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Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on September 5, 2024.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

The five steps in this article will help you put together an effective introduction for either type of research paper.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

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The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Scribbr’s paraphrasing tool can help you rephrase sentences to give a clear overview of your arguments.

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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Writing Your Introduction

Introductions [1].

There is no doubt about it: the introduction is important for any kind of writing. Not only does a good introduction capture your reader’s attention and make him or her want to read on, it’s how you put the topic of your paper into context for the reader.

But just because the introduction comes at the beginning, it doesn’t have to be written first. Many writers compose their introductions last, once they are sure of the main points of their paper and have had time to construct a thought provoking beginning, and a clear, cogent research statement.

Introductions Purpose

The introduction has work to do, besides grabbing the reader’s attention. Below are some things to consider about the purposes or the tasks for your introduction and some examples of how you might approach those tasks.

The introduction needs to alert the reader to what the central issue of the paper is.

The introduction is where you provide any important background information the reader should have before getting to the thesis.

The introduction tells why you have written the paper and what the reader should understand about your topic and your perspective.

The introduction tells the reader what to expect and what to look for in your essay.

The research question or statement (typically at the end of the introduction) should clearly state the claim, question, or point of view the writer is putting forth in the paper.

Introductions Strategies

Although there is no one “right” way to write your introduction, there are some common introductory strategies that work well. The strategies below are ones you should consider, especially when you are feeling stuck and having a hard time getting started.

Consider opening with an anecdote, a pithy quotation, a question, or a startling fact to provoke your reader’s interest. Just make sure that the opening helps put your topic in some useful context for the reader.

Of course, these are just some examples of how you might get your introduction  started , but there should be more to your introduction. Once you have your readers’ attention, you want to provide context for your topic and begin to transition to your research question, and don’t forget to include that research question (usually at or near the end of your introduction).

• Adapted from Excelsior Online Writing Lab (OWL). (n.d.). Introductions & conclusions. Retrieved from https://owl.excelsior.edu/writing-process/introductions-and-conclusions/. Licensed under CC-BY-4.0. ↵

PSY-250 Research Paper Guidelines and Resources Copyright © by David Adams. All Rights Reserved.

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How to Write a Psychology Research Paper

Are you working on a psychology research paper this semester? Whether or not this is your first research paper, the entire process can seem a bit overwhelming at first. But, knowing where to start the research process can make things easier and less stressful.

While it can feel very intimidating, a research paper can initially be very intimidating, but it is not quite as scary if you break it down into more manageable steps. The following tips will help you break down the process into steps so it is easier to research and write your paper.

Decide What Kind of Paper You Are Going to Write

Before you begin, you should find out the type of paper your instructor expects you to write. There are a few common types of psychology papers that you might encounter.

Original Research or Lab Report

A report or empirical paper details research you conducted on your own. This is the type of paper you would write if your instructor had you perform your own psychology experiment. This type of paper follows a format similar to an APA format lab report. It includes a title page, abstract , introduction, method section, results section, discussion section, and references.

Literature Review

The second type of paper is a literature review that summarizes research conducted by other people on a particular topic. If you are writing a psychology research paper in this form, your instructor might specify the length it needs to be or the number of studies you need to cite. Student are often required to cite between 5 and 20 studies in their literature reviews and they are usually between 8 and 20 pages in length.

The format and sections of a literature review usually include an introduction, body, and discussion/implications/conclusions.

Literature reviews often begin by introducing the research question before narrowing the focus to the specific studies cited in the paper. Each cited study should be described in considerable detail. You should evaluate and compare the studies you cite and then offer your discussion of the implications of the findings.

Select an Idea for Your Research Paper

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Once you have figured out the type of research paper you are going to write, it is time to choose a good topic . In many cases, your instructor may assign you a subject, or at least specify an overall theme on which to focus.

As you are selecting your topic, try to avoid general or overly broad subjects. For example, instead of writing a research paper on the general subject of attachment , you might instead focus your research on how insecure attachment styles in early childhood impact romantic attachments later in life.

Narrowing your topic will make writing your paper easier because it allows you to focus your research, develop your thesis, and fully explore pertinent findings.

Develop an Effective Research Strategy

As you find references for your psychology paper, take careful notes on the information you use and start developing a bibliography. If you stay organized and cite your sources throughout the writing process, you will not be left searching for an important bit of information you cannot seem to track back to the source.

So, as you do your research, make careful notes about each reference including the article title, authors, journal source, and what the article was about. 

Write an Outline

You might be tempted to immediately dive into writing, but developing a strong framework can save a lot of time, hassle, and frustration. It can also help you spot potential problems with flow and structure.

If you outline the paper right off the bat, you will have a better idea of how one idea flows into the next and how your research supports your overall hypothesis .

You should start the outline with the three most fundamental sections: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Then, start creating subsections based on your literature review. The more detailed your outline, the easier it will be to write your paper.

