essays on information literacy

The Concept and Importance of Information Literacy Essay

Importance of information literacy, where is information literacy needed, components of information literacy.

Basically there are many definitions available for Information Literacy but as far as the most comprehensive and best definition is concerned, it can be defined as the whole set of skills and capabilities which are required in a person in order to recognize the possibilities from a variety of sources which are available to the person, archive them, categorize them, analyze them and then utilize them in ethical manner. The present era of 21 st Century has been proudly named as the Information Age, which has seen unforgettable and remarkable development because of the proper enhancement and exploration of information output and information resources. Since that time, the use of information has been expanded with enormous growth in the technology aspects (ALA, 1989).

Information literacy has a very strong relationship with the concepts of computer literacy and library literacy. In fact, Information Literacy is far much better than these concepts because it stands ahead, gives the ability to think outside the box and not only gives the access to the knowledge but also the skills how to use the information in ethical manner.

(ala.org) Information literacy is of great importance for every well being in the world. There are several examples of opportunities available around us which are neglected or regretfully missed by people who are not aware of the golden chances normally or even misguided by unaware people. These opportunities could be related to education, cultural, professional, business, corporate or normal in nature but for everyone, it is important in real life. Proper use of information literacy helps people is identifying their skills and the opportunities present around them.

Information literacy can be exchanged with people and can increase their know-how on every field. Information provided to people through schools, broadcasting systems, and print news media enables people to have multiple opinions and opportunities regarding every matter they are concerned with in their daily life. Previously, people used to obey their “expert” opinions, but with the help of information literacy, people are free to seek the information they required and make their own decisions.

The main concept of Information Literacy is far beyond the way it seems. When the question arises that who needs Information Literacy? Then the answer is obvious than its question. The answer is Information Literacy is required for everybody. Every human being either a student, common man, teacher, working professional, businessman, politician, or any other person who wants to live his personal life. Information Literacy is the need for every human. It improves the overall quality and standard of our lives (Andretta, 2008, p152).

(ala.org) The overall cycle of Information Literacy can be understood in six different stages. These stages are listed as under:

• Understanding the scenario by researching basic questions.
• Identifying the available sources of information.
• Recognizing and analyzing the found resources.
• Organizing and processing the information found.
• Presenting the information to the appropriate spectators.
• Doing critical evaluation of the whole work.

After the overall evaluation and study of Information literacy, we have come across a point where we know where the world is standing right now having all the information found since the old era till this advanced information age. We have many concepts of computer literacy, cultural literacy, global literacy, civic literacy and library literacy. But the common point on which everybody agrees and understands is that the most common goal of life is to live a free life where people could judge what’s going around them, evaluate the situations and make their own decisions to live a healthy and happy life.

American Library Association (ALA), 1989, Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report ; Washington, D.C.

Association of College Research Libraries, 2000, Information literacy competency standards for higher education . Web.

Susie Andretta, 2008, Promoting reflective information literacy practice through Facilitating Information Literacy Education (FILE), health information & Libraries Journal from EBSCOHost Research Database, Vol. 25 Issue 2, p150-153.

• Chicago (A-D)
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IvyPanda. (2023, October 29). The Concept and Importance of Information Literacy. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-concept-and-importance-of-information-literacy/

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Concept and Importance of Information Literacy." October 29, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-concept-and-importance-of-information-literacy/.

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• Student Guide: Information Literacy | Meaning & Examples

Student Guide: Information Literacy | Meaning & Examples

Published on May 13, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Information literacy refers to the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources effectively. The term covers a broad range of skills, including the ability to:

• Navigate databases
• Find credible sources
• Cite sources correctly

Table of contents

Why is information literacy important, information literacy skills, finding sources, evaluating sources, citing sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about information literacy.

The vast amount of information available online means that it can be hard to distinguish accurate from inaccurate sources. Published articles are not always credible and sometimes reflect a biased viewpoint intended to sway the reader’s opinion.

Outside of academia, think of the concept of fake news : deliberately spreading misinformation intended to undermine other viewpoints. Or native advertising , designed to match other content on a site so that readers don’t notice they’re reading an advertisement.

It’s important to be aware of such unreliable content, to think critically about where you get your information, and to evaluate sources effectively, both in your research and in your media consumption more generally.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Information literacy is really a combination of skills and competencies that guide your research. Each stage of a research project, from choosing a thesis statement to writing your research paper , will require you to use specific skills and knowledge.

Being information literate means that you:

• Know how to find sources
• Can assess the authority and credibility of a source
• Can distinguish biased from unbiased content
• Can use relevant sources to inform your research
• Understand what constitutes plagiarism
• Know how to cite your sources correctly

An early stage in the research process is finding relevant sources. It’s important to understand how to search for these sources efficiently.

First, you need to consider what kind of sources you’re looking for. This will depend on the topic and focus of your project, and what stage you are at in the research process.

In the beginning, you may be looking for definitions or broad overviews of a topic. For this, you might use a tertiary source , like an encyclopedia or a dictionary, that is just for your own understanding. Further along, you might look for primary and secondary sources that you will actually cite in your paper. It’s important to ensure that all sources you consult are reliable.

• Websites: Look for websites with legitimate domain extensions (.edu or .gov).
• Search engines: When using search engines to find relevant academic journals and articles, use a trusted resource, like Google Scholar .
• Databases: Check your institution’s library resources to find out what databases they provide access to. Consider what databases are most appropriate to your research.

Finding the right sources means:

• Having a clear research problem
• Knowing what databases and journals are relevant to your research
• Knowing how to narrow and expand your search

Once you have a well-defined research problem, specific keywords, and have chosen a relevant database, you can use Boolean operators to narrow or expand your search. With them, you can prioritize and exclude keywords and search for exact phrases.

Evaluating the quality and credibility of a source is an important way of filtering out misinformation. A reliable source will be unbiased and informed by up-to-date research, and it will cite other credible sources.

You can evaluate the quality of a source using the CRAAP test . “CRAAP” is an acronym that informs the questions you should ask when analyzing a source. It stands for:

• Currency: Is the source recent or outdated?
• Relevance: Is it relevant to your research?
• Authority: Is the journal respected? Is the author an expert in the field?
• Accuracy: Is the information supported by evidence? Does the source provide relevant citations?
• Purpose: Why was the source published? What are the author’s intentions?

How you evaluate a source based on these criteria will depend on the specific subject. In the sciences, conclusions from a source published 20 years ago may have been disproven by recent findings. In a more interpretive subject like English, an article published decades ago might still be relevant.

Just as you look for sources that are supported by evidence and provide correct citations, your own work should provide relevant and accurate citations when you quote or paraphrase a source.

Citing your sources is important because it:

• Allows you to avoid plagiarism
• Establishes the credentials of your sources
• Backs up your arguments with evidence
• Allows your reader to verify the legitimacy of your conclusions

The most common citation styles are:

• APA Style : Typically used in the behavioral and social sciences
• MLA style : Used in the humanities and liberal arts
• Chicago style : Commonly used in the sciences and for history

It’s important to know what citation style your institute recommends. The information you need to include in a citation depends on the type of source you are citing and the specific citation style you’re using. An APA example is shown below.

You can quickly cite sources using Scribbr’s free Citation Generator .

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

• Know how to find credible sources
• Use relevant sources to inform your research

It can sometimes be hard to distinguish accurate from inaccurate sources , especially online. Published articles are not always credible and can reflect a biased viewpoint without providing evidence to support their conclusions.

Information literacy is important because it helps you to be aware of such unreliable content and to evaluate sources effectively, both in an academic context and more generally.

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

The CRAAP test is an acronym to help you evaluate the credibility of a source you are considering using. It is an important component of information literacy .

The CRAAP test has five main components:

• Currency: Is the source up to date?
• Relevance: Is the source relevant to your research?
• Authority: Where is the source published? Who is the author? Are they considered reputable and trustworthy in their field?
• Accuracy: Is the source supported by evidence? Are the claims cited correctly?
• Purpose: What was the motive behind publishing this source?

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). Student Guide: Information Literacy | Meaning & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 25, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/information-literacy/

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Information Literacy

11 A Beginner’s Guide to Information Literacy

By emily metcalf.

Introduction

Welcome to “A Beginner’s Guide to Information Literacy,” a step-by-step guide to understanding information literacy concepts and practices.

This guide will cover each frame of the “ Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education ,” a document created by the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) to help educators and librarians think about, teach, and practice information literacy (see Figure 11.1). The goal of this guide is to break down the basic concepts in the Framework and put them in accessible, digestible language so that we can think critically about the information we’re exposed to in our daily lives.

To start, let’s look at the ACRL definition of “information literacy,” so we have some context going forward:

Information Literacy is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning.

Boil that down and what you have are the essentials of information literacy: asking questions, finding information, evaluating information, creating information, and doing all of that responsibly and ethically.

We’ll be looking at each of the frames alphabetically, since that’s how they are presented in the framework. None of these frames is more important than another, and all need to be used in conjunction with the others, but we have to start somewhere, so alphabetical it is!

In order, the frames are

• Authority is constructed and contextual
• Information creation as a process
• Information has value
• Research as inquiry
• Scholarship as conversation
• Searching as strategic exploration

Just because we’re laying this out alphabetically does not mean you have to go through it in order. Some of the sections reference frames previously mentioned, but for the most part you can jump to wherever you like and use this guide however you see fit. You can also open up the framework using the link above or in the attached resources to read the framework in its original form and follow along with each section.

The following sections originally appeared as blog posts for the Texas A&M Corpus Christi’s library blog. Edits have been made to remove institutional context, but you can see the original posts in the Mary and Jeff Bell Library blog archives .

Authority is Constructed and Contextual

The first frame is “ Authority is Constructed and Contextual .” There’s a lot to unpack in that language, so let’s get started.

Start with the word “authority.”

At the root of “authority” is the word “author.” So start there: who wrote the piece of information you’re reading? Why are they writing? What stake do they have in the information they’re presenting? What are their credentials (You can straight up google their name to learn more about them)? Who are they affiliated with? A public organization? A university? A company trying to make a profit? Check it out.

Now let’s talk about how authority is “constructed.”

Have you ever heard the phrase “social construct”? Some people say gender is a social construct or language, written and spoken, is a construct. “Constructed” basically means humans made it up at some point to instill order in their communities. It’s not an observable, scientifically inevitable fact. When we say “authority” is constructed, we’re basically saying that we as individuals and as a society choose who we give authority to, and sometimes we might not be choosing based on facts.

A common way of assessing authority is by looking at an author’s education. We’re inclined to trust someone with a PhD over someone with a high school diploma because we think the person with a PhD is smarter. That’s a construct. We’re conditioned to think that someone with more education is smarter than people with less education, but we don’t know it for a fact.

There are a lot of reasons someone might not seek out higher education. They might have to work full time or take care of a family or maybe they just never wanted to go to college. None of these factors impact someone’s intelligence or ability to think critically.

If aliens land on South Padre Island, TX, there will be many voices contributing to the information collected about the event. Someone with a PhD in astrophysics might write an article about the mechanical workings of the aliens’ spaceship. Cool; they are an authority on that kind of stuff, so I trust them.

But the teenager who was on the island and watched the aliens land has first-hand experience of the event, so I trust them too. They have authority on the event even though they don’t have a PhD in astrophysics.

So, we cannot think someone with more education is inherently more trustworthy or smarter or has more authority than anyone else. Some people who are authorities on a subject are highly educated, some are not.

Likewise, let’s say I film the aliens landing and stream it live on Facebook. At the same time, a police officer gives an interview on the news that says something contradicting my video evidence. All of a sudden, I have more authority than the police officer. Many of us are raised to trust certain people automatically based on their jobs, but that’s also a construct. The great thing about critical thinking is that we can identify what is fact and fiction, and we can decide for ourselves who to trust.

The final word is “contextual.”

This one is a little simpler. If I go to the hospital and a medical doctor takes out my appendix, I’ll probably be pretty happy with the outcome. If I go to the hospital and Dr. Jill Biden, a professor of English, takes out my appendix, I’m probably going to be less happy with the results.

Medical doctors have authority in the context of medicine. Dr. Jill Biden has authority in the context of education. And Doctor Who has authority in the context of inter-galactic heroics and nice scarves.

This applies when we talk about experiential authority, too. If an eighth-grade teacher tells me what it’s like to be a fourth-grade teacher, I will not trust their authority. I will, however, trust a fourth-grade teacher to tell me about teaching fourth grade.

The Takeaway

Basically, when we think about authority, we need to ask ourselves, “Do I trust them? Why?” If they do not have experience with the subject (like witnessing an event or holding a job in the field) or subject expertise (like education or research), then maybe they aren’t an authority after all.

P.S. I’m sorry for the uncalled-for dig, Dr. Biden. I’m sure you’d do your best with an appendectomy.

Ask Yourself

• In what context are you an authority?
• If you needed to figure out how to do a kickflip on a skateboard, who would you ask? Who’s an authority in that situation?

Information Creation as a Process

The second frame is “ Information Creation as a Process .”

Information Creation

So first of all, let’s get this out of the way: everyone is a creator of information. When you write an essay, you’re creating information. When you log the temperature of the lizard tank, you’re creating information. Every Word Doc, Google Doc, survey, spreadsheet, Tweet, and PowerPoint that you’ve ever had a hand in? All information products. That YOU created. In some way or another, you created that information and put it out into the world.

One process you’re probably familiar with if you’re a student is the typical research paper. You know your professor wants about five to eight pages consisting of an introduction that ends in a thesis statement, a few paragraphs that each touch on a piece of evidence that supports your thesis, and then you end in a conclusion paragraph which starts with a rephrasing of your thesis statement. You save it to your hard drive or Google Drive and then you submit it to your professor.

This is one process for creating information. It’s a boring one, but it’s a process.

Outside of the classroom, the information-creation process looks different, and we have lots of choices to make.

One of the choices you’ll need to make is the mode or format in which you present information. The information I’m creating right now comes to you in the mode of an Open Educational Resource . Originally, I created these sections as blog posts. Those five-page essays I mentioned earlier are in the mode of essays.

When you create information (outside of a course assignment), it’s up to you how to package that information. It might feel like a simple or obvious choice, but some information is better suited to some forms of communication. And some forms of communication are received in a certain way, regardless of the information in them.

For example, if I tweet “Jon Snow knows nothing,” it won’t carry with it the authority of my peer-reviewed scholarly article that meticulously outlines every instance in which Jon Snow displays a lack of knowledge. Both pieces of information are accurate, but the processes I went through to create and disseminate the information have an effect on how the information is received by my audience.

And that is perhaps the biggest thing to consider when creating information: your audience.

The Audience Matters

If I just want my twitter followers to know Jon Snow knows nothing, then a tweet is the right way to reach them. If I want my tenured colleagues and other various scholars to know Jon Snow knows nothing, then I’m going to create a piece of information that will reach them, like a peer-reviewed journal article.

Often, we aren’t the ones creating information; we’re the audience members ourselves. When we’re scrolling on Twitter, reading a book, falling asleep during a PowerPoint presentation—we’re the audience observing the information being shared. When this is the case, we have to think carefully about the ways information was created.

Advertisements are a good example. Some are designed to reach a 20-year old woman in Corpus Christi through Facebook, while others are designed to reach a 60-year old man in Hoboken, NJ over the radio. They might both be selling the same car, and they’re going to put the same information (size, terrain, miles per gallon, etc.) in those ads, but their audiences are different, so their information-creation process is different, and we end up with two different ads for different audiences.

Be a Critical Audience Member

When we are the audience member, we might automatically trust something because it’s presented a certain way. I know that, personally, I’m more likely to trust something that is formatted as a scholarly article than I am something that is formatted as a blog. And I know that that’s biased thinking and it’s a mistake to make that assumption.

It’s risky to think like that for a couple of reasons:

• Looks can be deceiving. Just because someone is wearing a suit and tie doesn’t mean they’re not an axe murderer and just because something looks like a well-researched article, doesn’t mean it is one.
• Automatic trust unnecessarily limits the information we expose ourselves to. If I only ever allow myself to read peer-reviewed scholarly articles, think of all the encyclopedias and blogs and news articles I’m missing out on!

If I have a certain topic I’m really excited about, I’m going to try to expose myself to information regardless of the format and I’ll decide for myself (#criticalthinking) which pieces of information are authoritative and which pieces of information suit my needs.

Likewise, as I am conducting research and considering how best to share my new knowledge, I’m going to consider my options for distributing this newfound information and decide how best to reach my audience. Maybe it’s a tweet, maybe it’s a Buzzfeed quiz, or maybe it’s a presentation at a conference. But whatever mode I choose will also convey implications about me, my information creation process, and my audience.

You create information all of the time. The way you package and share it will have an effect on how others perceive it.

• Is there a form of information you’re likely to trust at first glance? Either a publication like a newspaper or a format like a scholarly article?
• Can you think of some voices that aren’t present in that source of information?
• Where might you look to find some other perspectives?
• If you read an article written by medical researchers that says chocolate is good for your health, would you trust the article?
• Would you still trust their authority if you found out that their research was funded by a company that sells chocolate bars? Funding and stakeholders have an impact on the creation process, and it’s worth thinking about how this can compromise someone’s authority.

Information Has Value

Onwards and upwards! We’re onto frame 3: “ Information Has Value .”

What Counts as Value?

There are a lot of different ways we value things. Some things, like money, are valuable to us because we can exchange them for goods and services. On the other hand, some things, like a skill, are valuable to us because we can exchange them for money (which we exchange for more goods and services). Some things are valuable to us for sentimental reasons, like a photograph or a letter. Some things, like our time, are valuable because they are finite.

The Value of Information

Information has all kinds of value.

One kind is monetary. If I write a book and it gets published, I’m probably going to make some money off of that (though not as much money as the publishing company will make). So that’s valuable to me.

But I’m also getting my name out into the world, and that’s valuable to me too. It means that when I apply for a job or apply for a grant, someone can google me and think, “Oh look! She wrote a book! That means she has follow-through and will probably work hard for us!” That kind of recognition is a sort of social value. That social value, by the way, can also become monetary value. If I’ve produced information, a university might give me a job, or an organization might fund my research. If I’ve invented a machine that will floss my teeth for me, the patent for my invention could be worth a lot of money (plus it’d be awesome. Cool factor can count as value.).

