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Introspection and How It Is Used In Psychology Research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amanda Tust is a fact-checker, researcher, and writer with a Master of Science in Journalism from Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism.

Thomas Barwick / Getty Images

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Introspection is a psychological process that involves looking inward to examine one's own thoughts, emotions, judgments, and perceptions.

In psychology, introspection refers to the informal process of exploring one's own mental and emotional states. Although, historically, the term also applies to a more formalized process that was once used as an experimental technique . Learn more about uses for introspection, a few examples, and how to be more introspective.

Uses for Introspection

Introspection is important for several reasons. Among them are that it helps us engage in reflection, it assists with research, and it can be a valuable tool in mental health treatments involving psychotherapy.

One way to use introspection is for reflection, which involves consciously examining our internal psychological processes. When we reflect on our thoughts, emotions , and memories and examine what they mean, we are engaged in introspection.

Doing a reflective dive into our own psychology can help improve our levels of self-awareness. Being self-aware and gaining self-insight through the act of reflection is connected with higher levels of resilience and lower levels of stress . In this way, introspective reflection aids in personal growth.

Research Technique

The term introspection is also used to describe a research technique that was first developed by psychologist Wilhelm Wundt . Also known as experimental self-observation , Wundt's technique involved training people to carefully and objectively as possible analyze the content of their own thoughts.

Some historians suggest that introspection is not the most accurate term to refer to the methods that Wundt utilized. They contend that introspection implies a level of armchair soul-searching, but the methods that Wundt used were a much more highly controlled and rigid experimental technique.

In everyday use, introspection is a way of looking inward and examining one's internal thoughts and feelings. As a research tool, however, the process was much more controlled and structured.

Psychotherapy

Introspection can also be useful in psychotherapy sessions. When both practitioners and patients have the ability to be introspective, this aids in the development of the therapeutic relationship and can even affect treatment outcomes.

Engaging in introspection-based activities has been found beneficial for certain mental health conditions. For example, when people with depression engaged in emotional introspection, they were able to downregulate activity in their amygdala—an area of the brain associated with emotion regulation .

The term introspection can be used to describe both an informal reflection process and a more formalized experimental approach that was used early on in psychology's history. It's also used in psychotherapy sessions.

History of Introspection in Psychology

The process that Wundt used is what set his methods apart from casual introspection. In Wundt's lab, highly trained observers were presented with carefully controlled sensory events. Wundt believed that the observers needed to be in a state of high attention to the stimulus and in control of the situation. The observations were also repeated numerous times.

What was the purpose of these observations? Wundt believed that there were two key components that make up the contents of the human mind: sensations and feelings.

In order to understand the mind, Wundt believed that researchers needed to do more than simply identify its structure or elements. Instead, it was essential to look at the processes and activities that occur as people experience the world around them.

Wundt focused on making the introspection process as structured and precise as possible. Observers were highly trained and the process itself was rigid and highly controlled.

In many instances, respondents were asked to simply respond with a "yes" or "no." In some cases, observers pressed a telegraph key to give their response. The goal of this process was to make introspection as scientific as possible.

Edward Titchener , a student of Wundt's, also utilized this technique, although he has been accused of misrepresenting many of Wundt's original ideas. While Wundt was interested in looking at the conscious experience as a whole, Titchener instead focused on breaking down mental experiences into individual components and asked individuals to describe their mental experiences of events.

Benefits of Introspection

While introspection has fallen out of favor as a research technique, there are many potential benefits to this sort of self-reflection and self-analysis. Among them are:

• Introspection can be a great source of personal knowledge , enabling you to better recognize and understand what you're thinking and feeling. This leads to a higher level of self-awareness, which can help promote mental health and increase our happiness .
• The introspective process provides knowledge that is not possible in any other way ; there is no other process or approach that can provide this information. The only way to understand why you think or feel a certain way is through self-analysis or reflection.
• Introspection can help people make connections between different experiences and their responses . For example, when engaging in self-reflection after a disagreement with your spouse, you may recognize that you responded defensively because you felt belittled or disrespected.
• Introspection can improve our capacity for empathy . The more we understand ourselves, the easier it becomes to understand others. We're able to put ourselves "in their shoes" and empathize with how they may feel.
• Introspection makes us stronger leaders . While some believe that being a good leader requires self-confidence, others contend that self-awareness is more important. People who understand themselves internally are able to lead others effectively, also often making better decisions .

Drawbacks of Introspection

Introspection is not a perfect process. So, it can come with a few drawbacks.

People often give greater weight to introspection about themselves while judging others on their outward behavior. This can result in bias without recognizing that a bias exists.

Even when their introspections don't provide useful or accurate information, people often remain confident that their interpretations are correct. This is a phenomenon known as the introspection illusion.

Cognitive biases are a good example of how people are often unaware of their own thoughts and biases. Despite this, people tend to be very confident in their introspections.

Bias can also exist during research studies using introspection. Because observers have to first be trained by researchers, there is always the possibility that this training introduces a bias to the results.

This bias can influence what they observe. Put another way, observers engaged in introspection might be thinking or feeling things because of how they have been influenced and trained by the experimenters.

Rumination involves obsessing over things or having them run through your mind over and over again. When trying to figure out the inner workings of the mind, one can end up ruminating on their "discoveries." This can have negative impacts mentally.

For example, in a study of adolescents with depression , researchers found that these teens tended to have maladaptive introspection with high levels of rumination, thus contributing to the worsening of their symptoms.

Subjectivity

While Wundt's experimental techniques did a great deal to advance psychology as a more scientific discipline, the introspective method had a number of notable limitations. One is that the process is subjective, making it impossible to examine or repeat the results.

When using introspection in research, different observers often provided significantly different responses to the exact same stimuli. Even the most highly trained observers were not consistent in their responses.

Limited Use

Another problem with introspection as a research technique is its limited use. Complex subjects such as learning, personality, mental disorders, and development are difficult or even impossible to study with this technique. This technique is also difficult to use with children and impossible to use with animals.

Because observers have to first be trained by researchers, there is always the possibility that this training introduces a bias to the results. Those engaged in introspection might be thinking or feeling things because of how they have been influenced and trained by the experimenters.

Examples of Introspection

Sometimes, seeing examples can help increase your understanding of a particular concept or idea. Some examples of introspection in everyday life include:

• Engaging in mindfulness activities designed to increase self-awareness
• Journaling your thoughts and feelings
• Practicing meditation to better understand your inner self
• Reflecting on a situation and how you feel about it
• Talking with a mental health professional while exploring your mental and emotional states

How to Be Introspective

If you want to be more introspective, there are a few things you can do to assist with this.

• Ask yourself "what" questions . When trying to figure out our thoughts and emotions, we often ask ourselves "why" we feel the way we do. However, research indicates that "what" questions are more effective for improving introspection. For instance, instead of asking why you feel sad, ask what makes you feel sad. This can help provide more insight into yourself internally.
• Be more mindful . Introspection is a thoughtful exploration of what you're thinking and feeling at the moment. This requires being present, or more mindful. Greater mindfulness can be achieved in many different ways, some of which include journaling and meditation.
• Expand your curiosity . Curiosity about your inner self can help you better understand your emotions, reflect on your past, and explore your identity and purpose. Get in touch with your curious side. With curiosity comes exploration, providing a clearer understanding of your psychological workings.
• Spend some time alone, doing nothing . If the world is always busy around you, it can be difficult to quiet your mind enough to explore its inner workings. Make time regularly to spend some time alone, removing all distractions in your surroundings. This can help create an environment in which you're able to do a deeper dive into your psychological processes.

The use of introspection as a tool for looking inward is an important part of self-awareness and is even used in psychotherapy as a way to help clients gain insight into their own feelings and behavior.

While Wundt's efforts contributed a great deal to the development and advancement of experimental psychology, researchers now recognize the numerous limitations and pitfalls of using introspection as an experimental technique.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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• > Methods of Educational Psychology - A Guide

Methods of Educational Psychology - A Guide

Introduction

Educational psychology refers to the study of how people tend to learn and retain information. It involves studying the differences in the learning methods of every individual, and the various teaching methods and instructional processes used. Educational psychologists study the childhood and adolescent learning processes and consider the external factors and behavioral aspects that can affect how a student learns.

Educational psychology aims to improve the teaching processes and help teachers learn how learning takes place and what teaching methods should be used to promote learning in classrooms. It also helps teachers use innovative learning methods to improve the way education is imparted in classrooms.

It involves the study of human behavior systematically and scientifically. The study requires the use of scientific methods to collect and organize the required information. There are 6 main methods used in educational psychology. The next section discusses these 6 methods in detail.

Top Methods of Educational Psychology

Given below are the 6 main methods of educational psychology that are used to collect and organize data regarding human behavior -

Introspection

It is a traditional method of study used in psychology. It involves looking inward and determining what thoughts come to our minds. It is a method of self-observation where the student observes what he or she feels and experiences while trying to recall something. For example, when students observe the thoughts and feelings that they encounter while trying to recall the answer to a question and report them, this method is known as introspection. The reflections on this provided by the students cannot be verified by psychologists. Hence, it is known as an unscientific method. It helps in understanding human psychology and the reason behind the behavior of an individual.

The Observational Method

This is one of the most popular methods of educational psychology. Unlike introspection, where the individual engages in self-observation, someone else observes the behavioral patterns and changes of the individual. The psychologist can observe the changes in speech, facial expressions, behavior, actions, and gestures under different situations and take note of them.

The observational method helps psychologists form generalizations regarding human behavior by identifying similarities in their behavior. Forming generalizations helps the teachers formulate a single effective method for increasing classroom engagement.

One of the major difficulties with this method is that the subject can become conscious of the presence of the psychologist near them. This could affect the individual’s behavior and expressions. The introduction of online education management platforms like Teachmint can help a great deal in observing the learner’s behavior without letting them know about it.

Experimental Method

Experimental is one of the most significant methods of educational psychology . It involves experimenting with the behavior of an individual in different situations in a controlled environment. In other words, the environment in which the subject is exposed is kept constant throughout the experiment and only one variable is changed to determine the impact of this variable on the individual’s behavior. Rather than using natural conditions, the researcher controls the situation in an experimental method and observes human behavior.

For example, if the researcher wants to study the impact of temperature on the student’s behavior, all other things except the temperature will be kept constant. Here, the student’s behavior is the dependent variable, and the room temperature is the independent variable.

The experimental method is a scientific method that is valid, and its results can be verified. Moreover, the results of the experimental method can be generalized and applied universally. But at the same time, it is also very time-consuming and expensive.

Clinical Method

The clinical method, also known as a case study method, is a type of practice that is focused on a particular individual. The purpose of a clinical study is not to find general human behavioral patterns but to understand the problems or reason behind the behavior of a certain individual and find a treatment for the individual.

For example, if a student is facing difficulty in paying attention in the classroom and constantly getting bad grades, educational psychologists can use the clinical method. It will involve tracking the child’s history, family and health, and relationships with friends and family. The process generally starts with an assumption that is proved or disproved based on the data collected through case histories, interviews, visits to the home, etc.

The Developmental or Genetic Method

The developmental method of educational psychology believes the adult behavior of an individual is the more complex version of their childhood behavior and experiences. This method emphasizes that the reason behind the adult behavior pattern of an individual can be identified by investigating their childhood behavior and getting to the root. The study of the individual's history of behavior can help understand their learning behavior and understand the reason behind it.

Testing Method

The testing method of educational psychology involves conducting a variety of tests on individuals to determine their behavioral patterns. Psychological tests, educational tests, checklists, rating scales, and questionnaires are often used as significant methods of evaluating and investigating the individual’s behavior and personality.

Rating scales can be used by psychologists to find out if a student possesses a particular trait. Psychological tests can help identify the intellect of an individual and determine their aptitude towards certain subjects. These tests can shed light on the individual’s aptitude. Some schools and colleges are also using these tests to select candidates for educational programs.

Educational psychology shows how individuals learn and retain information. Methods of learning in psychology examine the unique approaches of each person. The aim is to enhance teaching processes by understanding learning mechanisms, teaching methods, and external factors influencing student learning.

What are the 6 Main Methods of Educational Psychology?

1. introspection:.

Introspection is a traditional method of self-observation where individuals reflect on their thoughts and feelings during activities such as recalling answers. Despite being unscientific and lacking verification, introspection provides valuable insights into human psychology and behaviour.

2. Observational Method:

The observational method entails an external observer noting behavioural patterns. This is one of the methods of learning in psychology too aids in forming generalizations about human behavior by identifying similarities in actions, speech, and facial expressions. However, a major challenge lies in the subject becoming aware of the observer's presence, which can influence their behaviour. Online platforms like Teachmint address this issue by providing unobtrusive observation opportunities.

3. Experimental Method:

The experimental method involves controlled experiments, manipulating variables to observe their impact on behaviour. While scientifically valid and providing verifiable results, this method is time-consuming and expensive. As a part of unskippable methods of educational psychology offers insights into controlled learning environments, making it applicable to educational psychology.

4. Clinical Method:

The clinical method, also known as a case study method, focuses on understanding the behaviour of specific individuals in methods of learning in psychology. Rather than seeking generalizations, it focuses on individual histories, relationships, and health to identify the root causes behind the behaviour. It is particularly useful for addressing specific problems faced by individuals.

5. Developmental or Genetic Method:

The developmental methods of educational psychology show that adult behaviour is a more complex version of childhood behaviour. By exploring childhood experiences, this method provides insights into adult behaviour patterns, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of learning patterns.

6. Testing Method:

The testing method involves conducting various assessments, including psychological tests, educational tests, checklists, rating scales, and questionnaires. These evaluations help investigate individual behaviour and personality, measuring traits, intellect, and aptitude. 

Methods of educational psychology don't work on their own, the right combination of each method applied with discipline can do wonders for students.

Wrapping up

Hope this article helped you understand what educational psychology is and what are the main methods of educational psychology. These methods can play an effective role in helping teachers improve classroom learning if applied correctly. Sometimes, students can feel shy or nervous to clarify their doubts in front of the entire class, which can affect their learning. The live chat features provided by online education platforms like Teachmint can make a huge difference for them. In addition to this, features like live polls also help teachers increase classroom engagement.

Teachmint helps schools envision a future where their students are equipped with 21st-century skills. With our advanced learning management system , you can improve the teaching-learning experience. Our offerings like education erp , admission management system, fee management system, and others conveniently digitize educational institutions.

Suggested Read: How to Study Effectively?

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6 The Introspective Method

• Published: July 2023
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This chapter puts forward a framework for assessing the use of introspection in scientific theorizing, based on the distinction between introspective access and introspective method. It demonstrates the value of the framework by applying it to elucidate and critically evaluate different scientific uses of introspection. Firstly, the chapter discusses past uses of introspection, focusing on central figures early German experimental psychology. Articulating their views in terms of the proposed framework brings to light the advanced and insightful state of debate among them and their recognition of the distinction between introspective access and method. Secondly, the chapter looks at the Perceptual Awareness Scale (PAS) in present-day science of consciousness. Applying the proposed framework, the chapter offers an historically informed critical appraisal of PAS. PAS’s main weakness involves proponents’ imprecision about the notion of introspection at work in it, rather than being subject to a generic worry about the use of introspection as such.

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6 Amazing Methods Of Educational Psychology You Must Know

• April 26, 2023

Table of Content

Educational psychology is the exploration of how individuals learn and remember information. There are different methods of educational psychology that helps in examining the different learning methods of individuals, as well as various teaching techniques and instructional processes. 

Educational psychologists investigate the learning processes of children and adolescents, considering external factors and behavioral aspects that may impact a student’s learning experience.

There are six main methods of educational psychology , which we will discuss in the following section.

Main methods of educational psychology

This scientific study involves the systematic investigation of human behavior, employing scientific methods to collect and organize information. There are many benefits of educational psychology . Understanding the methods of educational psychology  is equally important. This can help teachers to deal with their students at a better level and improve their teaching strategies accordingly. 

The primary objective of educational psychology is to enhance teaching methods and aid teachers in understanding how students learn. This field encourages the use of innovative learning techniques to improve education delivery in classrooms.

Here are six main methods of educational psychology that provide systematic, scientific, and consistent knowledge.

1. Introspection 

Introspection is a ‘self-observation methods of educational psychology where the prospect does a self-observation of his/her mental state and what are the experiences or thoughts that pass through the mind of the prospects in the given situation. 

For example, if you ask a student any question, the student will recall what he/she has learned or the concept they grasped and then answer the questions. All the concepts he/she recalled while they were thinking about the answer are self-observations. 

When a student remembers and thinks about something the feeling and thoughts they have are what they experienced in their mind. There are many advantages of this educational psychology method, as it can throw light on the mental state of an individual at a particular time.

This reflects on the mental experience of the individual. This method does not require any cost, laboratory, or apparatus. There are certain limitations to methods of educational psychology,  as this method’s outcomes, i.e., the observations of the prospects’ mental state, cannot be verified by any other person, and thus any unverified results are not considered scientific.

That results in making this an unscientific method. Apart from this, our immediate memory can be helpful in recalling, but that may affect the process that we want to study. Thus introspection becomes retrospection. These are some of the limitations of these methods of educational psychology. 

The different types through which introspection methods can be conducted are:

• Forms- where the observer or teacher, in the case of education, writes down their observations 
• Questionnaires- Using questionnaires is really helpful, and clear instructions can lead the good results as many questions directly focus on the retrospective process, which is a pure form of introspection. 

2. The observational method

One of the most popular methods of educational psychology is the observational method, also known as the ‘objective observation’ used for the collection of data. In this method, the behavior of the prospect is observed by another person. The behavioral changes may include bodily changes, gestures, expressions, speech, etc.

This method is more widely used by child psychologists, and they make a record of the observations. One of the major difficulties with this educational psychology method is that it becomes difficult for the observer to keep pace with the prospect.

