how to write comparative politics essay

Political Science

What this handout is about.

This handout will help you to recognize and to follow writing standards in political science. The first step toward accomplishing this goal is to develop a basic understanding of political science and the kind of work political scientists do.

Defining politics and political science

Political scientist Harold Laswell said it best: at its most basic level, politics is the struggle of “who gets what, when, how.” This struggle may be as modest as competing interest groups fighting over control of a small municipal budget or as overwhelming as a military stand-off between international superpowers. Political scientists study such struggles, both small and large, in an effort to develop general principles or theories about the way the world of politics works. Think about the title of your course or re-read the course description in your syllabus. You’ll find that your course covers a particular sector of the large world of “politics” and brings with it a set of topics, issues, and approaches to information that may be helpful to consider as you begin a writing assignment. The diverse structure of political science reflects the diverse kinds of problems the discipline attempts to analyze and explain. In fact, political science includes at least eight major sub-fields:

• American politics examines political behavior and institutions in the United States.
• Comparative politics analyzes and compares political systems within and across different geographic regions.
• International relations investigates relations among nation states and the activities of international organizations such as the United Nations, the World Bank, and NATO, as well as international actors such as terrorists, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multi-national corporations (MNCs).
• Political theory analyzes fundamental political concepts such as power and democracy and foundational questions, like “How should the individual and the state relate?”
• Political methodology deals with the ways that political scientists ask and investigate questions.
• Public policy examines the process by which governments make public decisions.
• Public administration studies the ways that government policies are implemented.
• Public law focuses on the role of law and courts in the political process.

What is scientific about political science?

Investigating relationships.

Although political scientists are prone to debate and disagreement, the majority view the discipline as a genuine science. As a result, political scientists generally strive to emulate the objectivity as well as the conceptual and methodological rigor typically associated with the so-called “hard” sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics). They see themselves as engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions. Based on these revelations, they attempt to state general principles about the way the world of politics works. Given these aims, it is important for political scientists’ writing to be conceptually precise, free from bias, and well-substantiated by empirical evidence. Knowing that political scientists value objectivity may help you in making decisions about how to write your paper and what to put in it.

Political theory is an important exception to this empirical approach. You can learn more about writing for political theory classes in the section “Writing in Political Theory” below.

Building theories

Since theory-building serves as the cornerstone of the discipline, it may be useful to see how it works. You may be wrestling with theories or proposing your own as you write your paper. Consider how political scientists have arrived at the theories you are reading and discussing in your course. Most political scientists adhere to a simple model of scientific inquiry when building theories. The key to building precise and persuasive theories is to develop and test hypotheses. Hypotheses are statements that researchers construct for the purpose of testing whether or not a certain relationship exists between two phenomena. To see how political scientists use hypotheses, and to imagine how you might use a hypothesis to develop a thesis for your paper, consider the following example. Suppose that we want to know whether presidential elections are affected by economic conditions. We could formulate this question into the following hypothesis:

“When the national unemployment rate is greater than 7 percent at the time of the election, presidential incumbents are not reelected.”

Collecting data

In the research model designed to test this hypothesis, the dependent variable (the phenomenon that is affected by other variables) would be the reelection of incumbent presidents; the independent variable (the phenomenon that may have some effect on the dependent variable) would be the national unemployment rate. You could test the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by collecting data on unemployment rates and the reelection of incumbent presidents and comparing the two sets of information. If you found that in every instance that the national unemployment rate was greater than 7 percent at the time of a presidential election the incumbent lost, you would have significant support for our hypothesis.

However, research in political science seldom yields immediately conclusive results. In this case, for example, although in most recent presidential elections our hypothesis holds true, President Franklin Roosevelt was reelected in 1936 despite the fact that the national unemployment rate was 17%. To explain this important exception and to make certain that other factors besides high unemployment rates were not primarily responsible for the defeat of incumbent presidents in other election years, you would need to do further research. So you can see how political scientists use the scientific method to build ever more precise and persuasive theories and how you might begin to think about the topics that interest you as you write your paper.

Clear, consistent, objective writing

Since political scientists construct and assess theories in accordance with the principles of the scientific method, writing in the field conveys the rigor, objectivity, and logical consistency that characterize this method. Thus political scientists avoid the use of impressionistic or metaphorical language, or language which appeals primarily to our senses, emotions, or moral beliefs. In other words, rather than persuade you with the elegance of their prose or the moral virtue of their beliefs, political scientists persuade through their command of the facts and their ability to relate those facts to theories that can withstand the test of empirical investigation. In writing of this sort, clarity and concision are at a premium. To achieve such clarity and concision, political scientists precisely define any terms or concepts that are important to the arguments that they make. This precision often requires that they “operationalize” key terms or concepts. “Operationalizing” simply means that important—but possibly vague or abstract—concepts like “justice” are defined in ways that allow them to be measured or tested through scientific investigation.

Fortunately, you will generally not be expected to devise or operationalize key concepts entirely on your own. In most cases, your professor or the authors of assigned readings will already have defined and/or operationalized concepts that are important to your research. And in the event that someone hasn’t already come up with precisely the definition you need, other political scientists will in all likelihood have written enough on the topic that you’re investigating to give you some clear guidance on how to proceed. For this reason, it is always a good idea to explore what research has already been done on your topic before you begin to construct your own argument. See our handout on making an academic argument .

Example of an operationalized term

To give you an example of the kind of rigor and objectivity political scientists aim for in their writing, let’s examine how someone might operationalize a term. Reading through this example should clarify the level of analysis and precision that you will be expected to employ in your writing. Here’s how you might define key concepts in a way that allows us to measure them.

We are all familiar with the term “democracy.” If you were asked to define this term, you might make a statement like the following:

“Democracy is government by the people.”

You would, of course, be correct—democracy is government by the people. But, in order to evaluate whether or not a particular government is fully democratic or is more or less democratic when compared with other governments, we would need to have more precise criteria with which to measure or assess democracy. For example, here are some criteria that political scientists have suggested are indicators of democracy:

• Freedom to form and join organizations
• Freedom of expression
• Right to vote
• Eligibility for public office
• Right of political leaders to compete for support
• Right of political leaders to compete for votes
• Alternative sources of information
• Free and fair elections
• Institutions for making government policies depend on votes and other expressions of preference

If we adopt these nine criteria, we now have a definition that will allow us to measure democracy empirically. Thus, if you want to determine whether Brazil is more democratic than Sweden, you can evaluate each country in terms of the degree to which it fulfills the above criteria.

What counts as good writing in political science?

While rigor, clarity, and concision will be valued in any piece of writing in political science, knowing the kind of writing task you’ve been assigned will help you to write a good paper. Two of the most common kinds of writing assignments in political science are the research paper and the theory paper.

Writing political science research papers

Your instructors use research paper assignments as a means of assessing your ability to understand a complex problem in the field, to develop a perspective on this problem, and to make a persuasive argument in favor of your perspective. In order for you to successfully meet this challenge, your research paper should include the following components:

• An introduction
• A problem statement
• A discussion of methodology
• A literature review
• A description and evaluation of your research findings
• A summary of your findings

Here’s a brief description of each component.

In the introduction of your research paper, you need to give the reader some basic background information on your topic that suggests why the question you are investigating is interesting and important. You will also need to provide the reader with a statement of the research problem you are attempting to address and a basic outline of your paper as a whole. The problem statement presents not only the general research problem you will address but also the hypotheses that you will consider. In the methodology section, you will explain to the reader the research methods you used to investigate your research topic and to test the hypotheses that you have formulated. For example, did you conduct interviews, use statistical analysis, rely upon previous research studies, or some combination of all of these methodological approaches?

Before you can develop each of the above components of your research paper, you will need to conduct a literature review. A literature review involves reading and analyzing what other researchers have written on your topic before going on to do research of your own. There are some very pragmatic reasons for doing this work. First, as insightful as your ideas may be, someone else may have had similar ideas and have already done research to test them. By reading what they have written on your topic, you can ensure that you don’t repeat, but rather learn from, work that has already been done. Second, to demonstrate the soundness of your hypotheses and methodology, you will need to indicate how you have borrowed from and/or improved upon the ideas of others.

By referring to what other researchers have found on your topic, you will have established a frame of reference that enables the reader to understand the full significance of your research results. Thus, once you have conducted your literature review, you will be in a position to present your research findings. In presenting these findings, you will need to refer back to your original hypotheses and explain the manner and degree to which your results fit with what you anticipated you would find. If you see strong support for your argument or perhaps some unexpected results that your original hypotheses cannot account for, this section is the place to convey such important information to your reader. This is also the place to suggest further lines of research that will help refine, clarify inconsistencies with, or provide additional support for your hypotheses. Finally, in the summary section of your paper, reiterate the significance of your research and your research findings and speculate upon the path that future research efforts should take.

Writing in political theory

Political theory differs from other subfields in political science in that it deals primarily with historical and normative, rather than empirical, analysis. In other words, political theorists are less concerned with the scientific measurement of political phenomena than with understanding how important political ideas develop over time. And they are less concerned with evaluating how things are than in debating how they should be. A return to our democracy example will make these distinctions clearer and give you some clues about how to write well in political theory.

Earlier, we talked about how to define democracy empirically so that it can be measured and tested in accordance with scientific principles. Political theorists also define democracy, but they use a different standard of measurement. Their definitions of democracy reflect their interest in political ideals—for example, liberty, equality, and citizenship—rather than scientific measurement. So, when writing about democracy from the perspective of a political theorist, you may be asked to make an argument about the proper way to define citizenship in a democratic society. Should citizens of a democratic society be expected to engage in decision-making and administration of government, or should they be satisfied with casting votes every couple of years?

In order to substantiate your position on such questions, you will need to pay special attention to two interrelated components of your writing: (1) the logical consistency of your ideas and (2) the manner in which you use the arguments of other theorists to support your own. First, you need to make sure that your conclusion and all points leading up to it follow from your original premises or assumptions. If, for example, you argue that democracy is a system of government through which citizens develop their full capacities as human beings, then your notion of citizenship will somehow need to support this broad definition of democracy. A narrow view of citizenship based exclusively or primarily on voting probably will not do. Whatever you argue, however, you will need to be sure to demonstrate in your analysis that you have considered the arguments of other theorists who have written about these issues. In some cases, their arguments will provide support for your own; in others, they will raise criticisms and concerns that you will need to address if you are going to make a convincing case for your point of view.

Drafting your paper

If you have used material from outside sources in your paper, be sure to cite them appropriately in your paper. In political science, writers most often use the APA or Turabian (a version of the Chicago Manual of Style) style guides when formatting references. Check with your instructor if they have not specified a citation style in the assignment. For more information on constructing citations, see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.

Although all assignments are different, the preceding outlines provide a clear and simple guide that should help you in writing papers in any sub-field of political science. If you find that you need more assistance than this short guide provides, refer to the list of additional resources below or make an appointment to see a tutor at the Writing Center.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Becker, Howard S. 2007. Writing for Social Scientists: How to Start and Finish Your Thesis, Book, or Article , 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Cuba, Lee. 2002. A Short Guide to Writing About Social Science , 4th ed. New York: Longman.

Lasswell, Harold Dwight. 1936. Politics: Who Gets What, When, How . New York: McGraw-Hill.

Scott, Gregory M., and Stephen M. Garrison. 1998. The Political Science Student Writer’s Manual , 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Turabian, Kate. 2018. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, Dissertations , 9th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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1.1: What is Comparative Politics?

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• Page ID 135826

• Dino Bozonelos, Julia Wendt, Charlotte Lee, Jessica Scarffe, Masahiro Omae, Josh Franco, Byran Martin, & Stefan Veldhuis
• Victor Valley College, Berkeley City College, Allan Hancock College, San Diego City College, Cuyamaca College, Houston Community College, and Long Beach City College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define key concepts within the discipline of comparative politics.
• Understand the scope of comparative politics and its place within the discipline of political science.

Introduction

Have you ever read the news and wondered,

• “Why is this country at war with another country?” or
• “Why did that world leader say or do that?” or
• “Why doesn’t this country trade with that country?” or maybe, very simply,
• “Why can’t all these countries just get along?”

If you have, you’ve already begun asking a few of the many questions scholars within the field of comparative politics ask when practicing their craft. Many of the questions and concerns within the realm of comparative politics are centered on a wide spectrum of social, political, cultural and economic circumstances and outcomes, which provide students and scholars alike with robust and diverse opportunities for inquiry and discussion. The field of comparative politics is broad enough to enable provocative conversations about the nature of violence, the future of democracy, why some democracies fail, and why vast disparities in wealth are able to persist both globally and within certain countries. Whether a student watches or reads the news, or expresses any outward concern for global and current events, many of the problems and issues within comparative politics inevitably affect every single person on the planet.

So, what exactly is comparative politics? What differentiates comparative politics from other subfields within political science? What can be gained from studying comparative politics? The following sections introduce the field, outlook, and topics within comparative politics that will be further explored in this book.

When defining and describing the scope of comparative politics, it is useful to back up and recall the purpose of political science from a broad perspective. Political science is a field of social and scientific inquiry which seeks to advance knowledge of political institutions, behavior, activities, and outcomes using systematic and logical research methods in order to test and refine theories about how the political world operates. Since the field of political science is so broad, it has a number of subfields within it that enable students and scholars to focus on various phenomena from different analytical lenses and perspectives. Although there are many topics that can be addressed within political science, there are eight subfields that tend to garner the most attention; these include: (1) Comparative Politics, (2) American Politics, (3) International Relations (sometimes referred to as World Politics, International affairs, or International Studies), (4) Political Philosophy, (5) Research Methods and Models, (6) Political Economy, (7) Public Policy, and (8) Political Psychology. All of these subfields, to varying degrees, are able to leverage findings and approaches from a diversity of disciplines, including sociology, history, philosophy, psychology, anthropology, economics, and law. Given the vast scope of political science, and in order to understand where comparative politics fits within the discipline, it is useful to briefly consider these subfields side-by-side.

Comparative Politics

This subfield of study within political science seeks to advance understanding of political structures from around the world in an organized, methodological, and clear way. Scholars can, for instance, analyze countries, in part or in whole, in order to consider similarities and differences between and among countries. While the name of the field itself suggests a methodology of comparing and contrasting, there is ample room for debate over the best way to analyze political units side-by-side. In this chapter, we show different ways to prepare a comparison, whether one focuses on area studies, cross-national studies, or subnational studies. Comparative politics involves looking first within countries and then across designated countries (this contrasts with International Relations, which is described below, but entails looking primarily across countries, with less attention given to within country analysis). Further on, we discuss many of the themes for analysis, whether the scholar is focusing on “the state” or statehood, political institutions, democracy and democratization, or backsliding democracies, and so forth. After briefly considering the other subfields within political science, we will revisit the question of the ultimate definition and scope of comparative politics today.

American Politics

This subfield of political science focuses on political institutions and behaviors within the United States. Those interested in American politics will focus on questions like: What is the role of elections in American democracy? How do interest groups affect legislation in the U.S.? What is the role of public opinion and the media in the U.S., and what are the implications for democracy? What is the future of the two-party system? Do political parties delay important political action? Those who decide to specialize in American politics could find themselves a variety of career opportunities, spanning from teaching, journalism, working for government think-tanks, working for federal, state or local governmental institutions, or even running for office.

International Relations

Sometimes called world politics, international affairs or international studies, international relations is a subfield of political science which focuses on how countries and/or international organizations or bodies interact with each other. Those interested in international relations consider questions like: What causes war between states? How does international trade affect relationships between states? How do international bodies, like non-governmental organizations, work with various states? What is globalization and how does it affect peace and conflict? What is the best balance of power for the global system? Individuals interested in this field of political science may be looking for careers with teaching, non-governmental organizations, the United Nations, and governmental think-tanks focused on U.S. foreign policy.

Political Philosophy

Sometimes called political theory, political philosophy is a subfield of political science which reflects on the philosophical origins of politics, the state, government, fairness, equality, equity, authority and legitimacy. This field can consider themes in broad or narrow terms, considering the origins of political principles, as well as implications for these principles as they relate to issues of political identity, culture, the environment, ethics, distribution of wealth, as well as other societal phenomena. Those interested in political philosophy may ask questions like: Where did the concept of “the state” arise? What were the different ancient beliefs regarding the formation of states and cooperation within societies? How is power derived within systems, and what are the best theories to explain power dynamics? Individuals who are interested in political philosophy may find careers in teaching, research, journalism as well as consulting.

Research Methods and Models

Research methods and models can sometimes be considered a subfield of political science in itself, as it seeks to consider the best practices for analyzing themes within political science through discussion, testing and critical analysis of how research is constructed and implemented. This subfield is concerned with finding techniques for testing theories and hypotheses related to political science. An ongoing and heated debate often arises out of the proper or applicable usage of quantitative versus qualitative research designs, though each inevitably can be appropriate for various research scenarios.

Quantitative research centers on testing a theory or hypothesis, usually through mathematical and statistical means, using data from a large sample size. Quantitative research can be beneficial in situations where a scholar or student is looking to test the validity of a theory, or general statement, while looking at a large sample size of data that is diverse and representative of the subjects being studied. International Relations, American Politics, Public Policy and Comparative politics can, depending on the subject they are considering, find practical applicable for quantitative research methods. Someone interested in International Relations may want to test, for instance, the influence of global trade on conflict between states. For this, the sample size of the study may be 172 states engaged in international trade over a period of 10, 20, or even 50 years. Perhaps the theory being tested would be this: trade improves relations between states, making conflict unlikely. The person testing this would need to find ways to quantify conflict over time, to measure alongside, perhaps, trade volume between states. Overall, some of the methods for quantitative research may involve conducting surveys, conducting bi- or multivariate regression analysis (time-series, cross-sectional), or carrying out observations to test a hypothesis.

Qualitative research centers on exploring ideas and phenomena, potentially with the goal of consolidating information or developing evidence to form a theory or hypothesis to test. Qualitative research involves categorizing, summarizing and analyzing cases more thoroughly, and possibly individually, to gain greater understanding. Often, given the need for more description, qualitative research will have a small sample size, perhaps only comparing a couple states at a time, or even a state individually based on the theme of interest. Some of the methods for qualitative research involve conducting interviews, constructing literature reviews, or preparing an ethnography. Regardless of a quantitative or qualitative approach, topics of interest within the subfield of Research Methods and Models focuses on advancing discussions of best practices in research design and methodology, understanding causal relationships between events or outcomes, identifying best practices in quantitative and qualitative research methods, consideration of how to measure social, economic, cultural and political trends (focusing on validity and reliability), and reducing errors or poor output due to selection bias, omitted variable bias, and other factors related to poor research design. In many ways, this subfield is critical to almost all others within political science, and this book will spend a chapter looking closer at appropriate research methods and models to provide students with a greater understanding in order to test or develop theories within political science. For those interested in pursuing Research Methods and Models as a subfield, there are a number of careers open not only for its relevance to political science, but also to fields within mathematics, the nature of inquiry, statistics and so forth.

Political Economy

This subfield of political science considers various economic theories (like capitalism, socialism, communism, fascism), practices and outcomes either within a state, or among and between states in the global system. Those interested in political economy will become versed with the theories brought forth by Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, and Max Weber to gain greater understanding into economic systems and their outputs and affect on society. Political economy can be studied from the standpoints of a few other subfields in political science, for instance, comparative politics may consider political economy when comparing and contrasting states. International relations could consider International Political Economy, wherein scholars attempt to understand international economics in the context of different state systems. International Political Economy will consider questions relating to global inequalities, relationships between poor and wealthy countries, the role and effect of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or multinational corporations (MNCs) on international trade and finance. Those who are interested in political economy find careers as economists, or analysts for the stock market, as well as in teaching and research.