In a more altruistic slant, information is also valuable on a societal level. When we have more information about political candidates, for example, it influences how we vote, who we elect, and how our country is governed. That’s some really valuable information right there. That information has an effect on the whole world (plus outer space, if we elect someone who’s super into space exploration). If someone is trying to keep information hidden or secret, or if they’re spreading misinformation to confuse people, it’s probably a sign that the information they’re hiding is important, which is to say, valuable.

On a much smaller scale, think about the information on food packages. If you’re presented with calorie counts, you might make a different decision about the food you buy. If you’re presented with an item’s allergens, you might avoid that product and not end up in an Emergency Room with anaphylactic shock. You know what’s super valuable to me? NOT being in an Emergency Room!

But if you do end up in the Emergency Room, the information that doctors and nurses will use to treat your allergic reaction is extremely valuable. That value of that information is equal to the lives it’s saved.

Acting Like Information is Valuable

When we create our own information by writing papers and blog posts and giving presentations, it’s really important that we give credit to the information we’ve used to create our new information product for a couple of reasons.

First, someone worked really hard to create something, let’s say an article. And that article’s information is valuable enough to you to use in your own paper or presentation. By citing the author properly, you’re giving the author credit for their work, which is valuable to them. The more their article is cited, the more valuable it becomes because they’re more likely to get scholarly recognition and jobs and promotions.

Second, by showing where you’re getting your information, you’re boosting the value of your new information product. On the most basic level, you’ll get a higher grade on your paper, which is valuable to you. But you’re also telling your audience, whether it’s your professor or your boss or your YouTube subscribers, that you aren’t just making stuff up—you did the work of researching and citing, and that makes your audience trust you more. It makes the audience value your information more.

Remember early on when I said the frames all connect? “Information Has Value” ties into the other information literacy frames we’ve talked about, “Information Creation as a Process” and “Authority as Constructed and Contextual.” When I see you’ve cited your sources of information, then I, as the audience, think you’re more authoritative than someone who doesn’t cite their sources. I also can look at your information product and evaluate the effort you’ve put into it. If you wrote a tweet, which takes little time and effort, I’ll generally value it less than if you wrote a book, which took a lot of time and effort to create. I know that time is valuable, so seeing that you were willing to dedicate your time to create this information product makes me feel like it’s more valuable.

Information is valuable because of what goes into its creation (time and effort) and what comes from it (an informed society). If we didn’t value information, we wouldn’t be moving forward as a society, we’d probably have died out thousands of years ago as creatures who never figured out how to use tools or start a fire.

So continue to value information because it improves your life, your audiences’ lives, and the lives of other information creators. More importantly, if we stop valuing information a smarter species will eventually take over and it’ll be a whole Planet of the Apes thing and I just don’t have the energy for that right now.

• Can you think of some ways in which a YouTube video on dog training has value? Who values it? Who profits from it?
• Think of some information that would be valuable to someone applying to college. What does that person need to know?

Research as Inquiry

Easing on down the road, we’ve come to frame number 4: “ Research as Inquiry .”

“Inquiry” is another word for “curiosity” or “questioning.” I like to think of this frame as “Research as Curiosity,” because I think it more accurately captures the way our adorable human brains work.

Inquiring Minds Want to Know

When you think to yourself, “How old is Madonna?” and you google it to find out she’s 62 (as of the creation of this resource), that’s research! You had a question (“how old is Madonna?”), you applied a search strategy (googling “Madonna age”) and you found an answer (62). That’s it! That’s all research has to be!

But it’s not all research can be. This example, like most research, is comprised of the same components we use in more complex situations. Those components are a question and an answer, inquiry and research, “how old is Madonna?” and “62.” But when we’re curious, we go back to the inquiry step again and ask more questions and seek more answers. We’re never really done, even when we’ve answered the initial question and written the paper and given the presentation and received accolades and awards for all our hard work. If it’s something we’re really curious about, we’ll keep asking and answering and asking again.

If you’re really curious about Madonna, you don’t just think, “How old is Madonna?” You think “How old is Madonna? Wait, really ? Her skin looks amazing! What’s her skincare routine? Seriously, what year was she born? Oh my god, she wrote children’s books! Does my library have any?” Your questions lead you to answers which, when you’re really interested in a topic, lead you to more and more questions. Humans are naturally curious ; we have this sort of instinct to be like, “huh, I wonder why that is?” and it’s propelled us to learn things and try things and fail and try again! It’s all research as inquiry.

And to satisfy your curiosity, yes, the library I currently work at does own one of Madonna’s children’s books. It’s called The Adventures of Abdi , and you can find it in our Juvenile Collection on the second floor at PZ8 M26 Adv 2004. And you can find a description of her skincare routine in this article from W Magazine: https://www.wmagazine.com/story/madonna-skin-care-routine-tips-mdna . You’re welcome.

Identifying an Information Need

One of the tricky parts of research as inquiry is determining a situation’s information need. It sounds simple to ask yourself, “What information do I need?” and sometimes we do it unconsciously. But it’s not always easy. Here are a few examples of information needs:

• You need to know what your niece’s favorite Paw Patrol character is so you can buy her a birthday present. Your research is texting your sister. She says, “Everest.” And now you’re done. You buy the present, you’re a rock star at the birthday party. Your information need was a short answer based on a three-year old’s opinion.
• You’re trying to convince someone on Twitter that Nazis are bad. You compile a list of opinion pieces from credible news publications like the Wall Street Journal and the New York Times , gather first-hand narratives of Holocaust survivors and victims of hate crimes, find articles that debunk eugenics, etc. Your information need isn’t scholarly publications, it’s accessible news and testimonials. It’s articles a person might actually read in their free time, articles that aren’t too long and don’t require access to scholarly materials that are sometimes behind paywalls.
• You need to write a literature review for an assignment, but you don’t know what a literature review is. So first you google “literature review example.” You find out what it is, how one is created, and maybe skim a few examples. Next, you move to your library’s website and search tool and try “oceanography literature review,” and find some closer examples. Finally, you start conducting research for your own literature review. Your information need here is both broader and deeper. You need to learn what a literature review is, how one is compiled, and how one searches for relevant scholarly articles in the resources available to you.

Sometimes it helps to break down big information needs into smaller ones. Take the last example, for instance: you need to write a literature review. What are the smaller parts?

• Information Need 1: Find out what a literature review is
• Information Need 2: Find out how people go about writing literature reviews
• Information Need 3: Find relevant articles on your topic for your own literature review

It feels better to break it into smaller bits and accomplish those one at a time. And it highlights an important part of this frame that’s surprisingly difficult to learn: ask questions. You can’t write a literature review if you don’t know what it is, so ask. You can’t write a literature review if you don’t know how to find articles, so ask. The quickest way to learn is to ask questions. Once you stop caring if you look stupid, and once you realized no one thinks poorly of people who ask questions, life gets a lot easier.

So, let’s add this to our components of research: ask a question, determine what you need in order to thoroughly answer the question, and seek out your answers. Not too painful, and when you’re in love with whatever you’re researching, it might even be fun.

• When you have a question, ask it.
• When you’re genuinely interested in something, keep asking questions and finding answers.
• When you have a task at hand, take a second to think realistically about the information you’ll need to accomplish that task. You don’t need a peer-reviewed article to find out if praying mantises eat their mates, but you might if you want to find out why.
• What’s the last thing you looked up on Wikipedia? Did you stop when you found an answer, or did you click on another link and another link until you learned about something completely different?
• If you can’t remember, try it now! Search for something (like a favorite book or tv show) and click on linked words and phrases within Wikipedia until you learn something new!
• What was the last thing you researched that you were really excited about? Do you struggle when teachers and professors tell you to “research something that interests you”? Instead, try asking yourself, “What makes me really angry?” You might find you have more interests than you realized!

Scholarship as Conversation

We’ve made it friends! My favorite frame: “ Scholarship as Conversation .” Is it weird to have a favorite frame of information literacy? Probably. Am I going to talk about it anyway? You betcha!

What does “Scholarship as Conversation” mean?

Scholarship as conversation refers to the way scholars reference each other and build off of one another’s work, just like in a conversation. Have you ever had a conversation that started when you asked someone what they did last weekend and ended with you telling a story about how someone (definitely not you) ruined the cake at your mom’s dog’s birthday party? And then someone says, “but like I was saying earlier…” and they take the conversation back to a point in the conversation where they were reminded of a different point or story? Conversations aren’t linear, they aren’t a clear line to a clear destination, and neither is research. When we respond to the ideas and thoughts of scholars, we’re responding to the scholars themselves and engaging them in conversation.

Why do I Love this Frame so Much?

Let me count the ways.

I really enjoy the imagery of scholarship as a conversation among peers. Just a bunch of well-informed curious people coming together to talk about something they all love and find interesting. I imagine people literally sitting around a big round table talking about things they’re all excited about and want to share with each other. It’s a really lovely image in my head. Eventually the image kind of reshapes and devolves into that painting of dogs playing poker, but I love that image too!

It harkens back to pre-internet scholarship, which sounds excruciating and exhausting, but it was all done for the love of a subject. Scholars used to literally mail each other manuscripts seeking feedback. Then, when they got an article published in a journal, scholars interested in the subject would seek out and read the article in the physical journal it was published in. Then they’d write reviews of the article, praising or criticizing the author’s research or theories or style. As the field grew, more and more people would write and contribute more articles to criticize and praise and build off of one another.

So, for example, if I wrote an article that was about Big Foot and then Joe wrote an article saying, “Emily’s article on Big Foot is garbage; here’s what I think about Big Foot,” Sam and I are now having a conversation. It’s not always a fun one, but we’re writing in response to one another about something we’re both passionate about. Later, Jaiden comes along and disagrees with Joe and agrees with me (because I’m right) and they cite both me and Joe. Now we’re all three in a conversation. And it just grows and grows and more people show up at the table to talk and contribute, or maybe just to listen.

Reason Three

You can roll up to the table and just listen if you want to. Sometimes we’re just listening to the conversation. We’re at the table, but we’re not there to talk. We’re just hoping to get some questions answered and learn from some people. When we’re reading books and articles or listening to podcasts or watching movies, we’re listening to the conversation. You don’t have to do groundbreaking research to be part of a conversation. You can just be there and appreciate what everyone’s talking about. You’re still there in the conversation.

Reason Four

You can contribute to the conversation at any time. The imagery of a conversation is nice because it’s approachable: just pull up a chair and start talking. With any new subject, you should probably listen a little at first, ask some questions, and then start giving your own opinion or theories, but you can contribute at any time. Since we do live in the age of internet research, we can contribute in ways people 50 years ago never dreamed of. Besides writing essays in class (which totally counts because you’re examining the conversation and pulling in the bits you like and citing them to give credit to other scholars), you can talk to your professors and friends about a topic, you can blog about it, you can write articles about it, you can even tweet about it (have you ever seen Humanities folk on Twitter? They go nuts on there having actual, literal scholarly conversations). Your ways for engaging are kind of endless!

Reason Five

Yep, I’m listing reasons.

Conversations are cyclical. Like I said above, they’re not always a straight path and that’s true of research too. You don’t have to engage with who spoke most recently; you can engage with someone who spoke ten years ago, someone who spoke 100 years ago, you can even respond to the person who started the conversation! Jump in wherever you want. And wherever you do jump in, you might just change the course of the conversation. Because sometimes we think we have an answer, but then something new is discovered or a person who hadn’t been at the table or who had been overlooked says something that drastically impacts what we knew, so now we have to reexamine it all over again and continue the conversation in a trajectory we hadn’t realized was available before.

Lastly, this frame is about sharing and responding and valuing one another’s work. If Joe, my Big Foot nemesis, responds to my article, they’re going to cite me. If Jaiden then publishes a rebuttal, they’re going to cite both Joe and me, because fair is fair. This is for a few reasons: 1) even if Jaiden disagrees with Joe’s work, they respect that Joe put effort into it and it’s valuable to them. 2) When Jaiden cites Joe, it means anyone who jumps into the conversation at the point of Jaiden’s article will be able to backtrack and catch up using Jaiden’s citations. A newcomer can trace it back to Joe’s article and trace that back to mine. They can basically see a transcript of the whole conversation so they can read Jaiden’s article with all of the context, and they can write their own well-informed piece on Big Foot.

There’s a lot to take away from this frame, but here’s what I think is most important:

• Be respectful of other scholars’ work and their part in the conversation by citing them.
• Start talking whenever you feel ready, in whatever platform you feel comfortable.
• Make sure everyone who wants to be at the table is at the table. This means making sure information is available to those who want to listen and making sure we lift up the voices that are at risk of being drowned out.
• What scholarly conversations have you participated in recently? Is there a Reddit forum you look in on periodically to learn what’s new in the world of cats wearing hats? Or a Facebook group on roller skating? Do you contribute or just listen?
• Think of a scholarly conversation surrounding a topic—sharks, ballet, Game of Thrones. Who’s not at the table? Whose voice is missing from the conversation? Why do you think that is?

Searching as Strategic Exploration

You’ve made it! We’ve reached the last frame: Searching as Strategic Exploration .

“Searching as Strategic Exploration” addresses the part of information literacy that we think of as “Research.” It deals with the actual task of searching for information, and the word “Exploration” is a really good word choice, because it’s evocative of the kind of struggle we sometimes feel when we approach research. I imagine people exploring a jungle, facing obstacles and navigating an uncertain path towards an ultimate goal (Note: the goal is love and it was inside of us all along). I also kind of imagine all the different Northwest Passage explorations, which were cool in theory, but didn’t super-duper work out as expected.

But research is like that! Sometimes we don’t get where we thought we were headed. But the good news is this: You probably won’t die from exposure or resort to cannibalism in your research. Fun, right?

Step 1: Identify a Goal

The first part of any good exploration is identifying a goal. Maybe it’s a direct passage to Asia or the diamond the old lady threw into the ocean at the end of Titanic. More likely, the goal is to satisfy an information need. Remember when we talked about “Research as Inquiry?” All that stuff about paw patrol and Madonna’s skin care regimen? Those were examples of information needs. We’re just trying to find an answer or learn something new.

So great! Our goal is to learn something new. Now we make a strategy.

Step 2: Make a Strategy

For many of your information needs you might just need to Google a question. There’s your strategy: throw your question into Google and comb through the results. You might limit your search to just websites ending in .org, .gov, or .edu. You might also take it a step further and, rather than type in an entire question fully formed, you just type in keywords. So “Who is the guy who invented mayonnaise?” becomes “mayonnaise inventor.” Identifying keywords is part of your strategy and so is using a search engine and limiting the results you’re interested in.

Step 3: Start Exploring

Googling “mayonnaise inventor” probably brings you to Wikipedia where we often learn that our goals don’t have a single, clearly defined answer. For example, we learn that mayonnaise might have gotten its name after the French won a battle in Port Mahon, but that doesn’t tell us who actually made the mayonnaise, just when it was named. Prior to being named, the sauce was called “aioli bo” and was apparently in a Menorcan recipe book from 1745 by Juan de Altimiras. That’s great for Altimiras, but the most likely answer is that mayonnaise was invented way before him and he just had the foresight to write down the recipe. Not having a single definite answer is an unforeseen obstacle tossed into our path that now affects our strategy.  We know we have a trickier question than when we first set sail.

But we have a lot to work with! We now have more keywords like “Port Mahon,” “the French,” and Wikipedia taught us that the earliest known mention of “mayonnaise” was in 1804, so we have “1804” as a keyword too.

Let’s see if we can find that original mention. Let’s take our keywords out of Wikipedia where we found them and voyage to a library’s website! At my library we have a tool that searches through all of our resources. We call it the “Quick Search.” You might have a library available to you, either at school, on a university’s campus, or a local public library. You can do research in any of these places!

So into the Quick Search tool (or whatever you have available to you) go our keywords: “1804,” “mayonnaise,” and “France.” The first result I see is an e-book by a guy who traveled to Paris in 1804, so that might be what we’re looking for. I search through the text and I do, in fact, find a reference to mayonnaise on page 99! The author (August von Kotzebue) is talking about how it’s hard to understand menus at French restaurants, for “What foreigner, for instance, would at first know what is meant by a mayonnaise de poulet, a galatine de volaille, a cotelette a la minute, or even an epigramme d’agneau?” He then goes on to recommend just ordering the fish, since you’ll know what you’ll get (Kotzebue 99).

So that doesn’t tell us who invented mayonnaise, but I think it’s pretty funny! So I’d call that detour a win.

Step 4: Reevaluate

When we hit ends that we don’t think are successful, we can always retrace our steps and reevaluate our question. Dead ends are a part of exploration! We’ve learned a lot, but we’ve also learned that maybe “who invented mayonnaise?” isn’t the right question. Maybe we should ask questions about the evolution of French cuisine or about ownership of culinary experimentation.

I’m going to stick with the history of mayonnaise, for just a little while longer, but my “1804 mayonnaise France” search wasn’t as helpful as I’d hoped, so I’ll try something new. Let’s try looking at encyclopedias.

I searched in a database called Credo Reference (which is a database filled with encyclopedia entries) and just searching “mayonnaise.” I can see that the first entry, “Minorca or Menorca” from The Companion to British History , doesn’t initially look helpful, but we’re exploring, so let’s click on it. It tells us that mayonnaise was invented in 1756 by a French commander’s cook and its name comes from Port Mahon where the French fended off the British during a siege ( Arnold-Baker, 2001 ). That’s awesome! It’s what Wikipedia told us! But let’s corroborate that fact. I click on The Hutchinson Chronology of World History entry for 1756, which says mayonnaise was invented in France in 1756 by the duc de Richelieu ( Helicon, 2018 ). I’m not sure I buy it. I could see a duke’s cook inventing mayonnaise, but I have a hard time imagining a duke and military commander taking the time to create a condiment.

But now I can go on to research the duc de Richelieu and his military campaigns and his culinary successes. Just typing “Duke de Richelieu” into the library’s Quick Search shows me a TON of books (16,742 as of writing this) on his life and he influence on France. So maybe now we’re actually exploring Richelieu or the intertwined history of French cuisine and the lives of nobility.

What Did We Just Do?