Draft, Revise, and Edit

Once you are confident in your outline, it is time to begin writing. Remember to follow APA format as you write your paper and include in-text citations for any materials you reference. Make sure to cite any information in the body of your paper in your reference section at the end of your document.

Writing a psychology research paper can be intimidating at first, but breaking the process into a series of smaller steps makes it more manageable. Be sure to start early by deciding on a substantial topic, doing your research, and creating a good outline . Doing these supporting steps ahead of time make it much easier to actually write the paper when the time comes.

• Beins, BC & Beins, A. Effective Writing in Psychology: Papers, Posters, and Presentation. New York: Blackwell Publishing; 2011.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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• > Guide to Publishing in Psychology Journals
• > Introducing Your Research Report: Writing the Introduction

Book contents

• Frontmatter
• PART ONE INTRODUCTION
• PART TWO PARTS OF AN ARTICLE
• 3 Titles and Abstracts: They Only Sound Unimportant
• 4 Introducing Your Research Report: Writing the Introduction
• 5 Theories and Hypotheses
• 6 Writing Effectively about Design
• 7 Doing Data Analyses and Writing Up Their Results: Selected Tricks and Artifices
• 8 Results That Get Results: Telling a Good Story
• 9 What Does It All Mean? The Discussion
• 10 Documenting Your Scholarship: Citations and References
• PART THREE DEALING WITH REFEREES
• PART FOUR CONCLUSION

4 - Introducing Your Research Report: Writing the Introduction

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2012

Drafting an introduction may feel like a daunting task. The writer must engage the audience in his or her research, provide the necessary background information about the topic, and set the stage for the study itself. How is this accomplished? First and foremost, there is no one formula. Consider the following. As undergraduates prepare to apply to graduate school they often ask faculty, “What makes a successful application?” The applicants invariably think in a formulaic fashion, believing that a secret formula exists - something akin to four parts research, two parts practical experience, GREs over a cutoff score, and an undergraduate GPA of at least 3.5. They believe that adherence to the recipe will fashion the ideal candidate. Sorry, there is no rigid formula. In fact, whereas the ingredients of the formula are indeed important to the evaluation process, different schools look differently at the varying credentials.

Likewise, journal editors and readers alike expect the introduction section of an article to contain certain features, but again there is no formula. The components of the introduction fit within a general framework that allows the researcher to describe the study and to provide a rationale for its implementation. The framework of the introduction consists of three segments – unequal in length but each essential in conveying the background and purpose of the study. The first segment, often the opening paragraph, sets the broad stage for the research and draws the reader's interest.

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• Introducing Your Research Report: Writing the Introduction
• By Philip C. Kendall , Jennifer S. Silk , Brian C. Chu
• Edited by Robert J. Sternberg , Yale University, Connecticut
• Book: Guide to Publishing in Psychology Journals
• Online publication: 05 February 2012
• Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511807862.005

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Tips for Writing Your Best Psychology Research Paper

A checklist of do's and don'ts for students to write papers people want to read..

Posted July 17, 2022 | Reviewed by Tyler Woods

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• Scientific writing is non-intuitive in many ways.
• When it comes to writing psychology research reports, a primary goal should be clear communication.
• Here is a list of tips to help behavioral scientists, at all levels, to best communicate ideas regarding psychological research findings.

When it comes to reading academic research reports in the behavioral sciences, I'm no different than anyone else. I often find myself thinking "what is the point?" Reading academic papers is not always rainbows, balloons, and unicorns.

As a teacher and researcher, I regularly provide commentary on student research papers, with the primary goal of helping students best express complex ideas. Based on this experience, here is something of a checklist of issues to think about when writing a psychology research report.

Write as you speak.

So often, I read student papers that sound much more like someone trying to sound smart than like someone trying to communicate ideas. You made it into college—you're likely plenty smart. Don't worry about using big words.

The point of summarizing your research is to present it to others so that they understand what you are saying.

One way to achieve this outcome is simply to write as you speak. When you speak to others, you are trying to get them to understand something. This same goal is true when you are writing a scientific research report. Sure, avoid informalities, slang, and profanity in scientific writing—but beyond that, I suggest that you simply write how you speak.

Never copy and paste so much as a letter from another source.

In this day and age, it is common for students to copy and paste content from others' papers into their own. From there, students will often edit, modify, etc. Regarding this practice, I say this: Never do that! Not only does this practice have you dancing dangerously on the edge of plagiarism, but it is just a poor way to communicate.

When it comes to summarizing ideas from past researchers, your best bet is to read their work to the point that you really understand it and then to write your ideas out as if you are describing the ideas to a friend or family member. Doing so will ensure that your voice comes through.

Only summarize parts of past research that are relevant to your own research.

Sometimes, students feel that they have to summarize everything that they find in a relevant article connected with their research. Not so.

Imagine that you are writing a paper about how academic self-esteem (belief in oneself in academic contexts) relates to academic success (e.g., grade point average).

