashoka because in his Fifth Pillar Edict of 3rd Century B.C. we find the first laws to protect fish, birds and forests strictly and the mammals like bats, monkeys, rhinoceros, porcupines, tree squirrels, barasinga stags, brahmini bulls and all four- footed animals were not utilized or eaten. There was also provision of punishment to the guilty persons as per the law.

(ii) Exploitation Phase:

After mythological phase, the age of exploitation entered in which the wildlife experienced ever- increasing pressure. The Moghuls were great hunters of animals and birds though having keen interested in nature and their concept of management was majorly the game. In the British period, hunting was going on for the pleasure of kings and princes as a tradition.

This era of exploitation continued with increasing intensity of India’s population and more forest land was cleared for cultivation. We had the maximum development and expansion of man’s needs at the expense of wildlife and its habitat following “grow-more-food” campaign.

Even the early years of independence shows no lessening of the pressure on the wildlife rather increased to provide the landless with land and to make India self-sufficient in cereals removing food-problem.

Hence, it is clear that there was an abundance of wildlife in India before British rule in settled and balanced condition. The depletion started from about the middle of the 19 th century with the increase in the number of sporting weapons and development of rifles in 1840 and 1860.

The early British army officers, tea planters and civil servants were the main hunters and exploiters. The Second World War was the most dangerous period for the harassment of wild animals by the soldiers as well as the ruling kings and princes.

(iii) Conservation Phase:

The third and the most vital phase of India’s wild animals have come with the general renaissance since the attainment of independence. It is a period of conservation and propagation of wildlife following the world movement for husbanding its natural resources judiciously and scientifically.

It was realized that man must keep balanced relationship with the national heritage to achieve the natural resources in perpetuity. For the purpose, educations among the people of the world in this direction were also enlightened.

Jean-Paul Harroy, Secretary- General of the International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources (IUCN) has put it “the concept of inter-relations is particularly relevant in the observation of biological equilibrium for the naturalist, especially if we wish to interfere in such delicate balances, must be imbued with the idea that all phenomena are actually one phenomenon and that an abrupt change in of the factors in play can only have profound repercussion on the complex whole, even if he has not been able to anticipate the repercussions in his imaginations.”

The wildlife conservation movement in India may be summarized as such:-

(a) First efforts was taken by BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society) resulted as Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1897.

(b) The 1935 Movement – Punjab gave the lead making separate Game Warden, Fauna Committees in Districts etc.

Formation of Hailey National Park in Uttaranchal; Jim Corbett and Hasan Abid Jaffry’s Association for the preservation of Wildlife in Uttaranchal; Planters’ shooting and fishing clubs in Bengal and South India.

(d) The war period – Destruction of Wildlife by the armies stationed in India.

(e) Postwar Period – The 1951 Conference in Delhi, decision to give wildlife a place in India’s new National Forest Policy of 1951.

(f) Post independence Period-The Indian Board for Wildlife (1952), Government appointed board for advisory purposes. The Wildlife Preservation Society of India (1958), for publicity and propaganda and as a “Watch-dog” on behalf of wildlife.

Wild Life (Protection) Act was framed in 1972 and subsequently being amended time to time.

In Indian condition, any management plan for its wildlife must take into account the prevailing political and economic climate, which is mainly governed by the marginal status of agriculture in the country. Therefore, the idea of wildlife as a crop should undoubtedly find a place in forest management in India.

The problem behind it in the country is to save the fauna from disappearing or being reduced to the point of “no-return” while at the same time ensuring to the cultivator adequate protection from crop damage and carnivorous animals. Since wildlife is an integral part of the land and, hence, must share in the various forms of land-utilization.

In this way, wildlife also demands place in agricultural tracts under land-use planning concept, though this aspect poses itself in our managed areas i.e. the reserved and protected forests.

In India, the main impact on wildlife is on the cultivated and grazing lands where the existing contradictions must be resolved because today in the country it appears to be a major clash between wildlife-use and human-use of the land for cultivation.

We know that animal’s life depends directly or indirectly on plant life for its continued existence and the studies of such interdependence involves study of botany, zoology and animal ecology. Wildlife management is thus concerned with laws and their enforcement and is related with public administration.

Further, it can be said that as an applied animal science, wildlife management is a form of practical or applied zoology and the relationship which wildlife management relates with zoology is similar to that which forestry has with botany. Wildlife ecology has the same relation to wildlife management that silvics has with silviculture.

The dynamic form of wildlife management, known as environmental manipulation, defines as the improvement of the environment based on biological principles which requires sufficient knowledge and research in the concerned field. It is based on the principle that favourable conditions for wildlife can be created by artificial operations of a dynamic nature applying wildlife management techniques.

Though, it is essential that the cultivator should have proper liberty to defend his property from wild animals, it is equally essential that there should be certain areas or reserves where the shooting of wild animals is regulated and where the laws for their protection are rigidly enforced.

Of course, the creation of such reserve or national park will support in bringing the best status to the wild animals. It is essential to draw the attention of the people of the country in the direction of the magnificent heritage, gifted by nature, to realize the necessity for preserving and conserving them for their own benefit as well as for the coming generations.

To fulfill the mission, education will play vital role in bringing better position than what we are at present. Hence, it is needed to create such public opinion in our country on the subject of wildlife protection because today such opinion is not popularized and hardly exists in some quarters that are also not so active due to lack of proper interest and sufficient teaching.

However, the condition may be said to be improving on account of the growing awareness among the population world over. Now-a-days, the status of wildlife in different parts of the world is different depending upon the socio-economic conditions of societies of the different nations.

The developing countries including India, who have just emerged from the colonial rule, are facing with the vital problems of poverty, illiteracy and over-population. In majority of the Asian countries, the status of wildlife is not satisfactory. In India; condition is unsatisfactory, no doubt, but steps are being taken in progressive direction to preserve, conserve and propagate whatever we have.

The success depends upon the sound socio-economic condition, education, literacy, population- control and awareness towards nature and its benefits.

It is interesting to know that how we have gradually adopted development towards the protection of wildlife. At the turn of the twentieth century (British Period), people were having the idea that wildlife was inexhaustible and therefore had pride in boasting the number of trophies secured.

But afterwards, British rulers took attention realizing the importance of conservation of wildlife and enforced various Acts like the Rhino Protection Act, the Elephant Protection Act, the Arms Act etc. from time to time to save them and other wild animals from ruthless killings.

But the history of the modern wildlife movement really starts from the International Conference for the Protection of Nature held at Paris in 1931 which led to the formation of International Union for the Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources (IUCN).

However, in India, the first concrete step towards wildlife conservation was taken soon after independence in 1952 with the setting up of Central Board for Wildlife which was subsequently renamed the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL). Soon most of the states also followed it up.

But in spite of the formation of these boards much could not be achieved; as those concerned with conservation, worked in isolation and being far from the mainstream of planning process. To restrict and regulate the thriving global trade of endangered species, India became a party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1976.

In recent years many of the International bodies like International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) and International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) etc. have come up for the purpose of safeguarding, conservation, management and creation of awareness, and India is a member of all these bodies. Apart from these, many nongovernmental organizations are also busy in this mission and imparting their valuable roles.

Now, the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 is the primary legal document to control the wildlife all over the country. The most important contribution of this Act is the controlling of hunting of wild animals and guiding formation of national parks and sanctuaries.

The wildlife conservation efforts got a tremendous boost through the provision of this Act. Many rare and endangered species were saved from extinction as well as trade in wild animals was brought under strict control and watch.

The Act has been amended in 1991 through which there is now total banned on hunting of wild animals in our country. In addition, many projects like lion project, tiger project, crocodile breeding project, elephant project etc. have been set up to conserve and propagate nicely the threatened wild species.

For effective conservation of wildlife, three basic needs such as adequate food and water, place of refuge, and place to breed in safety should be fulfilled.

To achieve this, the following measures are in practice:

(i) Reserved forests, national parks and sanctuaries are left unexploited; where total un-exploitation is not possible, the cutting operation of the forests is done in limited blocks at a time.

(ii) Crowing of a single variety of plant is discouraged as far as possible; instead mixed vegetation is encouraged.

(iii) Natural opening of the forests, waterholes and riversides are guarded against poachers.

(iv) Controlled-burning of grassland, to increase forage and to preserve organic materials in the soil, is done in blocks with un-burnt area in between.

(v) Provisions for dust-baths and artificial salt-licks are made in the forests for maintaining the normal health of the animals.

(vi) Grazing of-domestic livestock are dangerous to wild animals, as the latter can never compete successfully with domestic stock. Moreover, the domestic stock may be responsible for transmitting several contagious diseases. Hence, grazing by domestic stock in protected areas is avoided as far as possible.