Our strategy for exploring this topic has had a lot of steps, but they weren’t random. It was a wild ride, but it was a strategic one. Let’s break the steps down real quick:

• We asked a question or identified a goal
• We identified keywords and googled them
• We learned some background information and got new keywords from Wikipedia and had to reevaluate our question
• We followed a lead to a book but hit a dead end when it wasn’t as useful as we’d hoped
• We identified an encyclopedia database and found several entries that support the theory we learned in Wikipedia, which forced us to reevaluate our question again
• We identified a key player in our topic and searched for him in the library’s Quick Search tool and the resources we found made us reevaluate our question yet again

Other strategies could include looking through an article’s reference list, working through a mind map , outlining your questions, or recording your steps in a research log so you don’t get lost—whatever works for you!

Exploration is tricky. Sometimes you circle back and ask different questions as new obstacles arise. Sometimes you have a clear path and you reach your goal instantly. But you can always retrace your steps, try new routes, discover new information, and maybe you’ll get to your destination in the end. Even if you don’t, you’ve learned something.

For instance, today we learned that if you can’t understand a menu in French, you should just order the fish.

• Where do you start a search for information? Do you start in different places when you have different information needs?
• If your research question was “What is the impact of fast fashion on carbon emissions?” What keywords would you use to start searching?

The Framework for Information Literacy in Higher Education is one heck of a document. It’s complicated, its frames intertwine, it’s written in a way that can be tricky to understand. But essentially, it’s just trying to get us to understand that the ways we interact with information are complicated and we need to think about our interactions to make sure we’re behaving in an ethical and responsible way.

Why do your professors make you cite things? Because those citations are valuable to the original author, and they prove your engagement with the scholarly conversation. Why do we need to hold space in the conversation for voices that we haven’t heard from before? Because maybe no one recognized the authority in those voices before. The old process for creating information shut out lots of voices while prioritizing others. It’s important for us to recognize these nuances when we see what information is available to us and important for us to ask, “Whose voice isn’t here? Why? Am I looking hard enough for those voices? Can I help amplify them?” And it’s important for us to ask, “Why is the loudest voice being so loud? What motivates them? Why should I trust them over others?”

When we think critically about the information we access and the information we create and share, we’re engaging as citizens in one big global conversation. Making sure voices are heard, including your own voice, is what moves us all towards a more intelligent and understanding society.

Of course, part of thinking critically about information means thinking critically about both this guide and the framework. Lots of people have criticized the framework for including too much library jargon. Other folks think the framework needs to be rewritten to explicitly address how information seeking systems and publishing platforms have arisen from racist, sexist institutions. We won’t get into the criticisms here, but they’re important to think about. You can learn more about the criticism of the framework in a blog post by Ian Beilin , or you can do your own search for criticism on the framework to see what else is out there and form your own opinions.

The Final Takeaway

Ask questions, find information, and ask questions about that information.

Attributions

“A Beginner’s Guide to Introduction to Information Literacy” by Emily Metcalf is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA

Writing Arguments in STEM Copyright © by Jason Peters; Jennifer Bates; Erin Martin-Elston; Sadie Johann; Rebekah Maples; Anne Regan; and Morgan White is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Secretariat
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Information Literacy

Information Literacy empowers people in all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve their personal, social, occupational and educational goal.

Information literacy and lifelong learning have been described as the beacons of the information society, illuminating the courses to development, prosperity and freedom.

Information literacy empowers people in all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve their personal, social, occupational and educational goals. Information-literate people are able to access information about their health, their environment, their education and work, and to make critical decisions about their lives. 

In a digital world, information literacy requires users to have the skills to use information and communication technologies and their applications to access and create information. Closely linked are two other related literacies: computer literacy (ICT skills) and media literacy (understanding of various kinds of mediums and formats by which information is transmitted). For example, the ability to navigate in cyberspace and negotiate hypertext multimedia documents requires both the technical skills to use the Internet and the literacy skills to interpret the information. 

IFAP is promoting actions aimed at raising awareness of the importance of information literacy and supporting projects that build the literacy skills of users.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

6 – Information Literacy

Information and the technology that facilitates its dissemination are so common in our world today, we may not realize that we are functioning in a much larger world view of information.

Before you begin to study information literacy, take the survey below to see how much you already know or need to know.

1. Information literacy is synonymous with computer or technology literacy:

2. information literacy consists primarily of search skills, such as the ability to use a database or search engine:, 3. information literacy consists of a combination of conceptual understandings, skills, and habits of mind:, 4. information literacy is closely related to critical thinking., 5. in my discipline (field of study) an understanding of research and scholarship is important., 6. information literacy is needed only in courses which require research papers, 7. most students have received adequate information literacy instruction before they attend university., 8. name one reason why scholars must be careful to acknowledge the sources they use in their own work:, 9 . write a short (1-3 sentences) definition of information literacy. please answer based on your current understanding — don’t look up the definition., 10. write a short (1-3 sentences) definition of intellectual property. please answer based on your current understanding — do not look up a definition., information literacy in the context of a classroom.

Let’s begin with a case from an actual classroom:

Casey’s Problem

Casey is completing an assignment for his environmental science course, in which he must develop an action plan for reducing the amount of plastic pollution in the ocean. His instructor, Dr. Singer, indicates all action plans must be supported with data from credible, scholarly sources. Casey’s initial Google search for sources brings millions of results. He spends a considerable amount of time reviewing multiple sources, and carefully selects sources that he thinks are scholarly, including a few that are on .edu websites. He then uses these to put together his plan. When he receives his grade, he is upset, because his professor tells him that most of the sources that he used were not appropriate for the assignment.

What did he do wrong?

Dr. Singer’s Problem

It is the same thing every semester. No matter how much Dr. Singer emphasizes that her students need to use scholarly sources, most students continue to use inappropriate sources. Usually, their reference pages contain a jumbled mess of websites and news articles. This semester, she even spent some class time with her students, specifically talking to them about how to identify scholarly sources, but they still seemed to struggle.

What more can she do?

Activity #1:

Write a short response describing your reaction to these situations. what do you think is causing casey to struggle what could dr. singer do to help casey and other students overcome these challenges, the digital information environment.

In the previous cases, Casey is a good student who worked hard on his project, and Dr. Singer is a dedicated instructor who wants her students to succeed. Yet, in this situation, both end up frustrated and confused. Casey’s story illustrates the complexity of the digital information environment and the challenges that students can face when trying to navigate this environment. Dr. Singer’s story raises the issue of how best instructors can help students develop the conceptual understandings and skills that they need to effectively engage with information. We live in a world in which we have access to vast amount of information, available in numerous formats, and accessible through multiple channels. To provide just a few examples, there are:

• 500 stories published each day by The Washington Post ( Meyer 2016 (Links to an external site.) )
• 28,000 active scholarly journals ( Ware and Mabe 2015 (Links to an external site.) )
• 1 million articles added to PubMed each year–about 2 per minute ( Landhuis 2016 (Links to an external site.) )

Although in some ways this makes research much easier, in other ways it can make research more challenging. In addition to the sheer volume of information, and the rapid pace that it comes at us, here are a few other reasons why navigating the information environment can be challenging:

Information Formats :

There are more information formats than ever before. But, nearly all of the information that we encounter now comes to us online. In print, it was easy to tell the difference between a newspaper, a magazine, and an academic journal, but online it is not as easy to distinguish between formats. For students, everything online may look like a website. This has sometimes been referred to as “ container collapse (Links to an external site.) .” ( OCLC 2004 (Links to an external site.) ; Connaway 2018)

Decontextualized Information :

Much of the information that comes to us is also lacking context. Consider a traditional newspaper. The placement of a specific article would provide clues about the relative importance of the article–what page it was on, which section it was in, whether it was above or below the fold, the content of the articles that were next to it. Now, all we see is often disconnected stories (or just headlines) without the clues that would help us to determine accuracy and value. ( Townsend, Lin Hanick, & Hofer, 2019

Misinformation or Disinformation :

The speed at which information can be passed makes it very easy for inaccurate or misleading information to be spread. While this is sometimes done without the intent to cause harm, there are those who are deliberately creating and sharing false information. These information sources often take the form of real information sources and can be difficult to spot. The following provides a good overview of different types of misleading information that you may encounter: Forms of Information Disorder.   ( Wardle; Wardle & Derakshan, 2017

Source: Claire Wardle, 2017

Activity #2:

In addition to multiple information formats, lack of context, and misinformation, what other reasons do you think people have for sometimes struggling to navigate the information environment what roles do they play within this environment write a brief response to these questions..

You play dual roles within this information environment, as both an information consumer and an information creator, and you have different rights and responsibilities related to each role.

Students in the Digital Information Environment

Below are some roles that you play within an information environment. Read about your rights and responsibilities related to each role.

Students as Information Consumers

In their academic, professional, and personal lives, students all have to find and use information. They have to find the information needed to complete their academic assignments, but they also must find the information needed to navigate daily life and make numerous decisions, from the significant to the mundane. Wherever and however they search for information, they are likely to receive a significant number of results. They will then need to make choices about which information sources to use and trust.

Students as Information Creators

Students also create information. They write research papers, stories, and poems and create research posters, artwork and music. In many cases, their creations are shared only with their instructors and perhaps a few classmates. Increasingly, however, they are being expected to share with a wider audience, as part of the growing emphasis on undergraduate student research. Students also create and share information in their personal and professional lives, including

posting their thoughts and opinions on various social media platforms.

How well do you think students navigate this environment? The videos below highlight major findings from reports on how well students do.

https://youtu.be/cwMXWU88oHE

“For over three-fourths (84%) of the students surveyed, the most difficult step of the course-related research process was getting started. Defining a topic (66%), narrowing it down (62%), and filtering through irrelevant results (61%) frequently hampered students in the sample, too.”

( head & eisenberg, 2010, p.3 links to an external site..

The News Study presents findings about how a sample of U.S. college students gather information and engage with news in the digital age. The following video summarizes the major findings from an online survey of 5,844 respondents and telephone interviews with 37 participants from 11 U.S. colleges and universities selected for their regional, demographic, and red/blue state diversity.

https://youtu.be/QcOjj8v_FyA

“Our study’s findings suggest that most young news consumers feel overwhelmed by the volume of news and many feel they are unable to discern true from false news.”

( head et al, 2018, p. 37), how do college graduates solve information problems in the workplace.

What happens to college students once they graduate and make the critical transition from campus to the workplace?

Watch this video to learn about the study and its findings:

https://youtu.be/5gOtjexhyvE

“…when we specifically asked employers to assess how adept these new graduates are at finding and using information, many noted that the online proficiency they had prized at the recruiting stage turned out, in many cases, to be dismayingly limited. Most employers needed and expected more from their new hires, including research done more rigorously and more flexibly.” ( Head, 2012, p. 11 Links to an external site. )

A recent report published by the Stanford History Education Group Links to an external site. focused on students’ ability to evaluate information found online. The major conclusion from this study is indicated below:

Information Literacy

The term “information literacy” has been in use for more than 40 years, and the definition has evolved over this time period. In 2015, the Association of College and Research Libraries published the Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education , which provides an updated conception of information literacy. Rather than a list of skills, the Framework outlines six broad concepts that are central to information literacy:

Watch this video to learn about the definition of information literacy:

https://youtu.be/M8KuGIaU5Y8

Below are the Six Core Concepts of the Information Literacy for Higher Education Framework:

Authority is Constructed and Contextual: Information sources have different levels of authority. Context may determine the level of authority needed.

Information Creation as a Process: Information sources are created through differing processes. The creation process and format may impact the actual or perceived value.

Information Has Value: Information has financial, social, and personal value, and there are legal and ethical guidelines regarding its creation, access, and use.

Research as Inquiry: Research is an iterative process focusing on answering questions. These answers often create new questions.

Scholarship as Conversation: Scholars engage in ongoing debates in which ideas are revised, accepted, or rejected. Each information source may represent a single “voice” in the conversation.

Searching as Strategic Exploration: There are multiple search tools and strategies. The search process should vary based on information need.

Information Literacy and Critical Thinking

There has long been recognition of the close connection between information literacy and critical thinking. Like information literacy, critical thinking is one of those terms for which there have been multiple definitions. However, a look at just a couple of these definitions can help to make apparent how closely related the two concepts are:

“Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. “

( Scriven & Paul, 1987)

Information literacy is also closely connected to other concepts such as media literacy, digital literacy, and visual literacy.

“Information literacy” is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning.

“Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education. It provides a framework to access, analyze, evaluate, create and participate with messages in a variety of forms — from print to video to the Internet. Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy.” ( Center for Media Literacy

“Digital literacy i s the ability to use information and communication technologies to find, evaluate, create, and communicate in- formation, requiring both cognitive and technical skills.” ( American Library Association

“Visual literacy is defined as the ability to read, write and create visual images. It is a concept that relates to art and design but it also has much wider appli-cations. Visual literacy is about language, communication and interaction. Visual media is a linguistic tool with which we communicate, exchange ideas and navigate our highly visual digital world.” ( Visual Literacy Today

Understanding the Research Process

Let’s look at another case:

Mia’s Problem

Mia is writing a paper for her psychology course. She is interested in determining the most effective way to treat depression in college students. She uses the advanced search in PsycInfo, limiting her results to peer reviewed sources published within the last 5 years. Although she finds multiple scholarly articles, she struggles to make sense of the results. One source recommends one treatment, another recommends something completely different. Some of the recommendations even seem to directly contradict each other. She is so frustrated– w hy can’t she find one clear answer to her research question?

In this situation, Mia clearly has some knowledge about how to research in psychology. She selects an appropriate database, uses advanced search techniques, and can identify peer reviewed sources. However, there is something that is still causing her to struggle, something that she is missing about the research process.

ACTIVITY #3:  Write a short reaction to Mia’s situation. She clearly understands how to find information but doesn’t seem to really grasp the purpose of research. What would she need to understand about research and scholarship in order to make sense of her results?

Conversation, inquiry, and value.

Mia’s story illustrates the difference between a skills-based understanding of information literacy and a conceptual understanding. She has research skills, but she lacks understanding of certain concepts that would help her to make sense of her results.

In this case, Mia seems to be struggling to understand the concepts of Scholarship as Conversation and Research as Inquiry . If she recognized that scholars are always debating each other through their research, she would be less frustrated by the ambiguous nature of her results. And, if she recognized research as a process in which answers often lead to new questions, she would be less inclined to seek a single “right” answer to her question.

The Association of College & Research Libraries (2015) proposes the following definition of Information Literacy:

“Information literacy is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning “ (ACRL, 2015)

Let’s look at these concepts in more detail:

Information Has Value

• Information has many types of value, both for the consumer and the creator
• There are legal and ethical guidelines for how information can be created, accessed, and shared

For a brief introduction to the concept, and the challenges that students might face related to it, watch the short (1:24) video below:

https://youtu.be/xy-nR9naKSg

Information has value in many different contexts – personal, educational, social, political, financial, etc. There are a number of factors (political, economic, legal) that influence the creation, access, and distribution of information. Novice learners may struggle to understand the value of information, especially in an environment where nearly all information appears to be available for free online. Experts, however, understand their responsibilities as consumers and creators of information, which involves making deliberate choices about how they access and share information. In addition, experts recognize that not everyone has equal access to information or the equal ability to make their voice heard.

Below are some examples of the knowledge practices and dispositions for Information Has Value .

While information may often seem to be free, it actually has significant value, both for the information consumer and creator. Because information is valuable, there are multiple legal and ethical guidelines relating to information. An understanding of this concept will help you make informed and ethical decisions in regards to the creation, access, use, and sharing of information.

Research as inquiry.

• Research is an iterative process focused on answering questions, solving problems, or creating new knowledge
• Finding an answer often leads to new questions

Research is focused on answering questions (which can be personal, academic, or social). Experts usually see research as a process focused on problems or questions within a discipline, or between disciplines, that are unanswered or unresolved. They recognize that research is rarely a simple, straightforward search for one “perfect” answer or source; instead, it is an iterative, open-ended, and messy process in which finding answers often leads to new questions. Expert researchers are able to accept ambiguity and recognize the need for adaptability and flexibility when they search. As students progress, they are able to ask increasingly sophisticated research questions and used more advanced research methods.

Watch the following video to explain how students struggle and how these are resolved through a better understanding of information literacy.

https://youtu.be/5kTQlhuBRjc

Below are some examples of the knowledge practices and dispositions for Research as Inquiry .

Research is an iterative process in which finding answers usually creates new questions. An understanding of this concept will help students to recognize that research requires patience, persistence, and flexibility, and will prepare them to make sense of the often ambiguous nature of their search results, rather than always seeking a single “right” answer.

Scholarship as Conversation

• Scholars participate, through their work, in ongoing discussions or debates in which ideas or findings are reviewed, evaluated, accepted, or sometimes, rejected
• There are often specific methods or modes of conversation that must be learned before one can enter the discussion

Scholars, researchers, and professionals within a field engage in ongoing discussions in which ideas are continually being developed, debated, challenged, and, in some cases, rejected. While there are some topics for which accepted answers have been established through this process, in most cases there are often multiple competing perspectives on a topic or question. Experts are able to locate, navigate, comprehend, and contribute to the conversations within their discipline or field. They also recognize that providing appropriate attribution to relevant previous research is an obligation of participating in this conversation.

As you are developing your information literacy, you should be learning to see yourself as a possible contributor to these conversations, although you may first need to learn the “language” of the discipline (accepted research methods, standards for evidence, forms of attribution) before you can fully participate. An understanding of this concept will help you to better evaluate the relevance of specific information sources, as well as start to recognize your own role within the conversation.

Below are some examples of the knowledge practices and dispositions for Scholarship as Conversation .

Luke’s Problem

After graduating from Ohio State last spring, Luke took a job with new corporation nearby. He has just been assigned his first solo task. He needs to track the public reaction to a product that his company recently released and give a presentation to the design team in which he analyzes the reaction and makes recommendations for potential revisions. Luke is excited to get started, since he always did very well on all of his research assignments. But when he tries to use the research process he learned when he was a student–using an academic database and searching for peer reviewed articles, he quickly runs into problems. Although this process has always worked for him in the past, in this case, he is not able to find any useful information for his presentation. He is starting to panic. How can he find the information that he needs?

In this situation, the research process that served Luke well as a student is not working for him when faced with a real information need. He learned how to search for information as a student, but there is something that is preventing him from having the same success in the workplace.

ACTIVITY #4: Take a few minutes to write a reaction to Luke’s situation. Why is his normal research process, developed over years as a student, no longer working for him? What would he need to understand about research and information to use to enable him to succeed at his project?