Later on, this difficulty was solved with the help of type recording, stenographers, and photographic films. Apart from this, one problem that can directly influence the observations is the presence of the observer in the same room. In order to resolve this problem, single-sided screens and observation rooms are created.

In most child psychologist clinics, these rooms are available, but later on, the prospect gets used to the presence of the observer and will behave naturally. 

While using any method, there are always some precautions to be taken in order to have clear and accurate information. Some of such precautions are as follows: 

• The observer must have an objective attitude, and the observations should be free from personal bias and prejudices.
• Before the final conclusion has been made, one must have a number of observations of others in similar situations.
• We should put out observations with those made by others. 
• The observer must be able to differentiate between the observations and interpretations. 
• In order to have complete accuracy, observations made in a particular period of time should be evaluated on the basis of various aspects.

The observer must take observations in s defined period of time, and with all the observations, they can conclude after being evaluated in various situations and on different criteria. 

3. The experimental method

Experimental method in educational psychology has brought a big change in the psychology industry. The introduction of experimental methods has brought a lot of progress as it introduced different methods of memorization, what imagination is, mental fatigue, the factors that affect learning, the effects of giving children coaching for tests, the role of maturation, and other things. 

Experimentation is basically observation under controlled circumstances. Many scientists over time have conducted different experiments, such as Rice and Common conducted experiments on spelling achievements, Ebbinghaus conducted experiments on memory, and many others were done.

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An experiment consists of one independent variable and others as dependent variables. The biggest thing in an experiment is all the conditions that are occurring should be unchanged, constant, or controlled. 

There are many characteristics of an experiment that make these methods of educational psychology :

• It enables us to study behavior under controlled circumstances. 
• It can be repeated without any difficulties
• The results are reliable. 

There are certain steps to conduct an experiment, and those steps are:

• Statement of problem
• Formulation of hypothesis
• Creating the independent and dependent variable
• Controlling the conditions of the experiment
• Selection of experimental design
• Analysis of result
• Verification 
• Confirmation of the result as per the hypothesis

This is how an experiment can be conducted, and this can be really helpful for teachers to understand their students’ certain behaviors. There are certain limitations to this educational psychology method as well.

Such as the restriction of time and space, it being time-consuming, every variable cannot be controlled, artificial conditions, it being also little expensive, and other difficulties are there. 

4. The clinical method

The clinical method, also known as the case study method, is most used by psychiatrists and child psychologists. This method of educational psychology is very helpful when teachers want to understand why an individual student is behaving differently or isn’t able to score academically.

This educational psychology method is used to find the proximate cause or source of the problem, such as anxiety, depression, obsession, worries, or educational or vocational maladjustments. 

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The clinical method does not determine the behavior of an individual but rather in resolving one’s problem and helping them. Firstly the clinical investigator defines a hypothesis about the problem being faced by the prospect, and then data is collected on the basis of case studies, interviews, visits to psychological tests, home and school, and others.

In this case, history includes health history, family health history, family relations, and other parameters to understand what factors influence the personality of the prospect. 

The results of the clinical method may not have attained the accuracy of the experimental method but will give a new hypothesis that can be examined with the help of the experimental method. 

5. The genetic or developmental method

This study focuses on the change that occurs in the behavior over time. It assumes that understanding how a person acts as an adult involves studying how they acted when they were a child. This helps us understand how their behavior changes as they grow older.

We can also use this method to study how a person’s imagination, thinking, and reasoning develop over time. It helps us answer questions like: How do we become who we are? What do we get from our parents? How does this change as we grow up?

Does our thinking and behavior change as we get older? How do we learn to see and understand things?

This way, teachers can understand the behavioral change in the students, and with the help of case histories, teachers can help students. 

6. The testing method

Testing methods include different ways of measuring things like personality, behavior, and intelligence. Some of these methods are questionnaires, rating scales, and checklists.

Some people consider these last three methods to be different from testing methods and call them field investigation methods.

Questionnaires are like surveys that people fill out to describe their own thoughts or feelings. Rating scales and checklists are ways for observers to rate someone’s behavior or personality. They can give scores that show how much of a certain trait a person has.

This is one of the easiest ways for teachers to measure the behavior of their students. These tests are specially designed to measure the aptitude, achievements, personality traits, and intelligence of the students. 

Final Thoughts

Educational psychology is a very vast study subject, and its methods are really helpful in understanding the psychological behavior of students and helping them when they are dealing with tough times. In the article above we have talked about the 6 main methods of educational psychology and how they can be helpful for teachers. 

6 Amazing Methods Of Educational Psychology You Must Know FAQs

A1: The 6 main methods of educational psychology are observational, experimental, clinical, developmental, and testing methods. 

A2: Case study methods provide in-depth information about complex situations or behaviors that cannot be easily captured by other research methods.

A3. The most accurate and reliable method of educational psychology is the experimental method. 

A4: The oldest method of study in educational psychology is introspection.

A5: The method of educational psychology real than introspection is the Observational method. 

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Observation Method in Psychology: Naturalistic, Participant and Controlled

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

The observation method in psychology involves directly and systematically witnessing and recording measurable behaviors, actions, and responses in natural or contrived settings without attempting to intervene or manipulate what is being observed.

Used to describe phenomena, generate hypotheses, or validate self-reports, psychological observation can be either controlled or naturalistic with varying degrees of structure imposed by the researcher.

There are different types of observational methods, and distinctions need to be made between:

1. Controlled Observations 2. Naturalistic Observations 3. Participant Observations

In addition to the above categories, observations can also be either overt/disclosed (the participants know they are being studied) or covert/undisclosed (the researcher keeps their real identity a secret from the research subjects, acting as a genuine member of the group).

In general, conducting observational research is relatively inexpensive, but it remains highly time-consuming and resource-intensive in data processing and analysis.

The considerable investments needed in terms of coder time commitments for training, maintaining reliability, preventing drift, and coding complex dynamic interactions place practical barriers on observers with limited resources.

Controlled Observation

Controlled observation is a research method for studying behavior in a carefully controlled and structured environment.

The researcher sets specific conditions, variables, and procedures to systematically observe and measure behavior, allowing for greater control and comparison of different conditions or groups.

The researcher decides where the observation will occur, at what time, with which participants, and in what circumstances, and uses a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group.

Rather than writing a detailed description of all behavior observed, it is often easier to code behavior according to a previously agreed scale using a behavior schedule (i.e., conducting a structured observation).

The researcher systematically classifies the behavior they observe into distinct categories. Coding might involve numbers or letters to describe a characteristic or the use of a scale to measure behavior intensity.

The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be easily counted and turned into statistics.

For example, Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to study how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers. During the Strange Situation procedure, the infant’s interaction behaviors directed toward the mother were measured, e.g.,

• Proximity and contact-seeking
• Contact maintaining
• Avoidance of proximity and contact
• Resistance to contact and comforting

The observer noted down the behavior displayed during 15-second intervals and scored the behavior for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7.

Sometimes participants’ behavior is observed through a two-way mirror, or they are secretly filmed. Albert Bandura used this method to study aggression in children (the Bobo doll studies ).

A lot of research has been carried out in sleep laboratories as well. Here, electrodes are attached to the scalp of participants. What is observed are the changes in electrical activity in the brain during sleep ( the machine is called an EEG ).

Controlled observations are usually overt as the researcher explains the research aim to the group so the participants know they are being observed.

Controlled observations are also usually non-participant as the researcher avoids direct contact with the group and keeps a distance (e.g., observing behind a two-way mirror).

• Controlled observations can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability .
• The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyze as it is quantitative (i.e., numerical) – making this a less time-consuming method compared to naturalistic observations.
• Controlled observations are fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained, resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

Limitations

• Controlled observations can lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect /demand characteristics. When participants know they are being watched, they may act differently.

Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation is a research method in which the researcher studies behavior in its natural setting without intervention or manipulation.

It involves observing and recording behavior as it naturally occurs, providing insights into real-life behaviors and interactions in their natural context.

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists.

This technique involves observing and studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can.

In unstructured observations, the researcher records all relevant behavior with a coding system. There may be too much to record, and the behaviors recorded may not necessarily be the most important, so the approach is usually used as a pilot study to see what type of behaviors would be recorded.

Compared with controlled observations, it is like the difference between studying wild animals in a zoo and studying them in their natural habitat.

With regard to human subjects, Margaret Mead used this method to research the way of life of different tribes living on islands in the South Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study children at play by observing their behavior in a playgroup in Oxfordshire.

Collecting Naturalistic Behavioral Data

Technological advances are enabling new, unobtrusive ways of collecting naturalistic behavioral data.

The Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR) is a digital recording device participants can wear to periodically sample ambient sounds, allowing representative sampling of daily experiences (Mehl et al., 2012).

Studies program EARs to record 30-50 second sound snippets multiple times per hour. Although coding the recordings requires extensive resources, EARs can capture spontaneous behaviors like arguments or laughter.

EARs minimize participant reactivity since sampling occurs outside of awareness. This reduces the Hawthorne effect, where people change behavior when observed.

The SenseCam is another wearable device that passively captures images documenting daily activities. Though primarily used in memory research currently (Smith et al., 2014), systematic sampling of environments and behaviors via the SenseCam could enable innovative psychological studies in the future.

• By being able to observe the flow of behavior in its own setting, studies have greater ecological validity.
• Like case studies , naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation, it often suggests avenues of inquiry not thought of before.
• The ability to capture actual behaviors as they unfold in real-time, analyze sequential patterns of interactions, measure base rates of behaviors, and examine socially undesirable or complex behaviors that people may not self-report accurately.
• These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class, or ethnicity). This may result in the findings lacking the ability to generalize to wider society.
• Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it difficult for another researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way.
• Highly time-consuming and resource-intensive during the data coding phase (e.g., training coders, maintaining inter-rater reliability, preventing judgment drift).
• With observations, we do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous variables), meaning cause-and-effect relationships cannot be established.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a variant of the above (natural observations) but here, the researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives.

If it were research on animals , we would now not only be studying them in their natural habitat but be living alongside them as well!

Leon Festinger used this approach in a famous study into a religious cult that believed that the end of the world was about to occur. He joined the cult and studied how they reacted when the prophecy did not come true.

Participant observations can be either covert or overt. Covert is where the study is carried out “undercover.” The researcher’s real identity and purpose are kept concealed from the group being studied.

The researcher takes a false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the group.

On the other hand, overt is where the researcher reveals his or her true identity and purpose to the group and asks permission to observe.

• It can be difficult to get time/privacy for recording. For example, researchers can’t take notes openly with covert observations as this would blow their cover. This means they must wait until they are alone and rely on their memory. This is a problem as they may forget details and are unlikely to remember direct quotations.
• If the researcher becomes too involved, they may lose objectivity and become biased. There is always the danger that we will “see” what we expect (or want) to see. This problem is because they could selectively report information instead of noting everything they observe. Thus reducing the validity of their data.

Recording of Data

With controlled/structured observation studies, an important decision the researcher has to make is how to classify and record the data. Usually, this will involve a method of sampling.

In most coding systems, codes or ratings are made either per behavioral event or per specified time interval (Bakeman & Quera, 2011).

The three main sampling methods are:

Event-based coding involves identifying and segmenting interactions into meaningful events rather than timed units.

For example, parent-child interactions may be segmented into control or teaching events to code. Interval recording involves dividing interactions into fixed time intervals (e.g., 6-15 seconds) and coding behaviors within each interval (Bakeman & Quera, 2011).

Event recording allows counting event frequency and sequencing while also potentially capturing event duration through timed-event recording. This provides information on time spent on behaviors.

• Interval recording is common in microanalytic coding to sample discrete behaviors in brief time samples across an interaction. The time unit can range from seconds to minutes to whole interactions. Interval recording requires segmenting interactions based on timing rather than events (Bakeman & Quera, 2011).
• Instantaneous sampling provides snapshot coding at certain moments rather than summarizing behavior within full intervals. This allows quicker coding but may miss behaviors in between target times.

Coding Systems

The coding system should focus on behaviors, patterns, individual characteristics, or relationship qualities that are relevant to the theory guiding the study (Wampler & Harper, 2014).

Codes vary in how much inference is required, from concrete observable behaviors like frequency of eye contact to more abstract concepts like degree of rapport between a therapist and client (Hill & Lambert, 2004). More inference may reduce reliability.

Coding schemes can vary in their level of detail or granularity. Micro-level schemes capture fine-grained behaviors, such as specific facial movements, while macro-level schemes might code broader behavioral states or interactions. The appropriate level of granularity depends on the research questions and the practical constraints of the study.

Another important consideration is the concreteness of the codes. Some schemes use physically based codes that are directly observable (e.g., “eyes closed”), while others use more socially based codes that require some level of inference (e.g., “showing empathy”). While physically based codes may be easier to apply consistently, socially based codes often capture more meaningful behavioral constructs.

Most coding schemes strive to create sets of codes that are mutually exclusive and exhaustive (ME&E). This means that for any given set of codes, only one code can apply at a time (mutual exclusivity), and there is always an applicable code (exhaustiveness). This property simplifies both the coding process and subsequent data analysis.

For example, a simple ME&E set for coding infant state might include: 1) Quiet alert, 2) Crying, 3) Fussy, 4) REM sleep, and 5) Deep sleep. At any given moment, an infant would be in one and only one of these states.

Macroanalytic coding systems

Macroanalytic coding systems involve rating or summarizing behaviors using larger coding units and broader categories that reflect patterns across longer periods of interaction rather than coding small or discrete behavioral acts. 

Macroanalytic coding systems focus on capturing overarching themes, global qualities, or general patterns of behavior rather than specific, discrete actions.

For example, a macroanalytic coding system may rate the overall degree of therapist warmth or level of client engagement globally for an entire therapy session, requiring the coders to summarize and infer these constructs across the interaction rather than coding smaller behavioral units.

These systems require observers to make more inferences (more time-consuming) but can better capture contextual factors, stability over time, and the interdependent nature of behaviors (Carlson & Grotevant, 1987).

Examples of Macroanalytic Coding Systems:

• Emotional Availability Scales (EAS) : This system assesses the quality of emotional connection between caregivers and children across dimensions like sensitivity, structuring, non-intrusiveness, and non-hostility.
• Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) : Evaluates the quality of teacher-student interactions in classrooms across domains like emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support.

Microanalytic coding systems

Microanalytic coding systems involve rating behaviors using smaller, more discrete coding units and categories.

These systems focus on capturing specific, discrete behaviors or events as they occur moment-to-moment. Behaviors are often coded second-by-second or in very short time intervals.

For example, a microanalytic system may code each instance of eye contact or head nodding during a therapy session. These systems code specific, molecular behaviors as they occur moment-to-moment rather than summarizing actions over longer periods.

Microanalytic systems require less inference from coders and allow for analysis of behavioral contingencies and sequential interactions between therapist and client. However, they are more time-consuming and expensive to implement than macroanalytic approaches.

Examples of Microanalytic Coding Systems:

• Facial Action Coding System (FACS) : Codes minute facial muscle movements to analyze emotional expressions.
• Specific Affect Coding System (SPAFF) : Used in marital interaction research to code specific emotional behaviors.
• Noldus Observer XT : A software system that allows for detailed coding of behaviors in real-time or from video recordings.

Mesoanalytic coding systems

Mesoanalytic coding systems attempt to balance macro- and micro-analytic approaches.

In contrast to macroanalytic systems that summarize behaviors in larger chunks, mesoanalytic systems use medium-sized coding units that target more specific behaviors or interaction sequences (Bakeman & Quera, 2017).

For example, a mesoanalytic system may code each instance of a particular type of therapist statement or client emotional expression. However, mesoanalytic systems still use larger units than microanalytic approaches coding every speech onset/offset.

The goal of balancing specificity and feasibility makes mesoanalytic systems well-suited for many research questions (Morris et al., 2014). Mesoanalytic codes can preserve some sequential information while remaining efficient enough for studies with adequate but limited resources.

For instance, a mesoanalytic couple interaction coding system could target key behavior patterns like validation sequences without coding turn-by-turn speech.

In this way, mesoanalytic coding allows reasonable reliability and specificity without requiring extensive training or observation. The mid-level focus offers a pragmatic compromise between depth and breadth in analyzing interactions.

Examples of Mesoanalytic Coding Systems:

• Feeding Scale for Mother-Infant Interaction : Assesses feeding interactions in 5-minute episodes, coding specific behaviors and overall qualities.
• Couples Interaction Rating System (CIRS): Codes specific behaviors and rates overall qualities in segments of couple interactions.
• Teaching Styles Rating Scale : Combines frequency counts of specific teacher behaviors with global ratings of teaching style in classroom segments.

Preventing Coder Drift

Coder drift results in a measurement error caused by gradual shifts in how observations get rated according to operational definitions, especially when behavioral codes are not clearly specified.

This type of error creeps in when coders fail to regularly review what precise observations constitute or do not constitute the behaviors being measured.

Preventing drift refers to taking active steps to maintain consistency and minimize changes or deviations in how coders rate or evaluate behaviors over time. Specifically, some key ways to prevent coder drift include:

• Operationalize codes : It is essential that code definitions unambiguously distinguish what interactions represent instances of each coded behavior. 
• Ongoing training : Returning to those operational definitions through ongoing training serves to recalibrate coder interpretations and reinforce accurate recognition. Having regular “check-in” sessions where coders practice coding the same interactions allows monitoring that they continue applying codes reliably without gradual shifts in interpretation.
• Using reference videos : Coders periodically coding the same “gold standard” reference videos anchors their judgments and calibrate against original training. Without periodic anchoring to original specifications, coder decisions tend to drift from initial measurement reliability.
• Assessing inter-rater reliability : Statistical tracking that coders maintain high levels of agreement over the course of a study, not just at the start, flags any declines indicating drift. Sustaining inter-rater agreement requires mitigating this common tendency for observer judgment change during intensive, long-term coding tasks.
• Recalibrating through discussion : Having meetings for coders to discuss disagreements openly explores reasons judgment shifts may be occurring over time. Consensus on the application of codes is restored.
• Adjusting unclear codes : If reliability issues persist, revisiting and refining ambiguous code definitions or anchors can eliminate inconsistencies arising from coder confusion.