(vii) Cultivation near the sanctuaries is also avoided to prevent ecological hazards due to pesticides.

(viii) Scientific studies by qualified personnel on threatened species of animals are encouraged in order to assess and improve their status, even by breeding them in captivity and rehabilitating them in suitable habitats.

Several such measures have been undertaken and are operative but many more are needed to check the decline of wildlife and to create conditions in which it can flourish with its diversity in natural habitats.

But nothing would be fruitful without the educational and publicity programmes for a change in the human outlook, especially in the new generations who are the builders of future society and custodians of the nature. There is a general lack of knowledge in the field of conservation of nature and the values and benefits of wildlife in our country. Nature has been treated as a milch cow.

Anything useful to man is exploited indiscriminately and inevitably leading to its depletion, sometimes beyond redemption. In true sense, the word “ecology” remained in the dictionary and as a fashion in scientific circles for several decades and could not find place in modern development. Actually, economy should be mitigated by ecology to halt such declining trend.

To sum-up, the only permanent solution to the problems of protection of wildlife, which is a part of the macro-problem of protection of biosphere and its component ecosystems, lies in proper understanding of the living world and in the reorientation of the human outlook in proper and progressive direction.

3. Essay on the Need of Wildlife Management/Conservation :

The life on the earth is a delicate balance of nature. Plants convert carbon dioxide of the air and water into organic matter with the help of chloroplasts in the presence of sunlight. Herbivores derive their energy from the plants and the carnivores in their turn from the herbivores.

There are also organisms called decomposers which release the energy back to nature, thus completing the cycle. We can, thus, see that producers, consumers and decomposers form food-chains. The various foods-chains and cycles constitute the life-support-systems essential for the survival of the living world.

Any major alteration in any one of these, results serious disturbance in the balance of nature leading to annihilation and may threaten the very existence of man himself on this planet.

Hence, to sustain life, renewability of the resources and life- support-systems should be maintained for endless duration, which in turn, demands an understanding of the ability of the species to adopt themselves to the changing environment and to integrate these considerations in the development of any planning process. This, in essence, is the crux of wildlife conservation.

In ancient years, the wildlife in India were found sufficiently; but due to enormous growth in human population, deforestation started for converting forest land into agricultural purposes and subsequently the habitat of wildlife started shrinking and shrinking and their population depleted and being depleting. The period of Second World War was the most devastating period for wildlife as the wildlife were killed mercilessly wherever the militaries got shelter.

Following are the main reasons causing depletion in wildlife population:-

(i) Conversion of forests into agricultural fields.

(ii) In ancient ages, hunting was done wantonly, recklessly, mercilessly and unscientifically.

(iii) Creation of forest roads as well as allowing there the hunters with their automobiles.

(iv) Use of firearms in hunting and hunting were not done selflessly.

(v) Increase in livestock, grazing by them in forest areas resulting loss in food and shelter of wild animals as well as infection of diseases.

(vi) Establishment of industries in forest areas, querying of mines etc.

(vii) Pollution of environment, rivers, water reservoirs and ocean by insecticides, polluted gas and water from industries as byproducts.

(viii) Use of insecticides on large scale in agricultural fields.

(ix) Misuse of licensed firearms.

(x) Lighting of fire by the local people inside the forest.

These factors not only depleted the number of wildlife but some became extinct, some are threatened and some are on the verge of extinction. Their number has come to such a stage that the benefits meeting by them is now-a-days negligible.

Hence, Wildlife Management is the techniques related to wildlife-conservation itself through which the wild animals can be propagated as the natural renewable resource on the earth. Therefore, before choosing the management- techniques, it is essential to keep in mind the prime aims and objectives of the management as well as the target species.

The planning of Wildlife Management work may be classified into the following four steps:-

(a) Wildlife Census:

First of all, it is necessary to find out the present status of the wild animals in the particular habitat. To access the number of each and every species (population) available in the habitat is very important. This is done through the census of the area (habitat). It is impossible to decide the management-technic/techniques to be applied in the habitat without such knowledge.

(b) Measurement of Productivity:

The productivity of the species is determined and then compared to its standard productivity to find out the present situation as whether its productivity is normal, below or above the level.

For the purpose; nasality-rate, mortality-rate, environmental-resistance, interrelationship between prey and predator, carrying-capacity, hunting and poaching, intra and interspecific behavioural aspect, available quantity of food, water and shelter, availability of main and buffer food-species, decimating factors, etc. are thoroughly studied to access the present condition of productivity of the species concerned.

If the productivity of species is found below the standard productivity, the respective decimating factor is to be found out due to which such condition has come and its control-measure is to be applied to bring the productivity at the standard level.

Such controlling measures are generally habitat- improvement, enhancement of carrying-capacity of the habitat, to increase nasality of the species, to minimize decimating factors of the habitat etc. Thus, measurement of productivity of the species and its comparison with standard is helpful in applying proper management technique.

From management point of view, it is very necessary to access the factor/factors which is hampering in the growth of population of the species such as decimating factors or the scarcity of food, water and shelter.

Simultaneously, to get its remedy by searching its controlling measure/measures and its application is very important so that the population may reach to the desired level. The diagnosis of the control- measure and its application gives progressive result to go in the forward direction in the field of wildlife management.

(d) Treatment:

Treatment means the application of the controlling- measure/measures to overcome the problem of the limiting factor/ factors after its diagnosis. Such factors may be decimating factors like diseases, predators etc. or the scarcity of the basic needs like foods, water or shelter. Hence, diagnosis of the damaging factor and application/treatment of its control-measure is the important tool in the aspect of wildlife management.

4. Essay on the Aims of Wildlife Management :

The aims and objectives of wildlife management as such will vary from locality to locality, and probably from decade to decade or time to time. The needs of wildlife and the possibility of a successful restoration programme determine the local specific objectives.

However, in general, the objectives can be described under the following heads:

(i) Preservation of Species:

At places, where a sharp decline of a certain species has been observed, this becomes the prime objective. It has been commented that “Man can easily destroy but cannot create any new species, therefore, he should be reluctant to destroy that which he cannot possibly restore no matter how desperate the need be.” The various special projects like Project Tiger, Project Hangul etc. are based on these objectives. In such a case, all the management efforts are focused on one species or a set of species to be preserved.

(ii) Maintenance of Population of Useful Species:

In recent years, the major wildlife management tasks are based on the maintenance of populations of useful species. This forms a wholistic approach in which care to preserve a faunal complex is taken. The obnoxious animals/vermins are exterminated to facilitate the population-growth of useful species. Management of various National Parks and Sanctuaries are based on this objective.

(iii) Stabilizing of Decreasing Population of Certain Species:

Since the earliest successful domestication of animals, man has combated the predators which preyed on his flocks and herds. Likewise, crude attempts at cultivating crops brought him into direct conflict with grazing and fruit-eating wild animals. So, man has always attempted to the best of his ability to decrease local populations of “destructive or harmful species”.

Such age-old human manipulations have resulted into an imbalance of various populations in wild community. So under this objective, the efforts are directed towards stabilizing the affected populations to bring a balanced situation in the community of wildlife.

(iv) Limiting Utilization of Annual Productive Capacity:

Perhaps this is the most difficult objective to achieve and in fact in our country this has no-where been adopted. This actually regulates the annual revenue from the various wildlife. This involves management of populations in a way to obtain an annual sustained production. The examples are Commercial Farming of deer and fishes and other animals.

(v) Conservation of Biodiversity:

To conserve natural biodiversity; maintenance of vast, healthy and productive wildlife population, as far as possible, is essential so that genetic resources may remain protected.

(vi) Maintenance of Habitat:

To cognize wildlife and its habitat so that both may fulfill their interdependency and complement each other reaching at peak position (climax).

(vii) Strengthening Human-Life:

To enhance the richness and quality of human-life so that man may get happy, healthy and prosperous life.

5. Essay on Wildlife Management Plan:

To achieve the above objective, a Wildlife Management Plan is prepared. When the management of a wildlife species of an area is to be done; first of all, a plan as to be prepared in such a way that the basic information’s regarding the relations of all the three components (wildlife population, habitat and people) may be obtained.

The knowledge of their present status (situation) may be acknowledged as well as the studies on the causes of that situation should be carried out. On this basis, all the three components may be manipulated in suitable way so that they may be developed in progressive direction.

Generally, the Wildlife Management Plan is dealt in the following steps:

(i) Inventory:

Before preparing any plan, there is necessity to gather some basic information and records for that particular project. Collection of such information’s is called Inventory.

In case of the inventory of wildlife-population; the information regarding names of the available different types of wild animal species in the related area, their distribution and dispersion in that area, etc. are collected.