Information creation and exploration.

During his time at Ohio State, Luke clearly learned how to complete research assignments in an academic context. But he is missing underlying conceptual knowledge about research and information that would allow him to have the same level of success in his workplace. In this case, Luke is having trouble recognizing that Authority is Constructed and Contextual and Searching is Strategic Exploration . He knows that scholarly journal articles are authoritative sources for college research papers, but is not able to identify what an authoritative source would be when in a different context. And, he doesn’t seem to understand that he may need to vary his search process based on his specific information need, rather than relying on the familiar process that has always worked for him in the past.

Let’s look at the three remaining core concepts:

Authority is Constructed and Contextual

• Information sources have different levels of authority
• Authority can be based on multiple factors, including education, experience, or social position
• Context can determine the level of authority needed

Information sources have different levels of authority. The authority of an information source is due, at least in part, to the credibility and expertise of the information creator. There are different types of authority or expertise, but having expertise in one area does not imply expertise in others. Experts recognize that the context in which information is needed and will be used can impact the level of authority that is needed, or what would be considered authoritative. Students who grasp this concept are able to examine information sources and to ask relevant questions about origins, context, and suitability for the current information need.

Watch this video to get a better understanding of this concept: https://youtu.be/YaNpB1WF-EI

Below are some examples of the knowledge practices and dispositions for Authority is Constructed and Contextual .

Information sources can have different levels of authority. Determining the authority of a source involves a consideration of the expertise and position of the information creator. A source that is considered authoritative in one context may not be considered authoritative in another context. An understanding of this concept will help you make good choices when determining which sources are relevant and appropriate for your specific information need.

Information Creation as a Process

• Information is created in differing formats for differing purposes
• The creation process and format can impact the actual or perceived value of an information source

Information products are created by different processes and come in many formats, which reflect the differences in the creation process. Some information formats may be better suited for conveying certain types of information or meeting specific information needs. Understanding how and why an information product was created can help to determine how that information can be used. Experts recognize that information products are valued differently depending on the context, and the creation process for an information source, as well of the format a source, can influence the actual or perceived value of an information source.

Watch this video for better understanding of Information Creation: https://youtu.be/zKxgF7xqAFs

Below are some examples of the knowledge practices and dispositions for Information Creation as a Process .

Information sources come in a variety of different formats. The format of the source may impact the actual or perceived value of that source, and certain formats may be considered more or less acceptable to use, depending on the context. An understanding of different formats of information, as well as the related creation processes, can help you in determining when and how to use a specific information source, as well as help you make informed decisions regarding the appropriate format(s) for your own information creations.

Activity #5:

Source comparison, with a partner, look at the differences between popular and scholarly sources. decide together on a topic (preferably in your field, or something that you might both enjoy reading and discussing). one of you will find a popular source, and one of you will find a scholarly source for the topic. you can decide who will do what. if you’d like, you may each use the worksheet below., activity #6: this assignment will draw on the information you gathered with your partner for activity #5.  now, however, you will not be working with a partner.  individually write a short 2-page paper (doubled-spaced) comparing the credibility of the two sources you examined in activity  #5., searching as strategic exploration.

• Expert searchers can use multiple search tools and search strategies, and change their search based on information need
• Experts demonstrate persistence when searching but are open to new directions based on initial findings

Searching for information is often nonlinear and iterative, requiring the evaluation of a range of information sources and the mental flexibility to pursue alternate avenues as new understanding develops. The information searching process is a complex process that is influenced by cognitive, affective, and social factors. While novice learners may only use a limited number of search tools and strategies, experts understand the properties of various information search systems and make informed choices when determining search strategy and search language. Expert searchers shape their search to fit the information need, rather than relying on the same strategies, search systems, and search language without regard for the context of the search.

Watch the video for better understanding: https://youtu.be/DxInwu454Dc

Below are some examples of the knowledge practices and dispositions for Searching as Strategic Exploration .

Searching is an iterative* process that requires an awareness of a broad range of search tools and the ability to use these tools effectively, as well as an understanding of how to refine or revise a search based on initial results. It is important to change a search based on the information need, rather than using the same search tools and strategies in each situation. If you understand this concept, you will be able to make appropriate decisions about where and how to search for information in different contexts.

*involving repetition of steps; utilizing the repetition of a sequence of operations or procedures  multiple times.

Activity #7:

In this assignment, you will learn a little about american politics. first, you will take a “political party quiz” to see where your beliefs and values  fit in the american political scene.  the purpose of this exercise is to help you understand different positions on issues, not to recruit you to any political affiliation.  you do not need to share your results with anyone., look at each of the following links:.

• Political Party Quiz: https://www.people-press.org/quiz/political-party-quiz/ Links to an external site.
• Overview of political party beliefs: https://www.diffen.com/difference/Democrat_vs_Republican Links to an external site.
• Links to an external site. Allsides.com: https://www.allsides.com/unbiased-balanced-news Links to an external site.

Choose any article from allsides.com within the past 2 years, and look at the headlines across at least 3 news sources — choose 1 from the left (liberal), 1 from the center, and 1 from the right (conservative).   Take a Screenshot of your 3 headlines.  Then:

1) read all 3 versions of the article., 2) respond to the following:, comment on what you notice about the word choice itself within the 3 headlines (similarities and differences, role of bias, etc.), discuss your position on the topic. (how does your environment, upbringing, culture, religion, socioeconomic status, etc. affect your point of view of the topic), discuss source credibility, purpose, context, bias, and validity across the three articles in relation to the topic., try not to criticize each article  individually, but instead look across articles for instances of similarities/differences/evaluation measures..

On June 25, 2020, the top headlines on allsides.com address the public’s perception on reparations for slavery. Headlines from The Daily Caller (right), Reuters (Center) and the New York Times (Left) can be seen pictured above. The headlines themselves differ in word choice, tone, and presentation, with the conservative Right highlighting results of a recent poll, the Center acknowledging growth of more public awareness despite poll results, and the Left choosing a key quotation as the headline.

In the headline from the Daily Caller, the wording of “large majority” sends a strong message to its readers that public opinion was not even close, confirming the conservative point of view. Additionally, the inclusion of “using taxpayer money” also highlights to the Right-leaning readers that many of them will most likely be “paying” for these reparations with their own taxes, thus projecting the view that reparations are negative. The headline from Reuters is more upfront, actually citing the poll referenced in both headlines from the Right and Center articles. It additionally confirms the results of the poll, while still being upfront about the change in the U.S.’s public perception longitudinally (more aware of racial inequality). The headline from The New York Times chooses a quotation, simple but containing a strong message, to emphasize the importance of a united front to fight for their cause. They clearly choose to address the topic without a reference to the poll in their headline, which makes sense considering the results were not compatible with their target audience’s point of view.

Though I am still trying to understand my exact position on this topic, I am sure that many environmental factors influence me. I was raised in a white, Christian family with conservative values in a rural area. Growing up, there was one African American student in my school (K-12) of over 1,000 students, and the history lessons I received were from white, conservative teachers. After attending and graduating from a predominantly white, Christian University, I spent several years teaching in Asia . My worldview completely expanded and changed through exposure to new people and cultures and experiencing both love and hate as a resident alien in a foreign country. Right now I am still learning and growing in my understanding of reparations.

Looking into the 3 news sources themselves, The Daily Caller is a right-winged news website founded in 2010 by Fox news host Tucker Carlson and Neil Patel. It is a member of the White House press pool, and is noted to have published false stories (i.e. climate change) and stories from White Supremacists ( Jason Kessler and Peter Brimelow ). By 2013, the site was receiving over 35 million views a month, surpassing sites such as T he Washington Times , Politico , and Forbes . Founded in 1851, Reuters is the world’s leading international multimedia news agency. It is headquartered in London, United Kingdom. In 2018, Reuters was named the winner of two Pulitzer Prizes on international reporting, and multiple sources have praised Reuters for being the least or minimally biased due to proper citing of information with an attempt to cover both sides of an issue. The New York Times   is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18, 1851 by The New York Times Company. The New York Times i s funded through advertising and subscription fees. It utilizes emotionally loaded language in their headlines, and while story selection is typically balanced, wording tends to lean left in most cases. A factual search shows The New York Times has made false claims in reporting but always makes corrections to those stories as soon as new information is available.

After reading each article, a biased perspective is evident throughout all three. It is obvious to me that the articles try their best to reach and make their target audience happy, choosing to include or exclude key anecdotes or facts based on what their readers will want to see. In the New York Times article, the recent poll results confirming Americans’ anti-reparations point of view were not mentioned. Instead, the article spent pages highlighting past racial injustices, interwoven with descriptive and powerful photographic images. In the Reuters article, it was interesting that when reporting on the results of the poll, Reuters chose to first mention “ only one in five respondents agreed the United States should use “taxpayer money to pay damages to descendants of enslaved people in the United States,” before later pointing out that only one in ten white respondents and about half of Black respondents endorse it. Additionally, perspectives from both conservative and liberal politicians were provided, which tried to create a minimally-biased piece. From the headline to the conclusion, The Daily Caller article tried its best to validate the survey results, citing sample sizes, dates surveyed, and expert opinions.

Activity #8:

In this assignment, you will use a scholarly database (OSU library, google scholar, etc.), to complete and submit the attached worksheet. (Parts 1 and 2)

In part 1, starting with a general idea for a topic, you will use a database to search and narrow your topic enough to find one peer-reviewed, scholarly source. This source MUST have a publication date from 2010-2018, as it will be used as a resource for several future assignments.

In part 2, you will write a short (1 page) reflection on your ‘choosing and narrowing a research topic’ process. This reflection can include but is not limited to addressing 1. How you chose and narrowed to your subtopic/research questions, 2. Your understanding of databases and search engines specific to your field and subtopics, 3. The practical strategies/adjustments used to narrow your topic and find relevant sources, 4. Explaining your choice is exploring and choosing your specific source for inclusion in this assignment, and 5. Outlining any challenges/your reactions to the challenges as they arose throughout the search process.

Please answer all questions, and attach the worksheet when finished! See the attached sample as a guide.

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American Library Association. (n.d.) Digital literacy. Retrieved from https://literacy.ala.org/digital-literacy/ Links to an external site.

American Library Association. (1989). Presidential committee on information literacy: Final report. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/presidential Links to an external site.

Association of College and Research Libraries. (2015). Framework for information literacy for higher education. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework Links to an external site.

Branstiter, C.W. & Halpern, R. (2017). “ But how do I know it’s a good source?” Authority is constructed in social work practice (Links to an external site.) .” In Godbey, S., Wainscott, S.B., & Goodman, X. (Eds.), Disciplinary applications of information literacy threshold concepts , (pp. 25-36). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries.

Center for Media Literacy. (n.d.). Media literacy: A definition and more. Retrieved from https://www.medialit.org/media-literacy-definition-and-more Links to an external site.

Connaway, L.S. (2018, Jun 20). What is “container collapse” and why should librarians and teachers care? OCLC . Retrieved from http://www.oclc.org/blog/main/what-is-container-collapse-and-why-should-librarians-and-teachers-care/ Links to an external site.

Couture, J. & Ladenson, S. (2017). “ Empowering, enlightening, and energizing: Research as inquiry in women’s and gender Studies (Links to an external site.) ,” University Libraries Faculty & Staff Contributions, 98. In Godbey, S., Wainscott, S.B., & Goodman, X. (Eds.), Disciplinary applications of information literacy threshold concepts, (pp. 177-189). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries.

Foasberg, N. M. (2015). From standards to frameworks for IL: How the ACRL framework addresses critiques of the standards Links to an external site. . portal: Libraries and the Academy , 15 (4), 699-717.

Grafstein, A. (2002). A discipline-based approach to information literacy. The Journal of Academic Librarianship , 28 (4), 197-204. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0099133302002835 Links to an external site.

Grafstein, A. (2017). Information literacy and critical thinking: context and practice. In Pathways Into Information Literacy and Communities of Practice Links to an external site. (pp. 3-28). Chandos Publishing.

Haigh, J. (2017). Teaching the teachers: The value of information for educators (Links to an external site.) . In Godbey, S., Wainscott, S.B., & Goodman, X. (Eds.), Disciplinary applications of information literacy threshold concepts , (pp. 163-173). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries.

Hassel, H., Reddinger, A., & Van Slooten, J. (2011). Surfacing the structures of patriarchy: teaching and learning threshold concepts in women’s studies (Links to an external site.) . International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning , 5 (2), Article 18.

Head, A. J. (2012). Learning curve: How college graduates solve information problems once they join the workforce. Project Information Literacy. Retrieved from https://www.projectinfolit.org/uploads/2/7/5/4/27541717/pil_fall2012_workplacestudy_fullreport_revised.pdf Links to an external site.

Head, A. J. & Eisenberg, M. B. (2009). Lessons learned: How college students seek information in the digital age. Project Information Literacy. Retrieved from https://www.projectinfolit.org/uploads/2/7/5/4/27541717/pil_fall2009_finalv_yr1_12_2009v2.pdf Links to an external site.

Head, A. J., Wihbey, J., Metaxas, P. T., MacMillen, M. & Cohen, D. (2018). How students engage with news: Five takeways for educators, journalists, and librarians. Project Information Literacy. Retrieved from https://www.projectinfolit.org/uploads/2/7/5/4/27541717/newsreport.pdf Links to an external site.

Heuer, M. B. (2017). Using the frame information creation as a process to teach career competencies to advertising students (Links to an external site.) . In Godbey, S., Wainscott, S.B., & Goodman, X. (Eds.), Disciplinary applications of information literacy threshold concepts , (pp. 79-91). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries.

Hofer, A. R., Townsend, L., & Brunetti, K. (2012). Troublesome Concepts and Information Literacy: Investigating Threshold Concepts for IL Instruction (Links to an external site.) . Portal: Libraries and the Academy , 12 (4), 387–405.

Hofer, A. R., Lin Hanick, S., & Townsend, L. (2019). Transforming Information Literacy Instruction: Threshold Concepts in Theory and Practice Links to an external site. . Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Kinchin, I.M. (2010). “ Solving Cordelia’s Dilemma: Threshold Concepts within a Punctuated Model of Learning. (Links to an external site.) ” Journal of Biological Education (Society of Biology) 44 (2): 53–57. doi:10.1080/00219266.2010.9656194.

Kuglitsch, R. (2017). Widening the threshold: Using scholarship as conversation to welcome students to science (Links to an external site.) . University Libraries Faculty & Staff Contributions. In Godbey, S., Wainscott, S.B., & Goodman, X. (Eds.), Disciplinary applications of information literacy threshold concepts , (pp. 263-274). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries .

Landhuis, E. (2016, Jul 21). Scientific literature: Information overload. Nature . Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v535/n7612/full/nj7612-457a.html Links to an external site.

Meyer, R. (2016, May 26). How many stories do newspapers publish per day? The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/05/how-many-stories-do-newspapers-publish-per-day/483845/ Links to an external site.

Meyer, J.H.F. and Land, R. (2003) Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: linkages to ways of thinking and practicing. In: Rust, C. (ed.), Improving Student Learning – Theory and Practice Ten Years On (Links to an external site.) . Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development (OCSLD), pp 412-424.

Meyer, J.H.F., Land, R. and Baillie, C. (Eds.) (2010). Threshold Concepts and Transformational Learning (Links to an external site.) . Sense Publishers.

Moreton, E. and Conklin, J. (2018). From Novice to nurse: Searching for patient care information as strategic exploration (Links to an external site.) . In Godbey, S., Wainscott, S.B., & Goodman, X. (Eds.), Disciplinary applications of information literacy threshold concepts , (pp. 289-301). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries.

OCLC (2004). 2004 information format trends: Content, not containers. Retrieved from https://www.oclc.org/content/dam/oclc/reports/2004infotrends_content.pdf Links to an external site.

Saunders, L. (2012). Faculty perspectives on information literacy as a student learning outcome. Links to an external site. The Journal of Academic Librarianship , 38 (4), 226-236.

Scriven, M., & Paul, R. W. (1987). Defining Critical Thinking , Draft statement written for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking Instruction. Retrieved from https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766 Links to an external site.

Shanahan, M. (2016). Threshold concepts in economics (Links to an external site.) . Education+ Training , 58 (5), 510-520.

Smith, C. (2012). Ethical behaviour in the e-classroom: What the online student needs to know Links to an external site. . Chandos Publishing.

Smith, R. (1997). Philosophical shift: Teach the faculty to teach information literacy. ACRL 8th National Conference Papers. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/nashville/smith Links to an external site.

Stanford History Education Group. (2016). Evaluating information: The cornerstone of civic online reasoning. Retrieved from https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:fv751yt5934/SHEG%20Evaluating%20Information%20Online.pdf Links to an external site.

Townsend, L., Brunetti, K., & Hofer, A. R. (2011). Threshold concepts and information literacy (Links to an external site.) . portal: Libraries and the Academy , 11 (3), 853-869

Trend, R. (2009). The power of deep time in geoscience education: Linking ’interest’, “threshold concepts” and “self-determination theory (Links to an external site.) .” Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai, Geologia , 54 (1), 7–12.

Truscott, J. B., Boyle, A., Burkill, S., Libarkin, J., & Lonsdale, J. (2006). The concept of time: Can it be fully realised and taught? (Links to an external site.) . Planet , 17 (1), 21-23. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.11120/plan.2006.00170021 (Links to an external site.)

Visual Literacy Today. (n.d.) What is visual literacy? Retrieved from https://visualliteracytoday.org/what-is-visual-literacy/ Links to an external site.

Wardel, C. (2017). 7 common forms of information disorder. First Draft . Retrieved from https://firstdraftnews.org/en/education/curriculum-resource/information-disorder-useful-graphics/ Links to an external site. . ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/) Links to an external site.

Wardel, C. & Derakshan, H. (2017). Types of information disorder. First Draft. Retrieved from https://firstdraftnews.org/en/education/curriculum-resource/information-disorder-useful-graphics/ Links to an external site. . ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/) Links to an external site.

Ware, M. & Mabe, M. (2015). The STM Report: An overview of scientific and scholarly journal publishing. Retrieved from https://www.stm-assoc.org/2015_02_20_STM_Report_2015.pdf Links to an external site.