Essentially, the goal of preventing coder drift is maintaining standardization and minimizing unintentional biases that may slowly alter how observational data gets rated over periods of extensive coding.

Through the upkeep of skills, continuing calibration to benchmarks, and monitoring consistency, researchers can notice and correct for any creeping changes in coder decision-making over time.

Reducing Observer Bias

Observational research is prone to observer biases resulting from coders’ subjective perspectives shaping the interpretation of complex interactions (Burghardt et al., 2012). When coding, personal expectations may unconsciously influence judgments. However, rigorous methods exist to reduce such bias.

Coding Manual

A detailed coding manual minimizes subjectivity by clearly defining what behaviors and interaction dynamics observers should code (Bakeman & Quera, 2011).

High-quality manuals have strong theoretical and empirical grounding, laying out explicit coding procedures and providing rich behavioral examples to anchor code definitions (Lindahl, 2001).

Clear delineation of the frequency, intensity, duration, and type of behaviors constituting each code facilitates reliable judgments and reduces ambiguity for coders. Application risks inconsistency across raters without clarity on how codes translate to observable interaction.

Coder Training

Competent coders require both interpersonal perceptiveness and scientific rigor (Wampler & Harper, 2014). Training thoroughly reviews the theoretical basis for coded constructs and teaches the coding system itself.

Multiple “gold standard” criterion videos demonstrate code ranges that trainees independently apply. Coders then meet weekly to establish reliability of 80% or higher agreement both among themselves and with master criterion coding (Hill & Lambert, 2004).

Ongoing training manages coder drift over time. Revisions to unclear codes may also improve reliability. Both careful selection and investment in rigorous training increase quality control.

Blind Methods

To prevent bias, coders should remain unaware of specific study predictions or participant details (Burghardt et al., 2012). Separate data gathering versus coding teams helps maintain blinding.

Coders should be unaware of study details or participant identities that could bias coding (Burghardt et al., 2012).

Separate teams collecting data versus coding data can reduce bias.

In addition, scheduling procedures can prevent coders from rating data collected directly from participants with whom they have had personal contact. Maintaining coder independence and blinding enhances objectivity.

Data Analysis Approaches

Data analysis in behavioral observation aims to transform raw observational data into quantifiable measures that can be statistically analyzed.

It’s important to note that the choice of analysis approach is not arbitrary but should be guided by the research questions, study design, and nature of the data collected.

Interval data (where behavior is recorded at fixed time points), event data (where the occurrence of behaviors is noted as they happen), and timed-event data (where both the occurrence and duration of behaviors are recorded) may require different analytical approaches.

Similarly, the level of measurement (categorical, ordinal, or continuous) will influence the choice of statistical tests.

Researchers typically start with simple descriptive statistics to get a feel for their data before moving on to more complex analyses. This stepwise approach allows for a thorough understanding of the data and can often reveal unexpected patterns or relationships that merit further investigation.

simple descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics give an overall picture of behavior patterns and are often the first step in analysis.

• Frequency counts tell us how often a particular behavior occurs, while rates express this frequency in relation to time (e.g., occurrences per minute).
• Duration measures how long behaviors last, offering insight into their persistence or intensity.
• Probability calculations indicate the likelihood of a behavior occurring under certain conditions, and relative frequency or duration statistics show the proportional occurrence of different behaviors within a session or across the study.

These simple statistics form the foundation of behavioral analysis, providing researchers with a broad picture of behavioral patterns. 

They can reveal which behaviors are most common, how long they typically last, and how they might vary across different conditions or subjects.

For instance, in a study of classroom behavior, these statistics might show how often students raise their hands, how long they typically stay focused on a task, or what proportion of time is spent on different activities.

contingency analyses

Contingency analyses help identify if certain behaviors tend to occur together or in sequence.

• Contingency tables , also known as cross-tabulations, display the co-occurrence of two or more behaviors, allowing researchers to see if certain behaviors tend to happen together.
• Odds ratios provide a measure of the strength of association between behaviors, indicating how much more likely one behavior is to occur in the presence of another.
• Adjusted residuals in these tables can reveal whether the observed co-occurrences are significantly different from what would be expected by chance.

For example, in a study of parent-child interactions, contingency analyses might reveal whether a parent’s praise is more likely to follow a child’s successful completion of a task, or whether a child’s tantrum is more likely to occur after a parent’s refusal of a request.

These analyses can uncover important patterns in social interactions, learning processes, or behavioral chains.

sequential analyses

Sequential analyses are crucial for understanding processes and temporal relationships between behaviors.

• Lag sequential analysis looks at the likelihood of one behavior following another within a specified number of events or time units.
• Time-window sequential analysis examines whether a target behavior occurs within a defined time frame after a given behavior.

These methods are particularly valuable for understanding processes that unfold over time, such as conversation patterns, problem-solving strategies, or the development of social skills.

observer agreement

Since human observers often code behaviors, it’s important to check reliability . This is typically done through measures of observer agreement.

• Cohen’s kappa is commonly used for categorical data, providing a measure of agreement between observers that accounts for chance agreement.
• Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) : Used for continuous data or ratings.

Good observer agreement is crucial for the validity of the study, as it demonstrates that the observed behaviors are consistently identified and coded across different observers or time points.

advanced statistical approaches

As researchers delve deeper into their data, they often employ more advanced statistical techniques.

• For instance, an ANOVA might reveal differences in the frequency of aggressive behaviors between children from different socioeconomic backgrounds or in different school settings.
• This approach allows researchers to account for dependencies in the data and to examine how behaviors might be influenced by factors at different levels (e.g., individual characteristics, group dynamics, and situational factors).
• This method can reveal trends, cycles, or patterns in behavior over time, which might not be apparent from simpler analyses. For instance, in a study of animal behavior, time series analysis might uncover daily or seasonal patterns in feeding, mating, or territorial behaviors.

representation techniques

Representation techniques help organize and visualize data:

• Many researchers use a code-unit grid, which represents the data as a matrix with behaviors as rows and time units as columns.
• This format facilitates many types of analyses and allows for easy visualization of behavioral patterns.
• Standardized formats like the Sequential Data Interchange Standard (SDIS) help ensure consistency in data representation across studies and facilitate the use of specialized analysis software.
• Indeed, the complexity of behavioral observation data often necessitates the use of specialized software tools. Programs like GSEQ, Observer, and INTERACT are designed specifically for the analysis of observational data and can perform many of the analyses described above efficiently and accurately.

Bakeman, R., & Quera, V. (2017). Sequential analysis and observational methods for the behavioral sciences. Cambridge University Press.

Burghardt, G. M., Bartmess-LeVasseur, J. N., Browning, S. A., Morrison, K. E., Stec, C. L., Zachau, C. E., & Freeberg, T. M. (2012). Minimizing observer bias in behavioral studies: A review and recommendations. Ethology, 118 (6), 511-517.

Hill, C. E., & Lambert, M. J. (2004). Methodological issues in studying psychotherapy processes and outcomes. In M. J. Lambert (Ed.), Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (5th ed., pp. 84–135). Wiley.

Lindahl, K. M. (2001). Methodological issues in family observational research. In P. K. Kerig & K. M. Lindahl (Eds.), Family observational coding systems: Resources for systemic research (pp. 23–32). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Mehl, M. R., Robbins, M. L., & Deters, F. G. (2012). Naturalistic observation of health-relevant social processes: The electronically activated recorder methodology in psychosomatics. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74 (4), 410–417.

Morris, A. S., Robinson, L. R., & Eisenberg, N. (2014). Applying a multimethod perspective to the study of developmental psychology. In H. T. Reis & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2nd ed., pp. 103–123). Cambridge University Press.

Smith, J. A., Maxwell, S. D., & Johnson, G. (2014). The microstructure of everyday life: Analyzing the complex choreography of daily routines through the automatic capture and processing of wearable sensor data. In B. K. Wiederhold & G. Riva (Eds.), Annual Review of Cybertherapy and Telemedicine 2014: Positive Change with Technology (Vol. 199, pp. 62-64). IOS Press.

Traniello, J. F., & Bakker, T. C. (2015). The integrative study of behavioral interactions across the sciences. In T. K. Shackelford & R. D. Hansen (Eds.), The evolution of sexuality (pp. 119-147). Springer.

Wampler, K. S., & Harper, A. (2014). Observational methods in couple and family assessment. In H. T. Reis & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2nd ed., pp. 490–502). Cambridge University Press.

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Article contents

Self-observation in psychology.

• Donald V. Brown Jr. , Donald V. Brown Jr. CUNY Graduate Center, Department of Psychology
• Karyna Pryiomka Karyna Pryiomka CUNY Graduate Center, Department of Psychology
•  and  Joshua W. Clegg Joshua W. Clegg CUNY John Jay College of Criminal Justice, Department of Psychology
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.479
• Published online: 31 March 2020

Self-observation, an umbrella term for a number of methods associated with first-order accounts of mental activity (e.g. introspection) and first-person reporting, has been a part of psychology’s investigative procedures since the inception of the discipline. It remains an integral, albeit contested, tool for psychologists to use across essentially every sub-field. In areas such as phenomenology, memory research, psychological assessment, and ethnography, among others, self-observation has been deployed to access information not readily acquired through alternative methods. Other names for introspective methods include self-report, retrospection, inner perception, and self-reflection.

• self-observation
• introspection
• consciousness
• research methods
• retrospection
• self-report

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Psychology Discussion

Notes on psychology: definition, scope and methods.

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In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Meaning and Definitions of Psychology 2. Scope of Psychology 3. Methods.

Meaning and Definitions of Psychology:

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as verbal and facial expressions and movements.

Mental processes refer to all the internal and covert activity of our mind such as thinking, feeling and remembering. It is a scientific study because to study behaviour and mental processes, the psychologists use the scientific methods for understanding more precisely and accurately.

The word Psychology has its origin from two Greek words ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’ means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘study’. Thus literally, Psychology means ‘the study of soul’ or ‘science of soul’.

1. The first definition of the Psychology was the study of the soul:

The earliest attempts at defining Psychology owe their origin to the most mysterious and philosophical concept, namely that of soul. What is soul? How can it be studied? The inability to find clear answers to such questions led some ancient Greek philosophers to define psychology as the study of the mind.

2. In terms of the study of the mind:

Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, yet it also faced the same questions, namely what is mind? How can it be studied, etc. This definition was also rejected.

3. In terms of the study of consciousness:

The description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task of Psychology which is usually done by the instrument introspection—process of looking within.

This definition was also rejected on the grounds that:

(i) It could not include the study of the consciousness of animals.

(ii) It would not include subconscious and unconscious activities of mind.

(iii) The introspection method for the study proved that it is most subjective and unscientific method.

4. In terms of the study of behaviour:

The most modern and widely accepted definition of psychology even today, is the study of behaviour, both humans and animals.

5. William McDougall:

In his book An Outline of Psychology, “Psychology is a science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole”.

6. JB Watson:

Psychology is “the science of behaviour” (taking into account the human as well as animal behaviour).

7. NL Munn:

“Psychology is the science and the properly trained psychologist is a scientist, or at least a practitioner who uses scientific methods and information resulting from scientific investigations”.

Science is the body of systematized knowledge that is gathered by carefully observing and measuring events. The observation of events are systematized in various ways but mainly classifying them into categories and establishing general laws and principles to describe and predict events as accurately as possible. Psychology has these characteristics; it clearly belongs within the province of science.

Thus it is not simply enough to describe behaviour. Like any other science, psychology attempts to explain, predict, modify and ultimately improve the lives of people in the world in which they live.

By using scientific methods psychologists are able to find answers to questions about the nature of human behaviour that are far more valid and legitimate than those resulting from mere intention and speculation. The experiments and observations which are made can be repeated and verified by others because of its objectivity, reliability, validity and predictability which are the characteristics of basic science.

Scope of Psychology :

The field of psychology can be understood by various subfields of psychology making an attempt in meeting the goals of psychology.

1. Physiological Psychology:

In the most fundamental sense, human beings are biological organisms. Physiological functions and the structure of our body work together to influence our behaviour. Biopsychology is the branch that specializes in the area. Bio-psychologists may examine the ways in which specific sites in the brain which are related to disorders such as Parkinson’s disease or they may try to determine how our sensations are related to our behaviour.

2. Developmental Psychology:

Here the studies are with respect to how people grow and change throughout their life from prenatal stages, through childhood, adulthood and old age. Developmental psychologists work in a variety of settings like colleges, schools, healthcare centres, business centres, government and non-profit organizations, etc. They are also very much involved in studies of the disturbed children and advising parents about helping such children.

3. Personality Psychology:

This branch helps to explain both consistency and change in a person’s behaviour over time, from birth till the end of life through the influence of parents, siblings, playmates, school, society and culture. It also studies the individual traits that differentiate the behaviour of one person from that of another person.

4. Health Psychology:

This explores the relations between the psychological factors and physical ailments and disease. Health psychologists focus on health maintenance and promotion of behaviour related to good health such as exercise, health habits and discouraging unhealthy behaviours like smoking, drug abuse and alcoholism.

Health psychologists work in healthcare setting and also in colleges and universities where they conduct research. They analyse and attempt to improve the healthcare system and formulate health policies.

5. Clinical Psychology:

It deals with the assessment and intervention of abnormal behaviour. As some observe and believe that psychological disorders arise from a person’s unresolved conflicts and unconscious motives, others maintain that some of these patterns are merely learned responses, which can be unlearned with training, still others are contend with the knowledge of thinking that there are biological basis to certain psychological disorders, especially the more serious ones. Clinical psychologists are employed in hospitals, clinics and private practice. They often work closely with other specialists in the field of mental health.

6. Counselling Psychology:

This focuses primarily on educational, social and career adjustment problems. Counselling psychologists advise students on effective study habits and the kinds of job they might be best suited for, and provide help concerned with mild problems of social nature and strengthen healthy lifestyle, economical and emotional adjustments.

They make use of tests to measure aptitudes, interests and personality characteristics. They also do marriage and family counselling, provide strategies to improve family relations.

7. Educational Psychology:

Educational psychologists are concerned with all the concepts of education. This includes the study of motivation, intelligence, personality, use of rewards and punishments, size of the class, expectations, the personality traits and the effectiveness of the teacher, the student-teacher relationship, the attitudes, etc. It is also concerned with designing tests to evaluate student performance. They also help in designing the curriculum to make learning more interesting and enjoyable to children.

Educational psychology is used in elementary and secondary schools, planning and supervising special education, training teachers, counselling students having problems, assessing students with learning difficulties such as poor writing and reading skills and lack of concentration.

8. Social Psychology:

This studies the effect of society on the thoughts, feelings and actions of people. Our behaviour is not only the result of just our personality and predisposition. Social and environmental factors affect the way we think, say and do. Social psychologists conduct experiments to determine the effects of various groups, group pressures and influence on behaviour.

They investigate on the effects of propaganda, persuation, conformity, conflict, integration, race, prejudice and aggression. These investigations explain many incidents that would otherwise be difficult to understand. Social psychologists work largely in colleges and universities and also other organizations.

9. Industrial and Organizational Psychology:

The private and public organizations apply psychology to management and employee training, supervision of personnel, improve communication within the organization, counselling employees and reduce industrial disputes.

Thus we can say that in organizational and industrial sectors not only the psychological effects of working attitude of the employees are considered but also the physical aspects are given importance to make workers feel healthy.

10. Experimental Psychology:

It is the branch that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, thinking, etc. by using scientific methods. The outcome of the experimental psychology is cognitive psychology which focuses on studying higher mental processes including thinking, knowing, reasoning, judging and decision-making. Experimental psychologists often do research in lab by frequently using animals as their experimental subjects.

11. Environmental Psychology:

It focuses on the relationships between people and their physical and social surroundings. For example, the density of population and its relationship with crime, the noise pollution and its harmful effects and the influence of overcrowding upon lifestyle, etc.

12. Psychology of Women:

This concentrates on psychological factors of women’s behaviour and development. It focuses on a broad range of issues such as discrimination against women, the possibility of structural differences in the brain of men and women, the effect of hormones on behaviour, and the cause of violence against women, fear of success, outsmarting nature of women with respect to men in various accomplishments.

13. Sports and Exercise Psychology:

It studies the role of motivation in sport, social aspects of sport and physiological issues like importance of training on muscle development, the coordination between eye and hand, the muscular coordination in track and field, swimming and gymnastics.

14. Cognitive Psychology:

It has its roots in the cognitive outlook of the Gestalt principles. It studies thinking, memory, language, development, perception, imagery and other mental processes in order to peep into the higher human mental functions like insight, creativity and problem-solving. The names of psychologists like Edward Tolman and Jean Piaget are associated with the propagation of the ideas of this school of thought.

Methods of Psychology :

Psychologists use many scientific methods for research purposes to understand various psychological issues more scientifically. These scientific methods reduce bias and errors in understanding various behavioural aspects.

The relevance of these scientific methods extends beyond testing and evaluating theories and hypotheses in psychology. Though there are many such methods used by psychologists, each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Some of the important methods are:

a. Introspection method

b. Observation method

c. Experimental method

d. Case study method

e. Questionnaire method

f. Interview method

g. Survey method

A. Introspection Method :

Introspection or self-observation may be considered as a old method but it is something we are doing almost constantly in our everyday life. Introspection is a method of studying the consciousness in which the subjects report on their subjective experiences. It is a method that requires long and difficult training. It gives in-depth information about the individual.