In case of habitat inventory; the information’s like availability of different plant species in that area, their distribution, condition and position in plant succession, the suitable and preferred palatable plant species as food for wild animals among the whole available vegetation’s, the quantity of food obtained from them during different seasons, availability of water in the area, the quality of plant species from shelter point of view, etc. are collected. These works are time consuming and not so easy and require experts in the field of forestry, zoology and botany to conduct the same.

In case of people’s inventory; the survey and analysis of human population of that area as well as neighbouring zone is conducted. And then they are categorized such as the people who have interest in wildlife and its conservation, those who are neutral having neither interest in conservation nor harming them, those who are harming the wildlife, area of the offence covered by such people and so on.

(ii) Census:

Through census, the statistical/mathematical information’s of the three components (wildlife population, its habitat, and the related people) and their subtypes are collected.

For example:

(a) For wildlife-population; the information’s like the number of each faunal species, their density, age-ratio, sex-ratio, species-ratio, birth-rate, mortality, survival-records etc. are collected.

(b) For habitat; the information’s like the number of different floral species and their areas, the number of different floral species providing food and shelter, their interspersion, and degree of juxtaposition of the different plants are collected.

(c) In case of related people; the number of their three categories (friends, neutral and enemies), their classification from social and economic point of view, and their age-classes etc. information’s are collected.

(iii) Revenue Procurement:

To fetch revenue from wildlife-population; the number of the wild animal species are estimated and allowed to hunt per year or per season, if it is found surplus than the renewal capacity/stock of the area.

In case of habitat; the revenue obtained from plants are not counted rather the percentage is estimated by comparing the quantity of food and shelter to be obtained by the whole available species in the total habitat, with that area of the habitat in which sufficient quantity of food and shelter are available.

In case of related people; the revenue obtained by legal economy from fauna, benefits related to zoological science, benefits from entertainment and opportunity of employment etc. are estimated. But simultaneously, the quantity of loss made by man and cattle to the wild animals as well as losses done by wild animals to the human-being and cattle are also estimated.

(iv) Diagnosis:

In case of wildlife-population, the present situation (status) of the population is diagnosed; if it is not optimum, the reasons or factors responsible for that are assessed so that it may be removed. For example; the low turn-over rate may be due to the reason of irregular sex-ratio or, due to more percentage of mortality in the young ones.

In such cases, the factor/fractors responsible may be found out to rectify sex-ratio or to minimize the percentage of mortality in the young-ones.

Diagnosis for habitat is to find out the causes of unsuitability, or, its effects. These are assessed and limiting-factors are sorted out so that they may be removed.

In case of related people; the category causing harms to the wild animals is diagnosed and reasons of such behaviour are found out so that it may be pacified and rectified.

(v) Control and Remedies:

Control and remedies means the actions to be taken to control or rectify the harmful or damaging factors which are found through the diagnosis.

In case of wildlife-population; the objective of control and remedies is to enhance the population on the basis of the knowledge of biology of the wild animals. To control and to make necessary remedies, the factors hindering turn-over rate of the animals are taken into considerations.

For example; if mortality in young-ones is due to certain disease, the treatment is done for that disease; if turn-over rate is low due to unfavourable sex-ratio, the sex-ratio should be managed properly. Hence, the objective is to bring the wildlife-population at the optimum- level.

There should be management of sufficient space in the habitat for the each individual of the related species. There should be trials; to make favourable sex-ratio and age-ratio of the species to enhance nasality, and removal of unproductive animals from wildlife population. These methods will help or benefit only those wildlife populations which are out of danger or have no great loss.

But the population which has become endangered and is on the verge of extinction, there should be special devices for it to be used such as production of young-ones through artificial reproduction to get appropriate sex-ratio as well as transfer or introduction of youngs in protected and favourable habitat; if animals are in very limited area, they should be translocated/introduced in new area.

The healthy and optimum condition of wildlife population depends upon the habitat. Hence, before the manipulation of the wildlife population, there should be management or manipulation of the habitat.

For example; there should be management for tasty and nutritious food and sufficient water and shelter for the animals, juxtaposition and interspersion for such essential things should also be improved. Food, shelter and water should be managed to be available in the entire area and the management/arrangement should be in such a way that such essential requirements may meet in pinch-period in sufficient quantity.

In case of people’s relation, to bring changes in their motives of harmful activities to the wild animals, is to control with remedial measures. Therefore, the different categories of the people (friend, neutral and enemy of the wildlife) have to be managed.

For example, the category like friend of wildlife generally keep their interest limited to themselves and hence such people should be encouraged and motivated for active participation in the protection of wildlife; likewise to create awareness towards love and sense of protection in neutral category of the people, and to change the mentality among the enemy category of the people, they should be persuaded and motivated in such a way that such persons may be converted as wildlife-protector.

For such work, the benefit may be taken by the research done in social sciences by applying and adopting them wherever it is appropriate and necessary.

Problems in Wildlife Management Plan:

The shrinkage and degradation of forest, and non-forest wildlife habitats as well as serious decline in the status of wild animals; conservation efforts started gathering momentum in the country in the early ’70s. The National Wildlife Action Plan was drawn up against this background.

It is a document setting out an agenda of countrywide activities in the field of wildlife-conservation, which was released by the late Prime. Minister Indira Gandhi in November, 1983.

The Action Plan covers a period of 5 years and contains ten sections, each representing a major area of activity in the wildlife field which are as follows:

1. Establishment of a Representative Network of Protected Areas (PA = Sanctuary & National Park):

This section of the Action Plan is concerned with the necessity and requirement ensuring that the country has adequate representative network of the protected-areas (national parks and sanctuaries) with respect to biological-diversity and geographical-distribution.

It provides for the production of an agreed biogeographic classification as background to a review of all existing protected areas and recommendation for the establishment of new ones to fill the existing gaps. As a result, all biogeographic zones would be represented in an enlarged protected area network. Work on these priority, project is in well progress.

2. Management of Protected Areas and Habitat Restoration:

This section improves the management of protected-areas and ensures its compatibility with the needs of local people. Under the provision, the Project for the restoration of degraded habitats within protected-areas as well as provision for the development of a fully professional cadre of wildlife managers has come into light.

The identification of special areas for Eco-Development, where conservation oriented community-development programmes are undertaken, remains an urgent need in order to ensure the support and involvement of local people in the overall management of wildlife areas.

3. Wildlife Protection in Multiple-Use Areas:

This section aims to provide means for the protection of wildlife in multiple-use areas (such as production forests and pasture lands) so as to preserve viable “corridors” linking up protected areas and ensuring genetic continuity between them. These will include “migration-routes” of species such as elephants, and “diffusion-corridors” for tigers in areas where habitat destruction is bringing them into conflict with man. There has been little specific progress in this area of the plan.

4. Rehabilitation of Endangered & Threatened Species:

This section is concerned with the rehabilitation of endangered and threatened species. After conducting field surveys and establishing appropriate criteria, a graduated list of threatened Indian fauna and flora is to be drawn. For each species, specific rehabilitation measures are to be recommended to the relevant state authorities for taking actions.

5. Captive Breeding Programmes:

Presently, the design of time bound captive-breeding/release projects is receiving attention for species already identified for rehabilitation. However, the full list of species showing degree of threat and a recommended recovery programme awaits completion. Field surveys of critical areas and species are being undertaken under this section.

6. Wildlife Education and Interpretation:

This section of Action Plan deals with the wildlife education and interpretation aiming wider public appreciation of the importance of wildlife for human betterment. Priority projects include the setting up of a division of wildlife education/interpretation at Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and model interpretation units at key national parks and zoos.

Some progress has been made at places such as Kanha National Park and Delhi Zoo with interpretation. A new model Visitor Centre is designed for Corbett National Park. Central Government financial support for non-governmental organisations for producing wildlife educational materials is visualized in the plan. It would greatly speed up progress in this important aspect of conservation of wildlife.

7. Research and Monitoring:

This section deals the vital area of research and monitoring in order to provide a scientific basis for improved management of wildlife. Involvement and implementation of universities in wildlife teaching and research would increase the net capacity for good wildlife research in the country. A national list of research priorities in wildlife covering critical habitat types is still awaited but is in progress.

8. Domestic Legislation & International Conventions:

This section highlights the importance of statutory provisions and its updation for wild Life conservation. Amendment of 1972 Wild Life (Protection) Act in 1991 and ongoing revision of legislation of CITES in India illustrate the action taken under this section of the Plan.

9. National Conservation Strategy:

This section shows the importance of International treaties (agreements) as well as the need for a National Conservation Strategy for India from wildlife conservation point of view.

10 . Collaboration with Voluntary Bodies:

This section of the Plan represents an important aspect which is easily overlooked viz. the enlisting of support from and collaboration with voluntary bodies involved in wildlife conservation. There is still an urgent need to define the role of such organisations and encourage their participation in conservation efforts. In certain fields, nongovernmental organisations can make rapid progress while the government machinery finds it tough only.