Now suppose that in your review of past work on this topic, you find a paper that summarizes five different studies that another researcher conducted on this topic. Imagine that one of the five studies examined the relationship between general self-esteem and academic self-esteem. Now imagine that this particular issue is unrelated to your own study. In this case, it would be a mistake to elaborate on this particular feature of this past work in detail.

Sometimes it feels like a student describing irrelevant details of others' work is intentionally trying to add length to their paper. Honestly, don't ever do that! Only include content that is relevant to your point. If there is a part of a prior paper that is not related to the point of your work, don't include it.

Avoid writing superfluous details about past studies (sample sizes, specific statistical findings, and ancillary findings) that do not relate to your own work.

Here's something that students often do not know. When very in-the-weeds details about a prior study make it into your paper, it comes across as a rookie mistake.

Such details often include the sample size from a prior study (e.g., "In Smith and Johnson's (2019) study, 632 young adult participants from a large, midwestern university were studied..."). Honestly, no one cares! In your own research report, describe your sample in detail—but not such details of past work.

Describing samples of other studies in detail in your own paper automatically puts the reader in zone-out mode.

This same rule applies to statistical findings from past studies. Suppose that Smith and Johnson found that high academic self-esteem corresponded to high GPAs in a sample of students from a community college. That's all you need to say! If you go on and describe the r-value and the p-value and the N of that prior research, you are once again inviting your reader to go into zone-out mode.

Include a brief summary at the end of your Introduction that includes clearly specified hypotheses.

The whole point of your Introduction is to get the reader to see the problem that you are studying and to see the value of studying that problem. A strong way to communicate all of this is to make sure to specify your hypotheses (or predictions) clearly in a section that completes your Introduction. Summarizing your specific predictions in detail in this section helps to provide a bridge between your Introduction and your Methods sections.

Make sure that each variable in your study is described in your Introduction so that the reader knows why it is included.

When a variable shows up in your Methods section that was not introduced in the Introduction, the reader will automatically be confused. The reader may think, "Wait, what? The intro didn't say anything about this variable. I have no idea what the relevance is here!" Each variable included in your Methods section should be described in some detail in your Introduction section—especially as it relates to the main predictions of your study.

Include sub-sections in your Introduction to help guide your reader to your broader points.

Reading scientific papers is not easy. One way to help make your presentation easier on your reader is by including sub-sections in your Introduction. APA style fully allows you to include as many sub-sections as you want in your Introduction.

You can create sections for each variable that you study in your project. You can create sections that describe past work related to the topic, etc. A sub-section will usually have between two and five paragraphs, just as a rule of thumb. Doing this will help in making your ideas clear to your reader.

Refer to hypotheses in words and not by some arbitrary numbers.

Near the end of the Introduction, as noted above, it is best practice to demarcate your specific hypotheses. Sometimes, a researcher will describe these in numbered form (e.g., Hypothesis 1: We predict that high levels of academic self-esteem will be positively related to cumulative grade point average . Hypothesis 2...).

In the hypothesis section of your Introduction, it is fine to number your hypotheses in this way. That said, later in your paper, it is not good practice to refer to your hypotheses by number. For instance, in your results section, you can imagine saying something like, "Hypothesis 1 was supported by a correlation."

By the time I get to the Results section, I usually don't recall which particular prediction comprised "Hypothesis 1." It's best practice to refer to your hypotheses in terms of the actual, relevant content. You could call it "the hypothesis suggesting that academic self-esteem is positively related to GPA." Such an approach will make it so that your reader is not flipping back to a prior section.

In your Methods section, describe each measuring instrument in detail and include academic citations that point to the full scale when appropriate.

In your Methods section, it is best practice to describe each measure in enough detail so that your audience has a solid idea as to how the measuring instrument works.

For instance, if you use a published scale of general self-esteem in your study, you should not only provide the full academic citation to this scale, but you should also give one example item (e.g., "Here is an example item: 'Generally speaking, I like myself.'") and you should describe the measuring system in sufficient detail (e.g., are the items on a 1-5 Likert scale, anchored with Strong Disagree and Strongly Agree? If so, say that.). This basic process should be used for each measuring instrument included in your study.

Never end your paper with a limitation of your work.

Life is hard enough and there are endless critics out there. It is appropriate to describe limitations to your work in your Discussion section, but it is not great practice to end your paper with limitations of your work. That could leave the reader with something we call the recency effect —where they primarily remember the final information that was presented. You don't want your reader to walk away thinking that the main point of your work is that you had a small sample size in your research, for instance. Your ending should bring the paper full circle and focus on the value of your work as well as potential implications.

Bottom Line

In my work as a psychology professor, I both produce psychological research reports and I read and comment on many student papers that summarize research. In my efforts to help students hone their skills in this realm, I recently published a book: Own Your Psychology Major (Geher, 2019) , which helps guide students on various facets of the field of psychology, including the presentation of research findings.

People often find the process of scientific writing a bit non-intuitive. Following the tips above can help behavioral scientists at all levels communicate their ideas clearly, with the goal of having their ideas heard. Ultimately, this is the goal of all writing, including scientific writing.