Witek, D. (2016). The past, present, and promise of information literacy Links to an external site. . (cover story). Phi Kappa Phi Forum , 96 (3), 22-25.

All images, except otherwise noted, are from Ohio State’s Signature Photo Gallery Links to an external site. , and are available for use by Ohio State users. All images are the property of The Ohio State University and are copyright protected.

Video Citations

The videos used in this module were originally created by Jane Hammons for Steely Library (Northern Kentucky University), and were published under a Creative Commons License allowing for reuse and modification. Videos may have been slightly modified for the purposes of this course. In addition, copies of the videos were uploaded to the YouTube channel for the Teaching and Learning Department within the Ohio State University Libraries. Links to original and revised versions are available below:

• Steely Library. (2018). Information Has Value (Links to an external site.) . (Original)
• Steely Library. (2018). Scholarship as Conversation (Links to an external site.) . (Original)
• Steely Library (2018). Research as Inquiry (Links to an external site.) . (Original)
• Ohio State University Libraries. Information Has Value (Links to an external site.) .
• Ohio State University Libraries. Scholarship as Conversation (Links to an external site.)
• Ohio State University Libraries. Research as Inquiry (Links to an external site.) .
• Steely Library. (2018). Authority is Constructed and Contextual (Links to an external site.) (Original)
• Steely Library. (2018). Information Creation as a Process (Links to an external site.) (Original)
• Steely Library (2018). Searching as Strategic Exploration (Links to an external site.) (Original)
• Ohio State University Libraries. Authority is Constructed and Contextual (Links to an external site.)
• Ohio State University Libraries. Information Creation as a Process (Links to an external site.)
• Ohio State University Libraries. Searching as Strategic Exploration (Links to an external site.)

Videos were created using PowToon.

All photographic images in the module, except otherwise noted, are from Ohio State’s Signature Photo Gallery (Links to an external site.) , and are available for use by Ohio State users. All images are the property of The Ohio State University and are copyright protected.

Critical Reading, Writing, and Thinking Copyright © 2022 by Zhenjie Weng, Josh Burlile, Karen Macbeth is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What is Information Literacy?

What is information literacy and what does it mean to be information literate?

The American Library Association defines information literacy as a set of abilities empowering individuals to recognize when information is needed and to be able to locate it, evaluate it, and use it effectively.

While information literacy is often talked about on college campuses in terms of doing library research for papers and annotated bibliographies and other sorts of classroom assignments, we use and need information in every aspect of our lives. Think about all of the informal research we do each day.  We look up movie and book reviews, how-to videos on YouTube, product reviews, and strategies for parenting. We Google how to fill out some field on our tax forms, we look up job ads and tips on job interviews, how to spell or define some unfamiliar word or acronym. We all have information needs, and being able to effectively identify and meet those needs is at the core information literacy. Being able to differentiate quality information from questionable information is also critical. Is that shocking article your sister posted on social media actually true? What about health advice offered by a friend? What about some surprising statistic you heard cited by a politician or political candidate?

The American Library Association asks to think about information literacy in six ways:

1. Authority Is Constructed and Contextual

When you use information, or choose one source of information over another, you presume a certain amount of expertise on the part of the information’s author on the topic they are writing about. What gives the author that authority? What makes some information more authoritative than other information? What makes a piece of information authoritative can vary from discipline to discipline and be based on context. So for example, an author may be an authority on a given topic because of extensive experience, or because of extensive education. Even without deep experience or education, an author may bring authority to their writing based on their having witnessed or participated in some major event. In both cases, their authority is contextual. A physics professor may have authority when writing within their field, but be considered far less authoritative when writing in an unrelated field.

2. Information Creation as a Process

Information appears in a variety of forms. Depending on whether it is in the form of a newspaper article, a scholarly book, or a formatted report, the creation of information requires a process.  Understanding how and why authors publish in a particular format, what those formats require in terms of fact checking, or sourcing, or expertise, what editorial oversight exists, the role of publishers—all these considerations may play into your thinking about the relevance of a particular information source to your research question.

3. Information Has Value

Information has value, and this fact has very real implications to researchers and information consumers in both how information is produced and how it is disseminated. It has economic value as a commodity, for example, as evidenced by intellectual property rights and other legal considerations, and by the considerable role of the publishing industry. Information also has educational and social value, with its ability to inform, educate, and persuade.

4. Research as Inquiry

One can think of research as an inquiry. A researcher asks a question, or identifies some gap in our current understanding of a topic, and in the process of filling that gap, new questions and new avenues for further research emerge.

5. Scholarship as Conversation

Scholarship on a given topic will grow and evolve over time. New theories, new interpretations, new experiments, new facts are always being discovered and debated. As the references or citations of any scholarly article demonstrate, every researcher is building on the work of many other researchers. Conscientious scholars will always go to great effort to indicate what previous work has informed their own work. College students are expected to adopt this practice as well, citing the work that informs their own work and situating their ideas and theories within the larger conversation taking place in their respective discipline.

6. Searching as Strategic Exploration

Over time, as you gain experience and your research needs grow more complex, you will likely develop sophisticated strategies for locating relevant information. Searching for information is rarely as simple as just plugging a keyword into a search engine or library database and getting all the books and articles you need. You’ll likely try different ways of searching for information, and in different places. You may want to brainstorm, or talk to a librarian. The five chapters in this text each look at a different aspect of information literacy but will collectively provide you with an overview of those concepts most critical to navigating today’s information environment. After each chapter you will have the opportunity to test your understanding with a brief reflection. We begin by looking at the research process.

Sources Used to Create this Chapter

The majority of the content for this section has been adapted from the following OER Material:

• Information Literacy Concepts by David Hisle and Kathryn Webb, which was published under a CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Starting the Journey: An Intro to College Writing Copyright © by Leonard Owens III; Tim Bishop; and Scott Ortolano is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Information Literacy Assessment

• Instruction at the Leatherby Libraries
• Social Sciences
• Bibliographies
• Standard One: The information literate student determines the nature and extent of the information needed.
• Standard Two: The information literate student accesses needed information effectively and efficiently.
• Standard Three: The information literate student evaluates information and its sources critically and incorporates selected information into his or her knowledge base and value system.
• Standard Four: The information literate student, individually or as a member of a group, uses information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose.
• Standard Five: The information literate student understands many of the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information and accesses and uses information ethically and legally.
• Frame: Authority Is Constructed and Contextual
• Frame: Information Creation as a Process
• Frame: Information Has Value
• Frame: Research as Inquiry
• Frame: Scholarship Is a Conversation
• Frame: Searching as Strategic Exploration
• ACRL Frameworks Appendices
• More to Explore
• Examples and Readings

Essays may be used in several ways to assess information literacy, either as a separate assignment or as part of a prompt for a larger writing assignment. This method requires students to reflect on their research practices and describe them in their own words, using a metacoginitive approach.

An advantage to using an essay to assess information literacy is that it can be incorporated into an existing research assignment. For instance, students can be asked to submit a paragraph on their research practices along with their final paper or project.

As with assessing learning outcomes with any other method, it is advisable to create a rubric with which to score the information literacy essay.

Some examples of how essays may be used to assess information literacy: 

• After completing a research assignment, students can be assigned a reflective essay about their research process. This metacognitive method can be effectively used in combination with a rubric to determine students level of competence and depth of understanding in navigating the information gathering and research process. (E.g., see the article by Nutefall in the Examples and Readings tab on this page).  
• For an example of a rubric for grading this type of essay see the Evaluation Rubric associated with the Leatherby Libraries' Kevin and Tam Ross Undergraduate Research Prize .  
• An essay can be assigned on research methods in order to assess particular information literacy knowledge practices . For instance, Daugherty and Carter (1997) asked students to write essays on their research practices both before and then after receiving library instruction to demonstrate the abilities they learned from the instruction session.   
• Essays can also be used for students to reflect on their experience and abilities after completing assigned information-seeking tasks . Dempsey and Jagman (2016) describe an assignment in which students were asked to perform certain library tasks--i.e., identify keywords for a topic according to their interests, search the library catalog, locate the physical items, and check them out--and then reflect on their experience in a two-page essay.

Potential program learning outcomes can be gleaned from the Knowledge Practices of the ACRL Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education and the  ACRL Information Literacy Competency Standards , which are described in detail on this guide.

• Daugherty, T. K., & Carter, E. W. (1997). Assessment of outcome-focused library instruction in psychology. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 24(1), 29.
• Dempsey, P. R., & Jagman, H. (2016). “I Felt Like Such a Freshman”: First-Year Students Crossing the Library Threshold. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 16(1), 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2016.0011
• Nutefall, J. (2004). Paper Trail: One method of information literacy assessment. Research Strategies, 20(1), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resstr.2005.07.004
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• Last Updated: Dec 19, 2023 8:40 AM
• URL: https://libguides.chapman.edu/IL_assessment

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Information Literacy: Concepts and Teaching Strategies

Are your students drowning in information? Can they spot misinformation and "fake news?" With a plethora of information available at their fingertips, information literacy skills have never been more critical.

You have likely heard of information literacy but may be unsure how to define it. You may have questions such as: Is information literacy important for my students? What learning bottlenecks might students experience related to information literacy? How can I effectively help my students to develop their information literacy?  

This guide defines information literacy, outlines core information literacy concepts, identifies common information literacy-related challenges that students may face, and provides teaching strategies and activities aimed at helping you to incorporate information literacy into your courses.  

Defining Information Literacy 

The term information literacy has been used for over 40 years, with various definitions proposed during this period. In 2016, the Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) published the  Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education  and included the following definition:  

Information literacy is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning. 

In other words, information literacy involves an understanding of how information is created, accessed, shared, and valued  and the abilities and mindset necessary to be able to  locate, evaluate, use, and create information sources ethically and effectively . 

Information literacy includes:  

Conceptual understandings , such as a recognition of how and why information has value or what makes a source authoritative   

Habits of mind , or dispositions such as persistence and flexibility when searching  

Skills or practices , such as the ability to effectively use a database  

As you review the teaching strategies, remember that a single assignment or instruction session cannot fully teach students to become information literate. You are not expected to teach every information literacy concept or skill in one course. However, you can take steps in almost any course to support students' developing information literacy, even if the course does not include a traditional research paper.   

Core Information Literacy Concepts 

The  Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education  (Association of College & Research Libraries, 2016) highlights six core information literacy concepts:  

• Authority is Constructed and Contextual 
• Information Creation as a Process 
• Information Has Value 
• Research as Inquiry 
• Scholarship as Conversation 
• Searching as Strategic Exploration 

These core concepts describe understandings about the purpose and process of research and scholarship broadly shared among scholars, but that novice learners may not yet fully grasp. However, without understanding these concepts, many common academic or professional research practices may not make sense. Each core concept is briefly described below.  

Expert researchers understand that information sources have different levels of authority or credibility, and authority is related to the  expertise or credibility of the information creator . Many factors contribute to expertise, including education, experience, and social position. However, having expertise in one area does not imply expertise in others.

Experts also recognize the context in which information is needed, and will be used, can impact the level of authority needed or what would be considered authoritative. An information source that may be appropriate to use in one situation may not be considered authoritative in another situation.  

Students who grasp this concept can examine information sources and ask relevant questions about origins, context, and suitability for the information need to identify credible and relevant information sources in multiple contexts.   (ACRL, 2016) 

For additional information view the Authority is Constructed and Contextual  video. 

Experts know that information products are created by different processes and come in many formats , which reflect the differences in the creation process . Some information formats may be better suited for conveying certain types of information or meeting specific information needs. Understanding how and why an information product was created can help to determine how that information can be used. Experts recognize that the creation process for an information source and the format can influence that source's actual or perceived value.

Understanding different formats of information and the related creation processes can help students determine when and how to use a specific information source and help them make informed decisions regarding the appropriate format(s) for their own information creations. (ACRL, 2016)

For additional information view the Information Creation as a Process  video. 

Experts know that information has many types of value (financial, personal, social). Because information is valuable, several factors (political, economic, legal) influence the creation, access, distribution, and use of information. Novice learners may struggle to understand the value of information, especially as nearly all information appears to be available for free online.

Experts, however, understand their responsibilities as information consumers and creators, including making deliberate choices about how they access and share information and when to comply with—or when to contest—current legal and socioeconomic restrictions on information. Additionally, experts recognize that not everyone has equal access to information or the equal ability to make their voice heard.

Understanding this concept will help students make sense of the legal and ethical guidelines surrounding information (and the reasons they exist) and make informed decisions both as information consumers and as information creators. (ACRL, 2016) 

For additional information view the Information Has Value video. 

Experts usually consider research a process focused on problems or questions, within or between disciplines, which are unanswered or unresolved and recognize research as part of an ongoing and collaborative effort to extend knowledge .  They understand research is rarely a simple, straightforward search for one "perfect" answer or source; instead, it is an iterative, open-ended, and messy process in which finding answers often lead to new questions. Expert researchers accept ambiguity as part of the research process and recognize the need for adaptability and flexibility when they search.

Understanding this concept will help students recognize that research requires patience, persistence, and flexibility and will prepare them to make sense of the ambiguous nature of their search results rather than seeking a single "right" answer . (ACRL, 2016)

For additional information view the Research as Inquiry video. 

Scholars, researchers, and professionals within a field engage in ongoing discussions where new ideas and research findings are continually debated . In most cases, there are often multiple competing perspectives on a topic. Experts can locate, navigate, and contribute to the conversations within their discipline or field. They recognize that providing appropriate attribution to relevant previous research is considered an obligation of participating in this conversation. As they develop their information literacy, students should learn to see themselves as contributors to these conversations. However, they may first need to learn the "language" of the discipline, such as accepted research methods, standards for evidence, and forms of attribution, before they can fully participate. 

Understanding this concept will help students better evaluate the relevance of specific information sources, to make sense of many of the requirements of scholarly practice, and better understand the expectations around their own role in the conversation . (ACRL, 2016)

For additional information view the Scholarship as Conversation video. 

Searching for information is often nonlinear and iterative , requiring evaluating a range of information sources and the mental flexibility to pursue alternate directions. The information searching process is a complex process influenced by cognitive, affective, and social factors. While novice learners may only use a limited number of search tools and strategies, experts understand the properties of various information search systems and make informed choices when determining search strategy and search language. Expert searchers shape their search to fit the information need, rather than relying on the same strategies, search systems, and search language without regard for the context of the search.

Students who understand this concept will be able to make appropriate decisions about where and how they search for information in different contexts . (ACRL, 2016)

For additional information view the Searching as Strategic Exploration video. 

Information Literacy Learning Bottlenecks

Bottlenecks are where some students in a course may struggle, get stuck, be unable to complete required tasks, or move forward in their learning ( Decoding the Disciplines ; Middendorf & Baer, 2019 ). Information literacy-related bottlenecks can come in many forms. Some of the most common are outlined below and emphasize core concepts. 

Research or inquiry-based assignments are those in which students are required to find, analyze, and use various information sources to explore an issue, answer a question, or solve a problem. Although they are common assignments, they can be sources of frustration for both you and your students.

You are likely expecting students to:

• Approach research as an open-ended and inquiry-driven process (Research as Inquiry)
• Be an active participant (provide an argument, make an interpretation) in the ongoing conversations related to their topic (Scholarship as Conversation)

However, these expectations may be unfamiliar to students who are more accustomed to the idea of research as a process of compiling and summarizing information on a topic. Additionally, effectively completing research assignments requires a wide range of knowledge and skills that novice learners may not yet have developed.

Students who can effectively complete these assignments :

• Are familiar with academic jargon (e.g., scholarly journal, literature review) and understand the meaning of the various actions often required as part of these assignments (e.g., analyze, illustrate, interpret)
• Can distinguish between expectations for different types of research or inquiry-based assignments (i.e., can recognize the different goals of an empirical research paper, a literature review, or an annotated bibliography)
• Can formulate research questions by considering missing or conflicting information from the existing conversation  
• Possess the necessary background knowledge or disciplinary knowledge that allows them to navigate ongoing scholarly or professional conversations related to their topic
• Think of themselves as capable of contributing to academic or professional conversations

Related core concepts

• Research as Inquiry
• Scholarship as Conversation

Related teaching strategies

• Clarifying Expectations for Research Assignments

With so many different search tools and resources available, determining where to search for information and executing an effective search can be difficult. Identifying an appropriate search tool, crafting an effective search statement, and using initial results to guide search revisions takes significant knowledge of the properties and functions of various search tools.

Effective searching also requires students to understand the complex nature of the search process. Novice learners may, for example, approach searching as a linear process intended to find a specific number of sources as quickly as possible, rather than a strategic and complicated process for finding relevant information ( Middendorf & Baer, 2019 ).

Students who can search effectively:

• Understand how various information system, such as search engines and databases, are organized and function
• Determine when to use a search engine or a more specialized or academic database or search resource  
• Are familiar with the databases or search tools that are most relevant for their specific discipline or information need
• Use different types of search language and search options as needed  
• Revise their search strategy as needed, based on initial results, and seek assistance from information professionals
• Demonstrate flexibility and persistence, and understand that initial attempts do not always produce adequate results  

Related core concepts 

• Searching as Strategic Exploration

Related teaching strategies 

• Teaching Information Searching 

Evaluating information to identify credible sources that are relevant to their topic or research question and are appropriate for their information need is one of the most difficult challenges students face. It requires significant knowledge of various types of information sources and their characteristics, the processes by which information sources are produced and disseminated, the factors that provide or temper authority or credibility, and an understanding of how context can impact these other factors.

Students who can evaluate information effectively:

• Are motivated to find credible and relevant information sources ; m aintain an open mind when considering information from multiple perspectives  
• Can identify/distinguish different types (e.g., journal articles, news articles, book chapters, blog posts) and categories (e.g., scholarly, popular, professional) of information sources
• Can define different types of authority, such as subject expertise (e.g., scholarship), societal position (e.g., public office or title), or special experience (e.g., participating in a historic event) 
• Understand how the creation processes for various information sources can impact the way the source may be valued
• Assess information with a critical stance
• Use indicators of authority to help determine the credibility of sources while recognizing the factors that can temper authority
• Have an awareness of how their own worldview may impact how they perceive information 
• Recognize that information sources may be perceived or valued differently depending on the context
• Authority is Constructed and Contextual
• Information Creation as a Process
• Teaching Source Evaluation

Using information sources ethically is one of the most crucial habits that students need to develop, but it can also be one of the most challenging that students face. More than being able to master the basics of citations, students need to understand why information is valuable and learn to navigate the complex rules, regulations, and expectations around information use.