In each section of the Plan, an objective is concisely defined followed by a brief statement of the action required for its fulfillment. The section is then broken down into a series of priority projects which indicate the exact tasks to be performed, the timing and duration of the project and precisely who will be responsible for its implementation. Priority and sequence of the project components are also indicated.

While the overall initiative for implementation of the Action Plan rests with the Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife at the centre; a number of government as well as non-government agencies are involved.

In particular, the Zoological Survey of India, Botanical Survey of India, Wildlife Institute of India and state Forest Departments are given responsibilities for parts of the Plan. In many cases, the Plan provides for the setting of a special working group for the achievement of a particular task.

In many sections of the Plan, the recommended mode of achieving objectives requires examination, particularly in cases where little progress has been possible to date. All sections without exception need a revision of their time schedule to take account of delay in commencing the projects or a revised perception of the duration required to adequately achieve the objectives.

Ongoing adjustment should be an accepted facet of any good plan of this kind, if it is to avoid becoming an outdated document of only limited relevance to changing conditions in the country.

Hence, it is clear that the National Wildlife Action Plan has provided a vital framework for conservation and management of India’s diverse wildlife resources and a yardstick by which progress can be measured. As such, the Plan is a document which deserves even wider attention among foresters and wild-lifers.

6. Essay on the Relationship between the Components of Wildlife Management:

According to the definition of Wildlife Management; to obtain specific human-goal, from the wildlife-resources, is necessary. There should be needs/manipulations in structure, dynamics and relations of the three major components viz. wildlife population, its habitat and the related people.

This may be specified as-follows:

(i) The real crux of the wildlife management is the full determination of its goal. It is obtained by observing the situations. Some goals are chosen in the management and to achieve them, different kinds of determinations are fixed.

For example, if the number of males in a population is excess in comparison to the appropriate male-female ratio, then the goal will be to make this ratio suitable; and, therefore, it is to be determined that whether the excess males have to be introduced elsewhere or they have to be hunted to minimize its number.

Likewise, if there are excess bushes and less grasses in the habitat; it is to be determined that whether the bushes should be destroyed through weedicides or through the controlled burning to enhance the growth of the grass.

It means, first of all, some objectives are fixed for specific human-goals for indefinite period to get through wildlife-resources; and then to achieve these objectives, determination is fixed in planning of the action.

(ii) The first important component of the wildlife management is wildlife-population. Actually management is done to the wildlife- population to get benefits from them to the human society for indefinite period. If wildlife-population is to be made eternal, it is very essential that wildlife manager is having sufficient knowledge of biology and ecology of the species to be managed.

In absence of such knowledge; making of suitable and effective wildlife structure, dynamics etc. are impossible. In biology; the knowledge is gained for that particular species regarding its morphology, physiology, life-cycle and breeding, causes of mortality, basic requirements to carry the life, present status of the animal number, age and sex ratios and so on.

In ecology; the studies on effects of the environment and results of its impacts upon the nature of the individuals of that particular species are done. In real sense, wildlife management is an ecological science in which there is analysis and studies of the relations and effects of a particular species with its environment (environment includes the basic resources like atmosphere, soil, water etc. and its users like whole plant and animal kingdoms).

(iii) The second important component of the wildlife management is its habitat. The basic requirements of wildlife (food, water, space and shelter) are met through the habitat in which they live. Hence, if the wildlife-population is to be made beneficial for indefinite period for human life, the habitat has to be managed in such a way that it can provide them and fulfill their all the necessities regularly and smoothly. For this, the knowledge of forestry, zoology and botany is desirable.

(iv) The last third but very important component of wildlife management is the related people. But from manipulation point of view, this is the most difficult component. The man is the main source who had and has been applying their skills and interfering the nature.

Nature is full of miracles; it always tries as well as keeps its all the components in balance, its working are peculiar which is beyond the apprehension of the man till now. But the men are interfering with the nature’s job and try to govern it as per their own little skills. Its results become very disastrous and the man himself invites problems causing annihilation of natural- balance.

Therefore, an important work of wildlife manager is to manipulate/manage the skilled people. On the basis of the knowledge of biology and ecology of the wildlife, the condition of wildlife-population may be brought to suitable and favourable.

Its habitat may be manipulated suitably and, as a result, the situation and condition of the wildlife – population may be created suitable, feasible and favourable. But unless and until there is people’s manipulation/management, all other managements/manipulations will be in vain.

7. Essay on the Problems in Wildlife Conservation & Management:

Forests are unlocked property, it is vast and open and hence vulnerable for theft, hunting, killing, poaching and so on.

Therefore, before going towards conservation or management of wildlife, it is essential to think over the problems facing in this direction which are mainly as follows:-

(i) Vast Habitat and Distribution:

Wildlife habitat and its distribution are not restricted only inside the forest but also encompasses the neighbouring rivers, water-reservoirs, agricultural fields and, hence, its conservation becomes difficult due to such vast areas.

(ii) Economical Problem:

Due to vast habitat area, its conservation/management requires heavy fund.

(iii) Enormous Growth in Human Population:

It results-the conversion of forest into agricultural-fields, hunting of wild animals for foods etc.

(iv) Enhancement in Cattle/Livestock Population:

Increment in human population and livestock goes side by side which causes adverse effect on wild population.

(v) Short-Sightedness of Human-Beings:

Pollutants as insecticides, byproducts of industries in the form of gases and water pollutants, query of mines etc. inside forest and such other activities result or resulting habitat shrinkage as well as death and diseases among the wild animals.

(vi) Selfishness of Human-Beings:

Hunting, poaching, killing, smuggling etc. of wild animals have been hampering and suffering them a lot.

(vii) Unawareness among General Masses:

Majority of people are poor and illiterate. They are unaware about the importance of wildlife and its role in ecosystem. They are not fully aware that wildlife is very much essential for eco-balance and is ultimately essential for human-life.

(viii) Lack of Scientific Knowledge Related to Wildlife:

Generally people or majorities of the people do not understand about ecological and scientific value of wildlife and, hence, they do not hesitate to hunt or kill them. They are unable to apprehend about loss made related to wildlife and its consequences. It is essential to keep knowledge about the structure, dynamics and its relations with wildlife population, its habitat and the people.

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Wildlife Conservation Essay

The phrase "wildlife conservation" serves as a reminder to protect the resources that nature has given us as a gift. Animals that have not been domesticated or tamed are represented by wildlife. They are the only wild animals that live in a natural environment. Here are a few sample essays on the topic ‘wildlife conservation’.

100 Words Essay On Wildlife Conservation

Animals, plants, and their habitats are preserved and protected through wildlife conservation. Similar to forests, wildlife is a national resource that contributes to ecological balance and is also valuable from an economic, recreational, and aesthetic standpoint. There was a time when there was no human intervention, there were a lot of wild animals, and there was no issue with protecting or conserving them.

However, as agriculture, settlement, industry, and other developmental activities increased, as well as largely as a result of human greed, the number of wild animals rapidly decreased. As a result, a number of animal species have already gone extinct, and a number more are in danger of doing so. In order to preserve the environment and life on Earth, it is essential that we concentrate on wildlife conservation.

200 Words Essay On Wildlife Conservation

Need for wildlife conservation.

The need for wildlife conservation results from how human beings are altering lifestyles and advancing ways of living. The massive clearing of trees and forests is causing the habitats of wildlife to be destroyed. The mass extinction of wildlife species is the result of human beings' careless actions. Poaching and hunting are illegal activities; no animal may be killed for recreational purposes.

Wild animals and plants crucially maintain the ecological balance. They have to be considered necessary. The threat to wildlife comes from a variety of sources. Significant factors contributing to the decline of animals include rising pollution, climatic changes, resource overuse, irregular hunting and poaching, habitat degradation, etc. The government has created and modified a large number of laws and regulations aimed at protecting animals.

As we know, deforestation is a huge problem when we speak of wildlife conservation. Trees and forests are home to numerous animals and birds. Thus we need to plant more trees and stop cutting them as well. My school has recently decided to plant trees near our school area, which is empty. This might be a small initiative, but we need to have more afforestation so that it can have a significant impact and help us conserve wildlife.

500 Words Essay On Wildlife Conservation

Like trees and animals, wildlife is a domestic resource that helps maintain the natural balance and has aesthetic, recreational, and economic advantages. When humans were not present, there were numerous wild animals and little concern for their protection or conservation.

Importance Of Wildlife Conservation

The wildlife in our ecosystem is a crucial component. Here are a few justifications for protecting wildlife:

Wild plants provide one-third of the world's pharmaceutical needs regarding medicinal value. For medical science and technology research, forests offer a wealth of opportunities. Additionally, it gives an excellent opportunity to produce therapeutic drugs on a vast scale.