In introspection, the subject is taught to achieve a state of “focused attention” in which he can closely observe his own conscious experiences. He will be able to report the smallest possible elements of awareness. Thus the goal of introspection is to learn about the basic building blocks of experience and the principles by which they combine to give us our everyday consciousness.

Limitations:

1. It is not possible to observe one’s own behaviour and at the same time experience it. If such an attempt is made, the experience disappears. Thus the subject has to depend upon memory which itself may be subject to distortions, omissions and commissions.

2. The results obtained from introspection are subjective and so lack scientific validity. They cannot be verified and have to be accepted at face value.

3. The method cannot be used to study children, animals, insane people, feeble­minded and those who are not good at verbal expression.

4. Because experiences are unique, they cannot be repeated and so introspection cannot be repeated.

5. Many experiences are either partly or wholly unconscious and cannot be observed consciously and analyzed.

6. All experiences cannot be verbalized.

B. Observation Method:

This is the most commonly used method especially in relation to behavioural science, though observation as such is common in everyday occurrences, scientific observations are formulated in research places. It is systematically planned, recorded and is subjected to check and control its validity and reliability.

In this method we not only ask the subject to report his experiences but also gather information by direct observation of overt behaviour. When observations are carried out under standardized conditions they should be observed with a careful understanding of the units, that is the style of recording observed information and the selection of dependent or related data of observation concerned, then it is called structured observation. But when observation takes place without these consideration it is called unstructured observation.

Structured observation is useful in descriptive studies, while unstructured observation is useful in exploratory studies. Another way of classifying observation is that of participant and non-participant types of observation. In participant observation the observer makes himself a member of the group which is being observed.

In non-participant observation the observer detaches himself from the group that is being observed. Sometimes, it so happens that the observer may observe in such a way that his presence is unknown to the people he is observing. This is called disguised observation.

The method of participant observation has a number of advantages, the researcher can record natural behaviour of the group and he can gather information which cannot be easily obtained; if he stays outside the group, and also he can verify the truth of statements made by the subjects in the context of schedule or questionnaires.

The other way of classifying observation is that of controlled and uncontrolled observations:

a. Uncontrolled observation:

It is that which takes place in natural setting. Here no attempt is made to use precautional instruments or methods. Here the major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life of the persons.

b. Controlled observation:

In this, behaviour is observed according to definite pre­arranged plans involving experimental procedure. Here mechanical or precision instruments are used to aid accuracy and standardization. This provides formulized data upon which generalizations can be built with considerable accuracy. Generally, controlled observation takes place in various experiments which are carried out in labs under controlled conditions.

1. It is expensive with respect to time and money.

2. The information’s provided by this method is very less or limited.

3. Sometimes, unforeseen factors may interfere with observation.

1. If observation is done accurately, subjective bias is eliminated.

2. The information obtained under this method relates to current happenings. Either past behaviours or future intensions, do not complicate it.

3. This method is independent of the subject willingness to respond and so does not require active participation of the subject. Because of this, the method is especially suitable to subjects which are not capable of giving verbal reports of their thoughts and feelings.

Naturalistic observation method which is the systematic study of behaviour in natural settings, can be used to study the behaviour of animals which are in wild or in captivity. Psychologists use naturalistic observation whenever people happen to be at home, on playgrounds, in classrooms and offices.

In observation method of studies, it is important to count or measure the behaviour. Careful record-keeping ensures accuracy and allows different observers to crosscheck their observations. Crosschecking is necessary to make sure that observations are reliable or consistent from person to person.

C. Experimental Method :

The experimental method is most often used in laboratory. This is the method of observation of the behaviour or the ability of the individual under controlled condition or fixed circumstances. It is the performing of an experiment that is a tightly controlled and highly structured observation of variables.

The experimental method allows researchers to infer causes. An experiment aims to investigate a relationship between two or more factors by deliberately producing a change in one factor and observing its effect on other factors. The person who conducts the experiment is called the experimenter and the one who is being observed is called the subject.

An experiment begins with a problem. Problem is the relationship which experimenter wishes to study between two or more variables. Then a hypothesis is formed; it is a suggested answer to the problem under investigation, based on the knowledge that existing in the field of study. To test the hypothesis, relationship between variables is examined. Variables are the factors that can change.

There will be two variables. An independent variable is a variable that the experimenter selects. He can control this variable according to the requirements of the experiment. The dependent variable is the factor that varies with the change in the independent variable that is subject’s behaviour.

Experimenters will not wait for the behaviour to occur in nature rather the behaviour will be created in situation by presenting a stimuli to the organism. The behaviour that occurs will be co-related with the stimulus.

From this, it is possible to predict the nature and types of response or responses that may occur to a given stimulus. The changes observed in the dependent variable may be influenced by a number of factors. To establish a clear-cut relationship between a stimulus and response, all other possible influences must be eliminated.

Conditions of Experimental Study:

a. The control group

b. The experimental group.

If experiment has to be successful, the subjects (patients/clients) must be selected carefully. This is called sampling. A random sample is one where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. When this is not the case, the sample is said to be biased sample (manipulated). A random sample of entire population is not always necessary or even desirable.

For instance, an experimenter may begin by conducting experiment on a particular population and then repeat the experiment on broader or more representative samples. Once the experiment has been conducted, the results have to be summarized and a conclusion drawn.

a. Control group provides a base line against which the performance of experimental group can be composed.

b. The group that receives the experimental treatment is called the experimental group (The group that receives no treatment is called the control group).

1. The situation in which the behaviour is studied is always an artificial one.

2. Complete control of the extraneous variables is not possible.

3. All types of behaviour cannot be experimented.

4. Experimental method requires a laboratory and is expensive.

5. We cannot accumulate information from abnormal people using this method.

1. The results are clear and straight forward.

2. The results are usually expressed in terms of numbers which makes it convenient for comparison of performance and analysis.

3. The experiment can be replicated by other researches and verified.

4. Highly dependable cause-effect relationships can be established.

D. Case Study (History) Method:

It is a detailed description of a particular individual. It may be based on careful observation or formal psychological testing. It may include information about the person’s childhood dreams, fantasies, experiences, relationships and hopes that throw light into the person’s behaviour.

Case studies depend on client’s memories of the past and such memories are highly reliable to understand the problems. As case studies focus on individuals, so we cannot generalize about human behaviour.

E. Questionnaire Method :

Questionnaire is an instrument of data collection. It is a method of data collection through which both qualitative as well as quantitative data can be collected by formulating a set of interrelated questions.

A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order, one set of forms to which the respondents are supposed to answer unaided, by writing the answers in the space provided for the purpose. Where this questionnaire is mailed to the respondents instead of directly administering it is called a mailed questionnaire.

This method of data collection is especially popular when large scale enquiries have to be made. The questionnaire is sent to the person concerned with a request to answer the questions. It consists of a number of questions printed in a definite order which the respondents have to answer. It is considered as the heart of survey operation. In order to construct a good comprehensive questionnaire, some points have to be kept in mind.

1. The general form

2. The question sequence

3. Question formulation and wording.

1. The general form:

This refers to whether the questionnaire is ‘unstructured’ or ‘structured’. Questionnaire which include definite, concrete and predetermined questions and highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are specified and comments by the respondents are held to the minimum.

In an unstructured questionnaire the researcher is presented with a general guide on the type of information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is not set. Thus the structured questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyze.

2. The question sequence:

In order to make a questionnaire effective the question sequence must be clear and should have smooth flow. The relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent.

The first few questions are particularly important, because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent. Questions which are causing very much strain on the memory, personal questions and questions related to personal wealth, etc. should be avoided.

3. Question formulation and wording:

Each question must be clear because any kind of misunderstanding can harm the survey. Questions must be impartial and constructed to the study, the true state of affairs. They should be simple, easily understood and concrete. They should convey only one thought at a time. They should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking.

1. The method can only be used when respondents are literate and cooperative.

2. The questionnaire is not flexible because there is no possibility of changing the questions to suit the situation.

3. There is possibility of ambiguous responses or omission of responses to some questions.

4. Interpretation of omissions is difficult.

5. It is difficult to know whether the sample is really representative.

1. When the sample is large, the questionnaire method is economical.

2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer.

3. Respondents have adequate time to give well though-out answers.

4. Large samples can be used and so the results can be made dependable and reliable.

F. Interview Method :

This involves collection of data by having a direct verbal communication between two people. Personal interviews are popular but telephone interviews can also be conducted as well. This method is also called face to face method.

In personal interviews an interviewer asks questions generally in a face to face contact with the person being interviewed. In direct personal interview, the investigator collects information directly from the sources concerned. This has to be used when intensive investigation is required.

But in some cases, an indirect examination is conducted where the interviewer cross-examines other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation. This is used where ever it is not possible to directly contact the required person to be interviewed.

Types of Interview:

a. Structured interview involves the use of predetermined questions and standardized techniques of recording. The interviewer follows a rigid procedure asking questions in a framed prescribed order.

b. Unstructured interview is flexible in its approach to questioning. Here it does not follow the system of predetermined questions and standardized techniques of recording the data. Here the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask supplementary questions or to omit some questions if required and he may change the sequence of questions.

He also has a freedom while recording responses, whether to include some aspects and exclude others. This may lead to lack of comparability and also difficult in analyzing the responses.

Other types of interviews are:

i. Focused interview

ii. Clinical interview

iii. Non-directive interview.

i. Focused interview:

In focused interviews the attention is paid on a given experience, and its effects on the respondent. This is generally used in developing the hypotheses and constitutes a major type of unstructured interview.

ii. Clinical interview:

In clinical interviews concern is given to the feelings or motivations of individuals life experiences. Here the interviewer simply encourages the respondent to talk about the given topic with a minimum of direct questioning.

iii. Non-directive interview:

The researcher acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the subject’s feelings, belief and of the frame, of reference within which such feelings which are expressed by the subjects personal significance.

1. It is a very expensive method.

2. Interviewer bias as well as respondents bias may operate while gathering information.

3. Certain types of respondents may not be available for interviews.

4. This method is relatively time consuming.

5. Because the interviewer is present on the spot, the respondent may become overstimulated and give imaginary information just to make the interview more interesting.

6. Selecting, training and supervising the field staff is very complex.

Advantages:

1. More information about the subject can be obtained in greater depth. The interviewer can obtain a perfect idea about the subject through other means of assessing. As the person is directly accessible he can use other means of communication to assess the individual.

2. First hand information can be collected about the subject’s background, economic and educational considerations.

3. The overall personal aspect of an individual can also be assessed.

G. Survey Method :

This method involves in asking large numbers of individuals to complete the given questionnaires or through interviews by interviewing people directly about their experiences, attitudes or opinions.

That is for example, survey on healthcare reform, or economic reform, voting preferences prior to elections, consumer reactions to various products, health practices, public opinion and complaints with safety regulations and so on. Surveys are often repeated over long period of time in order to trace the shifts in public opinion. Surveys can provide highly accurate prediction when conducted carefully.

H. Testing Method:

This method makes use of carefully devised and standardized tests for measuring attitudes, interest, achievement, intelligence and personality traits. Intelligence tests measure the intellectual capacity of an individual and achievement tests through light on achievement of student in various subjects they are studying.

So by adopting all these methods, psychology collects information about behaviour, which helps us to study the behaviour systematically. There are the different methods used in psychology to study the behaviour.

Related Articles:

• Notes on Educational Psychology: Nature, Scope and Methods
• 7 Methods of Studying Human Behaviour
• Educational Psychology (Notes)
• Educational Psychology: Meaning, Scope and Methods

Notes , Psychology , Introduction to Psychology

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Philosophy of Science

Michael Roche

A common way of testing the inner sense theory of introspection exploits the possibility of damage to inner sense. Such damage is expected to lead to first-personal deficits/impairments of one kind or another. I raise various problems for this way of testing the theory. The main difficulty, I argue, stems from the existence of the method subserving confabulation.

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This paper examines the meaning and evidential role of reports of introspection in cognitive psychology. A theory of scientific introspection aims to detail the nature, scope and limits of reports of subjective experience in science. Introspective reports best function as experimental data when combined with objective methods of stimulus control and the more recent, developing methods of brain scanning and brain imaging—which are having a invigorating effect on both theory and experimental practice. Introspection has been controversial and variously conceived in the history of psychology: sometimes endorsed as central and crucial to scientific psychology and sometimes rejected outright as subjective. Introspective methods were very prominent in the structuralist origins of experimental psychology, and also important in the origins of functional psychology; but it was subsequently rejected or minimized by the dominant behaviorism of the twentieth century. In common usage, “introspective” often means “reflective,” and related practices may take on broad significance in personal life. This popular (or philosophical) meaning occasionally intrudes problematically into scientific discourse. In particular it tends to license undue confidence in stand-alone introspection. In Wilhelm Wundt’s experimental psychology, emphasis was placed on “stimulus control.” Reports of introspection were regarded as scientifically useful only if the experimentalist could control the sensory stimulus. This effectively limited experimental introspection to situations corresponding to ordinary reports of perceptual observation (though it is reasonably, if carefully extended in particular experimental designs). On the other hand, competing conceptions of introspection extended it to include unchecked, unfalsifiable and poorly replicated results. There has been a modest return of introspection in recent cognitive psychology—chiefly supplemented by techniques of brain imaging and brain scanning. As will be argued, this combination with objective methods is needed; and it will be briefly argued that some account will also be needed of the semantics of the descriptions of conscious contents.

RoSE – Research on Steiner Education

Johannes Wagemann

Philosophy Compass

Philip Robbins

Renee Smith

A perceptual theory of introspection is one that treats introspection as a species of perception or as a special case of perception. Additionally, a perceptual theory of introspection is one for which introspection shares at least some of the essential features of perception. However, I will show that there are certain essential features of perception that introspection lacks. Moreover, those features common to perception and introspection are insufficient to distinguish perception from belief. Thus, there is good reason to deny that introspection fits a perceptual model of introspection. A perceptual theory of introspection is one that treats introspection as a species of perception or as a special case of perception. While introspection and perception are dissimilar in certain respects, a perceptual theory of introspection will be based on certain fundamental similarities between them. What I take to be an essential feature of any perceptual theory of introspection is that it takes perception to be a basic mental state, one irreducible to some other mental state. This feature rules out treating perception as a species of belief (what Dretske has called a cognitivist theory of perception) and then likening introspection to perception on the basis that it, too, is a species of belief. This latter view of introspection would be classified as a non-perceptual theory of introspection because while it does reduce introspection to perception, it goes on to reduce perception to belief. A perceptual theory of introspection, in addition to taking perception to be a basic mental state, is one for which introspection shares at least some of the essential features of perception. I will show, however, that there are certain essential features of perception that introspection lacks. In addition, those features common to perception and introspection are insufficient to distinguish perception from belief. Thus, there is good reason to deny that introspection fits a perceptual model of introspection.

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Introspection

December 20, 2023

Delve into the world of introspection, understanding its role in self-awareness and personal growth, and strategies for effective self-reflection.

Main, P. (2023, December 20). Introspection. Retrieved from www.structural-learning.com/post/introspection

What is Introspection?

Introspection is the process of looking inward to examine one's own thoughts and feelings . It involves self-examination and reflection on one's mental state and inner experiences. Introspection is a key aspect of many psychological theories and frameworks, as it allows individuals to gain insight into their own behaviors and make sense of their emotions and motivations.

This process is often used in therapy and counseling to help individuals gain a better understanding of themselves and their experiences. Additionally, introspection plays a role in understanding cognitive processes and decision-making, as individuals can reflect on their own thought processes and biases.

Ultimately, introspection is a valuable tool for self-discovery and self-awareness, and it plays a significant role in the field of psychology.

Within this article, we will explore the history and future directions of this fascinating phenomena.

Historical Overview of Introspection

Introspection has a rich historical origin. In Eastern Christianity, the practice of self-reflection and examination of conscience dates back to the early centuries of the Church. Monastic traditions emphasized the importance of introspection as a means of spiritual growth and self-improvement.

In ancient Greece , philosophers such as Socrates and Plato also promoted introspection as a means of gaining self-knowledge and understanding the human condition. During the Enlightenment period, thinkers like René Descartes and John Locke advanced the idea of introspection as a way to understand the mind and consciousness.

In modern psychological sciences, introspection has found new applications, allowing individuals to gain insight into their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors . The significance of introspection in the development of human thought cannot be understated, as it has contributed to the understanding of the self and human nature.

Furthermore, the practice of introspection has been shown to provide benefits for problem-solving and mental health, allowing individuals to gain a deeper understanding of their own thoughts and emotions. Overall, the historical origins and modern application of introspection highlight its enduring significance in human understanding and well-being .

The Role of Introspection in Personal Growth and Self-Awareness

Introspection is crucial in fostering personal growth and self-awareness. Through introspection, individuals can reflect on their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, leading to a deeper understanding of themselves and their motivations. Research has shown that introspection can lead to increased emotional control and actionable insights, as individuals become more aware of their own thought patterns and can recognize and address harmful or unproductive behaviors.

Effective methods for introspection include mindfulness meditation, journaling, and seeking feedback from others. These practices allow individuals to observe their thoughts and emotions without judgment, leading to greater self-awareness and the ability to make positive changes in their lives.

The benefits of introspection are numerous, including improved decision-making, better relationships, and increased mental well-being. However, there are potential pitfalls to avoid, such as rumination and self-criticism. It is important to engage in introspection with a balanced and compassionate mindset, in order to avoid negative effects on mental health .

In summary, introspection is important for personal growth and self-awareness, as it leads to useful insights and improved emotional control.

By utilizing effective methods and being mindful of potential pitfalls, individuals can reap the benefits of introspection in their journey towards self-improvement.