Geher, G. (2019). Own Your Psychology Major! A Guide to Student Success. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Glenn Geher, Ph.D. , is professor of psychology at the State University of New York at New Paltz. He is founding director of the campus’ Evolutionary Studies (EvoS) program.

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Academic and Writing Resources

• Writing Research Papers

Writing Research Papers 

Information and resources.

One of the most important skills that you can learn in this department is how to write a research paper.  For many of you, this will be in fulfillment of the Psychology B.S. Degree Research Paper requirement and/or the Psychology Honors Program Thesis requirement.  You may also be writing an American Psychological Association (APA) formatted research paper for a Psychology course (such as a term paper or a summary of an empirical research paper).  In some cases, such as for certain job, graduate school, and fellowship applications, you may be asked to provide a writing sample; a well-written research paper can be ideal for that purpose.  The ability to write research papers is crucial for those who wish to pursue graduate school and research careers.  To assist with these potential goals, we’ve gathered important information and helpful tips for you.

Should I Use a Specific Format and Style?

In the psychological sciences, it is common for research papers to adhere to the guidelines of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (papers in other fields often use APA format as well).  APA guidelines not only specify the types of sections that a research paper should have, but also the order of those sections, the manner in which scholarly sources should be cited in the text and in a separate references section, appropriate methods of reporting experimental and statistical results, the proper use of language, and other details.  A well-written psychology research paper typically follows those guidelines .

How to Write a Successful Research Paper in APA Style

For more information on writing research papers in APA style, please checking out the following pages.  Here you’ll find details on multiple aspects of the research paper writing process, ranging from how the paper should be structured to how to write more effectively.

• Structure and Format – the critical components of each section of an APA-formatted research paper (Introduction, Methods, and on), as well as how those sections should be formatted according to APA guidelines.

► Structure of Research Papers in APA Style

► Formatting Research Papers in APA Style

• Finding, Evaluating, and Citing References – how to search databases, how to obtain references, how to take notes when reading references, what types of references to use, how to include in-text citations, and how to create an APA-formatted reference list.

► Using Databases and Finding References

► What Types of References Are Appropriate for Research Papers?

► Evaluating References and Taking Notes

► Citing References in APA Style

• Writing a Literature Review, the Writing Process, and Improving Writing – how to write a literature review (an overview or summary of prior research, which is a common technique of introducing a research topic in the early sections of a paper), as well as recommendations for the writing process, improving clarity and conciseness, examples of adequate and better paragraphs, and links to resources on improving writing.

► Writing Literature Reviews

► Writing Process and Revising

► Improving Scientific Writing

• Avoiding Plagiarism – how to make sure that your research paper represents your writing and ideas and does not erroneously or unethically appropriate the works of others.

► Academic Integrity and Avoiding Plagiarism

• How-To Videos – for video guides to the different major sections of research papers, plus literature reviews and references, please see the following:

► Writing Research Papers Videos

In addition, you may be interested in downloading “ How to Write a Research Paper in APA Style ”, a comprehensive guide developed by Prof. Emma Geller, “ Tips for Writing APA Style Research Papers ” (a short summary of multiple aspects of the paper-writing process), and an Example B.S. Degree Research Paper written in APA Style .

Workshops and Downloadable Resources

• For in-person discussion of the process of writing research papers, please consider attending this department’s “Writing Research Papers” workshop (for dates and times, please check the undergraduate workshops calendar).
• How to Write APA Style Research Papers (a comprehensive guide) [ PDF ]
• Tips for Writing APA Style Research Papers (a brief summary) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – empirical research) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – literature review) [ PDF ]

Further Resources

• OASIS Language and Writing Program
• UCSD Writing Programs and Resources
• UCSD Muir College Writing Hub
• UCSD Writing Hub

External Resources

• APA Style Guide from the Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL)
• APA Tutorial on the Basics of APA Style
• EasyBib Guide to Writing and Citing in APA Format
• Formatting APA Style Papers in Microsoft Word
• How to Write an APA Style Research Paper from Hamilton University
• Online Learning: Plagiarism and Paraphrasing
• Sample APA Formatted Paper with Comments
• Sample APA Formatted Paper
• Tips for Writing a Paper in APA Style
• WikiHow Guide to Writing APA Research Papers

Back to top

• Research Paper Structure
• Formatting Research Papers
• Using Databases and Finding References
• What Types of References Are Appropriate?
• Evaluating References and Taking Notes
• Citing References
• Writing a Literature Review
• Writing Process and Revising
• Improving Scientific Writing
• Academic Integrity and Avoiding Plagiarism
• Writing Research Papers Videos
• Effective Studying

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

APA Sample Paper: Experimental Psychology

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Writing guidelines

General guidelines.

Professional Psychology ® ( PP ) is devoted to providing its readers with practical and usable information. The primary readership of PP is the typical practicing professional psychologist or graduate student in training to become a psychological practitioner, with a smaller secondary readership of trainers of practitioners.