Maintains the health of our environment by assisting with global temperature regulation. Additionally, it aids in preventing the greenhouse effect and halting sea level rise.

Helps to maintain ecological harmony - In this regard, the interdependence of plants and animals is crucial.

Forests are important economically because they provide raw materials that support the nation's economic development and raise living standards.

Causes Of Wildlife Depletion

Habitat Loss - The intentional destruction of forests and agricultural land for numerous construction projects, roads, and dams significantly reduce the habitat for various species of creatures and plants. Animals are deprived of their habitat by these practices. As a result, they either need to find a new environment or go extinct.

Overexploitation of Resources - Although resources should be used wisely, they are overused when they are used unnaturally. The usage will contribute to species extinction.

Hunting and poaching - These activities are terrible since they include trapping and killing animals for sport or to gain a particular item. Ivory, skin, horn, and other valuable animal goods are a few examples. They are collected by hunting and killing the animals after extracting the product or holding them captive. As a result, there are more and more mass extinctions; the musk deer is one example.

Using Animals for Research - Many animals are used in research labs of academic institutions to assess outcomes. The mass extinction of the species is the effect of taking in such a significant number of them.

Pollution - Unwanted changes in the environment's condition lead to a polluted one—likewise, air, water, and soil pollution. However, the decline in the diversity of animal and plant species can be directly attributed to changes in the air, water, and soil quality.

Impact on Marine Biodiversity - Contaminated water significantly impacts marine biodiversity because the pollutants disrupt the marine biota's ability to function. The contaminants and temperature variations have a significant impact on the coral reef.

My Contribution

The organisation under which I work is building some zoos. In these zoos, we will keep the endangered and rare animals near the forest area in our locality. They will be safe and can be taken care of in this manner. Poaching is another reason for the depletion of wildlife. These zoos will also ensure that these endangered species are not killed and can safely continue their race. I am very proud of my organisation and encourage other organisations and the government to take specific steps for the safety of these animals so they can live peacefully.

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Wildlife Conservation Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on wildlife conservation.

Wildlife, like trees, is also a domestic asset that not only helps to maintain the ecological balance but also benefits from financial, recreational and aesthetic points of perspective. There was a time when the number of wild animals was quite large when human interference was minimum and there was no issue with their safety or conservation. But, with the development of farming , settlement, industrial and other development activities, and primarily due to man’s greed, the number of wild animals gradually decreased and decreased. As a consequence, several animal species have become extinct and several are on the brink of being so. The Wildlife Conservation Essay is an insight into the requirements of conserving wildlife globally.

Deforestation

Deforestation is also a major cause of wildlife loss. Mass murders of wild animals are taking place all over the globe for their meat, bones, fur, teeth, hair, skin, etc. The need for conservation of wildlife has now become a necessity.

Population growth, agricultural and livestock development, urban and road building, and pollution are among the many pressures on wildlife’s natural habitat. In addition to illegal hunting, the decrease of habitat and its degradation has endangered the biodiversity of the widespread areas.

Wildlife preservation does not imply blanket protection for all species of fauna and flora; rather, it means adequate, judicious control over the multiplication of crops and animals that communicate to provide a suitable atmosphere for the man whose very life is at risk today.

In the past, due to the irrational use of the earth’s natural and biotic resources, most wildlife was demolished after recovery. It is our immediate responsibility to safeguard the ecosystem’s natural splendor and to develop a system of coexistence with every living creature on earth.

While the world’s nations must be very specific in terms of wildlife conservation, the amount of wildlife is diminishing day by day. The World Wild Life Fund is a global organization that does a praiseworthy job of encouraging wildlife protection. National agencies are also involved in wildlife conservation.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Steps Towards Wildlife Conservation

To study and retrieve all wildlife data, in particular, the amount and development of wildlife.
Habitat protection through forest protection.
Delimiting their natural habitat regions.
Protecting animals against pollution and natural hazards.
Full limitation on wildlife hunting and capture.
To impose constraints on the export and importation of wildlife products and to impose serious penalties on those engaged in such activity.
Developing game sanctuaries for particular wildlife or world life in particular.
Special arrangements should be made to safeguard those very restricted species.
To create a general understanding of wildlife protection at domestic and international level.
The adoption by trained personnel of a wildlife management system.

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The Wildlife Conservation and Management in Kenya: Implementing the Framework Law

14 Pages Posted: 13 Nov 2013

Benson Kinyua

Independent

Date Written: November 12, 2013

The term ‘wildlife’ in the strict sense is taken to mean both wild animals and wild birds in their natural habitats. However, the term refers to wild animals, wild birds and ‘flora’ in general. Wildlife therefore comprises of the natural ecosystem forming part of the environment. With tourism being one of the biggest foreign exchange earners for Kenya, wildlife management and conservation is necessary if Kenya is to maintain or improve its earnings from the tourism industry. This therefore means that wildlife conservation and management in Kenya is meant to preserve the ecosystem for aesthetic, scientific and economic purposes. It is this policy of wildlife conservation and management that is now being the subject of widespread criticism for it excludes local communities from participating in the conservation and management of wildlife that forms part of their environment. This research paper therefore seeks to examine wildlife conservation and management in Kenya as well as the implementation of the framework law.

Keywords: Wildlife Management and Conservation, Wildlife Management and Conservation in Kenya, Wildlife in Kenya, Poaching, Wildlife Management Legal framework, Tourism in Kenya, Tourism, Community Wildlife Management Systems, Community Wildlife Management Systems in Kenya

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

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Essay on Wildlife Conservation

500+ Words Essay on Wildlife Conservation

Going by the importance of climate change and associated topics are garnering importance worldwide, an essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English is an expected topic in the English exams. To prepare well in advance Vedantu has brought this essay for you. It is written by experts having expertise in English. Enough data and content are brought to you so that you can recall maximum points in the exam. This will ensure you achieve amazing marks in the English examination.

Let’s Being with the Essay on Wildlife Conservation for Students in English

Like forests, wildlife consisting of animals, birds, insects, etc. living in the forest is a national resource, which not only helps in maintaining the ecological balance but is also beneficial for various economic activities that generate revenue from tourism. The rich flora and fauna also play a major role in maintaining the ecological balance of a region. There was a time when human needs were minimal and there was bare interference in the wildlife. There is no denying the fact that due to urbanization, pollution, and human interventions wildlife is rapidly disappearing from the planet.

Today the biodiversity of the world is threatened due to the extinction of species. There are thirty-five hotspots around the world, which supports 43% of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians as endemic. The IUCN has compiled a list of species and has classified the different species under extinct, critically endangered, less endangered, vulnerable, near threatened, and least concerned. This list is called the Red Data Book. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the number of birds, animals, marine and freshwater creatures has dropped by almost one-third of its earlier population.

Causes for Decline or Threat to Wildlife

One of the major reasons for the constant decline of wildlife is human’s ever-increasing demands and greed that have led to deforestation and habitat destruction. For development and urbanization, man has chopped down trees to build dams, highways, and towns and this has forced the animals to retreat further and further into the receding forests.

Rapid industrialization and urbanization due to the fast growth in population in recent decades have taken a heavy toll on wildlife. Global warming and extensive environmental pollution have largely threatened wildlife as they lead to habitat destruction and rising temperature.

There is a huge demand for animal fur, skin, meat, bone, etc. across the globe that has led to a decrease in the wildlife population. Poachers kill the animals for the illegal trading of their body parts. For example, elephants are massively poached for ivory, rhinoceros are poached in Assam for their horns. The desire to keep animals in captivity or their desire to consume certain animals as exotic food has resulted in the disappearance of many animal species such as tigers and deer.

Forest fires, food shortage, increase in the number of predators, extreme weather conditions and other extraneous reasons have led to the extinction and endangerment of many species. For instance, the recent forest fires in the Amazon (Brazil), Uttarakhand (India), Australia, etc. lead to the death of many animals every year.

Many types of animals, birds, and fauna are needed to retain the ecological balance. They are considered necessary for scientific research and experiments that will benefit mankind.

Steps to Conserve Wildlife

The protection and conservation of wildlife is the need of the hour. Some conservation efforts which are widely implemented are given below:

Afforestation:

First and most importantly, humans need to have control over their needs. We need to prevent man from felling trees unnecessarily. Trees should be replanted if they are felled.

Pollution is one of the major causes that have led to the destruction of the habitat of animal species. Pollution of the environment like air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution hurts the entire ecosystem. It has become of utmost importance to control environmental pollution.

More campaigns must be launched to raise awareness in humans on the need to keep our environment clean. A man should be responsible to maintain a healthy and balanced ecosystem so they should be cordial with the environment. More organizations like PETA should be set up to create awareness among people for the protection of wildlife.