Students who use information ethically:

• Recognize the various ways in which information can be valuable (e.g. financial, political, personal)
• Demonstrate respect for the time, effort, and skill needed to create knowledge; give credit to the ideas of others through appropriate attribution
• Demonstrate understanding of and the ability to use of the methods of attribution that are appropriate to their discipline or field
• Are familiar with concepts such as intellectual property, copyright, fair use, plagiarism, the public domain, and open access
• Critically consider what personal information they share online and make careful decisions about how they publish or share their own information products  
• Understand that everyone does not have equal access to information or the equal ability to share information   
• Recognize how citations are used as part of ongoing scholarly or professional conversations ​​​​​​
• Information Has Value
•  Teaching Ethical Information Use 

Leverage Library Resources

Instructor Resources at University Libraries  provides guidance on incorporating library resources to support student learning in your course. Explore topics such as information literacy, academic research skills, and affordable course content, and access “ready-to-share” instructional materials including videos, Carmen content, and handouts. 

Teaching Strategies and Activities

Information literacy cannot be taught in a single instruction session or even a single course. Instead, it develops throughout a student's academic career. No instructor is expected to incorporate all the core information literacy concepts or address every potential learning bottleneck in a single course. However, there are many small steps that you can take to support students' developing information literacy.

The following approaches provide an overview of some helpful strategies that you can use to help your students overcome information literacy-related learning bottlenecks.

You can take several steps as you (re)design your research or inquiry-based assignments to support increased student learning and reduce the misunderstandings that are common between students and instructors.

• List all of the steps that students will need to take to complete the assignment. You may be surprised at how many there actually are! This can help you to identify steps that may be challenging for students but you may have initially overlooked because of your own familiarity with the research process.
• Identify the core concepts, such as Scholarship as Conversation or Research as Inquiry , that may be behind your expectations for the assignment.
• Question your purpose for including certain requirements, such as requiring a specific citation style or that students use specific types of sources. What are your requirements contributing to student learning in the course?
• Discuss the purpose of academic research and the goals of your specific research assignment with students.
• Define any academic jargon (such as "scholarly" or "peer-reviewed") and your action words (analyze, trace, illustrate).
• Clarify the distinctions between different types of research or inquiry-based assignments, such as the difference between a literature review and an annotated bibliography.
• Describe the types of sources that you consider to be appropriate or inappropriate for the assignment and explain why.
• Be sure that any requirements you have for sources align with the purpose and context of the assignment. For example, be careful not to expect students to use scholarly sources for topics where scholarly research may not exist.
• Provide step-by-step instructions and model the steps of the research process.
• Scaffold large research assignments by breaking them down into more manageable chunks and providing feedback after each part.
• Have a colleague or student review your assignment instructions, note anything that seems unclear, and highlight any jargon that may need to be explained. This can be even more helpful if it is a colleague outside of your discipline.

Sample Activity

Have students complete a quick activity in which they a nalyze the assignment instructions. Have them:

• Summarize what they must do  
• Identify any unclear terms
• Highlight key requirements
• Discuss their responses together to identify any initial misconceptions about the purpose or process for the assignment

There are many things you can do to help students become more adept at information searching:

• Identify the core concepts, such as Searching as Strategic Exploration , Research as Inquiry , and Information Creation as a Process , that may be contributing to students challenges with information searching
• The difference between a search engine and a database, and when it is appropriate to use one or the other
• The databases or search tools that are most commonly used in the discipline
• How to create an effective search statement or use databases options and limiters (advanced search, Boolean operators); how to revise a search when needed
• Recommend specific search tools. With so many tools available, including hundreds of research databases available through University Libraries, students may need guidance for where to go to start their search.
• Recommend that students use the Subject Guides available through University Libraries to identify relevant search tools and resources.
• Provide analogies or examples to help students enhance their understanding of the search process ( Middendorf & Baer, 2019).
• Model the search process by showing how you would go about searching for information on a topic or question relevant to the course.
• Build reflection on or discussion of the search process into the assignment.

As part of a research assignment, have students complete an outline or screencast video in which they describe or demonstrate how they would go about searching for information on their topic and use the results to guide a discussion of effective search strategies.

 For an example of how you can address bottlenecks related to information searching, see:

• Middendorf, J., & Baer, A., (2019). Bottlenecks of Information Literacy .  In  C. Gibson & S. Mader (Eds.), Building Teaching and Learning Communities: Creating Shared Meaning and Purpose , pp. 51-68

To help students with source evaluation, steps you can take include:

• Identify the core concepts, such as Authority is Constructed and Contextual or Information Creation as a Process , that may be contributing to challenges students experience when evaluating information
• The various factors that contribute to, or temper, source authority or credibility (many students have erroneously been taught to use surface factors, such as domain name or the look of the site, to make decisions about source credibility)
• How to differentiate between types (e.g. news articles, websites, scholarly journal articles, social media sources) and categories of information sources (scholarly, professional, popular)
• The role context plays in determining the authority needed
• The types of information sources that are considered authoritative or credible in your field
• Consider why you might require specific types of sources. If students can or cannot use specific sources types, is there a clear reason why?
• Clearly outline your expectations for appropriate sources for your assignments and explain your reasons for these requirements
• Clarify the distinction between terms such as credible, relevant, and scholarly
• Model the process that you take to determine whether or not you find a source to be credible and appropriate
• Provide evaluation criteria and outline steps that students can take or questions they need to consider as part of the source evaluation process
• The domain name (.com, .edu)
• The professionalism of the site
• The information provided in the About Us page
• Encourage students to consider factors such as the authority of the author or publisher,  motivation for publishing the source,  relevance of the source to the research question or topic, and the appropriateness of the source for the context
• Encourage your students to practice lateral reading, where they read across multiple sites as part of the source evaluation process—for example, searching for the author or publisher or site sponsor via a search engine to learn more about them rather than remaining on the same site. For more information, see What Reading Laterally Means (Caulfield, 2017).
• After receiving instructions for a research assignment, have students work together to develop class guidelines for evaluating sources, with recommendations for the types of sources that would or would not be considered appropriate to use

Other resources to support lateral reading include:

• Teaching Lateral Reading (Civic Online Reasoning)
• Evaluating Online Sources: A Toolkit (Baer & Kipnis, Rowan University)
• Lateral Reading (University of Louisville Libraries)
• Identify the core concepts, such as Information Has Value or Scholarship as Conversation , that may be contributing to challenges students experience when using information ethically
• The expectations for when and why attribution is required in academic research
• The expectations for attribution in your discipline or field
• Locating the information needed to include in a citation
• Reading a citation to identify relevant information
• The distinctions between plagiarism and copyright infringement
• Consider your purpose for requiring a specific citation style. While there can be good reasons for insisting on specific styles, doing so can also create an unnecessary burden, especially for students outside of your discipline.
• Identify the key aspect(s) of the citation process that you want to emphasize when it comes to grading (i.e. is it more important that students have the citation format perfect, or that they are using their sources effectively?)
• Provide resources, such as the University Libraries' Citation Help Guide , to help students develop their citation skills, especially if requiring a discipline-specific citation style
• Practice "reading" citations with your students—many students may struggle to identify the different parts of a citation
• Teach students to use sources/citations to locate additional citations (forward and backward citation tracing)
• Talk with your students about the ways that scholars and researchers use sources and citations to document and engage with the conversation(s) on their topic and establish their own credibility. Emphasize citation as part of the process of engaging in scholarly and professional conversations.

Provide students with a relevant sample article from which all citations have been removed or redacted. Discuss how the lack of citations contributes to their ability to evaluate the article's credibility and use the article effectively to answer a question or learn more about the topic.

Comparing Search Tools Activity

Evaluating sources using lateral reading, interpreting a research or inquiry-based activity.

• Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education (website)
• Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research (e-book)
• Choosing & Using Sources: Instructor Resources (e-book)
• Transforming information literacy instruction: Threshold concepts in theory and…
• University Libraries Information Literacy Virtual Workshop Series (videos)
• University Libraries Subject Guides (website)
• University Libraries Subject Librarians (website)

Learning Opportunities

Association of College & Research Libraries. (2016). Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education. Retrieved from  http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework .

Baer, A., & Kipnis, D. (2020). Evaluating Online Sources: A Toolkit. https://libguides.rowan.edu/EvaluatingOnlineSources .

Caulfield, M. (2017). Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers . Pressbooks.

Stanford University. (n.d.) Civic Online Reasoning.  https://cor.stanford.edu/curriculum/collections/teaching-lateral-reading/ .

Decoding the Discipline. (n.d.)  http://decodingthedisciplines.org/ .

Middendorf, J., & Baer, A., (2019). Bottlenecks of Information Literacy . In C. Gibson & S. Mader (Eds.), Building Teaching and Learning Communities: Creating Shared Meaning and Purpose , pp. 51-68.

Ohio State University Libraries.(n.d.) Citation Help. Retrieved from https://guides.osu.edu/citation .

TILT Higher Ed. (n.d.). Retrieved from  https://tilthighered.com/ .

Related Teaching Topics

Supporting student learning and metacognition, designing research or inquiry-based assignments, search for resources.

• How it works

What is Information Literacy – A Complete Student Guide with Examples

Published by Olive Robin at October 17th, 2023 , Revised On October 17, 2023

Information literacy is more than just the ability to find information; it encompasses the skills to recognise when information is needed and the competence to locate, evaluate, use, and ethically disseminate it. Part of this skill includes understanding paraphrasing in sources and knowing how to integrate sources seamlessly into one’s work.

It is about discerning between reliable and dubious sources, understanding context, and using information to create knowledge and make informed decisions.

Importance of Information Literacy in the Digital Age

In today’s digital age, we are bombarded with vast amounts of information at an unprecedented rate. From the articles we read online and the news we consume to the social media posts we encounter daily, there’s a constant flow of information. This massive influx makes the need for information literacy paramount for several reasons:

Combating Misinformation

With the surge of the internet, misinformation, fake news, and biased content have become rampant. Information literacy skills ensure that individuals can discern credible sources from unreliable ones, thus preventing the spread of falsehoods.

Empowering Decision-Making

Whether it is making health decisions based on an online article, purchasing a product after reading reviews, or forming opinions on socio-political matters, information literacy ensures decisions are grounded in well-researched and credible facts.

Nurturing Lifelong Learning

In an ever-evolving digital landscape, information literacy fosters a sense of curiosity, encouraging individuals to seek out reliable information, continually expand their knowledge base, and adapt to the changing world.

Ethical Consumption and Sharing

Information literacy is not just about consumption; it’s also about dissemination. Being information literate means sharing and using information ethically, respecting copyrights, and acknowledging original sources.

Staying Safe Online

With the rise of digital scams, phishing attempts, and misleading websites, information literacy can act as a first line of defence, helping individuals recognise suspicious sources and protect themselves from potential harm.

History and Evolution of Information Data and Media Literacies

Here is how information literacy evolved.

Pre-Digital Era Information Management

Long before the digital era, information was primarily disseminated through oral traditions, manuscripts, and later, printed material. The concept of information literacy, although not named as such, existed in various forms:

Libraries And Cataloguing

With the creation of libraries, such as the famous Library of Alexandria, there was a need to organise and catalogue vast amounts of knowledge. Librarians became gatekeepers and guides, assisting scholars and the public in pursuing knowledge.

The Printing Press

Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in the 15th century democratised information access. As books became more accessible, so did the need to critically assess and discern their content quality.

Educational Evolution

As education became more widespread, curricula began emphasising critical thinking, source evaluation, and proper research methodologies, laying the groundwork for modern information literacy principles.

The Rise of the Internet and Digital Sources

The advent of the internet brought about a seismic shift in how information was accessed, shared, and understood:

Information Overload

Suddenly, vast amounts of information were available at the click of a button. While this opened up unparalleled access to knowledge, it also led to an overwhelming amount of data, making discernment crucial.

Digital Libraries and Databases

Libraries transitioned online, offering digital catalogues, e-books, and academic databases, requiring users to adapt and learn new search techniques.

Search Engines

Google, Yahoo, and others revolutionised information access. However, with their algorithmic operations, the challenge of understanding how results were ranked and the potential biases therein arose.

Modern-Day Importance in an Era of Fake News and Misinformation

In the current digital landscape, information literacy is not just a valuable skill; it is a necessity for responsible citizenship:

The Misinformation Epidemic

The speed at which information spreads online, combined with algorithms that prioritise sensational content, has made fake news a global concern. Information literacy provides the tools to assess and verify the authenticity of news and articles critically.

Social Media’s Role

Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have transformed into major news sources for many. With the rise of user-generated content, understanding biases, source credibility, and the potential for echo chambers becomes vital.

Critical Thinking in the Digital Age

With so much data at our fingertips, the ability to analyse, synthesise, and draw independent conclusions is paramount. Information literacy goes beyond just finding information — it is about understanding context implications and making informed judgments.

Educational Shifts

Institutions now emphasise digital literacy and information literacy as core competencies, preparing students not just for academia but for responsible digital citizenship.

Key Components of Information Literacy

Some of the key components of information literacy include the following. 

Recognising The Need for Information

Before diving into research or seeking answers, one must first identify the information gap that exists:

Understanding the Question

Whether it is a research question, a task at work, or personal curiosity, it is essential to clarify what you are seeking. This clarity aids in focused and effective research.

Gauging Current Knowledge

Reflect on what you already know about the topic, and identify the areas that require further exploration.

Identifying Sources of Information

With a clear understanding of what is needed, the next step involves knowing where to look:

Traditional Sources

These include books, journals, newspapers, and other printed materials.

Digital Databases

Online academic databases like JSTOR, PubMed, and Google Scholar offer a wealth of scholarly articles and publications.

Online Platforms

Websites, blogs, forums, and even social media can be valuable, depending on the topic, but require a keen eye for credibility.

Experts and Practitioners

Sometimes, the best information source is someone with expertise in the field of interest.

How to Evaluate the Credibility and Relevance of Sources

Not all sources are created equal. Source evaluation is paramount, and ensuring that the information you rely on is both credible and relevant is crucial:

Check the qualifications and background of the author or the publishing body.

Publication Date

Especially for rapidly evolving fields, the timeliness of the information is essential.

Citations and References

Quality sources usually refer to or are referenced by other credible works.

Bias and Objectivity

Every source has a perspective. Identifying potential biases helps evaluate the objectivity of the information.

Relevance to The Research Question

Ensure the information directly addresses your initial need or question.

Organising, Synthesising, and Using the Information Effectively

Once credible sources are identified, the next step is to derive meaningful insights:

Note-Taking

Highlighting key points, annotating, or using digital tools can help consolidate information.

Combining information from multiple sources provides a well-rounded understanding, allowing for fresh insights and connections.

Application

Use the gathered information to answer your research question, make decisions, or inform others. The true test of information literacy is not just gathering data, but effectively employing it.

Ethical Considerations and Information Use

Using information comes with a responsibility to respect intellectual property and avoid misrepresentation:

Citing Sources

Whenever borrowing ideas, quotes, or data, always provide appropriate citations. Source citing is crucial not only to acknowledge the original creators but also to add credibility to your work.

Avoiding Plagiarism

Using someone else’s work without proper credit is not only unethical but can also have legal implications.

Understanding Copyright

Different sources have different copyright restrictions. Always ensure you have the right to use, reproduce, or share the information, especially in public or commercial settings.

Sharing Responsibly

In this digital age, information spreads rapidly. Ensure that what you share is accurate, and when in doubt, verify before disseminating.

Real-Life Examples Of Information Literacy

To understand this better, here are a few real-life information literacy examples. 

Academic Research

Research forms the cornerstone of academic endeavours. Information literacy ensures that the research is thorough, credible, and based on strong evidence.

1. Determining the credibility of a research paper

• The journal in which it was published – is it peer-reviewed?
• The author’s qualifications and affiliations.
• Citations within the paper – are they from credible sources?
• Any potential biases or conflicts of interest mentioned in the paper.

2. Differentiating primary and secondary sources

• Primary sources might include letters from soldiers, official documents, or photographs from the era.
• Secondary sources would be books or articles written about World War II, often using primary sources as references.

Every Day Decision-Making

In our day-to-day lives, we constantly make choices based on the information we consume.

1. Fact-checking a news article

• Check the article’s source – is it a reputable news outlet?
• Searches for the same news on other trusted platforms to corroborate the story.
• Look for expert opinions or official statements within the article.

2. Deciphering product reviews and making informed purchases

• Reads reviews on multiple platforms, not just the product’s official page.
• Differentiates genuine user reviews from potential fake ones by observing patterns or checking review verification.
• Balances out overly positive and overly negative reviews to get a comprehensive understanding.

Digital And Social Media

The digital world, especially social media, presents both a boon and a bane regarding information consumption.

1. Recognizing biased content or sponsored posts

• Checks for tags or mentions indicating if the post is sponsored.
• Reads comments to see if other users had genuine experiences with the product.
• Look for more reviews online before making a decision.

2. Avoiding online scams and understanding online privacy

• Checks the sender’s email address for any discrepancies.
• Doesn’t provide personal or financial information without verifying the authenticity of the email.
• Stays informed about common online scams and always errs on the side of caution.

The research done by our experts have:

• Precision and Clarity
• Zero Plagiarism
• Authentic Sources

Information Literacy Skills for Students

A. research strategies and tools.

As students embark on academic journeys, harnessing effective research tools and strategies is essential to navigate the vast sea of information.

1. Using academic databases and search engines effectively

• She accesses academic databases like JSTOR, PubMed, and Google Scholar to find peer-reviewed articles.
• Uses advanced search features to narrow down results, filtering by date, relevance, or specific journals.
• Saves and organises her findings using reference management tools like Zotero or Mendeley.

2. Understanding how algorithms impact search results

• Search engines use personalised algorithms based on user data, browsing history, and location.
• Incognito or private browsing can provide more neutral results.
• Cross-checking information across multiple platforms ensures diverse perspectives.

B. Critical Thinking and Questioning

Students must cultivate an analytical mindset and embrace a curious spirit to distil valuable insights from information.