Mental Processes and Experiences

In the field of psychology, mental processes and experiences encompass a wide range of phenomena that shape our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. These processes involve the intricate workings of the mind and play a crucial role in understanding human cognition and behavior.

In this brief overview, we will explore key aspects of mental processes and experiences, including perception, memory, language, and consciousness.

Mental Processes:

Mental processes refer to the internal, often unconscious , activities of the mind that enable individuals to perceive, think, and solve problems. These processes involve various cognitive functions such as attention, perception, memory, language, and decision-making.

Understanding these processes is crucial for unraveling the complexities of human thought and behavior , and has a significant impact on many areas of psychology, including cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and clinical psychology.

Experiences:

Human experiences encompass a diverse range of phenomena, including thoughts, emotions, sensations, and perceptions. These subjective experiences play a vital role in shaping individuals' perceptions of the world around them and their interactions with others .

From the intricacies of consciousness to the emotional rollercoaster of everyday life, our experiences provide valuable insights into the human mind and our understanding of psychological phenomena such as stress, emotion, and perception. Understanding these experiences is crucial for gaining insight into human behavior and mental well-being.

Types of Mental Processes

Introspection can aid in examining these mental processes. By taking the time to reflect on our thoughts and feelings, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves and our inner workings. This self-reflection can bring about personal and professional benefits.

Injecting healthy introspection into our daily lives can contribute to improved mental health and decision-making. It allows us to gain insight into our emotions and thought patterns, leading to better coping mechanisms and increased self-awareness.

Despite our busy lives, making time for introspection is crucial. It provides an opportunity for self-growth and self-improvement. By dedicating time to reflect on our mental processes , we can better understand ourselves and make more informed decisions. Therefore, it is important to prioritize introspection for the betterment of our mental well-being and overall quality of life.

Types of Mental Experiences

Mental experiences encompass a wide range of symptoms and experiences, including anxiety, depression, and stress. Symptoms of anxiety may include feelings of nervousness or restlessness, increased heart rate, and trouble concentrating. Common triggers for anxiety can include social situations, work or school pressures, or even specific phobias. Anxiety can impact daily life by causing difficulty in social interactions , insomnia, and potentially leading to panic attacks.

Symptoms of depression may include feelings of sadness or hopelessness, lack of interest in activities, and changes in appetite or sleep patterns. Common triggers for depression can include traumatic events , loss, or chronic illness. Depression can impact daily life by causing difficulties in relationships, work performance, and engaging in self-care activities.

Symptoms of stress may include irritability, difficulty relaxing, and headaches or muscle tension. Common triggers for stress can include work deadlines, financial problems, or major life changes. Stress can impact daily life by causing fatigue, changes in appetite, and can lead to the development of other mental health issues.

These mental experiences can have a significant impact on daily life, making it important to seek support and treatment when experiencing these symptoms.

9 Techniques for Introspection

As we have seen, introspection, the art of examining one's own thoughts and feelings, is a powerful tool for understanding conscious experiences and enhancing self-awareness . The techniques we present here are designed to deepen your introspective awareness, allowing you to explore the intricate layers of your sensory experiences and conscious awareness.

Engaging in this introspective process not only illuminates your inner world but also helps in identifying and transforming negative attitudes that might hinder personal growth. These practical methods serve as a guide to navigate the complexities of your mind, offering a pathway to a more insightful and self-aware existence.

1. Mindfulness: By intentionally focusing on the present moment without judgment, individuals can gain insights into their thoughts and feelings, leading to greater self-awareness and understanding of their inner workings.

2. Self-monitoring: This technique involves observing and keeping track of one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in different situations, helping individuals identify patterns and triggers that contribute to their inner thought processes.

3. Observation without judgment: By simply observing one's thoughts and feelings without attaching judgment or interpretation, individuals can gain a clearer understanding of their inner workings and thought processes, leading to greater self-reflection and self-assessment.

4. Journaling: Keeping a journal can help individuals explore and understand their inner thoughts and feelings, aiding in self-reflection and self-assessment .

5. Meditation: Practicing meditation allows individuals to quiet the mind and observe their thoughts without getting caught up in them, leading to insights into their inner workings and thought processes.

6. Self-questioning: Asking oneself probing questions can lead to deeper self-reflection and insight into one's inner thought processes and motivations.

7. Self-observation: Actively observing one's behaviors and reactions can provide insights into their inner workings and thought processes, aiding in self-reflection and self-assessment.

8. Emotional regulation: By learning to regulate and manage emotions, individuals can gain a better understanding of their inner thought processes and how they are influenced by their emotions.

9. Seeking feedback: Asking for feedback from others can provide insights into one's inner workings and thought processes from an external perspective, aiding in self-reflection and self-assessment.

Introspection in Cognitive Sciences and Psychology

The self-reflection of introspection is essential for gaining insight into how the mind works and how individuals perceive and interpret the world around them. In psychology, introspection has historically been a central tool for understanding human consciousness and subjective experiences.

It has been used in various psychological theories and research methodologies to explore the inner workings of the mind. This sectiion will explore the role of introspection across both cognitive sciences and psychology, as well as its significance in understanding human cognition and behavior.

Model of Introspection in Cognitive Sciences

The method of introspection was first introduced by Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of structuralism, in the late 19th century. Structuralists believed that the mind could be broken down into its basic components through introspective analysis.

However, the usefulness and validity of introspection as a scientific method was soon challenged by the functionalists, who argued that it was too subjective and unreliable. The Gestalt psychologists also rejected the notion of breaking down mental processes into isolated components, instead emphasizing the importance of studying the mind as a whole.

Today, introspection remains a key tool in cognitive sciences, particularly in understanding emotions and thoughts for mental health and well-being. Therapists use introspection to help clients explore their own inner experiences, assess their emotional state, and gain insight into their behavior. In research, introspection is also used to gather data on cognitive processes and subjective experiences.

Overall, while the historical use of introspection has been contested, its role in understanding mental health and cognitive processes in cognitive sciences remains crucial.

Model of Introspection in Experimental Psychology

The model of introspection in experimental psychology, pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt in the late 19th century, holds historical significance as one of the first systematic attempts to study human consciousness and mental processes. Introspection as a method involves the examination and reporting of one's conscious thoughts and experiences, often in response to a stimulus.

Proponents of introspection, including Wundt and his student Edward Titchener, believed that it provided valuable insight into the structure of the mind. However, opponents such as John Watson and the behaviorists argued that introspection was too subjective and unreliable to be a scientific method.

Despite its controversy, introspection has been used as a method of inquiry in psychology, particularly in the early development of the field. While it eventually fell out of favor in mainstream psychology, its impact on the field's development cannot be overstated. The introspective approach laid the foundation for the study of mental processes and ultimately contributed to the emergence of cognitive psychology.

In summary, the model of introspection in experimental psychology has played a pivotal role in the history and development of the field, despite its early proponents and opponents.

Role of Introspection in Cognitive Psychology

Introspection, a method of examining one's own conscious thoughts and feelings, has played a significant role in the development of cognitive psychology. In the early 20th century, introspection was a key method used by structuralist psychologists such as Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener to study mental processes like perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving. However, introspection fell out of favor due to its subjective nature and lack of scientific rigor.

Despite its limitations, introspection has made a comeback in cognitive psychology, particularly in the study of phenomena that are difficult to observe directly. For example, researchers use introspective methods to study the subjective experience of perception and attention. In recent years, advances in neuroscience have allowed for the integration of introspective reports with physiological measures, providing a more nuanced understanding of cognitive processes.

While introspection has its challenges and limitations, it has significantly influenced the field of cognitive psychology and provided valuable insights into human cognition. The use of introspective methods continues to be an important tool for studying mental processes and understanding the complexities of human cognition.

Role of Introspection in Character Traits Formation

Introspection plays a crucial role in understanding and developing character traits. In psychological research, introspection allows individuals to examine their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, leading to a deeper understanding of oneself. For example, through introspection, individuals can identify the underlying reasons for their negative emotions, such as fear, anger, or sadness. This self-awareness is essential for managing and regulating emotions , ultimately leading to the development of positive character traits.

In therapy, introspection is used to help individuals explore their emotional experiences and thought patterns. By reflecting on their inner experiences, individuals can gain insight into their behavior and make positive changes. For instance, someone may use introspection to uncover the root cause of their self-doubt, leading to the development of self-confidence and resilience .

Ultimately, introspection is essential for understanding and managing emotions, which in turn shapes an individual's character traits. Through introspection, individuals can gain a better understanding of themselves, leading to personal growth and the development of positive character traits such as empathy, resilience, and self-awareness.

7 Influences of Introspection on Mental Health

Introspection, a critical component of Self-Knowledge Philosophy , profoundly impacts mental health. Engaging in this process not only deepens our understanding of ourselves but also shapes our emotional and psychological well-being. Here, we explore seven key ways introspection influences mental health:

• Deepened Introspective Awareness : Introspection cultivates a heightened sense of introspective awareness, allowing for a more profound grasp of one's emotions, thoughts, and actions. This deep understanding fosters enhanced self-awareness, crucial for mental health insight.
• Emotional Regulation and Balance : The introspective process aids in identifying emotional triggers, promoting introspective access to strategies for managing and balancing emotions. This leads to better emotional regulation, a cornerstone of mental well-being.
• Refined Self-Understanding : Through introspection, individuals unearth patterns in their thoughts and behaviors. This introspective belief in self-understanding is instrumental in recognizing personal needs , significantly impacting mental health.
• Overcoming Negative Attitudes and Cognitive Distortions : Introspection helps in identifying and rectifying negative attitudes and false beliefs. Challenging these cognitive distortions paves the way for a more balanced and positive mindset, enhancing mental health.
• Behavioral Transformation : Reflecting introspectively on actions and motivations enables individuals to pinpoint areas for personal growth. Such behavior changes are pivotal in advancing mental well-being.
• Stress Alleviation through Conscious Experiences : Gaining insight into stress sources via introspection, and developing coping mechanisms, can markedly reduce stress levels. This process leverages conscious experiences to bolster mental health.
• Augmented Overall Well-being : The philosophy of introspection leads to increased happiness, fulfillment, and overall well-being. By gaining deeper self-insight and understanding, introspection contributes to a more enriching life experience.

Introspection vs. External Feedback

The process of introspection allows individuals to gain insight into their inner experiences and understand their own cognitive processes. On the other hand, external feedback refers to receiving input and information from outside sources, such as feedback from peers, mentors, or objective measures like test scores.

Benefits of introspection include gaining self-awareness, identifying patterns in one's thoughts and behaviors, and recognizing personal strengths and limitations. However, introspection has limitations, as it is subjective and may be influenced by biases and cognitive distortions.

External feedback provides an outside perspective, validation, and reassurance. It can offer valuable insight into one's strengths and areas for improvement, as well as serving as a reality check. However, external feedback may not always be accurate or helpful, and can be subject to biases from the source providing the feedback.

Introducing the concept of self-reflection is crucial in assessing one's mental processes in terms of accuracy and ethical status. Self-reflection involves critically evaluating one's thoughts and actions, and is essential for gaining a deeper understanding of oneself and promoting personal growth. It can also help individuals to consider the ethical implications of their thoughts and behaviors .

To summarise, while introspection and external feedback both have their benefits and limitations, self-reflection is essential for gaining a more comprehensive understanding of one's thoughts and perceptions. This process facilitates a more accurate and ethical assessment of one's mental states and encourages personal growth.

Introspection and Metacognition: Understanding the Thinking Process

Understanding and embracing introspection is vital for students in navigating their cognitive and emotional landscapes. Introspection, aligned with metacognition, enables students to think about their thinking , offering introspective access to their cognitive processes and beliefs.

This self-awareness helps in recognizing the influence of both conscious experiences and social experiences on decision-making and behavior. In the classroom, fostering introspection can lead to more profound self-knowledge and critical thinking skills, crucial for personal and academic growth.

Here are practical tips for helping students embrace introspection:

• Encourage Reflective Journaling : Provide opportunities for students to write about their thoughts and feelings, helping them gain introspective knowledge and understand the nature of introspection.
• Facilitate Group Discussions : Create a safe space for students to share and reflect on their social experiences and introspective beliefs, promoting a deeper understanding of diverse perspectives.
• Implement Metacognitive Exercises : Introduce activities that require students to analyze their learning process and cognitive strategies, enhancing their understanding of the basis of introspection.
• Teach Mindfulness Practices : Incorporate mindfulness exercises to help students focus on their present conscious experiences, aiding in the development of introspective access.
• Explore Philosophy of Mind : Introduce concepts from Self-Knowledge Philosophy, encouraging students to ponder the epistemic status and reliability of introspection.
• Challenge False Beliefs : Guide students to question and reassess their beliefs, particularly those that might be misconceptions or false beliefs, fostering critical introspective thought.
• Promote Emotional Intelligence : Teach students to recognize and understand their emotions, aiding in the development of introspective awareness and emotional regulation.
• Use Case Studies and Role-Playing : Engage students in scenarios that require introspection and decision-making based on introspective belief and knowledge.
• Incorporate Art and Creative Expression : Use artistic activities to explore and express introspective and metacognitive insights , providing a non-verbal avenue for introspection.
• Regular Feedback Sessions : Hold sessions where students can discuss and reflect on their learning experiences and attitudes, enhancing their metacognitive and introspective abilities.

By integrating these practices, schools and educators can help students harness the power of introspection and metacognition, leading to improved self-awareness, decision-making skills, and academic performance .

Further Reading on Introspection

The following studies offer a comprehensive understanding of introspection, exploring its role in different contexts, from adolescent development to language acquisition, and consumer behavior. These papers, sourced from reputable journals and universities, provide invaluable insights into the nature of introspection, its impact on cognitive processes , and its application in practical scenarios.

Whether you're a student of psychology, a professional in consumer research, or simply intrigued by the workings of the human mind, these studies present a rich resource for further reading and exploration.

1. Mindfulness and Introspection in Adolescents (Smarinsky, Brown & Christian, 2022): This study shows mindfulness-based interventions using neurofeedback devices improve introspection in adolescents, with females showing greater increases. It suggests the importance of targeted cognitive processes in youth development programs. 

2. Travel Experiences and Introspection (Montanari, 2013): Confirmatory personal introspection is vital for understanding long-term travel experiences. This approach enhances marketing research in the travel industry, emphasizing the role of introspective accounts in consumer behavior studies.

3. Language Acquisition through Introspection (Gabryś-Barker, 2014): Introspection provides reliable insights into language acquisition and multilingualism. This study offers guidelines for implementing introspective research methods, highlighting their significance in linguistic studies .

4. Critical Language Awareness via Introspection (Ogulnick, 1999): Introspection in applied linguistic research raises critical language awareness. It brings to light the socio-cultural and political processes underlying language learning, impacting humanistic education methods .

5. Introspection vs. Extrospection in Psychical Phenomena (Uher, 2016): The TPS-Paradigm clarifies the distinction between introspection and extrospection . It ensures a methodological match between psychical phenomena and research methods, enhancing the understanding of cognitive processes.

6. Introspection in Understanding Consciousness  (Frith & Lau, 2006): This study underscores introspection's crucial role in understanding consciousness and its function in detecting stimuli absent of conscious awareness. It provides a deeper insight into the nature of introspection.

7. Introspection in Consumer Research  (Gould, 1995): Introspection in consumer research contributes to understanding consumer behavior and researcher dynamics. Its openness can lead to better insights into consumer psychology and marketing strategies.

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A Scientific Approach to Conscious Experience, Introspection, and Unconscious Processing: Vision and Blindsight

Although subjective conscious experience and introspection have long been considered unscientific and banned from psychology, they are indispensable in scientific practice. These terms are used in scientific contexts today; however, their meaning remains vague, and earlier objections to the distinction between conscious experience and unconscious processing, remain valid. This also applies to the distinction between conscious visual perception and unconscious visual processing. Damage to the geniculo-striate pathway or the visual cortex results in a perimetrically blind visual hemifield contralateral to the damaged hemisphere. In some cases, cerebral blindness is not absolute. Patients may still be able to guess the presence, location, shape or direction of movement of a stimulus even though they report no conscious visual experience. This “unconscious” ability was termed “blindsight”. The present paper demonstrates how the term conscious visual experience can be introduced in a logically precise and methodologically correct way and becomes amenable to scientific examination. The distinction between conscious experience and unconscious processing is demonstrated in the cases of conscious vision and blindsight. The literature on “blindsight” and its neurobiological basis is reviewed. It is shown that blindsight can be caused by residual functions of neural networks of the visual cortex that have survived cerebral damage, and may also be due to an extrastriate pathway via the midbrain to cortical areas such as areas V4 and MT/V5.

1. Introduction: The Theoretical Background

The psychologist J.B. Watson considered psychology as an experimental science. In Watson’s view, introspection does not belong to its methods, and does not contribute to scientific knowledge. Watson was convinced that “the time seems to have come when psychology must discard all reference to consciousness; when it need no longer delude itself into thinking that it is making mental states the object of observation” [ 1 ] (p. 263). Radical behaviorist positions have also been held by philosophers, among which the most recognized advocates are Ludwig Wittgenstein [ 2 ] and Gilbert Ryle [ 3 ]. Wittgenstein argues that the terms of an intersubjectively valid, objective language cannot refer to subjective sensations to which only those who have these sensations have access. In this case, there is no way for the community of speakers to decide whether the relation between a sensation and the term that designates it is correct. Since such an objective criterion for the correctness of this relation is missing, it is not possible to speak of “correct” and “incorrect” here. These terms belong to a private language, that is not intersubjectively understandable. Wittgenstein compared conscious subjective experiences with a beetle in a box, where each person owns a box and claims to know what a beetle was by looking into his own box. However, no one can look into another person’s box. Then, it was possible that everyone had something else in his box or his box could also be empty. The word “beetle” does not designate an object, and can be eliminated from the language game [ 2 ] (§293) [ 4 ]. Similarly, the English philosopher Gilbert Ryle [ 3 ] regards consciousness as a ghost in the human machine and claims that no person has privileged access to himself. Ryle claims that what one can find out about oneself is based on the same methods as what one finds out about other people. However, the claim that no one has privileged access to himself contradicts everyday observations. Imagine that a person P is asked to press one of three keys, where gains and losses are identical for each key-press. From an observer’s perspective, each key-press has the same a priori probability. If a person other than P attempts to predict which key P will press next, s/he needs to observe P’s reaction in numerous similar situations. However, it is hardly possible to predict with certainty which key P will press next. Nevertheless, we can state in an objectively verifiable manner that P can predict with absolute certainty which key s/he will press next. P never needs to have performed such a task before, and s/he never needs to have observed his/her behavior in such a task. There is no doubt that P has privileged access to his/her decision which key s/he will press next.