Population:

The man should consciously put a check on the rapid growth of the population. The slow growth of population will decrease the rate of urbanization and that will have a major impact on the preservation of wildlife.

Wildlife Sanctuaries:

Wildlife sanctuaries should be made to ensure the protection of the areas of ecological significance. Under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 various provisions for protecting habitats of wildlife are made by constructing national parks and sanctuaries. These parks and sanctuaries ensure the protection and maintenance of endangered species.

Ban of Illegal Activities:

Illegal activities like hunting, poaching, and killing animals, birds, etc. for collections and illegal trade of hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns, feathers, etc. should be strictly prohibited and severe punishments and fines should be imposed on people who do these kinds of activities.

Community initiatives

Communities come together to take various conservation initiatives such as the establishment of community forests, raising their voice against illegal activities, creating awareness among the masses, raising voice for the rights of the animals, conserving animals of cultural significance, and many more. For example, members of the Bishnoi community of Rajasthan are very vocal against poaching activities in the region.

Many countries have taken the initiative to help animals by proclaiming various birds and animals either as national animals or as protected species. In India, the government has launched a program of Joint Forest Management to protect the wildlife and their habitat. Under this program, responsibilities have been assigned to the village communities to protect and manage nearby forests and the wildlife in them. Animal species have the right to live just like humans. Therefore, we should take every step to conserve them and ensure their survival and betterment.

Wildlife is an integral part of our planet. Wildlife plays a significant role in the ecology and the food chain. Disturbing their numbers or in extreme cases, extinction can have wide-ranging effects on ecology and humankind. Valuing and conserving forests and wildlife enhance the relation between man and nature. We want our future generation to be able to hear the lions roar and peacocks dancing with their extravagant feathers and not just see them in picture books. We must take steps today or else it will be too late and we should always remember

“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed.”

-Mahatma Gandhi

FAQs on Essay on Wildlife Conservation

1. How is Wildlife Important for Humankind?

Wildlife comprises animals, birds, insects, and aquatic life forms. They provide us with a number of products, such as milk, meat, hides, and wools. Insects like bees provide us, honey. They help in the pollination of flowers and have an important role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem. The birds act as decomposers by feeding on insects. Birds like vultures are known as scavengers and cleansers of the environment by feeding on dead livestock. Thus, wildlife helps in maintaining ecological balance.

2. Why Should we Conserve Biodiversity?

We should conserve biodiversity because it is very significant for all living organisms and for the environment. We must conserve biodiversity to save it from becoming extinct.

3. Why are Animals Poached?

The animals are hunted and poached for collection and illegal trade of skins, fur, horns, skins, and feathers.

4. Write Two Steps that the Government has Taken to Conserve Wildlife.

The two steps that the government has taken to conserve wildlife are:

In order to conserve wildlife, the government has established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.

Many awareness programs are launched by the government to create awareness of protecting wildlife.

5. What is the importance of essays on Wildlife Conservation for students in English?

Essay on Wildlife Conservation is a topic given to students because it serves many purposes and holds a lot of importance in the present times. Before starting the essay, students will do adequate research to get enough data about the topic. In the process, they will learn a lot about wildlife conservation. While writing this essay they will learn to empathize with the plight of the animals. Also, they will become better at expressing themselves in written words by writing an essay on this topic as it is a very sensitive topic. This essay will not just help them in fetching excellent marks but it will also sensitize them about the current happenings.

6. What message does an essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English carry?

Essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English carries a very significant message that emphasizes the importance of the conservation efforts taken and that are needed. The essay talks about the efforts which have already been taken and are under implementation and it also talks about what needs to be done in the future. It also talks about why we need to conserve wildlife and what significance it holds. Overall the central message of the essay is to conserve and protect the wildlife as much as we can.

7. What important points should be covered while writing an essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English?

As such there are no rigid pointers that you need to cover while writing an essay on Wildlife Conservation, but you may use the following pointers for reference:

Definition of wildlife conservation

Explain the reasons for conserving the wildlife with valid points

Efforts that are taken by international agencies. This should also include various treaties and protocols signed

Mention the efforts that are taken by the Indian government. Talk about various laws and legislations present.

Mention various provisions on the local level

Talk about various popular civil movements such as efforts undertaken by the Bishnoi Community

What can you do as students to conserve wildlife? Give suggestions and examples.

8. What steps taken by the government should be mentioned in the essay on Wildlife Conservation?

The Indian government has undertaken various measures to conserve wildlife in the country. You can mention some of these in the essay on Wildlife Conservation:

Wildlife Conservation Act, 1972

Schedules involved and protections provided to the animals

Conservation efforts for particular animals like tigers, elephants, etc.

Formation of various protected areas such as National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, etc.

Awards and accolades received by India on various international forums

Various international treaties and agreements were signed by India.

Mention names of international grouping dedicated to conservation efforts whose India is a part of

You may refer to Vedantu’s forum to get more information about steps to conserve wildlife.

9. In how many words should one write an essay on Wildlife Conservation?

Word count for writing an essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English can vary depending on which standard the student is studying in. it can range from 300 words to 800 words. Accordingly, the level of writing and richness of the content should vary. You can refer to Vedantu’s guide on essays for further understanding the demand of any given topic. If the essay is being written by a student studying in class 10 then the essay should be data and opinion-driven. It should reflect the ideas and thoughts of the student that are substantiated with authentic data and valid reasons.

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Evaluating the conservation status and effectiveness of multi-type protected areas for carbon sequestration in the loess plateau, china.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study area, 2.2. methods, 2.2.1. data sources, 2.2.2. selected protected areas, 2.2.3. carbon sequestration, 2.2.4. conservation effectiveness, 2.2.5. impact factors, 3.1. conservation status, 3.2. conservation effectiveness, 3.3. main factors, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

R	CS Change Rate	Critical CS Change Rate
PA establishment year	0.169 *	0.107
PA level	0.331 **	0.221 **
PA area	0.612 **	0.146 *
DEM	0.042	−0.264 **
Slope	0.380 **	0.345 **
Silt	−0.266 **	−0.453 **
Sand	0.106	0.246 **
Temperature in 2000	−0.03	0.278 **
Rate of temperature change	0.03	0.212 **
Precipitation in 2000	0.418 **	0.638 **
Rate of precipitation change	−0.14	−0.307 **
Evapotranspiration in 2000	−0.313 **	−0.369 **
Rate of evapotranspiration change	0.326 **	0.605 **
Population density in 2000	0.074	0.235 **
Rate of population density change	0.082	0.025
GDP in 2000	0.099	0.213 **
Rate of GDP change	0.047	0.069
Cropland in 2000	0.281 **	0.004
Rate of cropland change	−0.048	0.046

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Share and Cite

Lama, S.; Zhang, J.; Luan, X. Evaluating the Conservation Status and Effectiveness of Multi-Type Protected Areas for Carbon Sequestration in the Loess Plateau, China. Atmosphere 2024 , 15 , 764. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15070764

Lama S, Zhang J, Luan X. Evaluating the Conservation Status and Effectiveness of Multi-Type Protected Areas for Carbon Sequestration in the Loess Plateau, China. Atmosphere . 2024; 15(7):764. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15070764

Lama, Sony, Jingjing Zhang, and Xiaofeng Luan. 2024. "Evaluating the Conservation Status and Effectiveness of Multi-Type Protected Areas for Carbon Sequestration in the Loess Plateau, China" Atmosphere 15, no. 7: 764. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15070764

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Careers with a mission for wildlife conservation can be found throughout the business world and with local, state, and federal government agencies. They’re looking for qualified professionals to take on leadership roles in all areas — from natural science managers to conservation scientists to public relations managers championing the need for biodiversity preservation. Take your place among them with a 100% online degree program from Unity.

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Deb Haaland: A new era for tribal nations and the U.S. government

The history-making U.S. interior secretary shares how she is building stronger relationships with Native communities—one co-stewardship agreement at a time.

Women with long dark hair and traditional jewelry sitting in armchair and looking into the camera.

U nder the sun of a chilly May afternoon in 2022, I stood with members of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes (CSKT) on the Flathead Indian Reservation in Montana, part of the tribes’ ancestral homelands. Tall blades of prairie grasses rustled in the breeze. A nearby sign, inscribed with greetings in Seliš— X̣est Sx̣lx̣alt —and Ksanka— Ki’su’k kyukyit —welcomed visitors to the Bison Range. That day was a day for celebration.

Several tribal members lifted their heads in unison and sang, their voices filling the air in full-throated swells and falls. Standing next to me, then CSKT chairman Tom McDonald listened. Traditionally, he’d explained, his ancestors summoned the bison in song before a hunt—a gesture of respect. I imagined their gratitude for Creator’s gift, the living beings that for millennia provided much of what the people needed: food, clothing, shelter, tools, religious items, and a sense of belonging to their land.