PP seeks manuscripts that either describe current scientific and clinical/theoretical knowledge or present new empirical data and draw out the practice implications and concrete applications of that information. PP expects manuscripts to be written in a manner such that the introduction makes clear the potential relevance of the article to the reader practitioner and the closing section of the article provides concrete and practical suggestions, guidance, and advice.

In order to get the best sense of the type of articles PP is seeking and the style of writing that is the most effective in communicating useful and practical information to the typical PP reader, it is important that you read the articles appearing in several recent issues of PP . The material that appears on the following pages also provides further information on how best to craft a manuscript for PP .

PP prefers abstracts that open with a "reader-oriented sentence" that anchors the topic of the article in the experiential world of the reader's everyday professional practice. In creating this sentence, one might ask, What would the average practicing professional psychologist have experienced in professional practice yesterday that led him or her to PP for information and advice today? The opening sentence then is written from the perspective of what the reader just experienced or the knowledge that he or she seeks (and not "the issue," "the literature," or "previous research").

PP also prefers abstracts that end with a reader-oriented sentence that explicitly names practical and usable implications and applications of the information presented in the article, and it gives the abstract reader a rich sense of "the news I can use" for reading the article.

The middle portion of the abstract should provide whatever description of the material in the article that the author believes will be most useful to the potential user in deciding whether to get and read the article. PP prefers to limit abstracts to 250 words.

Here are some examples of effective PP abstracts:

• The confidentiality of the client–therapist relationship has been seriously challenged by managed care oversight and reporting requirements. The impact of such requirements on psychotherapy clients' willingness to disclose was explored. Three descriptions of confidentiality limits were presented: standard limits of therapeutic confidentiality, a rationale for client acceptance of limited confidentiality, and the typical informational requirements of managed care. Clients and potential clients showed less willingness to self-disclose under managed care conditions than standard confidentiality limits. Psychologists must increase awareness of confidentiality issues and advocate strongly for changes in managed care requirements that inhibit disclosure and interfere with psychotherapy.
• Professional psychologists often have a need for information on the patterns of service accessing and service use by ethnic groups. Demographic characteristics and psychotherapy use of 229 Chinese American clients, seen in a Southern California private practice between 1989 and 1996, are described. Diagnostic evaluations of 27 assessment requests, 77 consultations, and 125 psychotherapy cases indicated that depressive disorders, adjustment disorders, anxiety disorders, and relational problems were the most frequently presented problems. For the 125 treated cases, length of treatment ranged from 1-38 sessions with a median of 4 and mean of 5.98 sessions.
• Therapist accessibility by pagers raises many questions regarding between-session and within-session calls. What are the main purposes of pagers in clinical settings, and what are the rationales for their use? The authors explored the parameters established by clinicians regarding pagers and how these expectations were communicated to patients. The degree of interference the clinician allows in the therapy session when paged is pivotal because of the potentially distancing, distracting, and enervating effect this may have on the relationship. The implications for the therapist's private life and his or her significance in the patient's life are considered.
• If you are a psychologist who conducts child custody or personal injury evaluations, how confident are you that the traditional Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory—2nd ed. (MMPI–2) validity scales and other potential MMPI–2 validity indicators are in fact useful for addressing the issue of response bias? This investigation contributes to the scientific database on the use of MMPI–2 validity indicators to detect response distortion. As the investigation represents empirical rather than analog data, it is of particular value to psychologists who engage in forensic assessment.
• If a patient adheres to religious values and practices, should the treating psychologist get input from a clergyperson? How frequent is clergy–psychologist collaboration? What obstacles impede such collaboration? An exploratory survey questionnaire was sent to 200 clergy, 200 psychologists interested in religious issues, and 200 psychologists selected without regard to religious interests or values. Four themes were assessed: types of collaborative activities, frequency of collaboration, obstacles to collaboration, and ways to enhance collaboration. Strategies for promoting clergy–psychologist collaboration include challenging unidirectional referral assumptions, building trust through proximity and familiarity, and considering the importance of shared values and beliefs.

Opening paragraphs

The first paragraph of a potential manuscript should also be written from the perspective of the average reader. This opening paragraph should not repeat the opening sentence of the abstract, as PP tries to avoid redundant presentation of statements and information. This opening paragraph should provide the experiential hook for the reader that interests them enough to read the article. This opening paragraph should also relate to or foreshadow the implications and applications that will be discussed at the end of the manuscript.