Positivism and the resulting behaviorism advocated by philosophers of the Vienna Circle can be considered one of the cornerstones of the philosophy of science. From the perspective of Rudolf Carnap, one of the most prominent advocates of this philosophical school, every proposition of psychology can be formulated in physical language. Carnap subsumes the philosophical behaviorism of the Wiener Circle with the words “The introspective statements of a psychologist are not, in principle, to be interpreted differently than the statements of his experimental subject about whom he reports. Additionally, the statements of an experimental subject are not, in principle, to be interpreted differently than his other voluntary or involuntary movements, though his speech movements may under favorable circumstances be regarded as especially informative. Again, the movements of the speech organs and of the other experimental subject’s body parts are not, in principle, to be interpreted differently than the movements of an animal.... The movements of an animal are not, again in principle, to be interpreted any differently than those of a voltmeter.... Finally, the movements of a voltmeter are not, in principle, to be interpreted differently than the movements of a raindrop...” [ 5 ] (p. 140). A few years later, Carnap recognized that the “...psychological movement of Behaviorism had, on the one hand, a very healthful influence because of its emphasis on the observation of behavior as an intersubjective and reliable basis for psychological investigations, while, on the other hand, it imposed too narrow restrictions. First, its total rejection of introspection was unwarranted. Although many of the alleged results of introspection were indeed questionable, a person’s awareness of his own state of imagining, feeling, etc., must be recognized as a kind of observation, in principle not different from external observation, and therefore as a legitimate source of knowledge, though limited by its subjective character” [ 6 ] (pp. 70–71). Additionally, B.F. Skinner, one of the outstanding American psychologists of the 20th century, father of operant conditioning and founder of a school of thought he designated “radical behaviorism”, did not deny the existence of subjective sensations, and he did not consider introspective reports merely as verbal behavior. Skinner advocated only that subjective states do not contribute to the analysis of behavior, and that they are not suitable for explaining behavior [ 7 , 8 ].

Terms that designate conscious, subjective experiences do not designate behavior and environmental conditions under which behavior occurs, and they cannot be defined by describing behavior and environmental conditions. This raises the question of whether conscious sensations can be introduced into the language of science at all. One objective of the present paper is to demonstrate how terms that designate conscious experiences can be introduced into science and how conscious experiences and unconscious processing be can be distinguished from each other scientifically. To achieve this, the concepts “conscious experience” and “unconscious processing” must be translated into a language of mathematical logic that clarifies its semantic nature and does not lead to contradictions or obscure assertions. The distinction between “conscious”, “unconscious” and “reduced conscious experience” is demonstrated with the example of the processing of visual stimuli in the presence of different levels of conscious visual experience. The literature on vision with reduced visual experience (blindsight) will be reviewed. The neurobiological foundations of blindsight are reviewed on the basis of the literature and our own studies of adult patients with injury to the occipital lobe, children with one or both occipital lobes missing, children after hemispherectomy, and children without the telencephalon. The review is based on several thousand publications about the anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the visual system in humans which were available in the Max-Planck-Institute for Psychiatry, the Bavarian State Library, the Library of the Medical Faculty of the University of Munich, Pubmed, Science Direct, Psycnet or other internet-based databases, which the author collected over about 40 years up to the year 2022. A total of 190 studies that were considered the most relevant to the questions posed in the present review were included.

2. Psychological Terms Understood as Theoretical Concepts

Carnap realized that many major psychological concepts cannot be defined by terms that designate observational entities such as observable behavior under given observable circumstances [ 9 ]. For example, if we attempted to define the term “arachnophobia” by the statement “P has arachnophobia” it would mean “whenever P sees a spider, P displays fear reactions R”, this led, for formal logical reasons, to the absurd consequence that one could diagnose arachnophobia if this person has never seen a spider. Carnap therefore suggested that terms introduced by specifying a certain reaction under certain conditions should be introduced by so called “reduction sentences” [ 9 ]. A reduction sentence by which the term “arachnophobia” is introduced has the following logical form: “If a Person P sees a spider, then, if P has arachnophobia, P displays fear reaction R, and if P has no arachnophobia, P does not display fear reaction R” [ 9 ] (p. 440), [ 10 ]. In terms of formal logic: S(P) → (A(P) ↔ R(P)), whereby S(P) represents “Person P sees a spider”, A(P) “P has arachnophobia”, R(P) “P displays fear reaction R”, → is the logical sign for implication, and ↔ is the logical sign for equivalence. However, people with arachnophobia do not display only a single reaction under one environmental condition. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM5), [ 11 ] (pp. 197–198). specifies different reactions that occur under different conditions for the diagnosis of a specific phobia. Therefore, we can introduce the concept of arachnophobia not with a single reduction sentence, but with several reduction sentences. Over time, new reduction sentences can be added and others may be abandoned, and new psychobiological statements can further specify a particular type of phobia. This introduction of a term violates all conditions that apply to a definition and should therefore not be regarded as an “operational definition” as is often the case in psychological texts. Carnap [ 6 , 12 ] designated these terms as “theoretical concepts”. Theoretical concepts are linked to terms that designate observables, but are not defined by them. What has been said so far is also true for all terms introduced by specifying the conditions under which a given reactions must occur in order for us to say that a term can be applied. Terms, such as “seeing”, “hearing”, “pain”, “fear”, “restlessness”, “depression”, “euphoria”, etc. are introduced by behavior under given environmental conditions. If a person sees something, hears something, feels pain, fear, or restlessness, or is depressed or euphoric, these can only be known by investigating his/her behavior under given environmental conditions. These terms can be regarded as theoretical terms that, like theoretical terms in physics, need not refer to introspectively accessible conscious experiences. However, we assume that many of these terms designate conscious experiences. Experimental findings demonstrate that a distinction between conscious experiences and unconscious processing is inevitable. Studies on conscious visual experience and unconscious visual processing of stimuli in an apparently blind visual field, termed “blindsight”, is an example that demonstrates the importance of a distinction between conscious experience and unconscious processes. The questions are how this distinction can be achieved and how these conscious experiences can be accounted for in a scientifically accurate manner.

3. Conscious Visual Experience and Unconscious “Vision” (Blindsight)

If we assess a person’s luminance difference threshold, the reduction sentences indicate under which visual stimulation which response should occur for a stimulus to be considered as “seen”. Then, the term “a subject has seen the stimulus” is introduced by appropriate reduction sentences. In scientific practice, it is already known how to measure an incremental and a decremental threshold. If we assess the visual field using visual perimetry, we can instruct the subject to press a button whenever s/he sees a light spot; by “seeing” we mean the “conscious experience of seeing”. Thus, we presuppose an everyday understanding of the term “conscious seeing” in the subject´s instruction. However, seeing does not always presuppose the presence of conscious visual experience. Visual stimuli can also be registered and localized by the human visual system in the absence of conscious experience. Pöppel, Held and Frost [ 13 ] were the first to demonstrate that patients who were apparently blind in an area of their visual field after damage to the occipital lobe, and who also asserted that they could not see anything at all in the affected visual field, could nevertheless locate stimuli correctly when asked to guess the location of stimuli, and to point to the location where they guessed the presence of the stimuli. Weiskrantz et al. [ 14 ] termed this phenomenon “blindsight”. Subsequent experiments (e.g., [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]) not only confirmed that patients are able to locate stimuli in an apparently blind area but also that they can distinguish shapes, colors, and objects in an area that is perimetrically blind in which patients assert that they have no conscious visual experience. Zihl and von Cramon [ 19 ] demonstrated that patients who had performed several hundred practice trials were able to register the presence or absence of a light stimulus that was presented in the apparently cerebrally blind visual field even though they denied any conscious visual experience. A patient examined by Zihl and Werth [ 21 , 22 ] had a right homonymous hemianopia due to a stroke of the left cerebral hemisphere. The right half of the visual field of both eyes was blinded. The visual field of the patient was assessed using the Tuebingen perimeter. The patient looked into the perimetric hemissphere (diameter 66 cm) with his head stabilized and directed his gaze to a point in the center. Light spots were presented alternately at five different locations on the horizontal meridian in the perimetric hemisphere for 100 ms so that all light spots were projected into the blind visual hemifield of the retina. In all experiments scattering light was measured, and its influence was excluded [ 31 ]. An acoustic signal indicated when a light spot was present. Since the patient claimed not to see anything in the right visual hemifield, he was asked to guess where the light spot was located and to look at the location where he guessed the presence of the light spot. The presentation time of the light spots was so short that they had disappeared by the time the eyes began moving to the guessed location. Surprisingly, there was a clear correlation between the location to which the patient looked and the location where the light spots appeared. If this ability to guess the locations was not spontaneous it could be trained in a short period of time [ 20 ]. Weiskranz et al. [ 32 ] demonstrated that a patient with damage to the primary visual cortex (V1) could discriminate the direction of stimuli when the possible influence of scattering light was also excluded. When the contrast was increased and the stimuli moved with high velocity, the patients became aware of the stimuli. Ffytche and Zeki [ 33 ] showed that in direction of motion experiments that visual awareness was more likely when stimuli were moving compared to static stimuli. Whether a patient became aware of a moving stimulus depended only on the magnitude of activation of the cortex in area V5 [ 34 ]. The phenomenon that stationary stimuli were not detected in a visual field affected by a lesion of the occipital cortex, whereas moving stimuli were consciously seen, was first described by Riddoch [ 35 ]. This kind of awareness of some stimuli in a visual field where the patient is unaware of other stimuli presented in the affected visual field, was termed as “type 2 blindsight”. The case of type 2 blindsight, in which the stimulus is not seen but a non-visual sensation is reported, (for example, the feeling that something is present when the stimulus is presented in the blind field) must be distinguished from the Riddoch phenomenon, which has also been designated as “type 2 blindsight” [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ].

4. How to Distinguish between Conscious Vision, Non-Visual Experience and Blindsight?

In many studies on visual abilities in an apparently blind visual field, the patients were asked, only after the experiment, whether they had a visual experience. Even if the patients claim not to have seen anything, one cannot be sure that they did not have a subjective experience during the experiment. Patients may also not direct their attention to any weak sensation whatsoever, and consequently, may not remember any such sensation at the end of the experiment. Therefore, it is more appropriate to ask the patients immediately after each experimental trial if they only guessed, whether they could see something or whether any sensation occurred. However, unusual visual experiences can occur after brain damage, for which everyday language has no terms. Patients are often unsure if such experiences can be designated as “seeing” and, therefore, deny the question of whether they saw something. Instead of merely relying on the patient’s statement that they had no visual experience and were merely guessing, patients can be asked to indicate their level of confidence on a scale [ 49 ]. The response with which a person indicates the presence or absence of a stimulus, its location, shape, color, etc., will be named “first-order response”, the response with which s/he indicates what confidence s/he has in the correctness of the first-order response, whether s/he only guessed or any conscious sensation occurred, will be named “second-order response”. For example, Mazzi et al. [ 50 , 51 ] used a four-level scale to examine a patient’s subjective experience. A patient who had developed right homonymous hemianopia due to a hemorrhagic stroke was able to discriminate the orientation, color and contrast of a stimulus in her blind visual hemifield when she declared that she responded only by guessing. The patient was asked to rate her subjective experience as either “no visual experience”, “brief glimpse”, “almost clear visual experience”, or “clear visual experience”. The patient was unable to discriminate between two stimulus orientations, motion direction or between two colors when she reported no visual experience or perceiving a small glimpse. Contrast discrimination was only possible at instances when the patient experienced a small glimpse or when she saw the stimuli almost clearly. This experiment demonstrates that it is not sufficient to ask patients whether their responses were made on the grounds of guessing or whether the stimuli were visible. A rating procedure yields more information about the patients´ subjective experiences, but still does not exclude the case where the stimuli elicit a conscious experience which the patients do not term “seeing”, “perceiving a glimpse”, or having any other conscious experience for which the ordinary language has no words. However, it has already been demonstrated earlier [ 36 ] that there are more accurate ways to exclude feelings elicited in blindsight experiments. This study has shown that the degree to which a patient can introspectively recognize his ability of blindsight depends on the experimental conditions. The subjective experience of a 34-year-old hemianopic patient (HU) who was involved in a car accident was extensively investigated in a blindsight experiment [ 36 ]. A CT-scan revealed damage to the geniculostriate projection and its target areas in the left cerebral hemisphere. The lesion caused a right homonymous visual field defect. During the examination, the patient looked into the bowl of a Tuebingen perimeter. Light stimuli (diameter: 69 min/arc; luminance 126.7 cd/m 2 ; background luminance: 3.2 cd/m 2 ) were presented for 500 ms at a location within the blind area of the patient’s visual field. Fixation was controlled through the telescope of the perimeter. An acoustic signal indicated the beginning of a time interval in which either a light stimulus was provided or no light stimulus was present. Intervals in which a light stimulus was present and intervals in which no light stimulus appeared alternated in random order. In 50% of the acoustically marked intervals, a light stimulus was present. No light stimulus was present in the remaining acoustically marked intervals. The patient assured that he could not see anything in the blind area; hence he was asked to guess whether or not a light spot was present. Although the patient affirmed that he had never seen a light stimulus, he guessed correctly in 99% of the 290 experimental trials. The scattering light was measured to exclude its effect. In addition, the stimuli were presented in an area of the visual field that was completely blind and where no unconscious visual processing took place. In a subsequent experiment (Experiment 2), which will also be called “second order experiment”, the same stimuli were presented under the same conditions as in Experiment 1 which will also be called “first order experiment”. Experiment 2 differed from experiment 1 in that the stimuli were presented alternately in a pseudorandom order in 50% of the trials at a location where no processing of stimuli was discovered, and in 50% of the trials at a location where blindsight was demonstrated. The patient was asked to rate his ability to detect the stimulus on a three-level scale. If he was absolutely convinced that he could not detect a stimulus, he was asked to say “no”. If the patient even had the faintest idea that he could detect the stimulus, he should say “weak”, and if he was somewhat sure that he could detect the presence of a stimulus he should say “good”. The latter answer never occurred.

In 61% of 300 trials, the patient’s second-order responses (i.e., the verbal responses “no” and “weak”) were correct. This means that he answered “no” if the stimulus was presented at a location of the visual field where no processing of stimuli had been discovered in a previous experiment, and he answered “weak” if the stimuli appeared at a location where blindsight had been demonstrated in a previous experiment. When the patient was asked after the experiment which subjective experiences he had during the experiment, he stated that he had not even a faint feeling of the presence or absence of a stimulus. The control experiment was identical to the second-order experiment except that a stimulus was always presented outside the patient´s visual field. The difference between the result of the second-order experiment and the result of the control experiment was significant (chi-square test: p  ≤ 0.005). Although a chi-square test showed the result to be significant, this should be interpreted with caution. The percentage (61%) can only be regarded as the degree to which the patient was aware that he was able to distinguish the presence or absence of a stimulus, if it is presupposed that this result did not come about by chance. Therefore, repeated control experiments must demonstrate that subjects cannot achieve a result of 61% correct responses when they generate a sequence of the answers “no” and “weak” in the presence or absence of a stimulus that does not influence their responses. This is, for instance, the case if the stimuli are always presented outside the visual field. Only if it is demonstrated that control subjects cannot achieve a result of 61% correct responses in repeated control experiments, the result of the above described second-order experiment can be regarded as being affected by the presence of the stimulus on a location where no blindsight was possible or on a location where blindsight was possible. Only then the result of 61% can be regarded as a very low level of awareness.

In a second-order experiment, the level of awareness may have a value between 50% and 100%. Therefore, it seems more reasonable to assume that there is a continuous transition between visual processing without awareness (blindsight) and conscious visual perception instead of drawing an arbitrary boundary between type 1 and type 2 blindsight. To investigate the patient´s ability to rate his capacity to process visual stimuli in his apparently blind field in more detail, Experiment 2 was slightly modified and repeated. This experiment was identical to that previously described. The stimuli were again presented alternately in random order in 50% of the trials at a location where no processing of stimuli was possible, and in 50% of the trials the stimuli appeared at a location where blindsight had been demonstrated. The patient was informed that a light spot would be present in every trial. Before the experiment, the light spot was presented at a location where processing of stimuli was possible (blindsight), and the patient was informed that he would be able to detect the presence or absence of the light spot under these conditions. The light spot was also shown at the location where no blindsight occurred, and the patient was informed that under these conditions he could not detect the presence or absence of the stimuli. The patient was asked to compare the trials and indicate the trial in which he felt it was more likely that he could detect the stimuli. In this experiment, the patient´s answer was 100% correct in 300 trials. Such an experiment has the advantage that the patient receives feedback about the sensations associated with the ability to distinguish between the presence and absence of the stimuli. If the presence or absence of a light spot is accompanied by different non visual sensations he can identify them, and he can recognize their significance. In experiments where the patient does not receive such feedback, different non-visual sensations may also be associated with the presence or absence of the light stimulus. In this case, the patient may not recognize that these sensations indicate the presence or absence of a stimulus.