Of all the losses this continent has suffered, the destruction of the Great Plains is among the starkest. When the federal government began its conquest of Indigenous peoples, it surmised that the “Indian problem”—wherein Native communities lived and thrived on lands sought by colonial settlers and the federal government—could be solved by destroying Native food sources and livelihoods. And so, men with guns killed tens of millions of bison. This set off a chain reaction of ecosystem degradation that, now intertwined with the present-day climate crisis, spelled catastrophe for ancestral homelands and the ecosystems we all depend on. For the CSKT, this loss was amplified by the federal government’s unilateral withdrawal of nearly 19,000 acres at the very heart of the Flathead Reservation in 1908.

Thankfully, our story doesn’t end there, because bison are resilient, Indigenous peoples are still here, and Indigenous innovation is enduring.

( What does the future look like in Indigenous hands? )

The CSKT can rightfully take credit for helping save the bison from extinction: The herd that grazed those hills on the day of my visit descended from the Pablo-Allard herd, one that tribal members began in response to the near-total destruction of the species during the 19th century. Over the decades following the 1908 land withdrawal, the CSKT persisted with a simple request to the federal government: Return the land, and bring the bison home. After an act of Congress in 2020 cleared a path to reverse this injustice, the Department of the Interior, the federal agency I now lead, announced the transfer of the land into the tribes’ ownership in June 2021.

Woman in blue puffy coat shaking hands with another woman when other people watching them.

The return of the Bison Range to the CSKT is one of more than 200 co-stewardship agreements with tribes that the Biden-Harris administration has entered into since President Joe Biden stepped into office. Collaborative land management agreements between tribes and the federal government have emerged in recent decades to varying degrees of success. But the Biden-Harris administration is leveraging co-stewardship—shared management and decision-making over certain lands and waters—as a uniquely intentional strategy to preserve ancestral homelands and fulfill our trust and treaty responsibilities to tribes.

I am grateful to serve in an administration that understands our country’s history and seeks to remedy our past mistakes by elevating the role of tribes in the management of our public lands, waters, and wildlife. With two billion dollars from President Biden’s Investing in America agenda, we are advancing landscape-level conservation in partnership with the communities who care for and depend on these places every day.

What’s a ‘dark sky nation’ and why does New Zealand want to become one?

Mongolia became a global leader in conservation by returning to its Indigenous roots

Archaeologists had to remove two millennia of grime to reveal this ancient Egyptian artwork

Successful co-stewardship ensures that Indigenous knowledge—a deep understanding of the land and wildlife gained over millennia—is put to use as one of the most essential strategies to tackle the climate crisis. Implementing this knowledge can take many forms, from using traditional practices for wildfire management and ecosystem restoration to directing habitat and wildlife conservation. Above all else, this work must keep tribal voices and the expertise they bring front and center.

Last October, some 2,600 miles northwest of the Bison Range, I saw this administration’s commitment to co-stewardship in action yet again while visiting Alaska Native communities. On the gravel banks of the Kenai River, I watched with tears in my eyes as adult salmon, having laid their eggs, washed ashore in decay, their journeys to the sea and back again complete. That day, the smell of death gripped the air, but so too did the feeling of rebirth. What I had witnessed was an increasingly rare act of nature: Across Alaska, fewer and fewer salmon ever make it upriver to spawn.

To progress as a nation, we must heal our wounds with the love and guidance of those who were wounded.

Each time I’ve had the honor to visit with Alaska Native communities as secretary, I have felt a sense of urgency as the people have described historic salmon crashes, which threaten both lifeways and the animal relatives that are foundational to their cultures. Climate change, among other human-made threats like habitat loss and deteriorating infrastructure, jeopardizes the salmon and Alaska Native peoples’ very existence.

After many meetings with department staff and Alaska Native community members, we developed the Gravel to Gravel Keystone Initiative—one of several grounded by our Restoration and Resilience Framework, launched last year. The initiative will advance projects co-designed and implemented alongside tribes, including the restoration of degraded streams, expansion of habitat assessments, and replenishment of native vegetation throughout Alaska’s Yukon, Kuskokwim, and Norton Sound region—nearly 420,000 square miles.

To progress as a nation, we must heal our wounds with the love and guidance of those who were wounded. Touring the Bison Range that day, I observed these powerful animals up close, their winter coats sloughing off thick patches of knotted fur and giving way to smooth, mottled dark skin. As the bison claimed their rightful place on the landscape, I prayed and thanked the ancestors who had protected them when times were the hardest.

At the turn of the 20th century, settlers, pioneers, and the federal government failed to recognize what Indigenous peoples have always known: that our understanding of and devotion to the land remains constant. Indigenous knowledge is Indigenous innovation, and the ancestors were the first innovators. If we are to save ourselves, we must empower this knowledge with everything we have.

When a people's stories are at risk, who steps in to save them?

Aboriginal women are reclaiming traditions of fire

You won’t find these Hawaiian hiking trails in a guidebook

Hawaii's Lei Day is about so much more than flowers

1 million acres of ‘sacred’ land near Grand Canyon are receiving new protections

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SOUTH SUDAN / LARGEST ANTELOPES MIGRATION

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UNIFEED SOUTH SUDAN / LARGEST ANTELOPES MIGRATION TRT: 3:13 SOURCE: UNMISS RESTRICTIONS: NONE LANGUAGES: ENGLISH / NATS

DATELINE: 25 JUNE 2024, JUBA, SOUTH SUDAN

1. Various Shots, African Park

25 JUNE 2024, JUBA, SOUTH SUDAN

2. SOUNDBITE (English) Nicholas Haysom, Special Representative of the Secretary-General and Head of the United Nations Mission In South Sudan (UNMISS): “This is a national asset and a gift, one which provides a source of unity and pride for the people of South Sudan at a time when the country is otherwise battling food insecurity, economic hardship, flooding, and the impact of conflict in Sudan. This announcement is an opportunity for the country to embark on a new narrative that is not just conflict and poverty.”

4. Various Shots, African Park

5. SOUNDBITE (English) Salva Kiir Mayardit, President of South Sudan: “I urge the private sector to embrace this exciting opportunity and invest in wildlife tourism ventures. Protecting our heritage is a shared responsibility. I call on the security forces, particularly the Ministry of Wildlife and its partners to prioritize training and equipping wildlife rangers to combat poaching and wildlife trafficking.”

6. Various Shots, African Park

7. SOUNDBITE (English) Charles Wells, Chief Operating Officer for African Parks Network: “The long-term conservation and protection of this migration landscape can only be achieved through active participation and engagement with government institutions at national, state, and district levels, traditional authorities, and, importantly, the local communities.”

8. Various Shots, African Park

The first comprehensive aerial survey of wildlife in conflict-affected South Sudan has revealed the largest land mammal migration on earth with an estimated six million antelope recorded moving across the Boma Badingilo Jonglei Landscape.

Conducted by African Parks in partnership with the South Sudanese Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism and support from The Wilderness Project, the survey is described as confirming a remarkable and unmatched wildlife phenomenon across a landscape of immense ecological importance. It was officially launched by the President of South Sudan and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General and Head of the UN peacekeeping mission, UNMISS. The survey findings were described as confirming a remarkable and unmatched wildlife phenomenon across a landscape of immense ecological importance.

South Sudan is home to a magnificent array of wonderful wildlife, including giant yet elegant birds, stately elephants, majestic giraffes and now, the largest land mammal migration on earth. This spectacular phenomenon, known as the great Nile migration, was revealed during the first comprehensive aerial survey of wildlife in the country which recorded about six million antelope making their way across the Boam Badingilo Jonglei landscape.

SOUNDBITE (English) Nicholas Haysom, Special Representative of the Secretary-General and Head of the United Nations Mission In South Sudan (UNMISS): “This is a national asset and a gift, one which provides a source of unity and pride for the people of South Sudan at a time when the country is otherwise battling food insecurity, economic hardship, flooding, and the impact of conflict in Sudan. This announcement is an opportunity for the country to embark on a new narrative that is not just conflict and poverty.”

SOUNDBITE (English) Salva Kiir Mayardit, President of South Sudan: “I urge the private sector to embrace this exciting opportunity and invest in wildlife tourism ventures. Protecting our heritage is a shared responsibility. I call on the security forces, particularly the Ministry of Wildlife and its partners to prioritize training and equipping wildlife rangers to combat poaching and wildlife trafficking.”

This heritage is under threat from exploitation with a decline in non-migratory species, such as elephants, warthogs, cheetahs and hippos, over the past decades which have also been marred by civil war and a dire economic and humanitarian situation. Their preservation is critical given its transformative potential as an anchor for a viable tourist sector and a source of non-oil revenue. This requires all partners coming together to protect a land rich in biodiversity and some of the world’s most beautiful creatures.