Some recent examples of opening paragraphs include the following:

• "Just how long does it take to do a psychoeducational evaluation?" This question, when asked by cost-conscious administrators, tends to evoke uneasy and evasive responses from school psychologists—and with good reason. The school psychologist who provides a seemingly high figure is likely to elicit a surprised or dubious response (e.g., "What could possibly take all that time?"). A low figure, on the other hand, may serve as justification for increasing assessment caseloads. Even a reasonable figure can be cause for concern if it becomes a parameter in a cost–benefit equation on the feasibility of contracting out evaluation services—an equation that, in all probability, regards an evaluation as a fixed commodity with a fixed value that is unrelated to time invested. Thus, it is not surprising that school psychologists shy away from the loaded question of how long a psychoeducational evaluation takes, perhaps responding in noncommittal fashion (as befits a psychologist) with, "It depends."
• Clinical practitioners sometimes wonder what keeps them going. On any given day, they try to serve client needs, maintain an ethical practice, manage increasing paperwork and bureaucracy, stay informed about new interventions and specialties, foresee how emerging changes in the health care environment will affect them, market their services, and defend the efficacy of their interventions (Coster & Schwebel, 1997). Juggling the ups and downs of these responsibilities can be likened to rafting the rapids; sometimes it's exhilarating, other times it's frightening—with survival linked to appropriate responses to and knowledge of the river. Clinicians muse, Can I cope with the increasing demands of my job? How well am I coping? Do I still look forward to going to work most days? What should I do differently to feel better about my job?
• A former client, who is a real estate salesperson, happens to attend the same small reception for a state legislator as you. The former client approaches a small group of people with whom you happen to be speaking to discuss the possibility of becoming an owner with other individuals of an office building that is on the market. You know your former client is excellent at assessing property values, and the former client claims that this building is worth 30% more than the asking price. After the other person expresses interest in partial ownership, your former client turns to you and asks whether or not you would like to join the ownership group. What would you do? How would you decide? Would your decision be the same or different if the client had dropped out of treatment 3 months ago after four sessions or had completed a 20-session therapy process 3 years ago?
• Are internships getting harder to find? The American Psychological Association (APA) and the Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers (APPIC) regularly monitor the supply of internship slots. APPIC data (Lopez, Oehlert, & Wettersten, 1997) indicate that the number of internship sites has grown steadily through the years, yet Aronson (1996) suggested that there has been a decrease in the number of internship slots available. Murray (1995b) reported no growth in internships at academic medical centers for the first time in 5 years. Reliable data on the demand side of the equation are unavailable (Clay, 1997; Martin, 1997; Pederson, 1996; Reich, 1996; Turk, 1996).

Introduction section

The introduction for PP articles should establish the relevance of the topic of the article to the average practicing professional psychologist. The total length of the introduction might be as short as one or two paragraphs or as long as three to four manuscript pages. However, the focus should be on relevance to practice, and the introductory presentation should be limited to presenting usable information from previously published material (but only in those cases in which the background is not well known or easily accessible).

It is not necessary (or desired by PP ) that an introduction build a case or justify the need for the research project or the literature review being presented.

Notes on empirical manuscripts

PP is primarily interested in empirically informed articles, which draw out practical implications. PP is not a research journal per se.

PP articles may draw on and summarize empirical work or present new empirical findings. When new data are presented, the focus of the discussion section should be on implications and applications. One difference between a traditional research report and an implications-oriented article is that a research report often focuses its discussion section on the results themselves (often comparing and contrasting them with the findings of other research reports and then focusing on needed future research), whereas an implications-oriented article often focuses its discussion section on "what to do when" or "six factors to consider when …and how to assess them."

The discussion section of an implications article does not discuss the research per se or the research findings themselves; rather, it discusses the implications and applications of everything that is known about the topic and how it informs general practice and suggests specific professional practices. For example, articles on ethics or training should focus on the implications of the findings, not how many people do what.

PP rarely uses the standard "method, results, discussion of results" format for empirical articles. Rather, when a survey or research project is presented, this may be done in a middle section labeled "The Survey" or "The Exploration" or "The Evaluation." Brief presentations of the most critical aspects of method and the major or unexpected findings are made, along with discussion of the findings that actually warrant discussion. This is done with relevant side headings (e.g., "Method" or "Discussion" would rarely be needed as a side heading). For survey reports, the representation of the sample to the population under study should be concisely but clearly noted. Surveys with small response rates (e.g., below 50%) on a clearly biased sample will rarely be published.

Likewise, the introduction should establish, generally in the opening paragraph, the relevance of the topic of the article (and research) to the average practicing professional psychologist. This is in contrast to a research report that often reviews previously published articles in order to establish that the reported research needed to be done. The introduction might be as short as one or two paragraphs or as long as three or four pages. However, the focus should be on relevance to practice and the presentation of practical, usable information.

The following are some section names from previous empirical articles in PP :

• A Needs-Based Planning Project
• The EAP Survey
• The Confidentiality and Disclosure Exploratory Project
• The Exploratory Study of Psychologists and Clergy
• Tennessee Psychological Association's Colleague Assistance Program
• The Nature of the Report Evaluation Study
• The Los Angeles Asian Adolescent Stress Exploratory Project
• Utilization and Outcome: The Lutheran Hospital Experience

More about this journal

• Professional Psychology: Research and Practice
• Pricing and subscription info
• Read sample articles
• General call for papers

Contact Journals

• Queen's University Library
• Research Guides

How to Critique an Article (Psychology)

Introduction.