Public Policy

This subfield of political science explores political policies and outcomes, and focuses on the strength, legitimacy and effectiveness of political institutions within a state or society. Relevant areas of inquiry in this field include: How is the agenda for public policies set? Which public policies issues get the most attention, and why? How do we evaluate the effectiveness of a public policy? To what extent can public policy hurt or help democracy? Individuals interested in public policy can seek careers relating to almost any item of the U.S. political agenda (the healthcare system, social security, military affairs, welfare, education, etc.), go into teaching and research, or serve as public policy consultants for federal, state or local governmental organizations.

Political Psychology

This relatively new subfield within political science weds together principles, themes and research from both political science and psychology, in order to understand the potential psychological roots for political behavior. Is there a psychological reason some world leaders behave in a certain way? Is a leader’s behavior strategic and, consciously or not, rooted in some psychological basis? Can theories of cognitive and social processes explain various political outcomes in states and societies? Those interested in the psychological origins of political behavior could find interesting careers in teaching, research, and consulting.

All of these subfields within political science can utilize each other to develop greater understanding of political institutions and activities to advance the field. Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\) provides a graphical representation of the subfields within political science, though it is important to point out that fields are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For instance, there are, at times, overlap between fields. Public policy can be analyzed through the lens of American Politics, but it can also be the key point of consideration for comparative politics or international relations. Similarly, political economy can refer simply to domestic affairs, or be applied across a few or many countries or states. Political psychology can likewise be applied for single state analysis or comparative or global studies. Most all of these fields will need some level of specialization in research methods or models to enable the systematic analysis of their subjects of interest. Without a research method and model, these subfields would not be able to advance knowledge in the field in a substantive way.

Given the overall spectrum of subfields available within the field of political science, let’s take a closer look at comparative politics, its origin, expanded definition, its uniqueness among the subfields, and the terminology frequently used by comparativists.

A Brief History and Expanded Definition

In considering the other subfields within political science, it may not seem like a complicated process to define comparative politics. Comparative politics, further explained, seems to be a field of study wherein scholars compare and contrast various political systems, institutions, characteristics and outcomes on one, a few, or a group of countries. In actuality, there has been ample debate over the ideal definition and scope of comparative politics. To consider comparative politics more thoroughly, it is helpful to consider its historical origins.

Most often, comparative politics is considered to have ancient origins, going back to at least Aristotle. Aristotle has sometimes been credited with being the “father” of political science, and attributed with being one of the first to use comparative methodologies for analyzing competing Greek city-states. The word politics derives from the Greek word, politikos , meaning “of, or relating to, the polis,” with polis being translated as city-state. Aristotle envisioned the study of politics to be one of the three major forms of science individuals could engage in. The first form of science, according to Aristotle, was contemplative science, and in modern terms, this refers closest to the studies of both physics and metaphysics, which he considered to be concerned with truth, and the pursuit of truth and knowledge for intrinsic purposes. The second form of science that Aristotle identified was practical science, which was the study of what is ideal for individuals and society. Aristotle felt the practical sciences were the areas of philosophy, mathematics and science. The final area of science Aristotle identified was productive science, which he envisioned as the making of important or beautiful objects. To Aristotle, political science fell within the realm of practical sciences, and was of critical concern (he identified political science as “the most authoritative science”) when discussing what is best for society. To Aristotle, political science must concern itself with what is “good” or “right” or “just” for society, as the lives of citizens are at stake given political structures and institutions.

It is not difficult to appreciate why Aristotle found political science, and comparative politics, so important given his overall beliefs on the function of politics within a society. In Aristotle’s time, the units-of-analysis were the city-states in Greece, which, if stable, enabled people to live productive and possibly happy lives; if unstable, it could not produce any positive externalities. For Aristotle, it was critical to find ways to compare and contrast the various city-states, how they operated, and what their outcomes for the people were. To this end, Aristotle looked at the constitutions for various city-states, to understand which had the ideal configurations for both the people and political outputs. A city-state could have one ruler, who, depending on how the government is run, is either a rightful king, or a tyrant running an authoritarian regime. Or, a city-state may have a few rulers, which, at best, could be an aristocracy, or at worst, an oligarchy where only the elite are included in decision-making and rewards. Finally, a city-state could have multiple rulers, balanced by a “middle” class which attempts to rule on behalf of the people’s interests. The “middle” group is not tremendously wealthy, nor woefully poor, but being in the “middle” they can understand the needs of society at large. While Aristotle considered democracy to have the possibility of being “deviant,” he also entertained the possibility that having more people involved in government may be a way to edge out corruption. In some ways, perhaps Aristotle was hoping for “cooler heads to prevail,” or that there would be a “wisdom” of the majority which would limit corruption. In any/either case, Aristotle spent a lot of time comparing and contrasting the virtuous and deviant political regime types in order to determine what is best for society.

The work of Aristotle influenced a number of thinkers to continue the scientific tradition of scientifically approaching problems in political science and comparative politics. If considering political science broadly, Aristotle influenced Niccolo Machiavelli (author of The Prince ), Charles Montesquieu, (author of The Spirit of the Laws ), Max Weber (sociologist and author of The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , 1905), to name a few.

If we consider the work of Gerardo Munck, we are currently in a period following the Second Scientific Revolution of 1989-2005. The current status of comparative politics is one where there is a greater reliance on methodology rather than theory, per se. In looking at Table \(\PageIndex{1}\), it can be observed that there are still variations in how significant scholars in the field define comparative politics, with some of these definitions leading to potentially different implications for research and inquiry.

Debate on the definition of comparative politics can arise in a few ways. One way would be this: Zahariadis (1997) argued that comparative politics needs to be a study of foreign countries. If this is true, does that mean someone who lives in a country, cannot study their own country and still call it comparative politics? If this is true, then was Aristotle’s study of city-states methodologically flawed since he occasionally lived in different city-states? Another area where comparativists disagree, which will be considered more in Chapter 2, is: what is the appropriate sample size for inquiry? Does the definition of comparative politics need to mandate a certain number of countries be studied at a time? When Alexis de Tocqueville wrote Democracy in America, 1835, was this study flawed because it was only considered the political lives of Americans? If we take Zahariadis’ definition, de Tocqueville did focus on a foreign country, but since it is only one country, does that mean it does not fall into the realm of comparative politics? Already, the two issues of whether one can originate or reside in a country that is being compared, as well as the appropriate sample size, is already in question. As will be described in Chapter 2, this textbook provides a necessary overview of the scope of methods and models for the comparative politics field for the purpose of greater understanding, focusing less on arguing about a definitive answer to questions still argued within the field of comparative politics.

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The Ultimate Guide to the AP Comparative Government and Politics Exam

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Planning to take the AP Comparative Government and Politics exam? Whether you took the course or self-studied, here’s everything you need to know about the exam, plus tons of free resources to help you get a great score.

The AP Comparative Government and Politics exam and course has been updated for the 2019-2020 school year, so pay special attention to these changes. You can read more about the changes in this AP Comparative Government updates document released by the College Board .

Note that this post is not about the AP U.S. Government and Politics exam , the more popular of the two “AP Government” exams. Be sure to double-check that you’re looking at the right post for the exam you’re taking.

When is the AP Comparative Government Exam?

On Thursday, May 14 at 8 am, the College Board will hold the 2020 AP Comparative Government Exam. For a comprehensive listing of all the AP exam times, check out our post 2020 AP Exam Schedule: Everything You Need to Know . 

About the AP Comparative Government Exam

The AP Comparative Government and Politics exam focuses on six core countries: China, Great Britain, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, and Russia. According to the College Board , this exam measures your “ability to compare and contrast political regimes; electoral systems; federal structures; civil rights; and state responses to economic, social, and religious challenges over time.”

Throughout the AP Comparative course, you’ll learn five key skills, or disciplinary practices as they are called by the College Board, which will help you think and act like comparative political scientists. Possessing and demonstrating these skills is essential to getting a high score on the AP Comparative Government exam. The five key disciplinary practices are: 

1. Concept Application: Applying political concepts and processes to real-life situations.

2. Country Comparison: Compare political concepts and processes to the course’s six core countries.

3. Data Analysis: Analyze and interpret quantitative data represented in a variety of mediums—such as tables, charts, graphs, maps, and infographics. 

4. Source Analysis: Read, analyze, and interpret text-based sources. 

5. Argumentation: Develop and defend an argument in the form of an essay. 

In addition to acquiring these vital skills, students will explore five big ideas that serve as the foundation of the AP Comparative Government course, using them to make connections between concepts throughout the course. The five big ideas are: 

1. Power and Authority: The political systems and regimes governing societies, who is given power and authority, how they use it, and how it produces different policy outcomes.

2. Legitimacy and Stability: The degree a government’s right to rule is accepted by the citizenry and how the legitimacy of a government translates to its ability to enact, implement, and enforce its policies. 

3. Democratization: The process of adopting free and fair elections, extending civil liberties, and establishing the rule of law. How that process generally increases government transparency, improves citizen access, and influences policy making. 

4. Internal/External Forces: How internal and external forces challenge and reinforce regimes.

5. Methods of Political Analysis: Collecting and using data to identify and describe patterns and trends in political behavior, along with using data and ideas from other disciplines when drawing conclusions. 

AP Comparative Government Course Content

The AP Comparative Government course is divided into five units. Below is a suggested sequence of the units from the College Board, along with the percentage each unit accounts for on the multiple-choice section of the AP Comparative Government exam. 

AP Comparative Government Exam Content

The exam lasts 2 hours and 30 minutes. As in the years past, there are two sections to the AP Comparative Government exam: a multiple-choice section and a free-response section. However, there are changes to the structure of both sections this year; read below for those changes.

Section 1: Multiple Choice 

1 hour | 55 questions | 50% of score

The multiple-choice section of the AP Comparative Government exam will keep the same number of questions (55) as past tests, but students are now given an extra fifteen minutes to answer them. In addition, the number of possible answers shrink from five to four on the new test. There is also a shift in what you’re tested on, as the exam moves its focus from knowledge about individual countries to understanding of concepts and the ability to compare different concepts and countries.

There are three types of multiple-choice questions you’ll encounter on the AP Comparative Government exam: stand-alone, quantitative analysis, and text-based analysis. 40-44 of the multiple-choice questions are stand-alone questions with no stimulus provided. There are also three sets of 2-3 questions testing your quantitative analysis ability, tasking you with analyzing a quantitative stimulus such as a line graph, chart, table, map, or infographic. Lastly, there are two sets of 2-3 questions focused on text-based analysis in which you’ll need to analyze text-based secondary sources. 

Example of an individual multiple-choice question:

Example of a quantitative-analysis multiple-choice question:

Example of a text-based multiple-choice question:

Section 2: Free Response

1 hour 30 minutes | 4 questions | 50% of score

The structure of the free-response questions has also changed on the 2020 AP Comparative Government exam , with the number of questions shrinking from eight to four. Additionally, the skills tested no longer vary from exam to exam; rather, they’re clearly defined. You’ll receive a question about conceptual analysis, quantitative analysis, and comparative analysis, and will need to write an argument-based essay. 

Conceptual Analysis: Define political systems and explain and/or compare political systems, principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors. 

Quantitative Analysis: Identify trends and patterns or draw conclusions from quantitative data and explain how it relates to political systems, principles, institutions, processes, policies, and behaviors. 

Comparative Analysis: Compare political concepts, systems, institutions, or policies in the AP Comparative Government’s six covered countries.

Argument Essay: Write an argument-based essay supported by evidence, based on concepts from the countries covered in the course.

Example of a conceptual-analysis question:

Example of a quantitative-analysis question: 

Example of a comparative-analysis question: 

Example of an argument-based question:

AP Comparative Government Score Distribution, Average Score, and Passing Rate

According to the College Board in 2019, a relatively high percentage of students (22.4%) scored a 5. About one-third of test takers (66%) received a “passing” score of 3 or above on the AP Comparative Government exam. Here are the score distributions of all the AP exams if you’re interested in comparing the AP Comparative Gov scores to those of other exams. 

Keep in mind, credit and advanced standing based on AP scores varies widely from school to school. Though a score of 3 is typically considered passing, it is not always enough to receive credit. See the College Board website for regulations regarding which APs qualify for course credits or advanced placement at specific colleges.

Best Ways to Study for the AP Comparative Government Exam

Step 1: assess your skills.

The best way to begin studying for any exam is to determine the areas you understand well and the areas you need to work on.

Start by taking a free practice test —this test is structured in the old format, but is still a helpful resource that can give you some hands-on experience with the upcoming test. You can score your own multiple-choice section and free responses, then you can have a teacher or friend score your free responses and average the scores, since this area is often more subjective. Once you have an actual score to work with, identify the areas you need to improve in when you take the actual test.

Step 2: Study the Theory

Crack open some study guides and start to solidify your understanding of the theory taught in this course.

Ask the Experts: The Barron’s AP Comparative Government and Politics: With 3 Practice Tests offers comprehensive reviews of this course and the material that might show up on the exam, along with three practice tests. Another good resource is the AP Comparative Government and Politics 2019 & 2020 Study Guide .

Ask a Teacher: There are also online study resources available to help you. Many AP teachers post complete study guides, review sheets, and test questions—such as this AP Comparative Government page from Mr. Baysdell from Davison High School in Davison, Michigan. Just be careful, as some resources may be outdated. 

Try using an app: Apps are a convenient way to study for AP Exams—just make sure you read the reviews before you purchase or download one. You don’t want to end up spending money or time on an app that won’t actually be helpful to you. The AP Comparative Gov. & Politics app is decently well-reviewed and offers two study modes: flashcards and practice tests. 

Step 3: Practice Multiple-Choice Questions

Because of the AP Comparative Government exam’s reformatting and shifting of focus this year, finding up-to-date multiple-choice questions to practice is challenging. A handful of sample multiple-choice questions are found in the AP Comparative Government Course and Exam Description . You’ll also find a free AP Comparative Government practice exam on Study.com .

When practicing multiple-choice questions, focus on trying to understand what each question is really asking—what skills or themes does the question tie into? In what way do the test makers want you to demonstrate your understanding of the subject material? Make sure to keep a running list of any unfamiliar concepts so that you can go back later and clarify them.

Step 4: Practice Free-Response Questions

There are four different types of free-response questions: conceptual analysis, quantitative analysis, comparative analysis, and an argument-based essay. Although the free-response questions have changed for 2020, it’s still beneficial to familiarize yourself with past free-response questions. You can find all of the free-response questions that have appeared on the AP Comparative Government exam, along with commentary, dating back to 1999 on the College Board’s website. 

It’s important to keep the task verbs in mind for each question of this section. Make sure you understand what each question is asking you to do. These verbs commonly include “identify,” “define,” “describe,” “explain,” “provide one reason,” etc.

It may help you to underline each section of the question and check them off as you write. Students often lose points by forgetting to include one part of a multipart question. If a question asks you to identify and describe, make sure you do both. It is also a good idea to use the task verbs in your answer. If you are asked to “give a specific example,” start your part of the answer that addresses this question with “One specific example of this is…”

Step 5: Take Another Practice Exam

After you’ve practiced the multiple-choice and free-response questions, you should take another practice exam. Score the exam the same way as before, and repeat the studying process targeting areas that are still weak.

Step 6: Exam Day

If you’re taking the AP course associated with this exam, your teacher will walk you through how to register. If you’re self-studying, check out our blog post How to Self-Register for AP Exams .

For information about what to bring to the exam, see our post What Should I Bring to My AP Exam (And What Should I Definitely Leave at Home)?

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For more guidance about the AP exams, check out these other informative articles: 

2020 AP Exam Schedule

How Long is Each AP Exam?

Easiest and Hardest AP Exams

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• Comparative Analysis

What It Is and Why It's Useful

Comparative analysis asks writers to make an argument about the relationship between two or more texts. Beyond that, there's a lot of variation, but three overarching kinds of comparative analysis stand out:

• Coordinate (A ↔ B): In this kind of analysis, two (or more) texts are being read against each other in terms of a shared element, e.g., a memoir and a novel, both by Jesmyn Ward; two sets of data for the same experiment; a few op-ed responses to the same event; two YA books written in Chicago in the 2000s; a film adaption of a play; etc. 
• Subordinate (A  → B) or (B → A ): Using a theoretical text (as a "lens") to explain a case study or work of art (e.g., how Anthony Jack's The Privileged Poor can help explain divergent experiences among students at elite four-year private colleges who are coming from similar socio-economic backgrounds) or using a work of art or case study (i.e., as a "test" of) a theory's usefulness or limitations (e.g., using coverage of recent incidents of gun violence or legislation un the U.S. to confirm or question the currency of Carol Anderson's The Second ).
• Hybrid [A  → (B ↔ C)] or [(B ↔ C) → A] , i.e., using coordinate and subordinate analysis together. For example, using Jack to compare or contrast the experiences of students at elite four-year institutions with students at state universities and/or community colleges; or looking at gun culture in other countries and/or other timeframes to contextualize or generalize Anderson's main points about the role of the Second Amendment in U.S. history.

"In the wild," these three kinds of comparative analysis represent increasingly complex—and scholarly—modes of comparison. Students can of course compare two poems in terms of imagery or two data sets in terms of methods, but in each case the analysis will eventually be richer if the students have had a chance to encounter other people's ideas about how imagery or methods work. At that point, we're getting into a hybrid kind of reading (or even into research essays), especially if we start introducing different approaches to imagery or methods that are themselves being compared along with a couple (or few) poems or data sets.

Why It's Useful

In the context of a particular course, each kind of comparative analysis has its place and can be a useful step up from single-source analysis. Intellectually, comparative analysis helps overcome the "n of 1" problem that can face single-source analysis. That is, a writer drawing broad conclusions about the influence of the Iranian New Wave based on one film is relying entirely—and almost certainly too much—on that film to support those findings. In the context of even just one more film, though, the analysis is suddenly more likely to arrive at one of the best features of any comparative approach: both films will be more richly experienced than they would have been in isolation, and the themes or questions in terms of which they're being explored (here the general question of the influence of the Iranian New Wave) will arrive at conclusions that are less at-risk of oversimplification.

For scholars working in comparative fields or through comparative approaches, these features of comparative analysis animate their work. To borrow from a stock example in Western epistemology, our concept of "green" isn't based on a single encounter with something we intuit or are told is "green." Not at all. Our concept of "green" is derived from a complex set of experiences of what others say is green or what's labeled green or what seems to be something that's neither blue nor yellow but kind of both, etc. Comparative analysis essays offer us the chance to engage with that process—even if only enough to help us see where a more in-depth exploration with a higher and/or more diverse "n" might lead—and in that sense, from the standpoint of the subject matter students are exploring through writing as well the complexity of the genre of writing they're using to explore it—comparative analysis forms a bridge of sorts between single-source analysis and research essays.

Typical learning objectives for single-sources essays: formulate analytical questions and an arguable thesis, establish stakes of an argument, summarize sources accurately, choose evidence effectively, analyze evidence effectively, define key terms, organize argument logically, acknowledge and respond to counterargument, cite sources properly, and present ideas in clear prose.

Common types of comparative analysis essays and related types: two works in the same genre, two works from the same period (but in different places or in different cultures), a work adapted into a different genre or medium, two theories treating the same topic; a theory and a case study or other object, etc.