1. Asking the right questions

• Formulating specific questions: “How does a Mediterranean diet impact depression rates?”
• Considering potential biases in studies, such as funding sources or sample sizes.
• Being open to revising her questions as she learns more.

2. Looking for corroborative sources

• Searching for other studies or experts that confirm or refute the findings.
• Analysing the methodologies used in the study for potential flaws.
• Considering the broader consensus in the scientific community on the topic.

C. Communication in Information Literacy and Collaboration

Sharing knowledge and collaborating on projects amplifies the learning experience, but it also comes with the responsibility of ensuring accurate and respectful information exchange.

1. Sharing information responsibly

• Citing the original source and giving credit to the author.
• Summarising the article in her own words and avoiding plagiarism.
• Encouraging peers to read the original article and form their own opinions.

2. Collaborating with peers in group research

• They divide topics among themselves to avoid overlapping research.
• Share resources using digital tools like Google Drive or Dropbox.
• Regularly meet to discuss findings, ensuring everyone’s on the same page and synthesising information cohesively.

Tips for Enhancing Information Literacy

Navigating the modern world requires a high degree of information literacy. As the digital realm continues to grow and evolve, so too does the importance of cultivating and refining these skills. Here are some actionable tips to enhance information literacy:

Attend Workshops or Training Sessions

Workshops and training sessions, often organised by libraries, educational institutions, or professional organisations, offer hands-on learning experiences.

• Exposure to a structured curriculum tailored to improving research and information analysis skills.
• Opportunity to learn from experts in the field.
• Networking with like-minded individuals can lead to collaborative learning.

Implementation:

• Look for local workshops at community centres, libraries, or universities.
• Explore online platforms like Coursera, Udemy, or edX for courses on information literacy and related subjects.
• Attend conferences or seminars, which often feature sessions on the latest in research methodologies.

Stay Updated with Evolving Research Tools

Staying abreast of the latest research tools is paramount with the digital landscape continuously changing.

• Efficiently locate and access information.
• Stay competitive in academic or professional settings by using the latest tools.
• Ensure the quality and credibility of the information you gather.
• Subscribe to newsletters or blogs focusing on research methodologies or academic resources.
• Participate in webinars or online demos when new tools or platforms are released.
• Join online forums or groups where members share and discuss their favourite tools.

Engage in Regular Discussions and Debates

Engaging in discussions helps refine your understanding and challenges your preconceptions.

• Enhance critical thinking skills.
• Expose yourself to diverse viewpoints and sources.
• Develop the ability to defend your research or change your stance based on new information.
• Join debate clubs or discussion groups in your community or institution.
• Participate in online forums or social media groups that focus on topics of interest.
• Organise or attend regular meetups or discussion sessions with peers.

Be Proactive in Seeking Feedback on Research Techniques

Continuous improvement is a cornerstone of information literacy. Seeking feedback ensures your methods stay rigorous and effective.

• Identify areas of improvement in your research approach.
• Learn from the expertise and experience of others.
• Build confidence in your research abilities by validating your methods.
• After completing a research project, ask peers, mentors, or experts to review your methodology.
• Use platforms like ResearchGate to share your work and gather feedback from the global academic community.
• Reflect on feedback, and actively incorporate suggestions into future research endeavours.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is information literacy with example.

Information literacy is the ability to locate, evaluate, and use information effectively. For example, when researching climate change, an information literate person can distinguish between reputable scientific sources and biased or unreliable content, ensuring the information they use is accurate and trustworthy.

What are the 5 information literacy skills?

• Identifying the need for information.
• Locating and accessing the information.
• Evaluating the quality and relevance of the information.
• Using the information effectively for a specific purpose.
• Understanding and applying ethical and legal aspects of using information.

What is the main point of information literacy?

The main point of information literacy is to empower individuals to effectively find, evaluate, and use information. This skill set helps in making informed decisions, both in academic pursuits and everyday life, fostering critical thinking, informed citizenship, and lifelong learning in an ever-evolving information landscape.

You May Also Like

In today’s information age, where vast amounts of knowledge are easily accessible, it is crucial to know how to use and represent that knowledge correctly and how to cite sources properly.

A secondary source refers to any material that interprets, analyses, or reviews information originally presented elsewhere. Unlike primary sources, which offer direct evidence or first-hand testimony, secondary sources work on those original materials, offering commentary, critiques, and perspectives.

Scholarly sources, also known as academic sources, refer to materials created to meet the standards and expectations of the academic community.

USEFUL LINKS

LEARNING RESOURCES

COMPANY DETAILS

• How It Works

7.7 Information Literacy

Questions to Consider:

• How do you go about verifying source validity, and why is this important?
• How do you use resources to improve your thinking?
• Where do you go to find print and online resources?

What type of system best helps you to manage your resources?

When conducting any type of thinking, you need to have a firm grasp on information literacy , or knowing how to access the sources you may need. Practicing good information literacy skills involves more than simply using a search engine such as Google, although that could be a starting point. You also engage in creative thinking (i.e., generating topics to research), analytical thinking (i.e., reading and examining the parts of sources), and critical thinking (i.e., evaluating sources for accuracy, authority, etc.). Then there is synthesis that is used when incorporating multiple sources into a research project. Information literacy utilizes all of the necessary thinking skills. If you saw the name of a person on the cover of a magazine, for instance, you might assume the person did something important to merit the attention. If you were to google the person’s name, you would instantly need to use context clues to determine if the information your search produced is actually about your person and not someone else with the same or a similar name, whether the information is accurate, and if it is current. If it is not, you would need to continue your research with other sources.

Verifying Source Validity

The American Library Association defines information literacy as a set of skills that allow you to “recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.” 3 We need information almost all the time, and with practice, you’ll become more and more efficient at knowing where to look for answers on certain topics. As information is increasingly available in multiple formats, not only in print and online versions but also through audio and visual means, users of this information must employ critical thinking skills to sift through it all.

In today’s information environment, what would be the best way to find valid information about climate change? Would it be Wikipedia, NASA, a printed encyclopedia from 1985, or a report from a political campaign?

If you chose any answer except the NASA website, can you see how the other answers may have a vested interest in encouraging readers to believe a particular theory? The encyclopedia may not intentionally attempt to mislead readers; however, the write-up is not current. And Wikipedia, being an open-source site where anyone may upload information, is not reliable enough to lend full credence to the articles. A professional, government organization that does not sell items related to the topic and provides its ethics policy for review is worthy of more consideration and research. This level of critical thinking and examined consideration is the only way to ensure you have all the information you need to make decisions.

You likely know how to find some sources when you conduct research. And remember—we think and research all the time, not just in school or on the job. If you’re out with friends and someone asks where to find the best Italian food, someone will probably consult a phone app to present choices. This quick phone search may suffice to provide an address, hours, and possibly even menu choices, but you’ll have to dig more deeply if you want to evaluate the restaurant by finding reviews, negative press, or personal testimonies.

Why is it important to verify sources? The words we write (or speak) and the sources we use to back up our ideas need to be true and honest, or we would not have any basis for distinguishing facts from opinions that may be, at the least damaging level, only uninformed musings but, at the worst level, intentionally misleading and distorted versions of the truth. Maintaining a strict adherence to verifiable facts is a hallmark of a strong thinker.

You probably see information presented as fact on social media daily, but as a critical thinker, you must practice validating facts, especially if something you see or read in a post conveniently fits your perception. You may be familiar with the Facebook and Instagram hoaxes requiring users to copy and paste a statement that they will not grant permission for these social media sites to make public the content from their private pages. Maybe you’ve seen any number of posts and memes that inaccurately associate famous people with memorable quotations. We may even allow ourselves to believe inaccurate claims as truth when we experience different emotions including anger, fear, or loneliness; we want to believe a claim is true because it aligns with how we are feeling, regardless of any verifiable source. Be diligent in your critical thinking to avoid misinformation!

Determining how valid a source is typically includes looking into the author’s credentials, experience, and status in the discipline; the actual content of the source material; any evidence the source presents as support; and whether any biases exist that may make the source questionable. Once you know who controls the content of the source you’ve chosen, you need to determine what biases or special interests the site or article may exhibit.

Reflect on what bias the following sites may have. Without consulting the Internet, write one to two sentences on what ideas the following organizations may present. After you consider these on your own, conduct a search and see if you were accurate in your assumptions about the entities.

• National Dairy Council
• Yoga Society
• People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA)
• The American Medical Association

Whatever you write or declare based on sources should be correct and truthful. Reliable sources present current and honest information backed up with evidence you can check. Any source that essentially says you should believe this “because I said so” isn’t a valid source for critically thinking, information-literate individuals.

Evaluating books, articles, and websites for validity presents different challenges. For books and scholarly articles, in print or online, you can typically establish if the source is current and from a reputable publisher or organization with information on the copyright page or journal publication information.

For a website, you should determine who owns this site. Is it a professional organization such as the American Medical Association? You can usually find this info in the About section of the site or in a copyright designation near the end of the landing page. Domain names can help you determine the purpose of the site, but you shouldn’t rely solely on this website marker.

Resources for Thinking

When you look into books, articles, and documentaries on thinking, you will find plenty of choices. Some books or articles on thinking may seem to apply only to a narrow group of readers, such as entrepreneurs or artists. For example, the audiences for these two books about thinking seem highly selective: Carl Sagan’s The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark may be mostly directed to the science community, and James Lohan’s Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Taught Wrong is likely of interest primarily to historians. And some chapters may focus specifically on those groups; however, most texts on thinking are also applicable to other disciplines. You may have to work a bit harder to find a common ground or generate your own examples that explain the concepts from the book, but you can still reap benefits from understanding different perspectives. Don’t immediately disregard a book or article just because it doesn’t seem to fit your thinking perspective on the surface; dig a bit more deeply to see what you can learn. Remember, being open-minded and considering as many alternate approaches as possible are two hallmarks of critical thinking.

Finding Print and Online Resources

When you need to research a topic, you probably start with a search engine. That can be helpful, but can easily lead you down incorrect paths and waste time. Use advanced searches, filters, and other means to target your results more specifically. However, don’t limit yourself to just Internet sources; print journals, books, and articles are still significant sources of information.

Your college may have access to extensive stores of subscription-based site content, photos, videos, and other media through its library, providing more than enough information to start researching and analyzing any topic. Depending on the specific database and school, you may be able to access some of these resources remotely; others may require you to visit the library in person. Remember, when you are gathering and arranging pieces of information, keep track of the source and the URL so that you can both cite it correctly and return to learn more if needed.

Some other more general places to explore educational, inspirational, and thought-provoking material follow:

• Exploring the TED website is worth a few minutes of time. There you’ll find short videos (limited to 18 minutes) of speaking demonstrations by diverse experts in fields covering all disciplines. If you are in an exploratory phase of your thinking and researching, you can scan the TED Talk topics related to your interest area.
• You may be familiar with the Khan Academy, created in 2008 by Salman Khan, as an online learning resource for students and teachers containing tutorials, videos, and practice sets in a variety of subjects from science and mathematics to grammar lessons.
• Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) provided by Coursera, Udemy, and Udacity, provide learners and thinkers the chance to take courses, attend webinars and discussions, and learn about a large number of subjects, often free of charge. Much of the content is provided by major universities, and the courses are often facilitated by faculty.
• For-profit companies and nonprofit groups such as the Foundation for Critical Thinking (FCT) can also help you hone your thinking. The FCT presents materials, seminars, and conferences to help people think with “clarity, relevance, logic, accuracy, depth, significance, precision, breadth, and fairness.”

Creating a System for Managing Resources

You could have all the money (or time or cars or great ideas) in the world, but that won’t do you any good if you haven’t also created a system for managing all your resources. In the same way you might feel overwhelmed with all the choices when a waiter gives you a book-sized menu with hundreds of options, you can stall your thinking if you don’t have an effective and efficient way to access all the great articles, websites, books, podcasts, webinars, and other idea resources you can amass for the life of a project or during a college course or for a life event.

Systems to manage your ideas and thoughts don’t need to be elaborate. The best idea-management system is the one that gets used, so you need to be comfortable with what all is involved in managing these thoughts. Keep in mind, once you get into the swing of researching for and keeping good ideas, you’re going to end up with resources in many different formats. Gone are the days when one shelf of an oak bookcase near your desk could contain all your thinking resources on a topic. You may still find books, so you don’t need to discard the bookcase just yet, but very likely, you’ll also have online resources including search results, document files, websites, blogs, audio files, videos, and more. You can use filing folders, binders, online folders, boxes, or computer systems to organize your ideas.

A word about stacking papers and clutter: don’t. Clutter impedes creativity, steals focus, and represents procrastination. Fight the temptation to allow clutter to overwhelm your projects and workspace. File or trash anything you are not using right at the moment; this daily practice will save you a tremendous amount of time that you could waste looking for papers or articles you saved for later review.

Like physical clutter, a messy online environment can stall productivity and clear thinking. One key to effective information and idea management is a simple, consistent labeling system. Some companies call this a naming protocol or naming convention, a standard way all online files, folders, and drives are labeled for easier retrieval and long-term storage. If you don’t think through a file name with this forward-looking approach and then you don’t access that file for several months, you aren’t likely to remember which file is which, and you may end up wasting valuable time opening random files in an attempt to find the one you need. This isn’t a very efficient way to operate, and in some work environments would not be acceptable on large-scale and important projects. For example, if you were taking an upper-level literature course studying poetry, and remember you filed an excellent summary of one of the poems a few years earlier in your freshman composition class, you won’t be too happy when you have 78 documents called Notes. Great idea—lousy document/idea management system.

If your searches will take place on multiple devices—a laptop and a smartphone, for example—you could use a note-taking app such as Evernote, which contains a wealth of organizational tools and has various levels of access. You can access the same note regardless of where you’re searching. In the same way, you could even use a series of Google Docs or Sheets, as long as you consider the file naming and organizational conventions mentioned above. For example, if you needed to put together a research paper requiring 20 data sources, you could use a spreadsheet to keep track of the source article name, author, topics, potential data points you plan to use, the source, and the URL. Even if you didn’t incorporate everything into the final paper, such a method would save you a lot of time trying to track down small pieces of information. (The sheet would also be a great reference when you write your bibliography.)

Finding print and online sources demands a great deal of time and effort. Understanding how different approaches to thinking are appropriate for various situations as you research will help you be more creative and critical as you identify and verify your sources.

Quite literally, all careers need thinkers. Many jobs today expect employees to come up with original ways of doing routine tasks. Nurses may consider a more effective way to convey necessary information about patient care to other members of the medical team. Teachers must reconcile individual student learning needs with the reality of large classrooms. Attorneys think about all the consequences of presenting a client’s case in a certain manner. And chefs balance the cost of using the finest ingredients with customer preferences and profit margins.

Any career you can imagine has some amount of thinking involved. The most successful workers in any industry are the ones who think beyond the ordinary limits or expectations established in that profession and create new and improved ways to do ordinary jobs.

Consider the types of thinking required for the jobs in the table below.

• 3 “Information Literacy.” American Library Association. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://literacy.ala.org/information-literacy/

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As schools promote 21st-century learning, there has been a push for literacies which encourage students to be 21st-century learners. The two overarching literacies, new and digital, has taken over the three R’s literacy, reading, writing, and arithmetic. New Literacies continuously change due to the new technology emerging providing different ways to get information and communicate with others (Leu et al., 2015). In contrast, digital literacy is the ability to use digital tools to access information for understanding and communication (Jose, 2016). New literacies and digital literacies also differ in aspects of use in the classroom. New literacies are the building blocks for digital literacy; which are the skills students need to understand the internet (Maloy, Verock-O'Loughlin, Edwards, & Woolf, 2017). New literacies can be taught without the use of technology because students are learning to locate, evaluate, synthesize, and communicate information. Teachers can demonstrate these skills using encyclopedias and journal articles to gain a minimalistic comprehension. Once students learn the necessary understanding, teachers can transfer these skills to online which will promote digital literacy; furthermore, digital literacy can only be taught using digital tools. Teachers would teach students how to use computers and the social practices of the new literacies to gain an understanding of the digital literacy (Jose, 2016). Furthermore, digital literacies

Information Behaviour of Middle School Students Essays

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As “digital natives”, middle schoolers have quite a distinctive learning style for school librarians to take into consideration when preparing an information literacy lesson. Middle schoolers are active, innovative, visual and global learners. Middle schoolers are active learners due to the fact that they learn by completing activities, participating in groups, plus they dislike sitting still (Roehl et al., 2013, p. 45). They are innovative as they enjoy creating their own original projects and they are bored with repetition. (Carroll, 2011, p. 28). They are visual learners as they prefer real life demonstrations, as well as, looking at images, photos and videos to reading texts (Ercegovac, 2012, p. 98). They like to gather information quickly and instantly, meanwhile dismissing details or complicated searching techniques like Boolean logic. They are not concerned with finding information from authoritative, reliable websites, as they are more concerned that the website contains

Digital Literacy Essay

Eshet-Alkalai, Y. (2004). Digital literacy: A conceptual framework for survival skills in the digital era. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 13(1), 93-106. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/205852670?accountid=32521

The Importance of Literacy Essay

Is it important to be a literate person in today’s society? The ability to function well depends on whether or not a person is literate and can comprehend what is going on around them. If a person doesn’t have the basic ability to read, they will feel the stress and dependency on others because of their illiteracy. Illiteracy is a big problem because without the knowledge of reading, illiterate people can’t perform daily tasks and responsibilities in daily life. When all it would take is a mere two minutes out of your day, don’t you think illiteracy can be helped or even extinguished?

Information Literacy and Leadership Essay

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The increasingly widespread introduction of student-centered inquiry-based pedagogies, the explosion of information available to teachers and students and the move to electronic sources of information … [and] the identification of information literacy as a generic skill and graduate attribute (p. 400).

Issues in Academic Library: Essential Skills of Information Professional

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An academic library is a library where it is to be found in an academic institution. As stated by Burke and Miller (1993), “the information world has expanded dramatically over the last decade due mainly to developments in communication. Information technology developments have resulted in new methods of communications whilst the latest telecommunications systems have altered the speed of communications. Both of these major changes have affected the way in which information is handled, stored and exchanged across the world.” Therefore, an academic library acts as a source of information where the users within the institution have the access to dig in information and look for guidance from the librarians. It is also known

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Essay on Media And Information Literacy

Students are often asked to write an essay on Media And Information Literacy in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Media And Information Literacy

Understanding media and information literacy.