• The introduction is a justification for why the study was conducted.
• By the end of the introduction you should have a very good idea of what the researchers are going to study, and be convinced that the study is absolutely necessary to advance the field.
• The justification should be a combination of improving on previous research and good theoretical reasons and practical reasons for why the study is important.
• If the authors are talking about a controversial issue, are they presenting both sides in a reasonable way? Is their choice of one side over the other based on hard evidence?
• Do you understand what their hypotheses are e.g. what they expect to find?
• It is not good enough just to say that the study has not been done before. There are plenty of topics that have not been scientifically researched before but that doesn't mean that they should be. For example, I doubt that anyone has ever looked at the correlation between favorite color of Skittles and personality, but that doesn't mean that it should be researched unless there is a good theoretical reason for why we would expect a relationship and a good reason to think that knowing the relationship would advance our understanding of personality in some meaningful way.

• Last Updated: Jun 27, 2024 1:59 PM
• Subjects: Psychology

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Speaker 1: After the title page and abstract, the reader's first true interaction with your research paper is the introduction. Your introduction will establish the foundation upon which your readers approach your work, and if you use the tips we discuss in this video, these readers should be able to logically apply the rules set in your introduction to all parts of your paper, all the way through the conclusion. What exactly is the purpose of the introduction? Think about your paper as a chronological story. It will begin at point A, the introduction, and move in time towards point B, the discussion and conclusion. Since your introduction includes content about the gaps in knowledge that your study aims to fill, the results you elaborate on in your discussion section should therefore be somewhat familiar to the reader, as you have already touched upon them in the introduction section. The introduction must answer two main questions. Why was this particular study needed to fill the gaps in knowledge? And why does this particular gap need filling? Imagine our entire plane of knowledge as an incomplete puzzle. The pieces snapped together are what is established, or what is known. The missing piece is the gap in knowledge, or what is currently unknown. This is what your study will be helping to explain. So the context you provide in the introduction must first identify that there is a knowledge gap in what it is, it must explain why it needs to be filled, and then briefly summarize how this study intends to fill that gap and why. The introduction is one of the most compact parts of the research paper, since it is not very long but needs to essentially give a complete overview of the context in which your study is taking place, and your specific reasons for doing the study. Most tend to be around 10% of the total length of your paper. The introduction consists of background information about a topic being studied, the rationale for undertaking the study, or for filling the gap with this particular information, key references to preliminary work or closely related papers appearing elsewhere, a clarification of important terms, definitions, or abbreviations to be used in the paper, and a review of related studies in which you give a brief but incisive analysis of work that heavily concerns your study. It could be a very similar study or one that supports the findings of your new study. So how should you structure your introduction? As you can see in this figure, your introduction should start broadly and then narrow until it reaches your hypothesis. The first thing you want to do is state your area of research and then immediately show what is already known. This is also known as background information. Then move on to what is unknown, the problem or gap you want to resolve. Finally, you should discuss how you will resolve this problem using a clear hypothesis. In step one, you will show what is already known. Start with a strong statement that reflects your research subject area and ask questions or post statements to frame the problems your study explores. You can ask general questions here to guide your readers to the problem and show them what we already know. For instance, what do we know about breathing capability of bottlenose dolphins? Use keywords from your title, the exact language of your study that is, to zero in on the problem at hand and show the relevance of your work. Avoid stating background information that is too broad in nature. You don't need to state too many obvious facts that your readers would know. If you are writing about bottlenose dolphins, for instance, you probably don't need to explain to them that mammals breathe oxygen. At the beginning of the introduction, you should also be sure to cite all of the sources that you use for background information and support. Only provide the necessary background information. Don't focus extensively on background, but use it to set up the context for doing this study. You should also review only relevant, up-to-date primary literature that supports your explanation of our current base of knowledge. In the second part of your introduction, you should answer the question, what is the knowledge gap? Here you will highlight areas where too little information is available. Explain how and why we should fill in that gap. What does this missing information do to impede our understanding of a process or system? And you should identify what logical next steps can be developed based on existing research. By showing you have examined current data and devised a method to find new applications and make new inferences, you're showing your peers that you are aware of the direction your research is moving in, and you're showing confidence in your decision to pursue this paper study. In the last part of your introduction, you will show how your study fills in the knowledge gap. This is where you state your purpose and give a clear hypothesis or objective of the study. The hypothesis is a very short 1-2 sentence supposition or explanation of what will happen in your study. This is quite often written as an if-then format. If X and Y are present, then Z will occur. Here you should also try to answer the question, if we fill this gap, what useful information will the readers gain? Many researchers have difficulty when it comes to deciding when to write their introduction. It is important to consider the order you draft your research paper, for as you recall, everything else in the research paper must flow from the introduction. Therefore, because it is one of the most difficult sections to nail down, consider writing the introduction second to last, after the materials and methods, results, and discussion section, and just before the conclusion. This will ensure you effectively lay a groundwork for the rest of your paper, and you can use the research you have already compiled to ensure that everything in your introduction is pertinent and accurate. In addition to content and organization, writers of research papers should also be aware of grammar and style issues that directly affect the readability and strength of their printed work. Here are some guidelines for writing the introduction section. Try and write in the active voice when possible. This will shorten your sentences and enhance the impact of your information. Always strive for concise sentences. This will allow you to get in all of the necessary information in this compact introduction section. Use stronger verbs when possible. This also impacts sentence length and strength of writing. Be careful not to overuse first-person pronouns such as I and we, and always organize your thoughts from the broad to the specific, as we have seen in our model. A strong introduction will encourage readers to read your entire research paper and help get your work published in scientific journals. For more information and tips on manuscript writing and journal submissions, visit the resources page at wordvice.com.