How to Teach It: Framing + Practice

Framing multi-source writing assignments (comparative analysis, research essays, multi-modal projects) is likely to overlap a great deal with "Why It's Useful" (see above), because the range of reasons why we might use these kinds of writing in academic or non-academic settings is itself the reason why they so often appear later in courses. In many courses, they're the best vehicles for exploring the complex questions that arise once we've been introduced to the course's main themes, core content, leading protagonists, and central debates.

For comparative analysis in particular, it's helpful to frame assignment's process and how it will help students successfully navigate the challenges and pitfalls presented by the genre. Ideally, this will mean students have time to identify what each text seems to be doing, take note of apparent points of connection between different texts, and start to imagine how those points of connection (or the absence thereof)

• complicates or upends their own expectations or assumptions about the texts
• complicates or refutes the expectations or assumptions about the texts presented by a scholar
• confirms and/or nuances expectations and assumptions they themselves hold or scholars have presented
• presents entirely unforeseen ways of understanding the texts

—and all with implications for the texts themselves or for the axes along which the comparative analysis took place. If students know that this is where their ideas will be heading, they'll be ready to develop those ideas and engage with the challenges that comparative analysis presents in terms of structure (See "Tips" and "Common Pitfalls" below for more on these elements of framing).

Like single-source analyses, comparative essays have several moving parts, and giving students practice here means adapting the sample sequence laid out at the " Formative Writing Assignments " page. Three areas that have already been mentioned above are worth noting:

• Gathering evidence : Depending on what your assignment is asking students to compare (or in terms of what), students will benefit greatly from structured opportunities to create inventories or data sets of the motifs, examples, trajectories, etc., shared (or not shared) by the texts they'll be comparing. See the sample exercises below for a basic example of what this might look like.
• Why it Matters: Moving beyond "x is like y but also different" or even "x is more like y than we might think at first" is what moves an essay from being "compare/contrast" to being a comparative analysis . It's also a move that can be hard to make and that will often evolve over the course of an assignment. A great way to get feedback from students about where they're at on this front? Ask them to start considering early on why their argument "matters" to different kinds of imagined audiences (while they're just gathering evidence) and again as they develop their thesis and again as they're drafting their essays. ( Cover letters , for example, are a great place to ask writers to imagine how a reader might be affected by reading an their argument.)
• Structure: Having two texts on stage at the same time can suddenly feel a lot more complicated for any writer who's used to having just one at a time. Giving students a sense of what the most common patterns (AAA / BBB, ABABAB, etc.) are likely to be can help them imagine, even if provisionally, how their argument might unfold over a series of pages. See "Tips" and "Common Pitfalls" below for more information on this front.

Sample Exercises and Links to Other Resources

• Common Pitfalls
• Advice on Timing
• Try to keep students from thinking of a proposed thesis as a commitment. Instead, help them see it as more of a hypothesis that has emerged out of readings and discussion and analytical questions and that they'll now test through an experiment, namely, writing their essay. When students see writing as part of the process of inquiry—rather than just the result—and when that process is committed to acknowledging and adapting itself to evidence, it makes writing assignments more scientific, more ethical, and more authentic. 
• Have students create an inventory of touch points between the two texts early in the process.
• Ask students to make the case—early on and at points throughout the process—for the significance of the claim they're making about the relationship between the texts they're comparing.
• For coordinate kinds of comparative analysis, a common pitfall is tied to thesis and evidence. Basically, it's a thesis that tells the reader that there are "similarities and differences" between two texts, without telling the reader why it matters that these two texts have or don't have these particular features in common. This kind of thesis is stuck at the level of description or positivism, and it's not uncommon when a writer is grappling with the complexity that can in fact accompany the "taking inventory" stage of comparative analysis. The solution is to make the "taking inventory" stage part of the process of the assignment. When this stage comes before students have formulated a thesis, that formulation is then able to emerge out of a comparative data set, rather than the data set emerging in terms of their thesis (which can lead to confirmation bias, or frequency illusion, or—just for the sake of streamlining the process of gathering evidence—cherry picking). 
• For subordinate kinds of comparative analysis , a common pitfall is tied to how much weight is given to each source. Having students apply a theory (in a "lens" essay) or weigh the pros and cons of a theory against case studies (in a "test a theory") essay can be a great way to help them explore the assumptions, implications, and real-world usefulness of theoretical approaches. The pitfall of these approaches is that they can quickly lead to the same biases we saw here above. Making sure that students know they should engage with counterevidence and counterargument, and that "lens" / "test a theory" approaches often balance each other out in any real-world application of theory is a good way to get out in front of this pitfall.
• For any kind of comparative analysis, a common pitfall is structure. Every comparative analysis asks writers to move back and forth between texts, and that can pose a number of challenges, including: what pattern the back and forth should follow and how to use transitions and other signposting to make sure readers can follow the overarching argument as the back and forth is taking place. Here's some advice from an experienced writing instructor to students about how to think about these considerations:

a quick note on STRUCTURE

     Most of us have encountered the question of whether to adopt what we might term the “A→A→A→B→B→B” structure or the “A→B→A→B→A→B” structure.  Do we make all of our points about text A before moving on to text B?  Or do we go back and forth between A and B as the essay proceeds?  As always, the answers to our questions about structure depend on our goals in the essay as a whole.  In a “similarities in spite of differences” essay, for instance, readers will need to encounter the differences between A and B before we offer them the similarities (A d →B d →A s →B s ).  If, rather than subordinating differences to similarities you are subordinating text A to text B (using A as a point of comparison that reveals B’s originality, say), you may be well served by the “A→A→A→B→B→B” structure.  

     Ultimately, you need to ask yourself how many “A→B” moves you have in you.  Is each one identical?  If so, you may wish to make the transition from A to B only once (“A→A→A→B→B→B”), because if each “A→B” move is identical, the “A→B→A→B→A→B” structure will appear to involve nothing more than directionless oscillation and repetition.  If each is increasingly complex, however—if each AB pair yields a new and progressively more complex idea about your subject—you may be well served by the “A→B→A→B→A→B” structure, because in this case it will be visible to readers as a progressively developing argument.

As we discussed in "Advice on Timing" at the page on single-source analysis, that timeline itself roughly follows the "Sample Sequence of Formative Assignments for a 'Typical' Essay" outlined under " Formative Writing Assignments, " and it spans about 5–6 steps or 2–4 weeks. 

Comparative analysis assignments have a lot of the same DNA as single-source essays, but they potentially bring more reading into play and ask students to engage in more complicated acts of analysis and synthesis during the drafting stages. With that in mind, closer to 4 weeks is probably a good baseline for many single-source analysis assignments. For sections that meet once per week, the timeline will either probably need to expand—ideally—a little past the 4-week side of things, or some of the steps will need to be combined or done asynchronously.

What It Can Build Up To

Comparative analyses can build up to other kinds of writing in a number of ways. For example:

• They can build toward other kinds of comparative analysis, e.g., student can be asked to choose an additional source to complicate their conclusions from a previous analysis, or they can be asked to revisit an analysis using a different axis of comparison, such as race instead of class. (These approaches are akin to moving from a coordinate or subordinate analysis to more of a hybrid approach.)
• They can scaffold up to research essays, which in many instances are an extension of a "hybrid comparative analysis."
• Like single-source analysis, in a course where students will take a "deep dive" into a source or topic for their capstone, they can allow students to "try on" a theoretical approach or genre or time period to see if it's indeed something they want to research more fully.
• DIY Guides for Analytical Writing Assignments

• Types of Assignments
• Unpacking the Elements of Writing Prompts
• Formative Writing Assignments
• Single-Source Analysis
• Research Essays
• Multi-Modal or Creative Projects
• Giving Feedback to Students

Assignment Decoder

Browse Course Material

Course info.

• Prof. Chappell Lawson

Departments

• Political Science

As Taught In

• Political Philosophy
• American Politics
• Comparative Politics

Learning Resource Types

Introduction to comparative politics, course meeting times.

Lectures: 2 sessions / week; 1 hour / session

Recitations: 1 session / week; 1 hour / session

Prerequisites

There are no prerequisites for this course.

Class Objectives

This class addresses the fundamental problems of governance: the rationale for the state and ways to make sure that the state does what is in the best interests of people subject to its authority. The central purpose of the class is to help you think critically about these issues, which will include interrogating the assumptions that you– like everyone else– probably have about them.

The class also has a few corollary goals:

• To help you identify improvements in how your country could be governed;
• To help you make and critique arguments about public policy and social issues, based on analytical reasoning and empirical evidence;
• To give you practice in writing and presentation; and
• To provide the foundation for more specialized polisci classes, if you wish to take them.

Readings are listed under the specific session for which they are required. There is a logic to the choice of sessions and to the order in which readings are listed. Readings total 50–100 pages per week and should take you at most 4 hours to do. If you have trouble completing the readings in that time, please see me or the teaching assistant about strategies.

See the Readings section for further detail.

Class Participation

This subject is designed so that there is extensive class participation. The first day of each week normally involves more in the way of lecture from me to frame the salient issues, provide the necessary background for those unfamiliar with the topic, and generally make sure everyone is on the same page. The second session of each week and the recitation typically involve much more student participation, in the form of breakout groups and presentations. Even the lectures, however, are usually interactive.

I’d ask that you be prepared to participate actively and intelligently in class throughout the semester. For some people, that may mean pushing yourself to talk more than feels instinctively comfortable; for others it may mean holding yourself back. If participation becomes unbalanced, I may “cold call” people.

In formal presentations, there is a strict time limit, so be sure to practice and to time yourself ahead of time; you should make sure to frame your question clearly in the beginning and then move on swiftly to your main points. 

Several class sessions are devoted to breakout groups. We will check informally throughout the semester to make sure that everyone is pulling their weight in the breakout groups and adjust participation grades accordingly. If you are concerned that your group cannot reach consensus on any point, you should not try to force one. Rather, use the division in your group to sharpen your argumentation and to highlight the pros and cons of different options. Basically, imagine that you are teeing the issue up for a decision-maker.

Tests and Exams

In the first week, we have a pop quiz (which will not be graded). There will also be an exam at the end of the semester that focuses on material not covered in other graded assignments (e.g., the readings and lectures from weeks in which no paper was due) and on synthesizing the material from the semester. The goal of this exam is to allow students who took the time to master this material to demonstrate that they have done so. Some questions may require you to extrapolate a bit, but if you have given some thought to the subjects covered in the class, done the reading over the course of the semester, and understood the lectures, you really should not need to study; briefly reviewing your notes ought to be sufficient. The format of the exam changes from one year to the next: it may be a single essay, several shorter essays, a multiple choice exam, or some combination. 

Grading Policy

For more information on the activities in the table, see the Assignments section.

Other Engagements

Informal one-on-ones.

I’d enjoy the opportunity to meet one-on-one with each of you, for perhaps fifteen minutes, during the first half of the semester (in person or by Zoom). These meetings are designed to provide some informal, “get-to-know-each other” interaction unrelated to course content. They are a supplement to office hours, not a replacement for them; I hope you will still avail yourself of office hours with me or the TA for questions related to the class.

Gab Sessions / Cocktails / Mocktails

I will hold an entirely optional and informal gab session by Zoom most weeks, usually on Friday afternoons. To emphasize the informal nature of these conversations, please feel free to bring food and any beverage of your choice that you are legally allowed to consume. (I will almost certainly have a beverage in hand, and I am legally allowed to consume anything.) Drop in via Zoom when you like and leave whenever you like, without explanation or apology.

All topics, including current events and heretical questions, are fair game during these sessions. For instance, one of my favorite questions from last year was “What sort of political system do you think extraterrestrials would have?” In the absence of questions or a noteworthy event, I have listed some possible conversation starters for each week.

In the classroom, I obviously keep my personal opinions to myself. If you just attend classes and do no background research on me (positions I have held in government, campaign donations, party affiliation as listed on the voter rolls, public presentations I have given outside MIT, media appearances, etc.), you should be able to go the whole semester without being able to guess my political views or partisan leanings. In these informal gab sessions, however, I may sometimes speak in my own voice. Do not let any of the opinions I express in these instances – whether you agree with them or not – influence how you approach the regular class; in other words, you may have to compartmentalize information that you serendipitously acquire in these conversations.

I may occasionally invite some interesting friends to drop by. If any guests are present, the Chatham House Rule also applies: nothing people say may be attributed to them specifically, and you may not mention that they attended the session.

My wife and I have two active sons (ages 12 and 14) and an even more active dog. Any or all of them may make an unscheduled appearance during the gab sessions, and be advised that you may hear the sound of boys hitting each other with Wiffleball bats in the background.

Curated Outside Reading

The TA or I will occasionally send you articles on current events. We will choose these articles because they strike us as (a) particularly insightful, (b) balanced in their presentation of issues, and (c) relevant to course themes – with the idea being that “if you are going to read anything about this topic, check out this one.” Of course, you are under no obligation to read them.

Random Anecdotes TM

I will sometimes begin class with a very brief story or factoid about comparative politics (“Random Anecdote TM ”), a comment on a recent event, a mention of historically significant event on its anniversary, or something similar. The purpose of these remarks, which are not necessarily relevant to the subject matter for that particular class session (hence the “random”), is to get you thinking about some apparently puzzling political issue.

Classroom Norms

My classroom is meant to be a welcoming and comfortable environment. However, it is also a professional one. With this in mind, some rules of decorum:

• Per MIT norms, MIT’s codes of conduct , and Massachusetts state law, do not under any circumstances make video or audio recordings of class sessions. I cannot emphasize this stricture strongly enough.
• Please do not use any electronic devices during class.
• You should feel free to have water with you, but do not eat in class.

Historically, most students have called me “Professor Lawson,” but some have called me by my first name (“Chappell” – pronounced like “chapel” – or “Chap”), and the trend is in that direction. It’s up to you. Of course, you should also free to address me as “ Jefe, ” “Lawson-Zi,” or “ Dominus et Deus ” if you wish to more or less ensure getting extra credit.

Trigger Warnings

I am unconvinced that trigger warnings provide any real psychological benefit – the scientific literature provides grounds for skepticism – and I also find them vaguely infantilizing. Nevertheless, these days some people ask for them.

I believe that there is little in the readings or lectures that could cause re-traumatization, with three possible exceptions. First, if your family has been subjected to ethnic cleansing, or if you are from Rwanda or Burundi, note that that the pop quiz contains a question on the Rwandan genocide. Second, if you happen to be a relative of one of the leaders I mention in the week on corruption, and you do not like the way I have characterized him, please talk with me about how we can make sure the class hears an alternative perspective about your thuggish, kleptocratic grandfather. Third, we will touch on some controversial political topics in which people may feel they have a very personal stake: reproductive rights, immigration policy, ethnic identity, etc. Please let me know ahead of time if you are concerned about how these topics will be discussed, and afterward if something about the discussion troubled you.

Whether anything in the class could cause offense is a more difficult matter. I occasionally tell anecdotes about or make references to certain countries or regions, especially those where I have lived – whether it be my interactions with the police in Mexico City, a ridiculous jeremiad I once had to endure from a particular Minister in Ankara, the driving habits and manners of people in Boston compared to those from other parts of the country, and so forth. In addition, as noted above, I often discuss particular rulers and politicians. I refer to real places and people for concreteness, but in every case I could have chosen from many different people or places around the world. In addition to these examples, I occasionally make casual or jocular asides about certain individuals, countries, or historical incidents. Most people find such remarks to be amusing, trenchant, illuminating, and memorable. If you instead find them problematic, inappropriate, or offensive, please let me know; I will make appropriate adjustments. Given the choice between talking to me and reflexively posting your disgruntlement on Instagram, I would recommend the former.

Finally, I should add a general trigger warning for the semester: many aspects of the class are deliberately designed to provoke cognitive dissonance, lead you to question your own views, or compel you to argue analytically for things that you may be used to taking for granted. If you find the points advanced in some of the assigned readings – or anything I say – off-putting, that is likely by design. Your job will be to figure out how to respond based on logical argumentation and empirical facts, not emotions or prevailing social norms.

Comments in class should not be gratuitously insulting. But I am not a fan of people trying to regulate one another’s views, much less which subjects get debated, through social pressure. Rather, people must be prepared to defend their views and explain their language when questioned. For instance (to use a not-very-hypothetical example of a conversation I had last year), different terms with very different connotations are used to refer to the (non-Druze) Arab citizens of Israel – “Israeli Arabs,” “Arab-Israelis,” “Palestinians in Israel,” “Palestinians with Israeli citizenship,” “Palestinian Arabs,” “48-Palestinians,” “48-Arabs,” etc. It would not be appropriate for someone in the class to attempt to censor another student’s use of one of these terms simply by saying that she regarded it as offensive; that would constitute an attempt to police others’ language, constrain expression of their opinions, and even (if the famed British author George Orwell is to be believed) control their thought. However, it would be perfectly appropriate – in fact, desirable – for a student to call the class’s attention to what the use of specific terms implies and to interrogate another student’s choice of terms based on her understanding of the context. Such an exchange might then lead to a broader discussion about why there is a sizeable Arab population within the current boundaries of Israel in the first place, what the status of this population is in law and in practice, how identities have changed within that population during the last two generations, and therefore why different terms have particular connotations.

These sorts of exchanges are, in my view, the heart of teaching social science. They are why I teach, and why I enjoy teaching – especially students like you.

Further Classes in Political Science

If you like this class, you will probably like other political science subjects. If you did not like this class, that is surely a result of my deficiencies, and you will like other political science classes much more.

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• Essay Editor

How to write comparative essay

Introduction

A comparative analysis essay is a distinctive form of academic writing that invites you to explore and evaluate the relationships between two or more subjects, highlighting both their similarities and differences. Crafting such an essay can be both challenging and rewarding, as it demands critical thinking, analytical skills, and the ability to construct a well-structured argument. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the step-by-step process of composing an effective comparative analysis essay, focusing on answering the crucial question: "How to write a comparative analysis essay?"

Step 1: Understanding the Comparative Analysis Essay Question

Before you begin writing, it's essential to grasp the nuances of the comparative analysis essay question you are tasked with. This question serves as the guiding principle for your entire essay. It will typically ask you to compare and contrast specific aspects of the subjects under examination. Some common prompts might include:

• "Compare and contrast the themes of two novels you have studied."
• "Examine the differences and similarities in the historical contexts of two events."
• "Compare the character development in two different Shakespearean plays."

Step 2: Determine the Basis for Comparison

The key to answering the comparative analysis essay question effectively is to identify the basis for comparison. This step involves selecting the specific aspects or criteria you will use to evaluate the subjects. For instance, if you are comparing two novels, your basis for comparison might include themes, characters, narrative structure, or symbolism.

Step 3: Become Familiar with the Source Materials

In-depth familiarity with the source materials is essential for writing a successful comparative analysis essay. Take the time to thoroughly read, watch, or research the subjects you are comparing. This will enable you to provide a comprehensive analysis and draw insightful conclusions.

Step 4: Choose an Appropriate Structure

The structure you choose for your comparative analysis essay plays a pivotal role in how you present your arguments. The three common structural approaches are:

a. Block Structure: Dedicate separate sections to each subject, discussing their similarities and differences separately.

b. Alternating Structure: Alternate between discussing the subjects' similarities and differences in each paragraph.

c. Woven Structure: Seamlessly weave together comparisons and contrasts throughout your essay.

Step 5: Prepare an Outline

Creating a well-organized outline is a crucial step in the writing process. An outline helps you structure your thoughts, ensuring a logical flow of ideas and a coherent argument that directly addresses the comparative analysis essay question.

Step 6: Write an Introduction with a Thesis Statement

Your introduction should provide context for your essay and include a clear thesis statement. The thesis statement should directly respond to the comparative analysis essay question and outline the key aspects you will explore.