SOUNDBITE (English) Charles Wells, Chief Operating Officer for African Parks Network: “The long-term conservation and protection of this migration landscape can only be achieved through active participation and engagement with government institutions at national, state, and district levels, traditional authorities, and, importantly, the local communities.”

The wildlife migration survey tells a story of hope for South Sudan as, what was once thought to be lost to decades of conflict, has not only been rediscovered but is thriving.

SOUTH SUDAN / WILDLIFE EXTINCTION

UN / WORLD WILDLIFE DAY WRAP

UN / RIO +20 ADVANCER

SOUTH AFRICA / RHINOS

UNEP / YAYA TOURÉ

KENYA / BAN CUB

PALM OIL / GREAT APES

UNEP / LI BINGBING - POACHING

UNEP / LI BINGBING ELEPHANT POACHING

UN / BAN RIO+ 20

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Restoring Malawi’s iconic Chia Lagoon

Covering 17 square kilometers Chia, Malawi's largest lagoon supports diverse ecosystems.

By Temwanani Kalulu

Meet Ali Maulidi, the 30-year-old chairperson of the Chimpini Bird Hunting Club in Chimpini Village, Nkhotakota District, Southern Malawi. Since 2017, Ali has been hunting birds for food and sale around Chia Lagoon. Located approximately 24 kilometers south of Nkhotakota town in Central Malawi, Chia Lagoon is the largest lagoon in Malawi. The lagoon covers an impressive 17 square kilometers in the middle of a watershed that stretches across approximately 989 square kilometers.

Chia Lagoon supports diverse ecosystems and is home to various species, including Banded Tilapia (Tilapia sparrmanii), and a wide variety of bird species such as Ring-necked Dove ( Streptopelia capicola ), Lesser Masked Weaver ( Ploceus intermedius ), Black Heron ( Egretta ardesiaca ), as well as marsh reeds and shrubs. Further, it supports the livelihoods of more than 7,857 households, including farmers, fishermen, and bird hunters.

“Hunting has been the main economic activity for us. In a good month, we earn about Malawian Kwacha MK100,000 (US$57) from bird hunting. We use this money to purchase food, agricultural inputs, and pay for school fees for our children”, says Ali.

Over the years, Ali and many others have observed a gradual decline in bird populations at Chia, significantly affecting their livelihoods.

“Chia Lagoon had plenty of birds that made our hunting very easy and quite enjoyable, but the catches have fallen dramatically with each hunting trip. It is really frustrating because the sales we make from the little catch we get are not adequate to cover our needs. To make matters worse, most bird hunters have no other skills apart from bird hunting, so this is the only way they know how to make money and fend for their families. In my case, I have to travel far distances just to sell the few birds I catch to make ends meet,” he adds.

In addition to unsustainable hunting practices, other factors such as habitat destruction and climate change have contributed to this decline.

In 2023, BirdLife International’s partner in Malawi, the Wildlife and Environmental Society of Malawi (WESM), in collaboration with Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST) and the Micro Loan Foundation, began implementing the “ Community Approach to Waterbird Resources Management at Chia Lagoon ” project. This three-year project, funded by the UK government through Darwin Initiative, aims to restore the vital Chia Lagoon ecosystem, reverse declines in vulnerable bird species, and improve local livelihoods. As part of the project implementation activities, WESM has established community-based sustainable hunting groups to better conserve waterbirds through the establishment of bird sanctuaries and habitat restoration activities.

“The project will work with communities to better manage and restore the vital lagoon ecosystem, reverse the decline in vulnerable and declining bird species, and improve livelihoods in the communities. Provision of biodiversity data for monitoring and the site’s assessment as a Key Biodiversity Area, form key components of the project. Supplemental, sustainable livelihood opportunities will be supported through a micro-lending institution”, says Blessing Chingagwe, WESM Programs Manager.

Chimpini Hunting Club is working with WESM to implement sustainable bird hunting management, avitourism, monitor and document bird populations, as well as establish bird hunting protocols. As part of these effort, bird hunting club representatives and traditional leaders participated in an exchange visit to Lake Chilwa in southern Malawi, which focused on key areas including hunting management, bird census, and record-keeping and management.

“With the capacity building for enterprise support among the community living around the lagoon, exposure to Chilwa for benchmarking on responsible bird hunting, new information and knowledge generated from ecological assessments, establishment of bird sanctuaries, support for restoration activities among other project interventions, the community will take up it’s rightful central place in sustainably managing Chia resources”, adds Alex Ngari, the project leader and BirdLife Africa’s Flyways Programme Manager.

In March 2023, the project facilitated the first bird guiding training, with 180 hunters trained on how to identify and record bird species as part of capacity building in avitourism. Additionally, the project procured, distributed, and supervised the planting of 6,000 tree seedlings as part of restoration activities of degraded areas around Chia Lagoon, covering 8.1 hectares. Two village Natural Resources Management Committees and eight Bird Hunting Clubs from 10 villages around the lagoon participated in the exercise.

“Participating in the project activities has been truly life changing for me and my fellow bird hunters.Through our collaboration and meaningful engagement with WESM in this project, we have gained invaluable knowledge in hunting management, environmental conservation, tour guiding, and business management. This has inspired me to utilize the natural resources around Chia Lagoon responsibly,” Ali notes.

As part of project implementation activities, a bird sanctuary mapping exercise was conducted in February 2024 in collaboration with the Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST) and the Fisheries Department. Following the exercise, 15 bird sanctuaries were mapped out within the lagoon.

The exercise not only provided invaluable data for conservation planning but also empowered local communities to take an active role in safeguarding their natural heritage through involvement in the mapping exercise. Further, it facilitates education for local communities about their natural environment and built capacity for members through skill development in mapping techniques and data collection, in addition to fostering a sense of ownership and collective responsibility towards the protection of waterbird habitats.

Improving Livelihoods

Supporting and promoting sustainable livelihood is a key aspect of the project. This is being implemented through supporting enterprises, establishing a microfinance facility supported by the Micro Loan Foundation for 150 beneficiaries – 90% of whom are women, training in financial management and business in addition to promoting avitourism opportunities through materials and outreach to wildlife tourism enterprises.

Through a participatory process with community members, viable sustainable enterprises were identified including fish business, irrigated rice farming, beekeeping, and avitourism/ecotourism. In March 2024, the project organized a two -day training focusing on business management, bird identification, and recording as part of the enterprise and avitourism support.

A total of 180 participants attended the training, including 79 women and 101 men from all the hunting clubs around Chia Lagoon.

“This training has been a great eye-opener for us because up until now we just hunted and sold birds without any knowledge of business management. In my case, I did not even know that I could start an ecotourism business and guide tourists who visit Chia Lagoon for bird watching. This is life-changing for me. I am very excited to use the knowledge I have acquired”, said Alatiya Mponda, a participant from Bwanakaya Bird Hunting Club who attended the training.

Looking ahead, the project intends to achieve remarkable strides in 2024, including conducting an assessment of the Chia Lagoon against Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA)/Ramsar criteria, producing and distributing a bird ID guide to schools, WESM branches, and visitor lodges, providing comprehensive training and support for livelihoods to community members, and continuing restoration activities including the establishment of tree nurseries and removal of invasive alien species.

“By establishing and promoting livelihood opportunities through the engagement of bird hunters and other key stakeholders, as well as carrying out restoration activities, this project is holistically addressing the most pressing issues that affect Chia Lagoon’s biodiversity and surrounding communities”, concludes Chifundo Dalireni, WESM Project Coordinator.

Blessing Chingagwe, WESM Programs Manager

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Salt Lake City — Utah Division of Wildlife Resources conservation officers have seen an increase in trespassing violations at the old Tintic Mill on the Goshen Warm Springs Wildlife Management Area and are reminding the public that the area is closed because it is unsafe.. The Tintic Standard Reduction Mill was built in the 1920s and mostly processed silver.
Western Joshua Tree Conservation Plan
Habitat Conservation Planning Branch 1010 Riverside Parkway, West Sacramento, CA 95605 Mailing: P.O. Box 944209, Sacramento, CA 94244-2090
Butte Sink Wildlife Management Area
Butte Sink Wildlife Management Area is part of the SACRAMENTO NWR COMPLEX. Butte Sink WMA does not have any lands open to the public. Most of the Butte Sink WMA consists of privately-owned properties under conservation easement. One property, known as the Butte Sink Unit, is owned by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service but is not accessible.
Flag of Elektrostal, Moscow Oblast, Russia : r/vexillology
596K subscribers in the vexillology community. A subreddit for those who enjoy learning about flags, their place in society past and present, and…