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AS Psychology 7181

AS and A-level Psychology Specification Specifications for first teaching in 2015

PDF | 852.04 KB

1.0 Introduction

1.1 why choose aqa for as psychology, relevant content designed by experts.

This qualification offers an engaging and effective introduction to Psychology. Students will learn the fundamentals of the subject and develop skills valued by Higher Education (HE) and employers, including critical analysis, independent thinking and research.

Retaining the most popular features of our previous, market-leading qualifications, we have worked with teachers, HE and the British Psychological Society to produce a clear, up-to-date and stimulating specification. We have built on the success of our previous specifications by introducing some minor amendments that reflect advances and changes in the subject and provide a coherent and holistic programme of study.

The biggest teaching community

We are the most popular choice for AS and A-level Psychology and by choosing our specification you will be part of the country’s largest community of psychology teachers and have access to the widest network of support to help your teaching.

Content continuity

• approaches and methods related to the core areas of Psychology – cognitive, social, biological, developmental, individual differences and research methods are all retained and delivered through content similar to the previous specifications
• explanations from different approaches, along with psychological issues and debates, are retained
• A-level students can choose from a range of attractive topic options which have been arranged to help teachers to teach to their strengths and at the same time ensure that their students experience an interesting, diverse and coherent course of study, regardless of which topics they choose.

Trusted assessment

Our assessments continue to employ a variety of familiar types of question such as multiple choice, short answer and extended writing/essays, which target the skills of knowledge and understanding, application and evaluation.

Students’ understanding of research methods, gained through classroom experience of practical Psychology, will be assessed using the familiar scenario-based question style and research methods questions embedded in topics.

Co-teachability of AS and A-level

We have designed the AS and A-level specifications to cover the core areas of Psychology and be fully co-teachable within the first year of study. We know this will help teachers with resourcing and timetabling and will also allow students to switch between AS and A-level during the first year if they wish.

Progression

Our specification will appeal to a cross-section of students, regardless of whether they have studied the subject before. It builds on skills developed in the sciences and humanities, and enables progression into a wide range of other subjects.

You can find out about all our Psychology qualifications at aqa.org.uk/psychology

1.2 Support and resources to help you teach

We know that support and resources are vital for your teaching and that you have limited time to find or develop good quality materials. So we’ve worked with experienced teachers to provide you with a range of resources that will help you confidently plan, teach and prepare for exams.

Teaching resources

We have too many Psychology resources to list here so visit aqa.org.uk/7181 to see them all. They include:

• flexible sample schemes of work to help you plan for course delivery in your own way
• individual lesson plans on specific topic areas to assist you in providing continuity and progression in teaching
• specimen assessment materials that will give your students a clear idea as to what is expected in the examinations
• a range of student textbooks from AQA approved publishers
• example practical activities for research methods (teachers should ensure that the British Psychological Societies Code of Ethics and Conduct is followed in any practical research activity. This can be found on the British Psychological Societies website www.bps.org.uk )
• training courses to help you deliver AQA Psychology qualifications
• subject expertise courses for all teachers, from newly qualified teachers who are just getting started to experienced teachers looking for fresh inspiration.

Preparing for exams

Visit aqa.org.uk/7181 for everything you need to prepare for our exams, including:

• past papers, mark schemes and examiners’ reports
• sample papers and mark schemes
• Exampro: a searchable bank of past AQA exam questions
• exemplar student answers with examiner commentaries.

Analyse your students' results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

Find out which questions were the most challenging, how the results compare to previous years and where your students need to improve. ERA, our free online results analysis tool, will help you see where to focus your teaching. Register at aqa.org.uk/era

For information about results, including maintaining standards over time, grade boundaries and our post-results services, visit aqa.org.uk/results

Keep your skills up to date with professional development

Wherever you are in your career, there’s always something new to learn. As well as subject-specific training, we offer a range of courses to help boost your skills.

• Improve your teaching skills in areas including differentiation, teaching literacy and meeting Ofsted requirements.
• Prepare for a new role with our leadership and management courses.

You can attend a course at venues around the country, in your school or online – whatever suits your needs and availability. Find out more at coursesandevents.aqa.org.uk

Get help and support

Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at aqa.org.uk/7201

You can talk directly to the Psychology subject team:

E: [email protected]

T: 01483 477 822