Step 7: Develop the Body of Your Essay

The body of your essay is where you present your comparisons and contrasts based on the chosen structure. Utilize evidence from your source materials to support your arguments, keeping a balanced and fair evaluation.

Step 8: Write a Conclusion Summarizing Your Main Points

In your conclusion, reiterate the central similarities and differences discussed throughout the essay. Restate your thesis statement and offer a final insight or reflection related to the comparative analysis essay question. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.

Conclusion:

Answering the question "how to write a comparative analysis essay" necessitates a methodical approach that involves understanding the essay question, determining the basis for comparison, immersing yourself in the source materials, selecting an appropriate structure, outlining your essay, crafting a well-structured introduction and body, and summarizing your key points in the conclusion. By adhering to these steps, you can confidently address the comparative analysis essay question and create an engaging essay that effectively communicates your analysis and insights, achieving a deeper understanding of the subjects under examination.

Frequently Asked Questions

• What is a comparative essay? Answer: A comparative essay is an academic writing form that requires comparing and contrasting two or more subjects or ideas.
• How do I choose a topic for a comparative essay? Answer: The topic choice depends on your interests and objectives. You can select topics with similar or contrasting characteristics to explore.
• What structure works best for a comparative essay? Answer: There are several structures, such as block, alternating, and woven. The choice depends on your topic and how you want to organize your argument.
• How do I write an introduction for a comparative essay? Answer: The introduction should provide context and a clear thesis statement, indicating your main comparisons and contrasts.
• How do I conclude a comparative essay? Answer: In the conclusion, recap the main points of comparison, restate your thesis, and offer final thoughts on your comparative analysis.

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, the complete guide to the ap comparative government and politics exam.

Advanced Placement (AP)

The AP Comparative Government and Politics exam tests your knowledge of how the political systems in different countries are similar and different. The exam requires endurance, strong critical thinking, and top-notch writing skills…which means you’ll need to be extra prepared!

If you’re looking for an AP Comparative Government study guide to carry you through all of your AP prep, look no further than this article! We’ll walk you through: 

• The structure and format of the AP Government — Comparative exam
• The core themes and skills the exam tests you on
• The types of questions that show up on the exam and how to answer them (with sample responses from real AP students!)
• How the AP Comparative Government exam is scored, including official scoring rubrics
• Four essential tips for preparing for the AP Comparative Government exam

Are you ready? Let’s dive in!

Understanding how major world governments work will be key to doing well on this exam!

Exam Overview: How Is the AP Government — Comparative Exam Structured?

First things first: you may see this exam referred to as both the AP Government — Comparative exam  or t he AP Comparative Government exam. Don't worry, though...both of these names refer to the  same  test! 

Now that we've cleared that up, let's look at the structure of the test itself. The AP Comparative Government and Politics exam tests your knowledge of basic political concepts and your ability to compare political systems and processes in different countries. 

This AP exam is on the shorter side, lasting for a total of two hours and 30 minutes . You’ll be required to answer 55 multiple-choice questions and four free-response questions during the exam. 

The AP Comparative Government exam is broken down into two sections . Section I of the exam consists of 55 multiple-choice questions and lasts for one hour. The first section of the exam accounts for 50% of your overall exam score. 

Section II of the AP Comparative Government exam consists of four free-response questions . On this part of the exam, you’ll be asked to provide open-ended, written responses to all four free-response questions. Section II lasts for one hour and 30 minutes and counts for 50% of your overall exam score . 

To give you a clearer picture of how the AP Comparative Government exam is structured, we’ve broken the core exam elements down in the table below:  

Source: The College Board

The AP Comparative Government and Politics exam tests you on a wide range of topics and skills that you need to really drive home before exam day. To help you prepare, we’ll go over the AP Comparative Government course themes, skills, and units next!

What’s on the AP Government — Comparative Exam? Course Themes, Skills, and Units

The AP Government — Comparative course teaches you the skills used by political scientists . To develop these skills during the course, you’ll explore content that falls into five big ideas that guide the course. 

The five big ideas for AP Comparative Government are: 

• Big Idea 1: Power and Authority
• Big Idea 2: Legitimacy and Stability
• Big Idea 3: Democratization
• Big Idea 4: Internal/External Forces
• Big Idea 5: Methods of Political Analysis 

On the AP Comparative Government exam, you’ll show your mastery of the skills associated with these big ideas by answering questions that ask you to apply concepts, analyze data, compare countries, and write political science arguments.

The content and skills you’ll study throughout the AP Comparative Government course are divided out into five units of study . You’ll be tested on content from all five course units during the AP Comparative Government exam. Getting familiar with what each unit covers and how those topics are weighted in your overall exam score will help you get prepared for exam day!

You can view each course unit, the topics they cover, and how they’re weighted in your exam score below: 

Now that you know what’s on the AP Comparative Government exam, let’s break down the two sections of the exam even further. We’ll look at Section I and Section II of the AP Comparative Government exam next!

AP Comparative Government Exam: Section I

The first section of the exam tests your ability to describe, explain, compare, and analyze political concepts and processes, various forms of data, and text passages. You’ll be asked to demonstrate these skills by answering both individual and sets of multiple-choice questions. 

Section I consists of 55 multiple-choice questions, lasts for one hour, and counts for 50% of your exam score. 

Here’s a breakdown of how each skill is assessed on the multiple-choice section of the exam: 

• Approximately 40–55% of multiple-choice questions assess students’ ability to apply political concepts and processes in hypothetical and authentic contexts. 
• Approximately 25–32% of multiple-choice questions will assess students’ ability to compare the political concepts and processes of China, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia, and the United Kingdom.
• Approximately 10–16% of multiple-choice questions will assess students’ ability to analyze and interpret quantitative data represented in tables, charts, graphs, maps, and infographics
• Approximately 9–11% of multiple-choice questions will assess students’ ability to read, analyze, and interpret text-based sources.

To help you get a better idea of what the multiple-choice questions are like on this part of the AP Comparative Government exam, let’s look at a sample question and how it’s scored next . 

Sample Question: Multiple-Choice

Looking at sample multiple-choice questions can help you grasp the connection between what you learn in the AP Comparative Government course and what you’ll be tested on during the exam. 

The individual multiple-choice question below comes from the College Board’s official guide to AP Comparative Government and Politics . 

The multiple-choice question above asks you to compare two or more countries based on their political systems and behaviors. It draws on your knowledge of Big Idea #1: Power and Authority because it asks about the role of government executives in different countries . You’ll focus on these concepts during Unit 2 of your AP Comparative Government course, which explores political institutions in different countries. 

The correct answer to this multiple-choice question is D : “The Chinese president and the Nigerian president are both commanders in chief of the armed forces.” 

AP Comparative Government Exam: Section II

Like Section I, the second section of the exam tests your ability to describe, explain, compare, and analyze political concepts and processes, various forms of data, and text passages. In this section, you’ll be asked to demonstrate these skills by providing written responses . 

Section II consists of four free-response questions, lasts for one hour and 30 minutes, and counts for 50% of your exam score. 

There are four different types of free-response questions on the exam, and each one tests your reading and writing skills in different ways. Here’s a breakdown of what you’ll be asked to do on each free-response question on the exam: 

• 1 conceptual analysis question: You’ll define or describe a political concept and/or compare political systems, principles, institutions, processes, policies, or behaviors.
• 1 quantitative analysis question: You’ll analyze data to find patterns and trends and reach a conclusion.
• 1 comparative analysis question: You’ll compare political concepts, systems, institutions, processes, or policies in two of the course countries.
• 1 argument essay: You’ll write an evidence-based essay supporting a claim or thesis.

To help you get a better sense of what the free-response questions are like on this part of the AP Comparative Government exam, let’s look at an example of each type of question and how it’s scored next . 

Sample Question: Conceptual Analysis Free-Response

The free-response question below is taken from the College Board’s official guide to AP Comparative Government and Politics . This sample question is an example of a conceptual analysis question. This is the first type of question that you’ll encounter on the exam. 

On the real exam, you’ll have 10 minutes to answer the conceptual analysis question . Check out the question below: 

To understand how to answer this question correctly, we’ll need to look at how conceptual analysis questions are scored on the exam. The scoring rubric below shows how your response to this question would be evaluated after the exam: 

Sample Question: Quantitative Analysis Free-Response

The Quantitative Analysis free-response question gives you quantitative data in the form of a graph, table, map, or infographic. You’ll be asked to describe, draw a conclusion, or explain that data and its connections to key course concepts. 

The quantitative analysis question is the second question you’ll encounter on the exam. It’s worth five raw points of your score on this section of the exam, and you should spend about 20 minutes answering this question. 

The quantitative analysis question below comes from the College Board’s official guide to AP Comparative Government and Politics : 

To get a better idea of how to answer this question, let’s look at the scoring rubric that’s used to evaluate this quantitative analysis question on the exam: 

Sample Question: Comparative Analysis Free-Response

The Comparative Analysis free-response question assesses your ability to define, describe, compare, or explain political concepts, systems, institutions, or policies in different countries. This question is the third free-response question that you’ll answer on the exam. 

The Comparative Analysis question is worth five raw points of your score on this section of the exam, and you should spend about 20 minutes answering this question. 

The comparative analysis question below comes from the College Board’s official guide to AP Comparative Government and Politics : 

We can take a look at the scoring rubric that’s used to evaluate this type of free-response question to get a better idea of what types of responses will earn you full points: 

Sample Question: Argument Essay Free-Response

The fourth and final free-response question you’ll encounter on the exam is the Argument Essay question. This free-response question assesses your ability to make a claim that responds to the question, defend and support your claim with reasonable evidence, and respond to an opposing view on the topic at hand. 

The Argument Essay question is worth five raw points, and it’s recommended that you spend about 40 minutes answering this question. 

The argument essay question below comes from the College Board’s official guide to AP Comparative Government and Politics : 

To understand what an effective response to this question looks like, we’ll need to think about how argument essay questions are scored on the exam. 

The scoring rubric for this free-response question is quite long; you’ll find four separate categories for evaluation in the rubric below , as well as examples of responses that will earn you full points in each category. 

The scoring rubric below shows how your response to this question will be evaluated: 

How Is the AP Comparative Government Exam Scored? 

Before you take the AP Comparative Government exam, you need to know how your responses will be scored. Here, we’ll explain how each section of the AP Comparative Government exam is scored, scaled, and combined to produce your final score on the AP 1-5 scale .

As a quick reminder, here’s how the score percentages breakdown on the exam: 

• Section I: Multiple-choice: 55 questions, 50% of overall score
• Section II: Free-response: four questions, 50% of overall score
• Question 1: Conceptual Analysis: 11%
• Question 2: Quantitative Analysis: 12.5%
• Question 3: Comparative Analysis: 12.5%
• Question 4: Argument Essay: 14%

On the multiple-choice section, you’ll earn one raw point for each question you answer correctly. The maximum number of raw points you can earn on the multiple-choice section is 55 points. You won’t lose any points for incorrect answers!

The free-response questions are scored differently. The Conceptual Analysis question is worth four raw points, and the Quantitative Analysis, Comparative Analysis, and Argument Essay questions are each worth five raw points. Collectively, there are a total of 19 raw points you can earn on the free-response section . 

Remember: you’ll only lose points on free-response questions for big errors , like providing an incorrect definition or failing to justify your reasoning. While you should use proper grammar and punctuation, you won’t be docked points for minor errors as long as your responses are clear and easy to understand. 

You can earn 74 raw points on the AP Comparative Government exam. Here’s how those points are parsed out by section: 

• 55 points for multiple-choice
• 19 points for free-response

After your raw scores have been tallied, the College Board will convert your raw score into a scaled score of 1-5 . When you receive your score report, that 1-5 scaled score is the one you’ll see. 

The 5 rate for the AP Comparative Government exam is fairly middle-of-the-road in comparison to other AP exams . Take a look at the table below to see what percentage of test takers earned each possible scaled score on the 2021 AP Comparative Government exam: 

4 Top Tips for Prepping for the AP Comparative Government and Politics Exam

If the AP Comparative Government exam is right around the corner for you, you’re probably thinking about how to prepare! We’re here to help you with that. C heck out our four best tips for studying for the AP Comparative Government exam !

Tip 1: Start With a Practice Exam

One of the best ways to set yourself up for successful AP exam prep is to take a practice exam. Taking a practice AP Comparative Government exam before you really start studying can help you design a study routine that best suits your needs. 

When you take a practice exam before diving into your study regimen, you get the chance to identify your strengths and weaknesses. Identifying your weaknesses early on in your exam prep will help you tailor your study time to eliminating your weaknesses (which translates to earning more points on the exam!). 

We recommend taking a full practice exam in the time frame you’ll be allotted on the real exam. This will help you get a real sense of what the timing will feel like on exam day! After you take the practice exam, sit down and evaluate your results. Make note of the questions you missed, the skills those questions assess, and the course content they reference. You can then design a study routine that targets those tougher areas–and give yourself a better chance of earning full exam points in the process!

Tip 2: Create Your Own Cram Sheet

Everyone needs quality study materials in order to prepare well for AP exams. But did you know that creating your own study materials is a great way to help you remember tough material? Creating your own AP Comparative Government cram sheet is a great way to review course concepts and themes and organize your understanding of the material you’ll be tested over later.

You can look up AP Comparative Government cram sheets online and design yours in a similar way…or you can take some time to consider your needs as a learner and test-taker, then design a cram sheet that’s tailor-made for you. 

On your cram sheet, you’ll likely want to include course concepts, issues, and questions that pop up on homework, quizzes, and tests that you take in your AP Comparative Government class. From there, you can supplement your cram sheet with info you learn from practice exams, sample free-response questions, and official scoring rubrics. You can work on memorizing that material, or simply use it to organize your study routine!

Tip 3: Practice Free-Response Questions

Free-response questions on AP exams are notoriously difficult, and the AP Government Comparative free-response questions are no different. Writing-based questions can be intimidating for any test-taker, so it’s important to practice free-response questions before the exam. 

The College Board provides an archive of past official free-response questions on their website . You can use these to practice and study! Any free-response questions your teacher gives you in class are fair game as well. When you practice free-response questions, remember to stick to the timing you’ll be given on the real exam, and use official scoring rubrics to evaluate your responses. Doing these things will help you get used to what free-response questions will feel like on the real exam! 

Tip 4: Take Another Practice Exam

As you wrap up your exam prep and exam day nears, consider taking another practice exam. You can compare your results on your second practice exam to your results on the practice exam that you took before you started studying. You’ll get to see how much you’ve improved over time!

Taking a final practice exam a few weeks before exam day can also help you revamp your exam prep. You can use your exam results to focus your final study time on any remaining struggle areas you’re encountering. Also, your score on your final practice exam can help you get an idea of what you’re likely to score on the real exam. Having this knowledge going into test day can calm your nerves and give you confidence, which are both essential to success on the AP Comparative Government exam!

What's Next? 

If you're taking AP Comparative Government, you're probably thinking about taking more AP classes during high school. Here's a list of the hardest AP classes and tests for you. 

Wondering how your AP Comparative Government score stacks up to the competition? Here's a list of the average AP scores for  every  exam to help you figure out. 

If you want to get a 5 on your AP exams, you'll need a study plan. Our five-step AP study plan will help you study smarter and boost your scores. 

Ashley Sufflé Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams.

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We know that countries across the globe have unique features which make up their political systems and structures. But as countries are such massive, complex structures, how can we compare them fairly?

In this article, we will look at what comparative politics is. We will also equip you with the necessary tools to successfully make comparisons between countries such as the UK and US by learning the principles of comparative politics and applying comparative theories and approaches to the two political systems.

Comparative politics: meaning

Comparative politics aims to understand the similarities and differences between political systems within and between countries. This will help us achieve a broader outlook on the politics of the world.

Comparative politics

A field of political science that explores political systems within and between countries.

Principles of comparative politics

The comparisons between countries usually focus on one issue at a time and focus on just a period in time. Because of this, we think of comparative politics as being "static": it does not compare systems and structures from different periods in time.

Comparative politics can focus on levels of democratisation, state-society relations or the effects of globalisation.

To compare countries, political scientists use scientific methodologies.

The methods used to compare countries include experiments, case studies, surveys and historical comparisons.

The comparisons can focus on very different countries with one thing in common or very similar countries with one major difference. Isolating one factor can help work out what are the variables that contribute to the differences.

These research methods are called Most Different Systems Design and Most Similar Systems Design.

Variable: in scientific research, a variable is an element or a factor that might change.

By looking at different countries to understand what they have in common, and how they differ, comparative politics contributes to the study of international relations and conflict resolution to such an extent that some thinkers suggest that the two fields should merge. How a country works shapes how countries relate to one another. By the same token, how countries relate to one another has an impact on the internal workings of individual countries.

Theories of comparative politics

There are 4 main theories within comparative politics:

Modernisation theory

Modernisation was the main comparative theory during the 1950s and 1960s. It assumes that modernisation is a linear, inevitable process and compares countries in the Global South to countries in the Global North based on their level of modernisation. Modernisation Theory is criticised for being western-centric: it assumes the level of modernisation of countries in the Global North to be the universal ideal. It also minimises or excludes the impacts of history, culture and religion on the different levels of development between countries.

The Global North and the Global South are terms to differentiate between countries (mostly) in the northern hemisphere characterised by richer economies, such as the USA, western Europe, Japan and Australia; and countries (mostly) in the southern hemisphere, with poorer economies, most of which were former colonies.

Fig. 1 Map of countries in the Global North (blue) and Global South (red)

Dependency theory

Dependency theory emerged in the 1960s in response to the failings of modernisation theory. It holds that countries in the Global South are poorer as they are exploited for their resources by the countries in the Global North. Dependency theory rejects the idea of a common trajectory of development and states that countries in the Global South are not just underdeveloped versions of countries in the Global North. They are countries in their own right with their structures and features.

World Systems Theory

World System Theory emerged in the 1970s and it compares capitalist world systems rather than countries.

A world system is an interdependent system of regions of the world based on their economic dynamics. Countries are categorised as "core" if their economies are based on high-skilled work. They are categorised as semi-periphery and periphery if their economies are characterised by low-skilled work and the extraction of raw material to be exported to core countries.

Capitalist: based on the principles of capitalism where the main aim is maximising profit.

A modern world system includes the United States as a core country, interacting with semi-periphery countries such as Brazil, and periphery countries such as Kenya.

Social power theories

Social power theories consider where power sits in society. The main two theories are pluralist theory and elite theory.

Pluralist theory holds that power is dispersed among different groups in society that influence the main decision-making body of a country: the government. Although these groups may vary in size and level of influence, their very existence leads to a certain level of democratic balance.

The elite theory stands in direct opposition to pluralist theory. It describes a set of dynamics within a society where the power is held by a small minority elite and the general population is merely subjected to it. A form of elite theory dates back to ancient Greece, where it was thought that those in charge were there due to their superior wisdom. Today's elites are mainly based on wealth and class. The conflict within elite theory stems from the question of whether the elite rules with or without the consent and interests of the people.

Approaches to the study of comparative politics

Let's now take a look at some different approaches to comparative politics. Approaches apply a specific focus to an area of politics and are valuable in understanding large political structures or systems. There are three comparative approaches that we can use in comparative politics.

Rational approach

Cultural approach

Structural approach

Let's have a closer look at them and use them to compare the UK and the US.

The rational approach emphasises the role of individuals in a political system. It is used to highlight that individuals will act rationally and in their self-interest.

Let's consider how different presidents take on their responsibilities and duties. President Trump used executive arguments and agreements to bypass Congress and rarely called cabinet meetings. Presidents do this in their self-interest, as it maximises their power and increases their overall influence in the US political system.