The control experiment was identical to this second-order experiment except that no light stimulus was shown in any trial. The difference between the result of the second-order experiment and the result of the control experiment was significant (chi-square test: p  ≤ 0.0001). Here what has already been stated above is true. Control experiments must demonstrate that the experimental result is not due to chance, and that the outcome of the second-order experiment differs significantly from the outcome of the control experiments. The result of such a second-order experiment (i.e., the degree to which a person can correctly state whether the stimulus was presented at a location of the visual field where s/he was able to discriminate between the presence or absence of a light spot in a first-order experiment or whether the stimulus was presented at a location of the visual field where s/he was unable to discriminate between the presence and absence of a light spot in the first-order experiment) can be interpreted as the degree of introspection in his/her ability to detect the presence or absence of a stimulus. The first-order experiment investigates whether a patient can discriminate between the presence or absence of a stimulus. The second-order experiment investigates whether a person has introspective access to his/her ability to discriminate the presence or absence of a stimulus. The result of this experiment also can have values between 50% and 100%. This also suggests that we should not draw a sharp boundary between “no processing of stimuli”, “type 1 blindsight” and “type 2 blindsight”.

It is noteworthy to state that presenting a light spot at a location of the retina that does not lead to conscious perception or blindsight is not the same as presenting no light stimulus. A light stimulus at this location can elicit activation in a cortical area that leads to neither conscious experience nor blindsight [ 52 ]. If no stimulus is presented, no activation occurs. In the experiment described here, the difference between insufficient and sufficient activation was assessed.

The results of this study demonstrated that the diagnosis of “blindsight” cannot be made on the basis of the patients’ assertion that they don´t see anything and that they only have to guess. The necessity of a scientific introduction of the terms “conscious” and “unconscious” is demonstrated by the example of the insufficient attempt of Railo and Hurme [ 53 ] to characterize the terms “conscious” and “unconscious”. The authors write: “We use the term “conscious” vision to refer to visual perception that is accompanied by experiences that can be introspected by the subject. We use “unconscious” visual perception to refer to situations where the stimuli that the subject denies consciously seeing can nevertheless influence their behavior in some way” [ 53 ] (Section 2.1, first paragraph). An unclear term (conscious) cannot be introduced by characterizing it using another unclear terms such as “visual perception that is accompanied by experiences that can be introspected by the subject”. What is the scientific meaning of “visual perception that is accompanied by experiences” what is the meaning of “introspection”? To date, these terms are used in an unscientific, obscure way in scientific writing. Next it is shown how the concepts “conscious vision” and “blindsight” can be introduced in a logically and experimentally correct way.

5. Introducing the Concepts “Introspection”, “Conscious Vision” and “Blindsight”

As already explained above, the term “conscious vision” must be understood as a theoretical term, introduced by reduction sentences that specify the responses in the second-order experiment under given experimental conditions. If a person is aware of his/her ability to discover the presence or absence of stimuli, shape, color, location, orientation, or direction of movement in the sense mentioned above, s/he has correctly evaluated his/her own abilities without being informed by the experimenter about the outcome of the experiment. In this case, we say that s/he has introspective access to his/her conscious experiences, and that s/he can consciously see the stimuli. These terminologies are common in the interpretation of neuropsychological results, but it misses any scientific justification, and behaviorist objections are still valid. This gives rise to the question, of how one can demystify “conscious experience” and introduce it logically into a contradiction-free language. Hence, the concept “conscious visual experience” must be translated into a language of mathematical logic that clarifies its semantic nature and does not lead to contradictions or obscure assertions.

If D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)) represents “a Person P can, under experimental conditions Ec, discriminate between the stimuli Sp and Sa”, this is a theoretical term (disposition predicate) which denotes the disposition of a person to respond in a given way when certain experimental conditions are established. If I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa))) represents “P can correctly evaluate his/her ability to discriminate under experimental conditions Ec between the stimuli Sp and Sa” this is also a theoretical term (disposition predicate) which denotes the disposition of a person to respond in a given way (i.e., to evaluate his/her ability to discriminate under experimental conditions Ec between the stimuli Sp and Sa) when certain experimental conditions are established in a second-order experiment. Thus, the terms D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)) and I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa))) designate dispositions, but they do not yet designate conscious experiences. The conscious visual experience of seeing a light stimulus is not a disposition but a subjective visual occurrence. To designate this conscious subjective experience, we use a logical calculus which includes an abstraction operator that creates abstract objects [ 54 ]. If L(a,b) means a loves b, then α (L(a, b) is the abstraction of L(a, b). α (L(a, b) denotes the love of a for b. I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa))) represents “P can correctly evaluate his/her ability to discriminate under experimental conditions Ec between the stimuli Sp and Sa”, then α[I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)))] is the abstraction of I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa))). As stated above, in this case, person P has privileged access (introspection) to his/her ability to discriminate the stimuli. α[I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)))] is the abstraction of this privileged access (introspection). If a person has such a priviledged access (introspection) to his/her ability to visually discriminate between stimuli, it can be said that this person has a conscious visual experience. We can express this with scientific precision by stating that the abstraction α[I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)))] designates the nature of the privileged access (introspection) or what we call in a non-scientific language the “conscious visual experience”. Everyone can experience how it is to have an experience that is designated by the the abstraction α[I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)))] when s/he is discriminating stimuli.

In summary: D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)) is a theoretical concept that is introduced with reduction sentences; I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa))) is a theoretical concept that speaks about the theoretical concept D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)), and is also introduced with reduction sentences; α[I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)))] is the abstraction of the theoretical concept I+(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa))) which speaks about the theoretical concept D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)). Although theoretical concepts cannot be defined with observational terms, they nevertheless play an indispensable role in scientific theories. However, not all psychological terms that are abstractions correspond to conscious experiences. In the case of “blindsight” without any conscious experience, a person cannot evaluate his/her ability to register the presence or absence of visual stimuli and has no privileged access to this ability. This can be expressed as I−(D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa))). In this case, the presence or absence of visual stimuli does not correspond to conscious visual experiences. The abstraction of the predicate “P cannot evaluate his/her visual ability to discriminate between the presence and absence of visual stimuli” then does not designate a conscious visual experience. From our own conscious experiences, we know which abstractions correspond to conscious experiences. We assume that other people have conscious experiences when they demonstrate the same responses under the same conditions, and when they demonstrate privileged access.

So far, only the two cases have been considered: A person can always detect the presence and absence of a stimulus or is unable to do so. In reality, there is often a smooth transition between these two extremes. When the visual ability of a person is impaired, the presence or absence of visual stimuli may only be detected with a given probability. This probability is investigated in the first-order experiment. This probability is represented by the index p1 which is inserted into the expression D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)), resulting in the expression D p1 (P(Ec, Sp, Sa)). p1 can take values between p = 0% and p = 100%.

To simplify the argument, only two results of experiment two were initially distinguished: (1) a person has no privileged access, i.e., α[I– (D p1 (P(Ec, Sp, Sa)))] designates no conscious experience, and (2) a person has privileged access, i.e., α[I+(D p1 (P(Ec, Sp, Sa)))] designates a conscious experience. If p1 indicates that the person cannot detect the presence or absence of visual stimuli in the first-order experiment, the stimulus cannot generate a visual experience. However, a second-order experiment can also determine the probability with which a person correctly evaluates his or her own visual ability. As described above, this estimation can be assessed in different ways: The least accurate and most questionable method is to ask the patient after each experiment whether s/he has seen anything. It is somewhat more accurate to ask the patient after each experimental trial whether s/he has seen anything. It is even more accurate to ask a person after each experimental trial to indicate on a rating scale how confident s/he is that s/he has perceived anything. The most accurate method is to have the patient compare the presentation of a stimulus in an area of the visual field where no processing of stimuli takes place with the presentation of a stimulus in an area of the visual field where visual stimuli are processed, as described above. The result is always the frequency with which the patient will provide a given response. This is expressed by the index p2 (replacing the indices + and −: α[I p2 (D(P(Ec, Sp, Sa)))]). The result of the second-order experiment can take values between p = 0% and p = 100%.

It must be demonstrated whether the result is due to chance or whether there is a significant relationship between the patient´s response in the second-order experiment indicating that a stimulus evoked a sensation when the stimulus was presented at a location where visual processing occurred. If the first-order experiment demonstrated that a patient can detect the presence or absence of visual stimuli (indicated by a significant p1 value), but if the second-order experiment did not yield a significant result (indicated by an insignificant p2 value), this demonstrates that the patient had no conscious experience when s/he detected the presence or absence of a stimulus. This corresponds to what has been termed “blindsight”. That a p1- or p2-value is “significant” means that it has been demonstrated that this value did not come about by chance but is due to the influence of the presence or absence of a visual stimulus. If p2 is very small, but if the result is significant, we can designate this in colloquial language as a very faint sensation. Increasing p2-values demonstrate an increasing distinctness of conscious sensation. One may term a significant result of a second-order experiment “type two blindsight” [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ]. p2-values can express the range between unconscious processing of stimuli and conscous visual experience much more precisely than expressions such as “type one blindsight” or “type two blindsight” can do this.

Taken together, the first-order experiment and the second-order experiment may have the following results:

• (1) p1 not significant: no visual experience;
• (2) p1 significant and p2 not significant: visual processing at a given level (represented by the value of p1) without conscious experience;
• (3) p1 significant and p2 significant: visual processing at a given level (represented by the value of p1) and conscious experience at a given level (represented by the value of p2).

The subjective experiences, when explicitly formulated, are abstract entities of mathematical logic, comparable to the wave equation for electrons in quantum mechanics. Whereas the presence of the wave structure of electrons can be demonstrated by the interference pattern on a screen, the presence of conscious experiences can be demonstrated by the behavior of a person under given conditions, the privileged access, and the simultaneous presence of neurobiological processes. A persons’ behavior under given conditions is intersubjectively observable, and the neurobiological processes can also be observed. For example, when a light stimulus hits a location on the retina (a receptive field), neurons receiving information from the retinal area corresponding to the receptive field, respond by increasing their electrical discharge rate, which can be visualized as an observable histogram. The question arises as to what the neurobiological foundations of conscious experience are and which impairments in cerebral functioning lead to blindsight.

6. The Neurobiological Basis of Conscious Vision and Blindsight

6.1. levels of activation of impaired cortical networks resulting in blindsight or conscious vision.

The phenomenon of “blindsight” may be due to residual functional neural networks in the damaged primary visual cortex. Numerous reports on the recovery of visual function in children [ 55 , 56 , 57 ] and adults [ 58 , 59 , 60 ] demonstrate that impaired neural networks can recover, and the patients may regain the ability to see in a formerly blind visual area. In addition, new connections may emerge and cerebral networks may rearrange. After cerebral hemispherectomy new fiber tracts can connect the ganglion cells of the blind retina to the remaining ipsilateral cerebral hemisphere [ 55 ]. Even in children devoid of the occipital lobe, the visual system can rearrange to such an extent that the children have normal luminance difference thresholds in the whole visual field [ 61 ]. The result of a previous experiment demonstrated that it may depend only on the degree of activation of a neural network whether a stimulus is not processed, whether there is only a feeling of the presence of a stimulus, whether a glimpse of a light is seen, or whether a light spot is clearly seen [ 36 , 37 ]. A 54-year-old man (RS) had a left homonymous hemianopia due to an embolic occlusion of the right middle and the right posterior cerebral artery and subsequent infarction of the right cerebral hemisphere. When a light spot (diameter: 69 min of arc; luminance: 101 cd/m 2 ; background-luminance: 3.2 cd/m 2 ) was moved within the affected (left) visual hemifield, four subareas of the visual field could be distinguished: an area where the patient was completely blind and where no visual processing occurred, an area in which the patient always reported the feeling of the presence of a stimulus without seeing anything, an area where the patient reported seeing a glimpse of light, and an area where the patient could see the light spot clearly. Three sessions of the visual field training were completed in 3 weeks. In each session, the light spot was presented at different locations in the left visual hemifield for 500 ms each. Scattering light was measured to exclude stray light artifacts. The visual field expanded after the conclusion of these three sessions. Now the patient could clearly see the light spot in the part of the visual field where he had previously seen only a glimpse of light. The patient could now see a glimpse of light in the visual area where previously he had only the sensation of the presence of a stimulus. In a part of the previously blind visual field, he now had the feeling of the presence of a stimulus without being able to see anything. After two months cessation of the visual field training, the visual field shrunk again and all the different areas returned to their positions before training. It is unlikely that within three weeks a reorganization of visual connections occurred, and disappeared again in the training-free interval. Therefore, it can be assumed that a neural network survived in the area of the primary visual cortex which represents the apparently blind visual field and that the patient´s experience depended on the extent to which the surviving tissue in the visual cortex was activated. This is in agreement with experiments that demonstrated that blindsight may be due to islands of activity in a damaged area V1 when stimuli are presented in the blind visual area. Using perimetry, Fendrich et al. [ 62 ] found islands of vision of which the patients were unaware in an apparently cerebrally blind area. Other authors have demonstrated areas of activation in a damaged primary visual cortex that represented a perimetrical blind visual area in which there were symptoms of blindsight [ 63 , 64 ] or in damaged areas of the primary visual cortex representing a perimetrically blind visual field [ 65 , 66 ].

6.2. Normal and Impaired Neural Networks in the Visual Cortex That Mediate Conscious Vision and Blindsight

As stated above, a functional visual cortex is a necessary condition for normal vision in humans with a normally developed brain. Injury to the visual cortex can lead to blindness, and residual functions of a damaged cortex can be the neural basis for blindsight. Although clear differences exist between the cortical network of different mammalian species [ 67 , 68 , 69 ] most of the knowledge about the architecture and function of the visual cortex is based on examining the visual cortex of primates such as macaques and, in some cases, chimpanzees, because the greatest similarities were found between their cortices and those of humans [ 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ]. The visual cortex of primates is divided in 6 layers, some of which have been divided into different sublayers [ 74 ]. Information from three different retinal ganglion cells (P-cells, M-cells and K-cells) predominantly reaches the 6- layered lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus via the optic nerve [ 75 , 76 , 77 ]. At least 80% of ganglion cells in the fovea are P-cells. They convey information about the color and details of the shape of objects due to their high spatial frequency tuning and high visual resolution but transmit information slower than M-cells. M-cells mediate high temporal frequencies, and have lower spatial frequency tuning but higher conduction velocities than P-cells. They provide information about fast movements and high temporal frequencies but have large receptive fields and mediate low visual acuity [ 78 , 79 , 80 ]. The fibers of P-retinal ganglion cells terminate in the four dorsal layers of the LGN whereas the axons of M-cells terminate in the two ventral layers of the LGN [ 81 ]. The fibers of the geniculo-striate pathway end predominantly in area V1 of the visual cortex and to a much lesser extent in area V2, V3 [ 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 ], and V4 [ 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 ] ( Figure 1 ). The magnocellular layers of the LGN project to area MT/V5 [ 90 , 91 , 92 ] and the inferior temporal gyrus including the lower bank of the superior temporal sulcus [ 93 ]. Neurons from these dorsal LGN layers project primarily to layer 4Cβ of area V1 and project to a much lesser extent to layers 6 and 4A and layer 1 of area V1 [ 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 ]. Layer 1 receives feedback input from layer 6 [ 98 ]. The P-cell projection to layer 4Cβ of area V1 constitutes approximately 18% of the synapses in layer 4Cβ. The highest density of synaptic contacts from the thalamus was found in this layer. A much lower rate of afferent thalamic input to spiny stellate cells was detected in layers 4Cα, which receives predominant input from M-cells, and layer 4Cβ. The density of synapses of thalamic afferents in layer 6 is approximately 16% of the density of thalamic afferent synapses in layer 4Cβ. M-neurons originating in the LGN project primarily to layer 4Cβ of area V1 [ 70 , 99 ]. K-ganglion cells of the retina project to thin koniocellular layers between the P- and M-cell layers of the LGN. There is a K-cell projection from the LGN to blob-like structures in layers 1 and 2/3 of area V1 and to area MT/V5 [ 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 ] ( Figure 1 ). Layers that receive koniocellular input are also targeted by fibers from the superior colliculi [ 104 , 105 , 106 ]. The visual cortices of monkeys and humans contain a variety of neurons. Excitatory neurons can be divided into pyramidal cells and spiny stellate cells [ 107 , 108 , 109 ]. Spines are protrusions on the neurons’ dendrites. Interneurons were divided into different cell types such as Martinotti cells, horsetail shaped cells, neurogliaform cells, basket cells and chandelier cells. Inhibitory interneurons are located in all cortical layers. They are usually gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic, and may target the dendrites, the perisomatic region or the axons of pyramidal cells. Interneurons that contact the perisomatic region of pyramidal cells were called “basket cells”, and interneurons that target the initial segment of axons of pyramidal cells were termed “chandelier cells”. Neurons are further classified, but this classification is still a matter of debate [ 110 ]. Spiny stellate neurons in layer 4C project to layers 2–4B. The majority of 4Cβ neurons project to layers 2 and 3. There is a parvocellular and koniocellular input to layer 3Bβ [ 74 ]. Pyramidal cells and spiny stellate cells in layers 2–4B project to pyramidal cells in layer 5. Layer 4B is predominantly made up of pyramidal cells. The majority of layer 4B pyramidal cells project to area V2 whereas most neurons projecting to area MT/V5 are spiny stellate cells. A small number of pyramidal cells also project from area V1 to area MT/V5. Neurons that project to area V2 receive predominant input from M-neurons in layer 4Cα and from P-neurons in layer 4Cβ. Therefore, pyramidal neurons that project from layer V1 to layer V2 appear to integrate input from P-neurons via neurons of layer 4Cβ and input from M-neurons via neurons of layer 4Cα. Spiny stellate cells are a minority of layer 4B neurons. They receive their input exclusively from layer 4Cα which predominantly receives input from M-cells [ 111 ] ( Figure 1 ). Neurons of layer 5 receive input from laminae 4B, 3B/4A, and 2/3A and a scarcer input from lamina 6. Neurons of lamina 5A project back to lamina 2/3A and laminae 3B/4A and 4C [ 112 ]. Area V1 is connected with Areas V2, V3, V3A, V4, MT/V5, the parieto-occipital cortex, and the posterior intraparietal cortex.