Media and Information Literacy (MIL) is knowing how to smartly handle and use information from different sources like TV, internet, and books. It’s like learning to swim in a sea of endless news, pictures, and videos.

The Importance of MIL

It’s crucial because it helps you tell what’s true from what’s not. With MIL, you can make better choices about what to read, watch, and share. It’s like having a map in the world of media.

Learning to Check Facts

A big part of MIL is learning to check if something is correct. Before believing a story, see if trusted places also report it. It’s like double-checking your answers in a test.

Using Media Wisely

MIL teaches you to use media in a good way. It means not spending too much time on screens and knowing that not everything online is good for you. It’s about making smart media choices.

Sharing Responsibly

With MIL, you learn to think before you share something online. Ask yourself if it’s helpful, true, and kind. It’s about being a good friend in the digital world.

250 Words Essay on Media And Information Literacy

Media and Information Literacy, or MIL, is knowing how to smartly use the internet, newspapers, books, and other ways we get information. It’s like learning how to fish in a huge sea of news and facts. With MIL, you can tell which fish are good to eat and which might make you sick.

Why MIL is Important

Today, we get bombarded with tons of messages and pictures through our phones, TVs, and computers. Some of these are true, but others are not. MIL helps you sort out the truth from the lies. It’s like having a special tool that helps you know which friend is telling the truth and which is just making up stories.

One part of MIL is checking if something is true or not. Before you believe a story, ask yourself: Who wrote this? Why did they write it? Is there proof? It’s like being a detective, looking for clues to solve a mystery.

MIL also teaches you to use media in a good way. It means spending the right amount of time watching TV or playing games and also using the internet to learn new things. Think of it as a diet for your brain—you need a mix of fun, learning, and rest.

Sharing the Right Information

Lastly, MIL helps you share information the right way. Before you send a message or a picture to others, think: Is it kind? Is it necessary? Is it true? By doing this, you can be a hero who helps stop lies and spread kindness.

500 Words Essay on Media And Information Literacy

Media and information literacy is like learning how to read a map in a world full of signs and messages. It teaches us how to understand and use the information we get from television, the internet, books, and other sources. Just like knowing how to read and write helps us in school, media literacy helps us make sense of the news, advertisements, and even social media posts we see every day.

The Need for Media Literacy

We live in a time when we are surrounded by a sea of information. From the moment we wake up to the time we go to bed, we are bombarded with messages from our phones, TVs, and computers. With so much information coming at us, it’s important to know what is true and what isn’t. This is where media literacy comes in. It helps us tell the difference between facts and opinions, and it teaches us to ask questions about what we see and hear.

Spotting Fake News

One of the biggest challenges today is fake news. This is information that is made to look real but is actually made up to fool people. Media literacy gives us the tools to spot fake news by checking where the information comes from, who is sharing it, and whether other reliable sources are reporting the same thing. By being careful and checking the facts, we can avoid being tricked by false information.

Using Information Wisely

Information isn’t just about news. It’s also about understanding how to use the internet safely and responsibly. Media literacy teaches us to protect our private information online, to be respectful to others, and to understand how our clicks and shares can spread information quickly, for better or for worse. It’s like learning the rules of the road before driving a car.

Advertising and Persuasion

Advertisements are everywhere, trying to persuade us to buy things or think a certain way. Media literacy helps us see the tricks advertisers use to grab our attention and make us want something. By understanding these tricks, we can make better choices about what we buy and believe.

Creating Media

Media literacy is not just about what we take in; it’s also about what we put out into the world. With smartphones and the internet, anyone can be a creator. Media literacy teaches us how to share our own stories and ideas in a clear and honest way, and how to respect other people’s rights and feelings when we do.

In conclusion, media and information literacy is an important skill for everyone, especially students. It helps us navigate through the vast amount of information we encounter every day and use it in a smart and ethical way. By being media literate, we can be better students, smarter consumers, and more responsible citizens in our digital world.

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Essays on Information Literacy

13 samples on this topic

Our essay writing service presents to you an open-access selection of free Information Literacy essay samples. We'd like to emphasize that the showcased papers were crafted by proficient writers with relevant academic backgrounds and cover most various Information Literacy essay topics. Remarkably, any Information Literacy paper you'd find here could serve as a great source of inspiration, actionable insights, and content structuring practices.

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Role Of Information Literacy In Academic And Professional Settings: A Top-Quality Essay For Your Inspiration

Information Literacy: Scholarship Practice and Leadership

Exemplar Research Paper On Reality TV To Write After

22nd of April 2016

Good Course Work On Promoting Reading Development

Reading development occurs in two distinct stages: Fluency and comprehension, and critical consciousness. Fluency refers to the reading process being automatic, with little decoding (consciously using phonics and other related skills to try to figure out the pronunciation of written words.), which interrupts the flow of reading and slows down the reader. Comprehension develops as a result of training as well as independent reading. Critical consciousness (higher order thinking) refers to the ability to think analytically and abstractly. Developing independent reading skills is an important stage in reading development.

Society Benefits from Technology Essay Examples

Balanced literacy approach to reading thesis example.

The research problem

Literacy Skills And Practices Essays Example

Describe your literacy practices today

These are skills that equip a student with a wealth of knowledge via means of writing as well as developing technology and media. Also, the knowledge can be acquired through reading.

Uses of literacy skills in my normal day activities.

Computer Literacy And Information Literacy Essays Example

Example of plagiarism argumentative essay, free essay on key topics in librarianship.

Librarians play a key role in education. Librarians form relationships with subject specialists to build collections in the library to sustain classroom instructions. They provide instruction in the form of classes on library skills and conduct library instructional orientations sessions to assist students on class researches. Changes in technology with the use of electronically stored and retrieved information bring change to patrons and students on the access and use of information; the scheme on digital information changes the librarian as merely an “information providers or keepers of knowledge” to “knowledge navigators or information literacy instructors.”

Roles of information Professionals and Missions of Libraries

Free Research Paper On Health Informatics

Health Informatics

Information systems and technologies are important tools for improving the quality and safety of patient care (Darlymple, 2011). Despite this though, the adoption of information technology in health care has lagged behind that of other sectors (TIGER, n. d.). Health informatics is a relatively new discipline which aims at helping health care practitioners use information technology in the delivery of care. In this paper, the most important informatics knowledge areas for health care administrators will be identified and justified. The paper will also explore how the topics covered under this course have supported my knowledge of health informatics.

Informatics Knowledge Proficiency Areas for Health Care Administrators

Free Essay On Library Literacy Is Necessary

Essay on information literacy.

Define information literacy

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Essay On Information Literacy

Show More There are several misconceptions about what is information literacy, one of which is, been able to read and write well or possesses academic prowess; another one is, been knowledgeable about information technology. Coupled with the aforementioned is the myriad of information available in all shape and format and varying degree of accuracy and relevance on, personal development, academics, technology, work-life balance, family life, religions, business, and the list goes on and on. Information literacy helps us to identify a needs gap and be able to sift through this myriad of information in a responsible, effective and efficient manner, in order to best fill that needs gap. Botham et al defined information literacy as “the ability or set of abilities to know when information is needed, to be able to evaluate the information and use information that has been found” (11). Another definition by Horton states that “information literacy means the set of skills, attitudes and knowledge necessary to know when information is needed to help solve a problem or make a decision, how to articulate that …show more content… Students must be taught the skills of observing laws, regulations and institution policies related to the access and use of information. They also need to be taught the various formats for citing and giving credits for resources in order to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is a common violation among students whether through innocence or blatant disregard for the rules governing the use of other persons’ work; whatever the reason students need to be made aware of these violation and possible sanctions. Sanctions for plagiarism vary from minor to severe punishment; students can be dismissed from universities depending on the severity of plagiarism. Scott states that “plagiarism is claiming someone else’s ideas as your own. It is a lie told to the audience by your work’

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Prior to reading Chapter 1 and “At Sea in a Deluge of Data”, I realized how elementary my definition of information literacy was. I believed information literacy was the ability to find information using a variety of research methods. So, you can imagine reading the definition was surprising, yet the definition seemed simplistic. Per our course text, “Information literacy is the ability to identify a need for information and successfully locate, evaluate, and use that information ethically and legally for a determined purpose”.…

Mini Grant Proposal

(Duke, 2004) “Students will be exposed to informational text by using and being taught explicit skills and comprehension strategies in all content areas. Students will gain insight through various genres and the different strategies needed to decode and read informational text. With the implementation of the “Informational Text Library” students will be exposed to different levels of non-fiction text and a mixture of genres that will provide more opportunities for independent reading and to be read to. By having an assortment of informational text students will be able to practice or use the skills and strategies taught through books that are of interest to them and have an authentic…

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James Baldwin's Essay 'Notes Of A Native Son'

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Sherman Alexie's Literacy

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Health Literacy Case Study

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Academic Dishonesty In College Sports

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Health Literacy In Health Education

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Information literacy Essays

Information literacy assignment.

Synthesize educational issues related to information literacy resulting in the creation of new practices, (1), the description of information literacy pertains to having access to information about educational issues that will result in the creations of new understandings, gaining access to sources that will validate the information, and having an example to model or evaluate the new knowledge. Critical Analysis of Professional Literature – This assignment presented a critical analysis of four standards

Information Literacy Personal Statement

Teaching information literacy skills is the most rewarding aspect of my work. As the Library Instruction Coordinator and Librarian for the Languages & Culture (team leader) and General Studies Writing (GSW)/First Year Experience (FYE) Instruction Teams at BGSU, I am passionate about creating nurturing and validating learning environments; making the learning process a two-way collaborative, active, and engaging experience; and developing students’ critical thinking skills. Whether I am teaching students

Information Literacy Assessment

After taking the information literacy assessment, I learned, I exhibit good research skills, but there is room for improvement. While I do understand the basic stages of the research process, the concept of broadening and narrowing down research using Boolean operators needs some work. Also, to further my research skills I am hoping to learn where to find resources, other than via the internet, and how to appropriately use and cite them, without the help of a citation generator. Many of the aspects

The Importance Of Information Literacy

Introduction Information is something that can be known with the connected to both knowledge and communication. It was consist for everything from spoken words, written communication, sheets of music, photographs and paintings, to computer codes and scientific formula. Information must have in context from which people can understand about the information.. It must have a connected for that word to giving it meaning who the information comes from many sources. Many people are surrounded by information which

Information Literacy And Professionalism

Information Literacy and Professionalism Information literacy is a crucial part of every career and contributes to one's professionalism and skillset. Developing information literacy skills involve acquiring necessary information and applying it according to the situation at hand. Being information literate is especially important in the healthcare field due to the advancements in technology and research that may improve medicine. With these constant changes, healthcare professionals must learn

Information Literacy Outline

outline for an information literacy program aimed specifically at first year diploma students at university. Purpose An information literacy program is designed to ensure that students at the university acquire the skills which include the understanding that there are many forms of information, acquiring the skills to locate the required information, evaluating the information and understanding the importance of academic integrity and referencing and then using that information to gain knowledge

Attitude In Second Language Research

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Most Influential Person Essay

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Elements Of Health Promotion

Health care promotion is considered as the responsibility of every nurse. In order to promote health care practices nurses need to understand clearly the term “Health Promotion”. While conducting analysis it is identified that it is essential for nurses to significantly recognise that health promotion is a broader concept. For the particular purpose, it is necessary for nurses to develop distinctive skills and capabilities to reduce health care associated risks and optimise the productivity while

Professionalism In Medical Education

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Essay On Media And Information Literacy

Conceptual Framework Media and information literacy has a big purpose in every learner. It is very important to have knowledge into it and advance education about it. But the come out of this point, majority of the learners are lack of knowledge on MIL and it manifest of-the-line the level of knowledge in media and information literacy. According to Wikipedia, media and information literacy recognizes the major role of information and media in our everyday lives. It lies at the core of

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Teaching Literacy Skills Analysis

field overlook exactly how important literacy skills are in their content area. Many often push the responsibility of training the students in literacy skills to educators in the English department. This is truly a shame since the kids are only getting a fraction of literacy skill training they need to truly be successful in all of their classes and on standardize tests. As a social studies education major I know that I can help my students develop and use literacy skills that will not only help them

Reading And Writing: Benchmark Reading Instruction

development is important because the reader and writer considers their daily social and cultural experience's, values and knowledge to contribute to their literacy skills in reading and writing. Researchers believe that learners draw attention to oral language, the aspects of language in serving daily needs, social phenomenon in language literacy, preschool experiences and home engagement language as related to accomplishments in school. The best practices in word recognition, and language comprehension

My Literacy Research Paper

adventure to world of literacy Literacy is the ability to do something and do it well…making extraordinary difference and flourishing lives. Literacy has a much broader meanings than just the ability of a person to read and write. Literacy doesn’t even necessarily require the ability to read and write. To me literacy is the ability of a person not only to read and write, but also being able to understand, perceive the value of the information and put it into use. Ones’s caliber of literacy determines Personal

Important Literacy Sponsor

In this essay, I will argue about how technology is our most important literacy sponsor for our development of literacy. As a young child, my mother always used to forced books on me. Every other day was reading day and I would have to read a book to my mother. I would always look at her and cry because I hated sitting down and opening up a book that was longer than my instruction manual for my video games. Just seeing the book on the table brought frustration to my soul. She would watch

Exploratory Essay

the adult world in the 21st century will read and write more than at any other time in human history. They will need advanced levels of literacy to perform their jobs, run their households, act as citizens, and conduct their personal lives. They will need literacy to cope with the flood of information they will find everywhere they turn. They will need literacy to feed their imaginations so they can create the world of the future. In a complex and sometimes even dangerous world, their ability

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• Notice of Funding Opportunity Guidance
• AHRQ Grants Policy Notices
• AHRQ Informed Consent & Authorization Toolkit for Minimal Risk Research
• HHS Grants Policy Statement
• Federal Regulations & Authorities
• Federal Register Notices
• AHRQ Public Access Policy
• Protection of Human Subjects

Funding Priorities

• Special Emphasis Notices
• Staff Contacts

Training & Education Funding

Grant application, review & award process.

• Grant Application Basics
• Application Forms
• Application Deadlines & Important Dates
• AHRQ Tips for Grant Applicants
• Grant Mechanisms & Descriptions
• Application Receipt & Review
• Study Sections for Scientific Peer Review
• Award Process

Post-Award Grant Management

• AHRQ Grantee Profiles
• Getting Recognition for Your AHRQ-Funded Study
• Grants by State
• No-Cost Extensions (NCEs)

AHRQ Grants by State

Searchable database of AHRQ Grants

AHRQ Projects funded by the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Trust Fund.

• Press Releases
• AHRQ Social Media

Impact Case Studies

• AHRQ News Now
• AHRQ Research Summit on Diagnostic Safety
• AHRQ Research Summit on Learning Health Systems
• National Advisory Council Meetings
• AHRQ Research Conferences
• AHRQ's 35th Anniversary
• Mission and Budget
• AHRQ's Core Competencies
• National Advisory Council

Careers at AHRQ

• Maps and Directions
• Other AHRQ Web Sites
• Other HHS Agencies
• Testimonials

Organization & Contacts

• Centers and Offices
• Organization Chart
• Key Contacts

What's New More

BLOG | March 15: AHRQ’s Unique Effort to Advance Care for People Living with Long COVID

BLOG | March 12: When It Comes to High-Quality Healthcare, Diagnostic Safety Tops the List

BLOG | March 7: AHRQ Commemorates 35 Years as an Independent Science Agency

PRESS RELEASE | March 12: 

VIRTUAL WORKSHOP | Apr. 9-11: Medical Expenditure Panel Survey

Highlights From AHRQ's Patient Safety Network

June 3-21 | Data Submissions for Survey on Patient Safety Culture® Hospital Database  

Register for Training in TeamSTEPPS 3.0 and TeamSTEPPS for Diagnosis Improvement  

Enroll Now for Program on Improving Antibiotic Use in Telemedicine

Concentration of Healthcare Expenditures and Selected Characteristics of Persons With High Expenses  

Patient Safety Chartbook Highlights Strengths and Weaknesses in the Healthcare System

AHRQ Updates the Agency’s Research Priorities

Funding & Grants

Research Funding Opportunities from AHRQ

Apply Now for Funding on Projects to Reduce Healthcare-Associated Infections and Antibiotic Resistance

Funding Available for Projects To Improve Healthcare Worker Safety

AHRQ Announces Interest in Health Services Research to Improve Healthcare for Persons Living with Disabilities

Notice of Intent: AHRQ to Establish Healthcare Extension Service  

CORONAVIRUS

AHRQ COVID-19 Resources

HHS: Coronavirus (COVID-19) Updates

CDC: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Learn how AHRQ-funded findings, products and tools have impacted healthcare delivery

Featured Programs

AHRQ programs provide information and resources to help healthcare organizations and providers deliver safe, high-quality, and equitable care across all settings.

National Center for Excellence in Primary Care Research

Supporting transformative primary care research, tools and methods to improve the delivery of primary care.

Diagnostic Safety and Quality

Funding research to better understand how diagnostic errors happen and how to prevent them.

Climate Change

Support for decarbonization in healthcare

Providing evidence on how digital healthcare can advance quality, safety, and efficiency for patients and their families

Patient Safety and Quality Improvement

Making healthcare safer in all settings

Data & Analytics

Providing data and analysis to help healthcare decision makers understand how the healthcare system is working and identify opportunities for improvement

EvidenceNOW

Using external practice coaches to help primary care clinicians implement the best evidence into care

Network of Patient Safety Databases

Providing non-identifiable patient safety data at the national level

Learning Health Systems

Conducting research and provides training, tools, and data to help healthcare organizations improve care

Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems

Surveying patients to report on and evaluate their experiences with healthcare

Patient Safety Network

Providing the latest literature, news, and expert commentary on patient safety topics

Comprehensive Unit-based Safety Program

Helping clinical teams make care safer by combining improved teamwork, clinical best practices, and the science of safety

Effective Health Care Program

Improving healthcare quality by providing the best available evidence on benefits and harms of drugs, devices, and services

Evidence-based Practice Centers Program

Generating evidence reports on a wide spectrum of topics to inform clinician practice improvements, guide policymaking, and identify future research needs

About our work at AHRQ

Remembering Dr. David Meyers

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