In the UK, we can identify prime ministers such as Tony Blair, who would also rarely call cabinet meetings due to the Labour party's significant majority in Parliament between 1997 and 2007, which meant Blair enjoyed a strong position in the UK legislature.

The cultural approach emphasises the historical and sociological context when comparing political systems. It focuses on groups, for instance, political parties or pressure groups , suggesting that the actions of individuals are informed by shared ideas or values.

The cultural approach can account for the role of shared ideas and cultures within the UK and US and how their government and politics can be affected. In the US the general culture leads to the president receiving more respect than their UK counterpart. This can be because the president is more directly elected by the citizens of America.

In the UK, instead, prime ministers are not directly elected: they are the leaders of their respective parties, and the members of the party choose them. In addition, the Prime Minister has collective cabinet responsibility, so if they exceed their role when they should be 'first among equals' they can be criticised.

Structural approach to comparative politics

The structural approach focuses on the institutions of the state. This can include how the institutions affect the political system of the country and how a political system is affected when these institutions change.

The structural approach can account for how the constitutional structures in the UK and US directly shape the political systems of each country. In the US, a codified Constitution means that all the key principles of the US political system are held in a single document and are difficult to alter. This ensures the rights of US citizens are entrenched.

In the UK, the Constitution is uncodified. This structural characteristic of the UK political system accounts for the evolutionary nature of the UK Constitution , which can be more easily altered and has evolved over its history.

Entrenched: a law that cannot be easily changed and needs a large majority to overturn

Comparative politics: the US and the UK

The United Kingdom and the United States are prominent players in world politics , they share the same language and their history is heavily intertwined.

However, they differ in the structure of their political system and how power is distributed.

Let's use the structural approach focused on where power sits to compare them.

Executive System

The Executive is often known as the government. It creates a political agenda during the term but in the UK and the US, it has different responsibilities. It usually consists of the head of government and/or state and their Cabinet.

Both the Prime Minister and the President are heads of government, they can both propose legislation and can appoint their cabinets. However, In the UK, the Prime Minister may appoint members of their cabinet from MPs with elected seats in Parliament or those with seats in the House of Lords but, as they are not the head of state, they must abide by the conventions of royal prerogative.

The US President is the head of state and the head of the government and can therefore also appoint and dismiss members of the Executive cabinet.

For more detail on cabinets see The UK Cabinet and US Cabinet.

A royal prerogative is a set of historical conventions, privileges and immunities attached to the monarch. In practical terms, the Prime minister governs on behalf of the monarch who however maintains the right to overrule the prime minister.

Legislative system

The legislature is the branch in both the UK and the US that proposes and votes on bills.

The UK and US legislative branches are both bicameral: they have the role to legislate as well as the role to scrutinise the Executive. However, in the UK the executive can initiate legislation but in the US, the executive does not sit in the legislature nor can they initiate legislation.

Judiciary system

The judicial system includes protecting civil rights and ensuring laws are obeyed and coincide with the constitution. The judicial branch in both the UK and US are independent.

The UK and US Supreme Courts were created to create a branch independent of the executive and legislative. The judges that serve all have an in-depth background in law.

However, the US President nominates the US Supreme Court judges. As opposed to the UK where Supreme Court judges are selected independently by Judicial Appointment Systems.

Democracy and participation

As well as through regular, fair elections, political participation can be defined by the presence of pressure groups .

Pressure groups are present in both the UK and the US. However, while in the UK there are strict regulations that limit the activities of pressure groups, in the US, first amendment rights prevent restrictions.

Pressure groups: groups that represent a particular interest.

The National Rifle Association (NRA): This interest group was established in 1871 and advocates for the protection of gun rights and is an important gun rights lobbying organisation. They donate to the campaigns of Democrats and Republicans.

Comparative Politics - Key takeaways

Comparative theories provide useful approaches when comparing countries such as the UK and US governments and politics.

Comparative politics is static, it focuses on one issue at a time and it complements the study of international relations.

The main theories used in comparative politics are modernisation, dependency, world systems and social power.

There are three key comparative politics approaches; the rational approach, the cultural approach and the structural approach.

There are several key aspects of the UK and US political systems which you may wish to compare and contrast using the theories and approaches we studied.

Frequently Asked Questions about Comparative Politics

--> what is comparative politics.

In this particular article and for A Levels purposes, is a branch of political science that helps us compare countries and political systems.

--> What is the purpose of comparative politics?

The purpose of comparative politics is to provide a wider understanding of world politics by looking at how different countries can be similar and different.

--> What are examples of comparative politics?

When we explore pressure groups in the UK and US, we can see that these groups help encourage participation in both countries, they both have insider and outsider groups, and are known to be influential in politics. However, the regulations in the UK allow there to be more restrictions and limitations for these groups compared to the US where they have more power.

--> What is comparative politics in simple words?

Comparative politics is the comparison between the government and politics in different countries.

--> What is the meaning of comparative politics?

Comparative politics is a way that we can study different countries, governments, and systems using comparison.

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What is the rational approach?

The rational approach emphasises the role of an individual in a nation and the way they are assumed to make rational choices that benefit the nation as well as their own causes.

What is the cultural approach?

The cultural approach emphasises the historical and sociological context when comparing political systems.

What is the structural approach?

Modernisation.

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Comparative Politics: Method and Research

In the early 1950s, the nascent political science subfield of comparative politics wrestled with questions of method and whether to approach comparing nation-states via abstract concepts or a problem-oriented focus. To begin addressing these concerns, the SSRC convened an interuniversity research seminar in which political scientists began to create a framework for the field that ultimately led to the formation of the Committee on Comparative Politics. Roy Macridis , in this report, summarizes the seminar’s discussion, which included the relative merits of area studies approaches to more abstract theorizing. The conversation clearly tilted toward starting with conceptual schemes independent of context, and so exemplifies the impact of behavioralism that Michael Desch illustrates in his Items essay .

The study of comparative politics has been primarily concerned thus far with the formal institutions of foreign governments, particularly of Western Europe. In this sense it has been not only limited but also primarily descriptive and formalistic. Its place in the field of political science has been ill-defined. Is the student of comparative politics properly concerned primarily with description of the formal institutions of various polities, or with undertaking comparisons? If with the latter, what is the meaning of comparison? Is it confined to the description of differences in various institutional arrangements? If comparison is to be something more than description of formal institutional differences, what are its aims, scope, and methods? Should the student of comparative politics attempt to compare total configurations? If not, then he has to develop a precise notion of what can be isolated from the total configuration of a system or systems and compared.

The above questions illustrate the difficulties and the challenge confronting the student of comparative politics. The problem of comparative method revolves around the discovery of uniformities, and the examination of variables in the context of uniformities between various systems. But even so, what are the particular clusters of states that have a degree of uniformity that makes the comparison and understanding of variations possible? Does the concept of “area,” as used, provide us with such a hunting ground for the study of “difference,” against a background of “uniformity”? Is the concept of culture a more acceptable one? Or does the similarity of social and economic contextual elements provide a better opportunity to compare and understand variations? What degree of homogeneity is required for comparison, and are comparisons between systems not showing the desired degree of homogeneity impossible?

The members of the seminar agreed that it would be extremely ambitious to attempt to answer these methodological questions in detail and at the same time indulge in empirical investigation. It was thought that if we could do some spadework on the methodological issues, we would invite comments and suggestions from the members of the profession and increase awareness of the need for making one’s methodological position explicit prior to undertaking comparative empirical investigation.

Comparability and uniqueness

Questions of the purpose and nature of comparison arose repeatedly, and the members of the seminar devoted considerable time to discussing them. It was agreed that the general problem of comparison is extraordinarily difficult for political science since it is unlikely that we will ever find two or more societies that are identical in all respects except for a single, variable factor. Consequently, the possibility of comparing one variable or even a set of variables against identical conditions is illusory. The alternative would seem to be comparison—at different levels of abstraction and complexity—of wider or narrower segments of the political process.

The following tentative classification of levels of comparative analysis was suggested: (1) comparison of a single problem limited to political systems that are homogeneous in character and operation; (2) comparison of several elements or clusters of elements in relation to political systems that are fairly homogeneous; (3) comparison of institutions or segments of the political process irrespective of “homogeneity”; (4) comparison of political systems as such. These four levels of comparison require increasingly higher levels of abstraction. At the fourth level, some such approach as that of “ideal types” would seem to be called for.

In general, two points of view were expressed throughout the seminar discussions. The first saw the need of a conceptual scheme that not only precisely defines the categories under which data may be collected, but also indicates the criteria of relevance to be adopted and the variables that are to be related hypothetically for the purpose of comparative study. According to the other view, given the present state of comparative studies, comparability ought to be derived primarily from the formulation of problems with limited and manageable proportions. This disagreement should not obscure the area of agreement reached by the members of the seminar.

For example, it was agreed: (1) Comparison involves abstraction, and concrete situations or processes can never be compared as such. To compare means to select certain types of concepts, and in selection we have to “distort” the unique and the concrete. (2) Prior to any comparison it is necessary not only to establish categories and concepts, but also to determine criteria of relevance of the particular components of a social and political situation to the problem under analysis, e.g., relevance of social stratification to family system, or of sun spots to political instability. (3) It is necessary to establish criteria for the adequate representation of the particular components that enter into a general analysis of a problem. (4) The formulation of hypothetical relations and their investigation with empirical data can never lead to proof. A hypothesis or a series of hypothetical relations would be considered verified only as long as not falsified. (5) Hypothetical relations rather than single hypotheses should be formulated. The connecting link between general hypothetical series and particular social relations should be provided by specifying the conditions under which any or all the possibilities enumerated in the series are expected to take place. (6) Finally, one of the greatest dangers in hypothesizing is the projection of possible relationships ad infinitum . This can be avoided by the orderly collection of data prior to hypothesizing. Such collection may in itself lead us to recognize irrelevant relations (climate and the electoral system, language and industrial technology, etc.).

The members of the seminar, therefore, substantially rejected the arguments in favor of uniqueness, and argued that comparison between institutions not only is possible but may eventually provide, through a multiple approach, a general theory of politics and a general theory of political change. Before this development can be realized, the following research approaches should be emphasized and undertaken in as orderly a way as possible: (1) elaboration of a tentative and even rough classificatory scheme or schemes; (2) conceptualization at various levels of abstraction, preferably at the manageable level of the problem-oriented approach; (3) formulation of single hypotheses or hypothetical series that may be suggested by the formulation of either a classificatory scheme or sets of problems; (4) constant reference of hypotheses to empirical data for the purpose of falsification and the formulation of new hypotheses.

Approaches to the comparative study of political systems

Conceptual schemes . The seminar members believed that formulation of a conceptual scheme for the comparative study of politics would help provide a classificatory table and permit the elaboration of hypotheses. Comparison, it was agreed, must proceed from a definition of politics as a universally discoverable social activity. The function of politics is to provide society with social decisions having the force and status of legitimacy. A social decision has the “force of legitimacy” if the collective regularized power of the society is brought to bear against deviations, and if there is a predominant disposition among those subject to the decision to comply. As for the means of enforcing decisions, every society, generally speaking, has a determinate organization that enjoys a monopoly of legitimate authority (or political ultimacy). Moreover, the characteristic distinguishing between political relationships and other relationships is the existence of this framework of legitimacy. Conceptions of legitimacy or “legitimacy myths” are highly varied ways in which people justify coercion and conformity, as well as the ways by which a society rationalizes its ascription of political ultimacy, and the beliefs that account for a predisposition to compliance with social decisions.

But the legitimacy myth only defines the conditions of obedience. Within its framework there is the political process itself, through which numerous groups having political aspirations (policy-aspiration groups and power-aspiration groups) strive for recognition and elevation to the position of legitimacy. The factors that determine which power-aspiration group is to be invested with legitimacy, to the exclusion of all others, are the effective power factors in the system.

It was suggested, then, that the general modes of politics, for the purpose of analysis, would be as follows: Political processes are the struggle among power-aspiration and policy-aspiration groups competing for the status of legitimacy; the outcome is determined by the society’s structure of effective power, and the end state, legitimacy, is the political reflection of its general value system.

The major components of the political process, which should provide a fairly coherent classification scheme as well as the possibility of formulating hypothetical relations, are the following: the “elective” process of the system, its “formal” deliberative process, its “informal” deliberative process, its structure of “influence,” and its structure of “power.” The major tasks, envisioned under this scheme, in the analysis of political systems are: (1) to analyze the legitimacy myth of the society in terms of specific content and relationship to the society’s general myth structure; (2) to inquire into the system’s political aspirations, political processes, and effective power factors; (3) to analyze both the complexity and ultimacy of decision-making systems in the society, specifically the conditions under which political ultimacy is either diffused or concentrated, and the relationships between subsidiary and ultimate decision-making systems; (4) to provide for a theory of change through the study of “formal” and “informal” processes.

Alternative approaches . The general agreement on the usefulness of a conceptual scheme was coupled with an equally strong emphasis on the need for alternative approaches. It was thought that the present state of comparative politics calls for a “pluralistic” rather than a unitary approach, and that for each of the alternative approaches suggested, the same degree of methodological rigor should be followed as in the development of a conceptual scheme. The alternative approaches agreed upon were: the problem approach, the elaboration of a classificatory scheme or checklist to aid in more coherent and more systematic compilation of data, and the area approach.

The problem approach

The study of comparative politics cannot wait for the development of a comprehensive conceptual scheme. Instead of aiming toward universality it may be advisable to adopt a more modest approach. The members of the seminar agreed that the “problem approach” is a step in this direction. It was pointed out that the formulation of a problem in itself has some of the characteristics of a conceptual scheme. It directs research toward various aspects of the political process and at the same time calls for an ordering of empirical data and the formulation of hypotheses or series of hypothetical relations. Furthermore, this approach is flexible enough so that it can lead the research worker to examination of questions that have a varying degree of comprehensiveness in terms of both theory and empirical orientation and investigation.

Three types of problem approaches were suggested and discussed: (1) Narrow-range theory, which involves a relatively low degree of abstraction; i.e., it applies to homogeneous cultural contexts and deals with a limited number of variables. (2) Middle-range theory, which is conceived to include problems of fairly general importance, involving a relatively high degree of generalization, but remaining below the level of a truly general theory of politics. (3) Policy-oriented theory, which deals with the immediate practical solution of important problems and is consequently focused on problems originating in pressing conflict situations or in an overwhelming need for policy action.

Four criteria by which to select problems were suggested: the intrinsic interest of the problem to political scientists; its ability to eliminate certain key difficulties in the comparative method and the analytical utility of comparison; its capacity for advancing research beyond the current level of inquiry in the field; its probable and eventual significance for the formation of a general theory of comparative politics.

It was agreed that the formulation of the problem should be as clear and logically coherent as possible, and that it should be presented in the following form:

a. The problem must be stated precisely; it must be stated in such a form as to lead immediately to hypotheses; it must be analyzed into its component elements; its variables and the relations between them must be spelled out; and all this must be done in operationally meaningful terms. b. Its relations to a possible general theory of politics must be described. How would the problem fit into a more general theoretical orientation and what more general questions can its solution illuminate? c. The manner in which the problem calls for the use of comparative method must be demonstrated, and the level of abstraction that comparison would involve must be analyzed. d. Outline a recommended research technique for dealing with the problem and justify the recommendation. e. Enumerate possible alternative research techniques.

It was not considered the function of the seminar to state exhaustively narrow-range, middle-range, and policy-oriented problems, but a few typical ones were suggested for the purpose of illustration: An analysis of the relations between the power of dissolution and ministerial stability in parliamentary systems would fall in the realm of narrow-range theory. A study of the political consequences of rapid industrialization in underdeveloped areas of the world would be in the realm of middle-range theory. The following are policy-oriented problems: the development of constitutional government in colonial areas; how to deal with political instability in France; how to dissociate colonial nationalism from Soviet-inspired leadership and ideology; determination of policies of constitutional regimes toward totalitarian parties, e.g., the Communist Party.

A classificatory scheme

The seminar concluded that a checklist might facilitate assembling data in an orderly fashion under commonly formulated concepts. It decided to develop such a checklist for purposes of illustration. The following broad categories and subdivisions were specified:

(1) The setting of politics: an enumeration of the most significant contextual factors of all political systems, i.e., geographic patterning, economic structure, transportation and communication patterns, sociological structure and minorities, cultural patterns, values and value systems, and the record of social change.

(2) The sphere of politics: the actual and potential sphere of political decisions: conditions determining the sphere of decision making, limits on political decisions, major types of decision making, and potential changes in the sphere of decision making.

(3) Who makes decisions: Who are the “elite” supposed to be? To whom does the community impute prestige and what are the prevalent prestige images and symbols? Who actually makes the effective political decisions if they are not made by those who are supposed to make them?

(4) How decisions are made: formulation of problems, agencies and channels of decision making, some major characteristics of decision-making procedure.

(5) Why are decisions obeyed: the enforcement of decisions, compliance, consent, types of consent, ecology of compliance, measurement of compliance.

(6) Practical politics: types, purpose, organization, and techniques of policy-aspiration groups; types, goals, organization, techniques, and influence and effectiveness of power-aspiration groups.

(7) The performance of the system: stability, adjustment, and change, and their conditions, relationship between formal and informal processes, manifestations of instability and stability.

Area study and comparative politics

The third alternative approach to the study of comparative politics is the more systematic use of the area concept. However, neither geographic, historical, economic, nor cultural similarities constitute prima facie evidence of the existence of similar political characteristics. If the concept of an area is to be operationally meaningful for purposes of comparison, it should correspond to some uniform political patterns against which differences may be studied comparatively and explained.

The definition of an area on the basis of culture was considered to be worth detailed discussion. It was suggested that although primarily used by the anthropologists it might be adapted to the needs of political scientists.

To make the concept operationally more meaningful for political science, it was suggested that an attempt be made to define the area concept with reference to “political traits” or “trait complexes” or “problem configuration patterns,” in terms analogous to those used by anthropologists when they analyze the concept of culture in terms of “traits” or “trait complexes.” Such an approach to the definition of an area has not yet been undertaken despite its promise for comparative study. The very search for common political traits and patterns will call for classification and conceptualization. Once similar traits or patterns have been distinguished and have been related to geographically delimited units, the area concept will be of great value since certain political processes can be compared within the area against a common background of similar trait configuration. In this sense it was thought that future research should be directed toward developing in great detail classificatory schemes within areas.

International relations

The last topic considered was the relationship between comparative politics and international politics. It was pointed out that contemporary study of international politics has entered a new stage. Since the national interest is now a central concept of international politics, what tests or criteria are to be used in identifying the interests that shape the foreign policy of any state? Is the student of international politics to accept, at face value, the definition of national interests given by statesmen? Or does the examination of power factors, geography, historical development, etc. offer the student of international politics certain rough tests for defining the “objective” interests of the state?

Assuming that the concept of national interest provides a focal point for investigation, two approaches seem possible, either separately or in combination: (1) To determine analytically what the national interest “ought to be” under certain conditions. One could then compare this evaluation of the national interest with its “actual” definition as provided by the actions and pronouncements of the particular nation. (2) To describe, in terms of the following categories, the reasons why nations define their national interest in certain terms and not in others: survival prerequisites; objective physical conditions—geography, natural resources, tradition, past decisions, value systems, etc.; institutional channels through which the national interest is defined and set—i.e., interest programs and images and how they are defined in the political process; policy interplay between independent political units and their respective interests, including the pattern of reaction within each; the subjective pluralism of the society, by which the content of the interest images is set. The first four categories are in the nature of factors that set limits on the definition of the national interest. The last category defines the possibilities in substantive terms. On the basis of this scheme, it was suggested, there might be a useful “division of labor” or cooperation between students of international politics and of comparative politics. The second and fourth categories could best be handled by students of international politics, the others by specialists in comparative government.

More generally, however, a cooperative effort between students of international politics and comparative politics should be centered in the following areas of mutual interest: (1) The process of decision making has become a function in international politics through existing organizations. How does this decision-making take place? Is it accompanied by any broad legitimacy ideas or myths that transcend the national states? (2) The concept of national interest provides for meaningful concepts for the study of foreign policy. The concept will have to be broken down into component parts, some of which would be studied by students of comparative politics, while others remain within the domain of international politics. Given analogous conditions, generally speaking, the definition of national interest varies by individual states. Determination of what accounts for this variation seems to be the proper task of the specialist in comparative politics. (3) Study of the focal point at which the states meet—diplomacy and negotiations through which conflicts are resolved or common objectives realized—is a cooperative task that admits no arbitrary allocation of duties, for the action of each state depends upon domestic conditions, internal images, and traditional forces. Relations between states, on the other hand, have repercussions on domestic myths, images, authority symbols, and institutions. Domestic and international politics are in this sense complementary factors. (4) The student of international politics may also join with the student of comparative politics in attempting to define and study an area. Certain uniform outlooks and behavior patterns may be due to similar experiences shared by a number of states that can be geographically identified. The study of such uniformities and differences is primarily a joint task. (5) Finally, goals of foreign policy may be jointly studied. In the context of national interest, foreign policy is to be conceived as a dynamic interplay of the given or chosen goals, the organic elements that set limiting conditions on the selection of goals, and the selection of strategy or means for the achievement of the given or chosen goals.

This article is a summary of a longer report on the proceedings of the interuniversity summer research seminar on comparative politics held at Northwestern University during July and August 1952. Plans for the seminar were described briefly in the March 1952 issue of Items , p. 7. While the author is responsible for the statements appearing here, they summarize a collective product and at times reproduce lines of thought expressed originally by the participants both during the meetings and in their respective essays. Members of the seminar were: Samuel H. Beer and Harry Eckstein, Harvard University; George I. Blanksten and Roy C. Macridis, Northwestern University; Karl W. Deutsch, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Kenneth W. Thompson, University of Chicago; and Robert E. Ward, University of Michigan. Richard Cox of the University of Chicago acted as rapporteur.

Roy C. Macridis (1918–1991) taught political science at Brandeis University since 1965. During the Second World War, Macridis served with the Office of Strategic Services and migrated to the United States in 1944. He was a member of the Council’s Committee on Comparative Politics from 1954 to 1958.

This essay originally appeared in Items Vol. 6, No. 4 in December of 1952. Visit our archives to view the original as it first appeared in the print editions of Items .

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Report on the work of the committee on urbanization, a note on the origin of “interdisciplinary”, social science and contemporary social problems, environmental discourses and human welfare in south and southeast asia.

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How to Write a Comparative Essay

Last Updated: May 19, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. There are 8 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,683,124 times.

Perhaps you have been assigned a comparative essay in class, or need to write a comprehensive comparative report for work. In order to write a stellar comparative essay, you have to start off by picking two subjects that have enough similarities and differences to be compared in a meaningful way, such as two sports teams or two systems of government. Once you have that, then you have to find at least two or three points of comparison and use research, facts, and well-organized paragraphs to impress and captivate your readers. Writing the comparative essay is an important skill that you will use many times throughout your scholastic career.

Comparative Essay Outline and Example

How to Develop the Essay Content

• Many comparative essay assignments will signal their purpose by using words such as "compare," "contrast," "similarities," and "differences" in the language of the prompt.
• Also see whether there are any limits placed on your topic.

• The assignment will generally ask guiding questions if you are expected to incorporate comparison as part of a larger assignment. For example: "Choose a particular idea or theme, such as love, beauty, death, or time, and consider how two different Renaissance poets approach this idea." This sentence asks you to compare two poets, but it also asks how the poets approach the point of comparison. In other words, you will need to make an evaluative or analytical argument about those approaches.
• If you're unclear on what the essay prompt is asking you to do, talk with your instructor. It's much better to clarify questions up front than discover you've written the entire essay incorrectly.

• The best place to start is to write a list of things that the items you are comparing have in common as well as differences between them. [3] X Research source

• You may want to develop a system such as highlighting different types of similarities in different colors, or use different colours if you are using an electronic device.
• For example, if you are comparing two novels, you may want to highlight similarities in characters in pink, settings in blue, and themes or messages in green.

• The basis for your comparison may be assigned to you. Be sure to check your assignment or prompt.
• A basis for comparison may have to do with a theme, characteristics, or details about two different things. [7] X Research source
• A basis for comparison may also be known as the “grounds” for comparison or a frame of reference.
• Keep in mind that comparing 2 things that are too similar makes it hard to write an effective paper. The goal of a comparison paper is to draw interesting parallels and help the reader realize something interesting about our world. This means your subjects must be different enough to make your argument interesting.

• Research may not be required or appropriate for your particular assignment. If your comparative essay is not meant to include research, you should avoid including it.
• A comparative essay about historical events, social issues, or science-related topics are more likely to require research, while a comparison of two works of literature are less likely to require research.
• Be sure to cite any research data properly according to the discipline in which you are writing (eg, MLA, APA, or Chicago format).

• Your thesis needs to make a claim about your subjects that you will then defend in your essay. It's good for this claim to be a bit controversial or up for interpretation, as this allows you to build a good argument.

How to Organize the Content

• Use a traditional outline form if you would like to, but even a simple list of bulleted points in the order that you plan to present them would help.
• You can also write down your main points on sticky notes (or type them, print them, and then cut them out) so that you can arrange and rearrange them before deciding on a final order.

• The advantages of this structure are that it continually keeps the comparison in the mind of the reader and forces you, the writer, to pay equal attention to each side of the argument.
• This method is especially recommended for lengthy essays or complicated subjects where both the writer and reader can easily become lost. For Example: Paragraph 1: Engine power of vehicle X / Engine power of vehicle Y Paragraph 2: Stylishness of vehicle X / Stylishness of vehicle Y Paragraph 3: Safety rating of vehicle X / Safety rating of vehicle Y

• The advantages of this structure are that it allows you to discuss points in greater detail and makes it less jarring to tackle two topics that radically different.
• This method is especially recommended for essays where some depth and detail are required. For example: Paragraph 1: Engine power of vehicle X Paragraph 2: Engine power of vehicle Y Paragraph 3: Stylishness of vehicle X Paragraph 4: Stylishness of vehicle Y Paragraph 5: Safety rating of vehicle X Paragraph 6: Safety rating of vehicle Y

• This method is by far the most dangerous, as your comparison can become both one-sided and difficult for the reader to follow.
• This method is only recommended for short essays with simplistic subjects that the reader can easily remember as (s)he goes along. For example: Paragraph 1: Engine power of vehicle X Paragraph 2: Stylishness of vehicle X Paragraph 3: Safety rating of vehicle X Paragraph 4: Engine power of vehicle Y Paragraph 5: Stylishness of vehicle Y Paragraph 6: Safety rating of vehicle Y

How to Write the Essay

• Body paragraphs first . Work through all that information you've been compiling and see what kind of story it tells you. Only when you've worked with your data will you know what the larger point of the paper is.
• Conclusion second . Now that you've done all the heavy lifting, the point of your essay should be fresh in your mind. Strike while the iron’s hot. Start your conclusion with a restatement of your thesis.
• Intro last . Open your introduction with a "hook" to grab the reader's attention. Since you've already written your essay, choose a hook that reflects what you will talk about, whether it's a quote, statistic, factoid, rhetorical question, or anecdote. Then, write 1-2 sentences about your topic, narrowing down to your thesis statement, which completes your introduction.

• Organize your paragraphs using one of the approaches listed in the "Organizing the Content" part below. Once you have defined your points of comparison, choose the structure for the body paragraphs (where your comparisons go) that makes the most sense for your data. To work out all the organizational kinks, it’s recommended that you write an outline as a placeholder.
• Be very careful not to address different aspects of each subject. Comparing the color of one thing to the size of another does nothing to help the reader understand how they stack up. [15] X Research source

• Be aware that your various comparisons won’t necessarily lend themselves to an obvious conclusion, especially because people value things differently. If necessary, make the parameters of your argument more specific. (Ex. “Though X is more stylish and powerful, Y’s top safety ratings make it a more appropriate family vehicle .”)
• When you have two radically different topics, it sometimes helps to point out one similarity they have before concluding. (i.e. "Although X and Y don't seem to have anything in common, in actuality, they both ....”)

• Even the best writers know editing is important to produce a good piece. Your essay will not be your best effort unless you revise it.
• If possible, find a friend to look over the essay, as he or she may find problems that you missed.
• It sometimes helps to increase or decrease the font size while editing to change the visual layout of the paper. Looking at the same thing for too long makes your brain fill in what it expects instead of what it sees, leaving you more likely to overlook errors.

Expert Q&A

• The title and introduction really catch the reader's attention and make them read the essay. Make sure you know how to write a catchy essay title . Thanks Helpful 6 Not Helpful 1
• Quotes should be used sparingly and must thoroughly complement the point they are being used to exemplify/justify. Thanks Helpful 5 Not Helpful 2
• The key principle to remember in a comparative paragraph or essay is that you must clarify precisely what you are comparing and keep that comparison alive throughout the essay. Thanks Helpful 3 Not Helpful 2

• Avoid vague language such as "people," "stuff," "things," etc. Thanks Helpful 4 Not Helpful 0
• Avoid, at all costs, the conclusion that the two subjects are "similar, yet different." This commonly found conclusion weakens any comparative essay, because it essentially says nothing about the comparison. Most things are "similar, yet different" in some way. Thanks Helpful 4 Not Helpful 0
• Some believe that an "unbalanced" comparison - that is, when the essay focuses predominantly on one of the two issues, and gives less importance to the other - is weaker, and that writers should strive for 50/50 treatment of the texts or issues being examined. Others, however, value emphasis in the essay that reflects the particular demands of the essay's purpose or thesis. One text may simply provide context, or historical/artistic/political reference for the main text, and therefore need not occupy half of the essay's discussion or analysis. A "weak" essay in this context would strive to treat unequal texts equally, rather than strive to appropriately apportion space to the relevant text. Thanks Helpful 3 Not Helpful 0
• Beware of the "Frying Pan Conclusion" in which you simply recount everything that was said in the main body of the essay. While your conclusion should include a simple summary of your argument, it should also emphatically state the point in a new and convincing way, one which the reader will remember clearly. If you can see a way forward from a problem or dilemma, include that as well. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 1

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/comparing-and-contrasting/
• ↑ http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/comparative-essay
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/comparing-and-contrasting/
• ↑ http://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/how-write-comparative-analysis
• ↑ https://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/style_purpose_strategy/compare_contrast.html
• ↑ https://open.lib.umn.edu/writingforsuccess/chapter/10-7-comparison-and-contrast/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/proofreading/steps_for_revising.html
• How to Structure Paragraphs in an Essay

About This Article

To write a comparative essay, start by writing an introduction that introduces the 2 subjects you'll be comparing. You should also include your thesis statement in the introduction, which should state what you've concluded based on your comparisons. Next, write the body of your essay so that each paragraph focuses on one point of comparison between your subjects. Finally, write a conclusion that summarizes your main points and draws a larger conclusion about the two things you compared. To learn how to do research for your essay, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Comparative Analysis Within Political Science

What Are The Advantages of Comparing Institutions and Political Processes In Two Or More Countries Compared To the Study Of the Same Institutions Or Processes In a Single Country?

This essay will serve as a brief introduction to the practical, conceptual and theoretical values of comparative analysis within political science.  Following a brief explanation of the methodology, this essay will explain the importance of its role and the benefits it brings to the political field of research. The essay will also focus on the benefits of comparatively analysing the collating institutions and processes of two or more countries as opposed to one.

Comparative analysis (CA) is a methodology within political science that is often used in the study of political systems, institutions or processes. This can be done across a local, regional, national and international scale. Further, CA is grounded upon empirical evidence gathered from the recording and classification of real-life political phenomena. Where-by other political studies develop policy via ideological and/or theoretical discourse, comparative research aims to develop greater political understanding through a scientifically constrained methodology. Often referred to as one of the three largest subfields of political science, It is a field of study that was referred to as “the greatest intellectual achievement” by Edward A. Freeman (Lijphart, ND).

Using the comparative methodology, the scholar may ask questions of various political concerns, such as the connection, if any, between capitalism and democratization or the collation between federal and unitary states and electoral participation. CA can be employed on either a single country (case) or group of countries.  For the study of one country to be considered comparative, it is essential that the findings of the research are referenced into a larger framework which engages in a systematic comparison of analogous phenomena. Subsequent to applying a comparative methodology in the collation or collection of data, established hypothesises can then be tested in an analytical study involving multiple cases (Caramani, 2011).

Patterns, similarities and differences are examined to assess the relationships of variants between the two or more separate systems. It is this nature of the analysis that renders it comparative. Henceforth the researcher is subsequently able to isolate the independent variables of each study case. If the independent variables of “X” and “Y” exist, their relationship to dependant variable “Z” can be hypothesised, tested and established (Landman, 2008). This isolation is essential for the most defining and significant strength of CA, that is to establish the hypothetical relationships among variables (Guy, 2011). This empirical analysis can be used to explain a system, present theoretical ideas for modification and even to reasonably predict the future consequence of the case study in question.

While some researchers may favour a large amount of countries for their study (large-N) others will use a smaller amount of units (small-N) (Guy, 1988). The size of the case study is directly collated with the subject and it must lend the study sufficient statistical power. The researcher decides whether it is most appropriate to study one or more units for comparison and whether to use quantitative or qualitative research methods (Guy, 1988). The methodology of utilising multiple countries when analysing is the closet replication of the experimental method used in natural science (Lim, 2010). A clear strength of this method is the inclusion of the ability to implement statistical controls to deduct rival explanations, its ability to make strong inferences that hold for more cases, and its ability to classify ‘deviant’ countries that contradict the outcomes expected from the theory being tested (Guy, 2011).

Deviant countries or cases are units which appear to be exceptions to the norm of the theory being analysed. They are most prevalent in studies of processes and institutions involving only one country. This is due to the fact that there is often a severely limited amount of variability being tested (Lim, 2010).  In testing for the relationship between income inequality and political violence in sixty countries, Muller and Seligson identified which countries collated with their theory and which did not. Brazil, Panama, and Gabon were found to have a lower level of political violence than was expected for their national level of income inequality. Alternatively, with a low national level of income inequality, the UK was shown to have a higher than expected amount of political violence (Harro and Hauge, 2003). This identification of these ‘deviant’, cases allowed researchers to look for the explanations. They were able to deduct them from their analysis and increase the accuracy of their predictions for the other cases. This could not have been achieved in a single-country study and would have inevitably left the findings unbalanced and inaccurate.

Selection bias is a reductive practice that is most common with single-country studies. It arises through the deliberate prejudice of countries chosen for examination. The most damaging form of selection bias to the validity of the research is when only case(s) that support the theory being hypothesised are analysed. The serious problem of selection bias occurs much less frequently in studies that contain multiple countries (Lim, 2010).  This is because Studies that compare institutions and processes in multiple countries often rely on a sufficient number of observations that reduce the problem or at least its effects of selection bias. Using multiple countries reduces the risk of this invalidity causing phenomena.

However, the research of a single country is clearly valuable; it can produce an insightful exploration of many domestic institutions such as social healthcare, and also processes such as immigration. The findings however are mostly applicable to the country of analysis.  Whereas the findings of multi-national CA are also domestically valuable, they also tend to be more inherently valuable to the wider international field. This is because the comparisons of multi-national institutions and processes that are functionally collated have an increased global validity and transferability than the findings of comparison of a single nation (Keman, 2011). The comparative results of a single nation must be hypothesised with other understandings and predications relying substantially on theoretical observations, assumptions and past studies. Inevitably, studying more than one country lends the study a greater field of which to analyse. It is by the CA of subjects from multiple countries that thematic maps can be developed, national, regional and global trends can be identified, and transnational organisations can make acutely informed decisions. These practical benefits are not possible when analysing a phenomenon from one country without cross-case comparison. Analysing multiple cross-national units also furthers our understanding of the similarities, differences and relationships between the case study itself, and the geo-political, economic, and socio-cultural factors that would otherwise escape unaccounted.

The popularity of comparative method of analysing two or more countries has steadily increased (Landman, 2008). Indeed it can be regarded as essential to the understanding and development of modern day political, and international relation’s theory. With the constant dissolvent of countries around the world such as Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia combined with the potential for the creation of new states such as Palestine; the CA which involves different countries offers a wealth of information and most importantly, prediction for their futures. This theoretical framework for prediction is invaluable to society.

Alternatively analysis applied to a single-nation case is less applicable on a global scale (Lim, 2010). For example; studying the process of democratization in one Latin American country, although it offers important inferences that can be examined in other countries with a similar set of circumstances, is arguably insufficient to develop a theory of democratization itself that would be globally applicable. Quite simply, the singular analysis of an institution or process involving only one country often fails to provide a global set of inferences to accurately theorise a process (Harro and Hauge, 2003).

Comparing and contrasting processes and institutions of two or more countries allows the isolation of specific national variants (Hopkin, 2010). It also encourages the clear revealing of common similarities, trends and causation and the deduction of false causation. This means that established hypothesis are continually ripe for revaluation and modification. It enables the researcher to minimise the reductive phenomenon of having ‘too many variables not enough countries’, this occurs when the researcher is unable to isolate the dependant variable of the study because there are too many potential variables (Harro and Hauge, 2003). This problem is far more associated with single-country studies because it results from a surplus of potential explanatory factors combined with an insufficient amount of countries or cases in the study (Harro and Hauge, 2003).

Studies involving multiple countries assists in the defining of results as being idiographic in nature or nomothetic (Franzese, 2007).  It also assists in making the important distinction between causation, positive correlation, negative correlation and non-correlation. When analysing only one case or country it is harder to correctly make a distinction between these relationships especially one that is not only subject to the one country.

It is by studying institutions and processes of different countries by use of an empirical methodological framework, that the researcher is able to realise inferences without the ambiguity of generalisations. The separation of the cases being compared offers the researcher a richer study ground of variables that assist in acutely testing hypothesises and in the creation of others. It is through CA that correlating, dependent and independent relationships can be identified (Lim, 2010). The inclusion of multiple countries in a study lends the findings wider validity (Keman, 2011). For example, Gurr demonstrated that the amounts of civil unrest in 114 countries are directly related to the existence of economic and political deprivation. This theory holds true for a majority of countries that it is tested with (Keman, 2011).

It should also be noted that all countries, to differing degrees, are functioning in an interdependent globalized environment. Because of immigration, economic and political interdependence, the study of an institutions and/or processes within a single country inevitably gives a reduction in the transferability of the findings. This is because the findings at least are only as applicably transferable as their counterparts are functionally equivalent.  It also somewhat fails to account for transnational trends (Franzese, 2007).  Alternatively, comparison involving multiple nations, especially using quantitative techniques, can offer valuable empirically-based geopolitical and domestic generalizations. These assist in the evolution of our understanding of political phenomena and produce great recommendations into how to continue particular research using the same form of analysis or a different method all together.

The study of processes and institutions within two or more countries has been criticised for producing less in-depth information compared to studies involving one country (Franzese, 2007).  While this is appears to be a substantial criticism; there is not always agreement between scholars that this trade-off between quantity and quality is substantial, or indeed extremely relevant. Robert Franzese claims that the relative loss of detail which results from analysing large amounts of cross-national cases, does not justify retreating to qualitative study of a few cases (Franzese, 2007).  This is because most generalizations from single-country studies will inevitably be limited, since the country as a unit is bound by unique internal characteristics.

It is clear that both single-nation and multinational studies play an important role in CA. Yet as evidenced above, the strengths of encompassing multiple countries into comparative research far outweigh any reduction in the quality of the findings. Indeed, multinational studies work to reduce selection bias, and encourage global transferability, assists in variable deduction and receive recognition as being empirically scientific.

Bibliography

Caramani, D. (2011) Introduction to Comparative Politics. In: Daniele Caramani (ed)’ Comparative Politics’. 2nd edition. London, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-19

Culpepper, P. (2002 ) ’Single Country Studies and Comparative Politics’ Cambridge Massachusetts, Harvard University press.

Franzese, R. (2007) ‘Multicausality, Context-Conditionally, and Endogeneity’ In: Carels Boix and Susan Stokes. ed(s) ‘The Oxford Handbook of Political Science’. Oxford University Press: New York. pp29-72

Guy, P. (1988) ‘The Importance of Comparison’. In: ‘ Comparative Politics Theory and Methods.’ Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 2-27

Guy, P. (2011) ‘Approaches in Comparative Politics’. In: Daniele Caramani (ed) ‘ Comparative Politics ’.2nd edition. London, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp37-49

Harrop, M. and Hauge, R. (2003)  ‘ The Comparative Approach’ . Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

Hopkin, J. (2010) ‘The Comparative Method’. In: David Marsh & Gerry Stoker .ed(s)‘ Theory and Methods in Political Science’ . Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 285-307

Keman, H. (2011) ‘Comparative Research Methods’ .  In Daniele Caramani (ed) ‘Comparative Politics’.   2 nd edition. London , Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.50-63

Landman, T. (2008) ‘Why Compare Countries?’.In: ‘ Issues and Methods in Comparative Politics: An Introduction .’ 3rd ed. London: Routledge, pp. 3-22

Lijhart, A. (ND) ‘ Comparative Politics and the Comparative Model’. In: ‘The American Political Science Review ’ . Vol 65, No 3. New York: American Political Science Association, pp. 682-693

Lim, T. (2010) ’ Doing Comparative Politics: An Introduction to Approaches and Issues’ . 2 nd edition. London: Lynne Rienner

— Written by: Alexander Stafford Written at: Queen’s University of Belfast Written for: Dr Elodie Fabre Date written: February 2013

Further Reading on E-International Relations

• The European Quality of Government Index: A Critical Analysis
• The Battle of Austerlitz and the Utility of Game Theory for Operational Analysis
• Globalisation, Agency, Theory: A Critical Analysis of Marxism in Light of Brexit
• Between Pepe and Beyoncé: The Role of Popular Culture in Political Research
• Queer Asylum Seekers as a Threat to the State: An Analysis of UK Border Controls
• Old Wine, New Bottles: A Theoretical Analysis of Hybrid Warfare

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How to write a comparative essay

A step-by-step guide with instructions, outlines, and samples

Writing a great comparative essay means highlighting the similarities and differences between two things in a systematic manner. Start by choosing the parameters (items) to compare, write an outline, and fill in the details for each section. Make sure to have an introduction and conclusion.

The comparative essay is one form of document that you will probably be expected to write at some point over the course of your college career. The purpose of this article is to provide you with a thorough overview of the comparative essay. Specific things that will be addressed include:

Purpose of the comparative essay

Explanation of comparative models, how to analyze subjects, elements of a good comparative essay, how to write a great comparative essay.

• Samples/examples
• Best practices and advice
• Additional information

By the end of this article, you should feel more confident about your own knowledge of what a comparative essay is and the best ways to go about writing one (if you haven't decided to buy a comparative essay from Ultius ).

The fundamental purpose of a comparative essay is to elaborate the similarities and differences between two things in a systematic manner.

An effective comparative essay will leave the reader with much greater clarity about the natures and properties of the things that have been compared.

This could potentially serve as a basis for making a decision in favor of one or the other thing.

A comparative essay is different from, for example, an argumentative essay in that the comparative essay does not make a case for either of the two things under comparison. Rather, the point is to simply set up the comparison so that the reader will have as much information about the two things as possible.

Why are comparative essays important?

The comparative essay is an important form of document because when you have to make a decision or choose a side in an argument, you will want to know as much as possible about the two options under consideration—and a good comparative essay on the subject can bring out both the similarities and the differences between the options, thereby clarifying the stakes at play.

For example, a comparative essay could address the similarities and differences between any of the following pairs:

• The Republican Party and the Democratic Party
• Christianity and Marxism
• The Big Bang and creationism
• The Light or Dark side of the Force from Star Wars
• The revolutionary and the reformist perspectives on social change

By developing a comparative essay on any of these pairs, you can not only understand each item of under comparison is a more thorough way, you can also get closer to figuring out which item you prefer.

For example, a solid comparative essay on revolution vs. reformism could not only help you understand what each of these items entails, it can also help you figure out whether you would rather be a revolutionary or a reformist. Likewise, if you only have time to binge watch one show, then a comparative essay could help you figure out whether you would prefer to go with Game of Thrones or Westworld .

When writing a comparative essay, there are several models you can use in order to ensure that you set up your comparison as effectively as possible.

Venn diagram

The Venn diagram is a classic, and surely, you're familiar with it. This is the model of two overlapping circles, where each circle belongs to one item of comparison: features shared by both items (similarities) go in the overlapping middle zone, whereas features that are not shared go in the outer areas. For example, here is a Venn diagram that compares humans against gorillas.

When using the Venn diagram model, it is important to note that the differences must be symmetrical. In other words, every difference you list on one side of the comparison must be matched by a difference on the other side.

For example, if you were comparing Apple and Amazon, then for the parameter of "founder," you can list "Steve Jobs" in one circle and "Jeff Bezos" in the other. But it wouldn't make sense if you just listed one or the other: you must list something for each of the items of comparisons under the selected parameter of comparison.

In the Venn diagram above, the first parameter is "language," so for humans it is listed that we have a capacity of language, whereas for gorillas it is listed that they do not.

You don't need to worry about this kind of symmetry when it comes to the similarities, since you will list the same thing for both items of comparison (which means you only have to list it once, in the overlapping zone). In the example, above, the fact that both humans and gorillas are mammals is thus listed just once in the middle.

The dialectical method

The dialectical method is important within the discipline of philosophy, and it has been used to great effect by thinkers such as Socrates and Hegel and Kierkegaard.

This involves holding two ideas or items in tension with each other, to better clarify not only the ideas themselves but also the dynamic relationship that exist between the ideas. The first idea is called the thesis , and the second idea is called the antithesis .

For example, Romanticism could be dialectically compared against the Enlightenment that came before it, because Romanticism was in some ways a rejection of the previous worldview.

Need help?  Essay writing services from Ultius can help you produce a great sample compare and contrast essay.

So, by setting up a comparison between Romanticism and the Enlightenment, it becomes possible to see both the continuities (or similarities) between the one and the other, as well as the contradictions (or differences) between them.

Berlin, Isaiah. The Roots of Romanticism . Princeton: Princeton U P, 2013. Print.

From the table above, it is clear that we are able to understand both Romanticism and the Enlightenment better if we set them up in terms of dialectical contrast.

Clearly, they are different in some important ways (logic vs. passion, for example), but we can also see that they are in continuity with each other (both happened in Western Europe and responded to previous developments). This comparison also leads one to wonder about whether it would be possible to make a synthesis that takes the best from both the thesis and the antithesis

A good comparative essay can lead one to ask such questions and pursue such lines of inquiry.

To analyze your subjects for a comparative essay, you need to identify clear parameters, or axes, in terms of which your two selected items can be compared. For example, in the table above, Romanticism and the Enlightenment were compared along the axis of " epistemology ". But that axis won't be relevant to all subjects.

Your job when preparing to write a comparative essay is to identify the specific axes that are relevant for the items that you are comparing. Why is the comparison interesting, and what insights are you trying produce? The answers to those questions will determine how you decide to frame your comparison.

For example, we could compare the Democratic Socialists of America (DSA) against the Democratic Party in terms of the axis of membership. This would reveal that the DSA has far fewer registered members than does the Democratic Party.

We could also compare them on the axis of healthcare policy, where it may be found that the DSA and the Democratic Party agree about the importance of universal coverage. When we look at the axis of economics, though, we may find that the DSA is much more radical in its proposals than the Democratic Party.

The problem of identifying relevance

In principle, any one thing in the world could be compared with any other thing in the world. For example, you could compare your shoe with the moon, and conclude that one similarity is that they both exist within the Milky Way galaxy.

But this would be a meaningless point (even if it may make for some interesting poetry). It is important for you to figure out what exactly you are trying to determine through your comparative essay. What is your purpose for writing it?

This will help you choose two items where setting up a dialectical contrast between them will produce actual insight, and it will also help you to choose the proper parameters by which to compare those items.

For example, suppose that you are running a business, and there are two expansion options open in front of you. It would be logical for you to compare and contrast these options, since this will help ensure that you are making your decision with as much knowledge and insight as possible.

Likewise, one parameter that you are sure to consider is: which option will make your business the most money? If you pick parameters that are meaningless, then you will obtain no real insight that can help you make the important decision.

Using a rubric

Once you have identified both the two items of comparison and the axes along which they will be compared, you can proceed to analyze the items by applying the axes in the form of a table or rubric.

This is what has been done, for example, in the tables that have been developed above in this article. In the left-most column, list the parameters you have selected in order to compare your items. Then, in the top-most row, list the items.

Then go ahead and list the relevant details for each parameter for each of the two items. This will produce a table where you can see how each item measures up against the other for each parameter.

The important thing is to be systematic when you are making your comparison: it should not seem random or arbitrary. Thus, it is important to carefully select both the items and the parameters for comparison, and then to proceed to address each item/parameter combo in turn.

There are several elements that are a part of any good comparative essay.

Effective selection of items

A strong comparative essay has well-chosen items for comparison, with the comparison producing actual insights of value through the juxtaposition of the two items. If the items appear to be chosen for no apparent reason, or if the comparison does not in fact produce insight, then the comparative essay would be quite weak (or at any rate pointless).

The comparative essay is not meant to make an argument in favor of one thing or another, but it is meant to produce knowledge and insight about the two things under comparison. In order to compare and contrast items in an effective way, the two items must be different enough from each other, but they should also not be so different that it just feels absurd to even compare them at all.

Effective selection of parameters of comparison

A good comparative essay not only includes well-selected items of comparison, it also includes well-selected parameters of comparison. Between any two selected items, you could theoretically make an endless number of comparisons.

But a good comparative essay identifies parameters of comparative in terms of salience , or the reasons why anyone would be interested in the comparison in the first place. This can be difficult, because in principle, any comparison could be interesting, depending on the audience of the comparative essay and the intended purpose of the essay.

For example, one could use the parameter of zodiac sign to compare Romantic artists against Enlightenment artists.

This could be very interesting to people who are very serious about the zodiac, but it would probably seem ridiculous to just about everyone else.

But if you were writing for an audience of zodiac fanatics, then this comparison could actually be a success.

So, there is no parameter of comparison that is "inherently" bad. Rather, the point is to find parameters that highlight specific salient aspects of the selected items.

For example, when comparing Romanticism against the Enlightenment, core values would be a solid parameter of comparison, because that will surely help produce insights about how worldviews changed from the one paradigm to another.

Strong organizational structure

If you want your comparative essay to be a success, then it absolutely must have strong organizational structure . This is because an effective comparison must be easy for your reader to follow. It can't just jump all over the place at random, which not only be confusing but could also result in the reader forgetting what the point of the comparison was in the first place.

In general, there are two ways in which you can organize your comparative essay. In the first format, each of the parameters would be considered in the section for similarities and the section for differences.

In the first format the comparative essay is organized in terms of similarities and differences, whereas in the second format the essay is organized in terms of parameters of comparison.

In the second format, both similarities and differences would be considered within each of the parameter sections.

Both these are formats are good, and a strong comparative essay could be built around either one.

The important thing is to have a clear system and to not make your comparisons random.

There needs to be an organizational structure that your reader can easily follow.

There are steps you can follow in order to ensure that your comparative essay has all the elements that will be required in order to make it great.

Ask yourself about your intention

If you have selected two items for your comparative essay, then you should start by asking yourself why you selected those two items. What is it about the two items that made you think it would be a good idea to compare them? (Or if you were assigned the two items, then why do you think those items were selected by your professor?)

The point here is that the items selected for a comparative essay are non-random. They are selected because that specific comparison should be able to yield interesting insights (unlike research papers ).

For example, if you are writing a comparative essay on the dogs vs. cats, then are you writing this from the perspective of evolutionary biology? Or are you perhaps writing it in order to inform potential pet owners who are debating whether they want a dog or a cat?

The purpose of your essay will determine what parameters you will select in order to compare your two items. This means that you should have an intended audience in mind, and you should also have specific questions you would like to know more about.

In short, in order to develop effective parameters for your comparative essay, you have to ask yourself why you are writing it and who would be interested in the insights produced by the essay. This can help ensure you select both appropriate items and appropriate parameters for comparison.

Develop a structural outline

It is very important that you do not just jump into your comparative essay and start writing it without a plan. That is a recipe for disaster, and the comparisons will almost certainly turn out random and confusing. Rather, you should begin with a solid outline .

A good outline will do three main things:

• 1. Identify the selected items of comparison in the introduction/thesis
• 2. Utilize one of the two organizational formats described above
• 3. Provide a roadmap for how you intend to systematically follow through on the comparison

For example, here is how an outline could look for a comparative essay on Romanticism vs. the Enlightenment.

In this sample outline, the format that is used dedicates a paragraph to each of three parameters of comparison, and both similarities and differences are addressed for each of those parameters.

This is the kind of logical flow that you will need to have in order for your comparative essay to turn out great.

Write in a systematic way

A comparative essay is not a place to get too creative with your writing, whether in terms of organization or in terms of style.

Rather, you should focus on simply carrying out your comparison, point-by-point and in a way that is easy for your reader to follow. This can get a little tedious, so if that is a problem for you, then you should make sure that you set aside enough time to work on your comparative essay little by little.

For example, if your essay has three parameters, then you could write a section on the first parameter today, the second parameter tomorrow, and the third parameter the next day.

The important thing is for you to ensure that you consider each of your two selected items in terms of each of your selected parameters. This needs to be done in a smooth and logical manner, such that your reader knows where you are in the comparison. There should be no jumping around, and there should be no departure from the basic format or structure.

Example comparative (compare/contrast) essay

Best practices/tips.

We have now arrived at the end of this guide, and you should have a much better idea of what makes a comparative essay successful and how you can go about writing one. It may be helpful to now summarize some of the main points that have been addressed here.

Let's address five main points.

1. Ensure that you select appropriate items for comparison

The two items that will be compared in your comparative essay should be carefully selected. The items should have some shared features and be in the same "class" of items, but they should also have substantial differences to which you are trying to call attention. If the items are too similar, then there would be no point in the comparison, but if they are too different, that can also make the comparison meaningless.

2. Select effective parameters of comparison

Your comparative essay shouldn't compare anything and everything between your two items; rather, the parameters should be specifically selected to highlight specific, salient similarities and differences. In order to determine what parameters would be effective, you have to ask yourself why you are writing your comparative essay and what sort of insights you intend to produce about the items being compared.

3. Use tools and models in an effective way

The Venn diagram is one tool that can be very helpful in conceptualizing your comparative essay, especially if you are a more visual kind of learner. Tables, rubrics, and outlines will also work to help ensure that you are developing a strong backbone of logic and systematic reasoning for your comparative essay. These and other tools may even help you reconsider your initial choices of items and parameters, if you realize that significant insights are not being produced.

4. Choose an organizational format, and stick with it

There are two main ways in which to structure an effective comparative essay, which have been described above. You can dedicate one section to similarities and one section to differences; or, you can dedicate a section to each of the parameters of comparison. This second option is usually more effective, especially if you are new to comparative essays. But either way, it is crucial that you stick to your chosen format and do not jump around and confuse the reader.

5. Seek assistance if you need it

If you are still uncertain about how to write a successful comparative essay, then Ultius is here to help. Our writer help section has many tools like this one available on various types of essays; we have a huge writer help section that contains all sorts of information on pretty much any writing-related questions you may have; and we also have elite professional writers who can produce a sample comparative essay for you on any subject of your choosing. We are here for you, and if you have any further questions about how to write a comparative essay, then you should feel free to reach out.

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Comparative Politics

One of the central themes of comparative politics is the study of political institutions, including constitutions, electoral systems, legislatures, judiciaries, and bureaucracies. Comparative analysis of political institutions can reveal the strengths and weaknesses of different governance systems, as well as the conditions that promote or hinder effective decision-making and democratic participation. For example, the comparison of electoral systems across different countries can provide insights into the ways in which electoral rules affect voter behavior, party competition, and representation.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, comparative politics research paper topics.

• The impact of different electoral systems on party systems
• The role of civil society in promoting democratic norms and practices
• Comparative analysis of the welfare state in advanced industrial democracies
• The effect of gender quotas on political representation
• Comparative study of judicial activism and judicial restraint in different legal systems
• The relationship between economic development and political liberalization
• The role of political culture in shaping democratic consolidation
• The impact of decentralization on political power and accountability
• The politics of immigration and border control in different countries
• Comparative analysis of public opinion and political behavior in different societies
• The role of the media in shaping political opinion and decision-making
• The impact of globalization on state sovereignty and power
• Comparative study of civil-military relations in different societies
• The relationship between natural resources and political stability
• The impact of international organizations on domestic politics
• Comparative analysis of federalism and unitary states
• The role of interest groups in shaping policy outcomes
• The impact of constitutional design on political stability and democratic consolidation
• Comparative study of party systems in new democracies
• The relationship between corruption and economic development
• Comparative analysis of populist movements and parties
• The role of religion in shaping political behavior and attitudes
• The impact of demographic change on politics and policy
• Comparative study of authoritarian regimes and their stability
• The impact of regime change on economic development and political stability
• Comparative analysis of social movements and political change
• The role of identity politics in shaping political outcomes
• The impact of colonial legacies on contemporary politics
• Comparative study of labor relations in different societies
• The impact of environmental policy on political outcomes
• Comparative analysis of the role of the state in economic development
• The impact of trade agreements on domestic politics and policy
• Comparative study of regional integration and its effects on politics and policy
• The role of civil conflict in shaping political outcomes
• The impact of digital technologies on political communication and decision-making
• Comparative analysis of the relationship between democracy and development
• The impact of immigration on political attitudes and behavior
• Comparative study of the politics of welfare reform in different societies
• The role of international norms and values in shaping domestic politics and policy
• Comparative analysis of the politics of energy policy
• The impact of social media on political mobilization and participation
• Comparative study of political parties and their strategies for gaining and maintaining power
• The impact of globalization on income inequality and political conflict
• Comparative analysis of the politics of trade and protectionism
• The role of ethnic and linguistic diversity in shaping political outcomes
• Comparative study of the role of women in politics and policy-making
• The impact of digital surveillance on civil liberties and political participation
• Comparative analysis of the politics of climate change
• The role of education in shaping political attitudes and behavior
• Comparative study of the politics of healthcare reform in different societies.

Another key theme of comparative politics is the study of political culture and ideology. Political culture refers to the attitudes, values, and beliefs that shape political behavior and institutions, while ideology is a set of beliefs and principles that guide political action. Comparative analysis of political culture and ideology can reveal the sources of political conflict, the roots of political stability, and the factors that influence political change. For example, the comparison of the political cultures of liberal democracies and authoritarian regimes can help us understand the role of civic values and civil society in promoting democratic norms and practices.

A third important theme of comparative politics is the study of political economy, which explores the relationship between politics and economics. Comparative analysis of political economy can reveal the ways in which economic structures and processes influence political decision-making and outcomes, as well as the ways in which political institutions and actors shape economic development and growth. For example, the comparison of economic policies across different countries can provide insights into the conditions that promote or hinder economic growth, and the role of state intervention in economic affairs.

Finally, comparative politics also explores the dynamics of power and conflict within and between political systems. This theme encompasses the study of political parties, interest groups, social movements, and other political actors, as well as the causes and consequences of political violence and conflict. Comparative analysis of power and conflict can reveal the sources of political legitimacy, the strategies used by political actors to gain and maintain power, and the factors that contribute to political instability and violence. For example, the comparison of ethnic and religious conflict across different countries can help us understand the role of identity politics in shaping political outcomes.

In conclusion, comparative politics is a vital subfield of political science that helps us understand and explain the similarities and differences between political systems and their structures, processes, and actors. By examining political institutions, culture and ideology, political economy, and power and conflict, comparative politics sheds light on the conditions that promote or hinder effective governance, democratic participation, and economic growth, as well as the factors that contribute to political instability and conflict. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected and complex, the study of comparative politics is more important than ever in helping us navigate the challenges and opportunities of the global political landscape.

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• A Research Guide
• Writing Guide
• Essay Writing

How to Write a Comparative Essay: Step-by-Step Guide

• What is comparative essay
• Structure and outline
• Tips how to start
• Step-by-step guide
• Comparative essay format
• Comparative essay topics
• Comparative essay example

What is a Comparative Essay?

How to write a comparison essay: structure and outline.

• The topic sentence should introduce the reader to what the paragraph handles.
• A discussion of the aspect is done in the middle of a paragraph.
• The last part of the paragraph should carry a low-level conclusion about the aspect discussed in the paragraph.
• The paragraph should present enough information, as too much or too less may render it meaningless.
• Every paragraph should handle a single aspect, e.g., it is quite unreasonable to compare the size of one object to the color of another .

Tips on How to Start a Comparative Essay

Step-by-step writing guide to write a comparative analysis, step 1: identify the basis of the comparison..

• For example, a question may ask you to compare capitalism and communism and write the arguments. This question has a clear objective; hence you don’t have to go the extra mile.
• Another case may be to compare any two political ideologies. It is a general question, and you have to figure out the various political ideologies and then identify any two that you can compare. Such instances require the author to develop the basis of comparison by themselves and write it down.

Step 2: Develop the content of the essay.

Step 3: come up with a thesis., step 4: develop the comparative essay structure., step 5: write your compare essay..

Comparative Essay Format

Alternating method;.

• Gives more details about the item in comparison, making it easy to handle two different points;
• Produces a well-analyzed and integrated paper.
• Cases where detailed comparison is needed;
• When the points of comparison are not related.

Mixed paragraphs method;

• gives the issues equal weights in terms of comparison;
• the reader gets to identify the comparison factor easily.
• When dealing with a long comparative essay;
• When dealing with complex topics that need close attention.

Block Method;

• When dealing with short essays;
• When dealing with simple topics;
• Cases where there is no clear relation between items of comparison of point one and point two;
• When you want to build the ideas of question two from those highlighted for question one;
• When dealing with many issues.

Comparative Essay Topics

• Compare and contrast the GDP figures of the US and Australia.
• A comparative essay on World War I and World War II events.
• Comparison between political ideologies such as capitalism and communism.
• Positions on issues, e.g., Healthcare in the US and Australia.
• Comparison between various Sports teams.
• Different Systems of Government.
• Comparison between various influential people.
• A comparative essay on religion, e.g., Christianity and Hinduism,
• Comparison between various texts,
• Comparison in technology, such as comparing different cars,

Comparative Essay Example (Clarified)

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Comparative Essay

How to Write a Comparative Essay – A Complete Guide

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Comparative essay is a common assignment for school and college students. Many students are not aware of the complexities of crafting a strong comparative essay. 

If you too are struggling with this, don't worry!

In this blog, you will get a complete writing guide for comparative essay writing. From structuring formats to creative topics, this guide has it all.

So, keep reading!

• 1. What is a Comparative Essay?
• 2. Comparative Essay Structure
• 3. How to Start a Comparative Essay?
• 4. How to Write a Comparative Essay?
• 5. Comparative Essay Examples
• 6. Comparative Essay Topics
• 7. Tips for Writing A Good Comparative Essay
• 8. Transition Words For Comparative Essays

What is a Comparative Essay?

A comparative essay is a type of essay in which an essay writer compares at least two or more items. The author compares two subjects with the same relation in terms of similarities and differences depending on the assignment.

The main purpose of the comparative essay is to:

• Highlight the similarities and differences in a systematic manner.
• Provide great clarity of the subject to the readers.
• Analyze two things and describe their advantages and drawbacks.

A comparative essay is also known as compare and contrast essay or a comparison essay. It analyzes two subjects by either comparing them, contrasting them, or both. The Venn diagram is the best tool for writing a paper about the comparison between two subjects.  

Moreover, a comparative analysis essay discusses the similarities and differences of themes, items, events, views, places, concepts, etc. For example, you can compare two different novels (e.g., The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Red Badge of Courage).

However, a comparative essay is not limited to specific topics. It covers almost every topic or subject with some relation.

Comparative Essay Structure

A good comparative essay is based on how well you structure your essay. It helps the reader to understand your essay better. 

The structure is more important than what you write. This is because it is necessary to organize your essay so that the reader can easily go through the comparisons made in an essay.

The following are the two main methods in which you can organize your comparative essay.

Point-by-Point Method 

The point-by-point or alternating method provides a detailed overview of the items that you are comparing. In this method, organize items in terms of similarities and differences.

This method makes the writing phase easy for the writer to handle two completely different essay subjects. It is highly recommended where some depth and detail are required.

Below given is the structure of the point-by-point method. 

Block Method 

The block method is the easiest as compared to the point-by-point method. In this method, you divide the information in terms of parameters. It means that the first paragraph compares the first subject and all their items, then the second one compares the second, and so on.

However, make sure that you write the subject in the same order. This method is best for lengthy essays and complicated subjects.

Here is the structure of the block method. 

Therefore, keep these methods in mind and choose the one according to the chosen subject.

Mixed Paragraphs Method

In this method, one paragraph explains one aspect of the subject. As a writer, you will handle one point at a time and one by one. This method is quite beneficial as it allows you to give equal weightage to each subject and help the readers identify the point of comparison easily.

How to Start a Comparative Essay?

Here, we have gathered some steps that you should follow to start a well-written comparative essay.  

Choose a Topic

The foremost step in writing a comparative essay is to choose a suitable topic.

Choose a topic or theme that is interesting to write about and appeals to the reader. 

An interesting essay topic motivates the reader to know about the subject. Also, try to avoid complicated topics for your comparative essay. 

Develop a List of Similarities and Differences 

Create a list of similarities and differences between two subjects that you want to include in the essay. Moreover, this list helps you decide the basis of your comparison by constructing your initial plan. 

Evaluate the list and establish your argument and thesis statement .

Establish the Basis for Comparison 

The basis for comparison is the ground for you to compare the subjects. In most cases, it is assigned to you, so check your assignment or prompt.

Furthermore, the main goal of the comparison essay is to inform the reader of something interesting. It means that your subject must be unique to make your argument interesting.  

Do the Research 

In this step, you have to gather information for your subject. If your comparative essay is about social issues, historical events, or science-related topics, you must do in-depth research.    

However, make sure that you gather data from credible sources and cite them properly in the essay.

Create an Outline

An essay outline serves as a roadmap for your essay, organizing key elements into a structured format.

With your topic, list of comparisons, basis for comparison, and research in hand, the next step is to create a comprehensive outline. 

Here is a standard comparative essay outline:

How to Write a Comparative Essay?

Now that you have the basic information organized in an outline, you can get started on the writing process. 

Here are the essential parts of a comparative essay: 

Comparative Essay Introduction 

Start off by grabbing your reader's attention in the introduction . Use something catchy, like a quote, question, or interesting fact about your subjects. 

Then, give a quick background so your reader knows what's going on. 

The most important part is your thesis statement, where you state the main argument , the basis for comparison, and why the comparison is significant.

This is what a typical thesis statement for a comparative essay looks like:

Comparative Essay Body Paragraphs 

The body paragraphs are where you really get into the details of your subjects. Each paragraph should focus on one thing you're comparing.

Start by talking about the first point of comparison. Then, go on to the next points. Make sure to talk about two to three differences to give a good picture.

After that, switch gears and talk about the things they have in common. Just like you discussed three differences, try to cover three similarities. 

This way, your essay stays balanced and fair. This approach helps your reader understand both the ways your subjects are different and the ways they are similar. Keep it simple and clear for a strong essay.

Comparative Essay Conclusion

In your conclusion , bring together the key insights from your analysis to create a strong and impactful closing.

Consider the broader context or implications of the subjects' differences and similarities. What do these insights reveal about the broader themes or ideas you're exploring?

Discuss the broader implications of these findings and restate your thesis. Avoid introducing new information and end with a thought-provoking statement that leaves a lasting impression.

Below is the detailed comparative essay template format for you to understand better.

Comparative Essay Format

Comparative Essay Examples

Have a look at these comparative essay examples pdf to get an idea of the perfect essay.

Comparative Essay on Summer and Winter

Comparative Essay on Books vs. Movies

Comparative Essay Sample

Comparative Essay Thesis Example

Comparative Essay on Football vs Cricket

Comparative Essay on Pet and Wild Animals

Comparative Essay Topics

Comparative essay topics are not very difficult or complex. Check this list of essay topics and pick the one that you want to write about.

• How do education and employment compare?
• Living in a big city or staying in a village.
• The school principal or college dean.
• New Year vs. Christmas celebration.
• Dried Fruit vs. Fresh. Which is better?
• Similarities between philosophy and religion.
• British colonization and Spanish colonization.
• Nuclear power for peace or war?
• Bacteria or viruses.
• Fast food vs. homemade food.

Tips for Writing A Good Comparative Essay

Writing a compelling comparative essay requires thoughtful consideration and strategic planning. Here are some valuable tips to enhance the quality of your comparative essay:

• Clearly define what you're comparing, like themes or characters.
• Plan your essay structure using methods like point-by-point or block paragraphs.
• Craft an introduction that introduces subjects and states your purpose.
• Ensure an equal discussion of both similarities and differences.
• Use linking words for seamless transitions between paragraphs.
• Gather credible information for depth and authenticity.
• Use clear and simple language, avoiding unnecessary jargon.
• Dedicate each paragraph to a specific point of comparison.
• Summarize key points, restate the thesis, and emphasize significance.
• Thoroughly check for clarity, coherence, and correct any errors.

Transition Words For Comparative Essays

Transition words are crucial for guiding your reader through the comparative analysis. They help establish connections between ideas and ensure a smooth flow in your essay. 

Here are some transition words and phrases to improve the flow of your comparative essay:

Transition Words for Similarities

• Correspondingly
• In the same vein
• In like manner
• In a similar fashion
• In tandem with

Transition Words for Differences

• On the contrary
• In contrast
• Nevertheless
• In spite of
• Notwithstanding
• On the flip side
• In contradistinction

Check out this blog listing more transition words that you can use to enhance your essay’s coherence!

In conclusion, now that you have the important steps and helpful tips to write a good comparative essay, you can start working on your own essay. 

However, if you find it tough to begin, you can always hire our professional essay writing service . 

Our skilled writers can handle any type of essay or assignment you need. So, don't wait—place your order now and make your academic journey easier!

Frequently Asked Question

How long is a comparative essay.

A comparative essay is 4-5 pages long, but it depends on your chosen idea and topic.

How do you end a comparative essay?

Here are some tips that will help you to end the comparative essay.

• Restate the thesis statement
• Wrap up the entire essay
• Highlight the main points

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How to answer 12 Mark Question on Paper 3 US and UK Comparative Politics

This structure and advice  has been informed by a Politics Review article by Nick da Souza.

There are two types of 12 mark question that you would be expected to answer and both appear in paper three. These questions require you to compare the way government and politics work in the UK with that of the US.

In section A of the paper, you have to answer one 12 mark question from a choice of two. The command word in section A is examine so these are not evaluative questions so you do not need AO3 skills to come up with an answer.

You also do not need to use  comparative theories for these questions.

You have to compare both the US and UK in every paragraph in these questions. I suggest three mini paragraphs and since it is only worth 12 marks you should only spend 15 minutes on the question. So five minutes per paragraph.

 Now in section B, you also have a 12 mark question to answer. But in this question, you have no choice of question. You just have to answer what you see on the paper. Again, you have to compare both the US and the UK in every paragraph.

But in this section, the command word is analyse . So the first word of the question will always be analyse in section B. All this means is that you have to use comparative theories.

I will go through what structural, rational and cultural theories mean a little later. Essentially, the two 12 mark questions you have to answer, the one in section A, the one in section B are virtually the same in form and approach saved for the use of these theories in section B

 You should try to write three paragraphs  covering three similarities or three differences between the two countries, depending on what the question is asking you to focus on. Each paragraph should take a different theme that relates to what you're being asked to compare.

Some examples are from 2022

a)Examine the differences in the checks and balances on the US Congress and the UK Parliament.

b) Examine the ways in which the methods used by US interest groups and UK pressure groups differ.

 The 2022 a)  question is about the two legislatures  the UK Parliament and the US Congress. This question is also a good example of way you need to be careful when reading the question, because it is asking you to compare checks and balances ‘on’ Congress and Parliament, so it would be very easy to write more generally about checks and balance which might led you to include checks by Parliament and Congress on the other branches. So to be clear: this checks on the legislatures.

The first paragraph might focus on the way  the executives can exert control over the legislatures.

The second paragraph could be centred on the checks imposed by elections e.g unelected Lords lacking legitimacy and a House elected every two years to very conscious of re-election pressure.

The third paragraph  could cover the courts ability to check the legislature e.g ultra vires.

So, each paragraph should have a theme that is relevant to the question.

It’s important to use comparative language. For similarities use word such as ‘similarly’ and ‘likewise’ If you're being asked to compare the differences, use words such as, ‘by contrast’  ‘on the other hand’ and ‘on the contrary’ or ‘unsimilar’ or ‘differently’.

For example you might write:

In the US presidents have few checks on Congress, although they can veto bills this can be overridden for example of President Trump’s 10 vetoes one was overridden but vetoes remain rare in comparison to the number so bills passed, this is very different in the UK where between 2019 and 2022 the Johnson government suffered no legislative defeats.

You are being asked to compare both countries so you must make these comparisons in each paragraph directly. Don’t say something about Parliament then something else about Congress in different paragraphs.

Equally, you should give examples for both the US and the UK.

There are also marks for analysis AO2 so you have to explain why

the US and UK are different or similar. The example above only explained how they are similar.

You  must explain why.

  So  you must go beyond simply noting the similarities or differences, which is required for A01, and explain why these similarities and differences exist.

For example with the above question .

The US Congress has considerably more ability to act independently  than the UK Parliament because of the separation of powers in the constitution which means the executive has limited control and no ability to promote members of Congress to the Cabinet, whereas in the UK the legislative and executive branch are fused which means the government has considerable control through the use of patronage and the ‘carrot and stick’ by the whips.

Notice how the words ‘Because’  and ‘which means’ are  used. Other phrases such as ‘due to’ and ‘owing to’ will show that you are explaining the reasons for similarities or differences as opposed to just simply listing them. These words or phrases will help you get the highest levels for A02.

You won't usually be asked to compare similarities and differences in the same question. So if the question is examine the similarities in the power of the UK Prime Minister and US President, you only need to write about the similarities, not the differences.

You may get a bland question that doesn't specifically require similarities or differences,

For example 2021

Examine the features of the US and UK Supreme Courts designed to ensure independence from political influence

·   Similar: security of tenure- judges are difficult to sack.

·   Similar: doctrine of the ‘rule of law’

·   Different: While in the UK and USA appointments are not made by the executive in the US politicians make the appointments  whereas in the UK an independent commission appoints.

In this case you could use both similarities and differences, but you’re not expected to evaluate how far they are similar or different. There are no AO3 marks in these questions so you do not need to provide counter arguments. A good tip is don’t use the word ‘however’ since this is a word that naturally leads to a counter argument that isn't required in these questions. The word however, is an essential word for 30 mark questions that require balance, require two-sided arguments.  And so you do not have to come to a decision like you do in  longer 30 mark  essays. You do not have to reach a judgment unlike in every other type of question that you have to answer in papers one, two and three.

 There is no need for an introduction or a conclusion. You don't have time either. Remember, it's just 15 minutes that you should spend on these questions, 15 minutes for section A, 12 mark question, 15 minutes for the section B, 12 mark questions.

Section B questions start with the word analyse, which means you will be expected to use comparative theories.

These are theories that help explain why a similarity or difference exists between the US and the UK.. There are three of them.

 First, the structural theory refers to the processes, the practices and the institutions that affect the actions taken, that affect the outcome. In other words the political setup of a country, for example, if there is a codified constitution or an uncodified constitution, affects how things work, affects the outcomes.

And then number two, you have the rational theory. Now, what this means or what this refers to are the actions of individuals motivated by self-interest. In other words it means politicians are essentially selfish and try to further their own careers, their own electoral fortunes.

Finally there is the cultural theory. And this refers to the shared ideologies of groups within a political system or wider community. In other words it means a country's culture or a faction of a political party that affects party policies.

You only need to choose one theory in your 12 mark question for section B. You can just refer to structural all the way through if you want to and you can get 12 out of 12. You can use more if you want, if you feel it's appropriate. But this theory must be applied to both countries. Ideally, you would mention the theory in each of the three paragraphs you write. So for the section B questions, you probably want one extra sentence compared with the section A questions. The best way to do this is to simply mention the theory at the end of each paragraph you write using the following sentence starter.

‘This similarity, stroke difference, is most commonly explained by the (name of theory) theory because in the UK, …………. whereas in the US,…………. ‘

Now, let's apply this sentence starter to the same question on the checks and balances in the legislature

The greater power exercised by Congress over legislation is most easily explained by this structural theory because in the USA, the constitution is codified and describes a separation of powers whereas in the UK the legislature and executive branches are fused which means the legislative process is controlled by the government.

Don’t worry about which theory to choose as long as you explain why you chose it. Remember that the word ‘because’ is your friend, keep using it. For example

The greater power exercised by Congress over legislation is most commonly explained by the rational theory because in the US, it makes more sense for members of Congress to follow the interests of their constituents since the president cannot use patronage to exercise control unlike in the UK where an the PM can rely on an MP’s seeing their rational best interests being in party loyalty .

Using them allows you access to the highest level when examiners award marks. So if you fail to mention a theory, you can still get, in theory, nine out of 12 marks for a really good answer. Indeed, it is important to put 12 mark questions in their appropriate context taken together. They represent only 24 out of the 84 marks for paper three. That's just 29% of the marks for paper three. So make sure you spend far more time and revision on the two 30 mark questions that you'll have to answer for that paper.

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• Autumn 2024

POL S 598 A: Independent Writing I

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