Schematic drawing of layers and cells in primate area V1. Red triangles: pyramidal cells with apical dendrites (dendritic spines are omitted). Red stars: stellate cells (dendritic spines are omitted). Black: basked cell contacting the perisomatic area of a pyramidal cell. Green: double bouquet cell contacting the apical dendrite of a pyramidal cell. Brown: chandelier cell contacting the dendrites of a pyramidal cell. Blue: konio cell (K) ending in a layer III blob. P: input from an LGN parvo cell contacting the dendrites of a pyramidal cell. M: input from an LGN magno-cell contacting the dendrites of a pyramidal cell. V2: axon of a layer IV pyramidal cell sending information to extrastriate visual area V2. MT: axon of a layer IV stellate cell sending information to area MT/V5.

The contact between neurons is established by excitatory or inhibitory synapses. Excitatory synapses usually contact dendrites or dendritic spines of neurons. In contrast, inhibitory synapses mainly contact the soma and initial segment of neuronal axons and, to a lesser extent, spiny and non-spiny dendritic shafts. The boutons of presynaptic excitatory synapses contain the transmitter glutamate, which is the major transmitter in the primate brain, whereas the vesicles of inhibitory synapses are filled with gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) or glycine [ 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 ]. The postsynaptic membrane cytoplasm contains neurotransmitter receptors that modulate the effect of the transmitter released in the cleft between presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes [ 114 , 118 ]. When arterial blood flow is interrupted and neurons are no longer supplied with oxygen and nutrients, as was the case in many patients who exhibited blindsight (e.g., [ 18 ], patient 3 [ 22 ], patients SL, AG, EA [ 29 ], patient SL [ 50 ], patients AM, FB, LF [ 51 ], patients RC, PF, RA, JP [ 63 ], patient MC [ 64 ], the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by oxidative phosphorylation, which is the predominant function of mitochondria, stops. As a consequence, the Na+/K+ ATPase pumps fail due to the lack of ATP, and Na+ accumulates inside and K+ outside the neurons. Glutamate is released and there is an increased inflow of calcium resulting in continuous neural discharge [ 119 , 120 ]. The cells either die or survive with severe injuries. In the former case, phagocytes remove dead cells, and over time the area is filled with a network of glia cells. In the latter case, neural metabolism is downregulated due to mitochondrial injury. The function of excitatory pyramidal cells and parvalbumin-positive GABAergic inhibitory interneurons that target the soma and dendrites of pyramidal cells is impaired, resulting in decreased inhibition of pyramidal neurons and impairment of the excitatory-inhibitory balance in the cortical network [ 121 , 122 ]. Mitochondria are transported along the axons to synaptic terminals and dendrites to provide energy at different locations, and are required for the synthesis of neurotransmitters, axonal transport, detoxification, regulation of calcium, ion gradient, and the organization of synaptic vesicles. After cerebral damage these mitochondrial functions may be impaired. Upon a decrease in arterial blood flow, blebs appear on the dendrites of the neurons, and part of the spines are lost [ 123 , 124 ]. The length of pyramidal dendrites decreases, and there is a loss of dendritic branches and shrinkage of the dendritic apical tree of (excitatory) pyramidal cells [ 125 ]. Thus, the function of neurons and the interconnections between neurons are impaired [ 126 ]. Traumatic brain damage, like in the patients described above (patient TU [ 36 ], patient FS (published several times [ 127 , 128 , 129 ], and patient GY, published many times, (see, e.g., [ 26 , 32 , 34 , 38 , 40 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 ], also results in cellular dysfunction and cell death due to cytotoxicity of blood, excitotoxicity, oxidative stress and inflammation, and the disruption of neural network, which results in a decrease in axon density [ 138 , 139 , 140 ]. Over time, surviving neurons can recover to some extent, new axons may grow and the function of spared neuronal networks may recover to some extent [ 141 , 142 ]. These results allow us to conclude that unconscious processing of visual stimuli (blindsight) and the feeling of the presence of a light stimulus without conscious visual experience are consequences of the loss of neurons, and their dendritic and axonal connections, as well as a downregulation of cell metabolism in the adult brain. If brain damage occurs in early childhood, a reorganization of neural connections and brain areas may occur, and neural networks of the visual system may emerge in brain areas that have other than visual functions in the normally developed healthy brain. This means that conscious visual experience requires a sufficiently activated, and sufficiently interconnected neural network that comprises a sufficient number of neurons with adequate metabolism. The availability of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a necessary condition for the function of the Na+/K+ pump, which is a prerequisite for an increased discharge rate of neurons when a visual stimulus appears in the receptive field of the neuron. The emergence of conscious experience requires the conduction of action potentials to other neurons in a neural network. Fast conduction of action potentials along axons requires a myelin sheath made up of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells that wrap axons at regular intervals [ 143 ]. Demyelination causes loss of propagation of action potentials resulting in symptoms that include blurred vision or even blindness. The symptoms of demyelinating diseases demonstrate that the conduction of action potentials and interaction with other neurons is a necessary condition for the emergence of conscious experience ([ 144 , 145 ] for review). Synaptic connections between neurons play a crucial role in the emergence of conscious experiences. Conscious experiences are influenced by transmitters released in the synaptic gap and by experience-dependent dynamic modifications at the (mostly dendritic) postsynaptic membrane [ 146 , 147 ]. Overall, these structural and functional impairments in the primary visual cortex do not necessarily result in cerebral blindness. In some cases, the altered functioning of impaired neural networks may still mediate unconscious visual processing or the feeling that something is present without consciously seeing the target. If the impaired network of the primary visual cortex is highly activated, the visual experience of seeing a glimpse of light may emerge or the target may even be consciously seen. However, the geniculo-striate projection is not the only visual pathway. Therefore, the question arises as to whether a pathway other than the geniculate-striate projection can mediate blindsight.

6.3. Is Blindsight Mediated by the Secondary Visual Pathway?

A PET study [ 130 ] demonstrated activation of area MT/V5 when the stimuli were moved at high velocity and when the patient reported conscious awareness of the stimuli. Thus, area V5 was activated in the assumed absence of activation of area V1. It was concluded that area V1 was not necessary for the conscious awareness of a rapidly moving stimulus. Fibers projecting from the LGN to area V5 bypassing area V1 may have mediated the visual perception of a moving stimulus in the absence of area V1.

Experiments demonstrated activation of area hMT+ ( Figure 2 ), when moving or stationary stimuli were presented in a visual area that was blinded due to a damaged primary visual cortex ([ 66 , 137 , 149 , 150 , 151 , 152 , 153 , 154 ] for reviews). In a study by Pedersini et al. [ 155 ], stationary or moving stimuli were presented in the cerebrally blind visual hemifield of 8 Patients with a homonymous visual field defect due to postgeniculate damage. The patients were asked to discriminate the orientation of a stationary or moving bar which was presented in the blind hemifield. Three out of 8 patients performed above chance in the moving condition and 4 out of 8 patients performed above chance in the static condition. Stimuli presented in the blind area activated visual areas V3, V4, hMT+ bilaterally, parietal and frontal areas and the insular and premotor cortex. The highest activation of area hMT+ was found for moving visual stimuli, of which the patient reported unawareness. Patients who performed above chance when discriminating moving stimuli without awareness demonstrated a higher activation of area MT+ than patients who performed at chance. Patients who performed better than chance in the static condition displayed higher activation of the contralesional area V1 and extrastriate visual areas. When pictures of human bodies and faces, butterflies, cars, or meaningless scrambles were presented to a patient who was blind due to the destruction of area V1 of both cerebral hemispheres, and when the patient was asked to guess (yes, no,) whether the stimulus belonged to a given category (e.g., a face), the patient reported no conscious visual experience for the stimuli. However, he reported seeing only changes of luminance when a new stimulus was presented. Nevertheless, the patient was able to guess the presence of human bodies above chance. Images of bodies activated the right extrastriate body area which is located in the lateral occipito-temporal cortex, in the vicinity of the motion-sensitive region hMT/V5+ [ 148 , 156 , 157 ], the right amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, insula, superior temporal sulcus, and bilateral cerebellum. Pictures of faces activated the right gyrus cinguli, superior temporal sulcus, supramarginal gyrus, left superior parietal lobule, periaqueductal gray and the amygdala [ 158 ]. Barleben et al. [ 52 ] found activity in area hMT, the superior parietal lobule, supramarginal gyrus, and lateral and middle occipital gyri of 6 patients, whereas no activity was observed in the damaged striate cortex. In two patients who did not show activity in area hMT, lesions included subcortical pathways from the pulvinar to area hMT. None of the patients showed any symptoms of blindsight nor did they see rapidly moving stimuli (Riddoch effect). The authors conclude that there may be activity in area hMT, even though there is neither blindsight nor conscious visual experience. Some patients who participated in experiments on blindsight suffered from long-standing injuries dating back several decades and some patients (e.g., patient GY) participated in numerous experiments [ 26 , 28 , 32 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 ]. Over time, new connections could have developed and structures of the visual system could have been rearranged. Therefore, insights into the function of a damaged brain that has been stimulated in many experiments over many years should be applied with caution to normal brains. Repeated stimulation of cerebrally blind areas has been demonstrated to improve visual functions in a cerebrally blind hemifield [ 36 , 37 , 42 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ] and can even lead to considerable restitution of visual functions due to a rearrangement of neural networks in children and adult patients [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 ].

Location of area hMT+ (encircled) on the left hemisphere of the human brain. FL: frontal lobe, TL: temporal lobe, CB: cerebellum [ 148 ].

Activation of area hMT+ can be mediated by a secondary visual pathway from the retina via the superior colliculi (SC) and the pulvinar. In monkeys, there is a direct projection from the retina to the SC [ 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 164 , 165 ]. About 10% of the retinal ganglion cells project to the SC [ 166 ]. Neurons of the SC were responsive to stationary and moving stimuli, size, color, and contrast [ 167 , 168 , 169 , 170 , 171 , 172 ]. The SC projects to the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus and to the posterior and medial nuclei of the inferior pulvinar. The pulvinar is the largest nucleus of the primate thalamus and is divided into different subnuclei. The ventral pulvinar, which includes ventral parts of the lateral pulvinar and inferior pulvinar is connected with areas V1, V2, V4, and the inferotemporal cortex [ 173 , 174 ]. There is a rather sparse projection to the lateral and medial pulvinar and to the central lateral nucleus of the inferior pulvinar. The cortical area MT, which receives its main input from the medial nucleus of the inferior pulvinar does not receive input from the SC via the medial nucleus of the inferior pulvinar [ 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 179 ]. The SC projects to the caudal nucleus of the pulvinar and to the lateral and medial aspects of the rostral pulvinar. The caudal nucleus sends fibers back to the SC. The SC also projects to the dorsal and ventral parts of the lateral geniculate nucleus, to the pretectum, and to the inferior colliculi [ 180 , 181 ]. There is a retinotopic representation in the inferior and lateral pulvinar in rhesus monkeys. The inferior and lateral nuclei of the pulvinar respond to visual stimuli [ 182 ]. The results of a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study in patients with bilateral lesions of the primary visual cortex demonstrate a direct connection between the LGN and area hMT+ which conveys visual information after damage to area V1 [ 151 ]. This study also demonstrates that the contralesional normal visual cortex is not needed for visual functions after damage to the primary visual cortex.

6.4. How Much Cortex Is Needed for Conscious Visual Perception?

The question is whether the SC, pretectum, and pulvinar are sufficient for mediating “unconscious” processing of visual stimuli. Georgy et al. [ 183 ] assumed that the SC ( Figure 3 ) plays a pivotal role in processing gestalt-like or structured stimuli and in initiating motor responses. The authors investigated two hemispherectomized patients in whom the route from the retina to the SC on the hemispherectomized side was left intact. Stimulation of both visual hemifields yielded faster reaction times than single stimulation of the unaffected visual hemifield. The increasing speeds of the reaction times were especially pronounced if the stimuli were gestalt-like but not random shapes. However, this does not justify the assumption that the SC is sufficient to mediate the speeding of reaction times. In hemisperectomized patients, new unusual connections can develop over time, resulting in a projection from the visual hemifield contralateral to the hemispherectomy to the normal healthy cerebral hemisphere. Thus, the healthy hemisphere can represent both visual hemifields. Werth [ 55 ] has already demonstrated that light spots in the visual hemifield contralateral to hemispherectomy can be detected, localized, and reported as seen. In the patient who participated in this study, functional hemispherectomy was performed at the age of 135 months. The fibers targeting the frontal and occipital lobes were completely interrupted by undercutting the white matter underlying the frontal and occipital lobe. Light spots in the visual hemifield contralateral to the affected cerebral hemisphere were detected, locatized, and reported as seen up to 30 deg eccentricity. When light spots were presented in the affected left half of the visual field, functional MRI revealed activity in areas V1, V2, and V4 of the ipsilateral (left) hemisphere. These findings demonstrate that after hemispherectomy new fiber connections can be established contacting the occipital lobe of the hemisphere ipsilateral to the affected visual hemifield. Detailed investigation of visual functions in patients who underwend hemispherectomy in early life have demonstrated a rearrangemant of visual fiber connections to such an extent that stimuli were detected and localized up to 90 degrees eccentricity in the visual hemifield contraleteral to the missing cerebral hemisphere. Werth [ 55 ] reported the case of a 28-month-old child (patient FO) in whom the striate cortex and underlying white matter of the left cerebral hemisphere were replaced by a large cyst. Nevertheless, the child had a normally extended visual field with normal luminance difference thresholds in both visual hemifields. The child located light spots that were presented between 10 and 90 deg eccentricity, directed his gaze towards the stimuli and fixated them. Another patient (GI) [ 55 ] had undergone complete hemispherectomy at 4 months of age. This girl also had a normally extended visual field at the age of 59 months. The child detected light spots presented between 10 and 90 degrees eccentricity, directed eye and head movement towards the stimuli, and fixated them subsequently. However, the luminance difference threshold in the visual hemifield contralateral to the removed cerebral hemisphere was elevated. This demonstrates that a healthy hemisphere can represent both visual hemifields. It may be that the ability of “blindsight” in a visual hemifield contralateral to a removed cerebral hemisphere is also due to fiber connections targeting functional areas of the remaining cerebral hemisphere. However, children in whom the visual cortex and underlying white matter in both cerebral hemispheres are missing may still have a normally extended visual field with normal luminance difference thresholds. The child (KU) about whom Werth [ 55 ] reported, was a 19-month-old girl. The girl had developed a large prosencephalic cyst that was located in the occipital lobe of both cerebral hemispheres. The cyst included Brodman’s areas 17, 18, and 19 of both occipital lobes, both banks of the sulcus calcarinus, gyrus occipitotemporalis medialis, gyrus lingualis, and the cuneus and praecuneus. The child detected and located light spots between 10 and 90 deg eccentricity in both halves of the visual field, directed eye- and head movements to them and fixated them subsequently.

Right superior colliculus (rSC) and right inferior colliculus (rIC) of the human brain. OL: occipital lobe, CB: cerebellum.

6.5. Sensory Capacity of the Human Colliculi

The capacity of the SC ( Figure 3 ) to process sensory information can only be demonstrated in the complete absence of the telencephalon and preserved inferior and superior colliuli. Werth [ 61 ] reported the case of a 6-year-old hydranencephalic boy (patient AG), who regularly directed his head and eyes towards an auditory stimulus, although the child’s telencephalon was completely absent. Only the brainstem including the superior and inferior colliculi and the pretectum was preserved. In another child (patient HE), aged 28 months both cerebral hemispheres were replaced by a liquor filled cyst containing septum-like remnants of glial tissue. Only the brainstem including the pons, superior and inferior colliculi, the pretectum, and remnants of the ventral frontal lobe were preserved. The child was unable to locate light spots presented in her visual field, but regularly followed a face that was presented in the center of the visual field, with eye- and head movements [ 61 ]. If we assume that the presence of the telencephalon is a necessary condition for the emergence of a conscious visual or auditory experience, it could be said that these children also responded unconsciously to visual or auditory stimuli. This presumably unconscious processing of visual or auditory stimuli was mediated by the brain stem, including the inferior and superior colliculi and the pretectum.

6.6. A Functional Visual System Is Not Sufficient for Conscious Visual Experience

If the projection from the retina to the cortex of the occipital lobe is unaffected by a cerebral lesion, and if the function of areas V1–V4 is unimpaired, conscious visual experience can nevertheless be absent. Patients who suffer from a neglect of one half of space after a cerebral lesion, demonstrate that an unimpaired primary and secondary visual system is not sufficient for conscious visual perception. They do not register objects in one half of space to the left or right of their body midline and do not recognize the left or right half of objects. They eat only from one half of a plate and do not notice that the plate has another half, and read only the text on the right half of a sheet and wonder about the incoherence of the text. If they are asked to draw an object, such as a flower, they draw only one half of the flower—usually the right half—and do not recognize that the other half is missing. They do not search for objects in the neglected half of space with eye and head movements, do not wash or dress one half of their body, and shave or apply makeup on only one half of their face [ 184 ]. A survey that also includes French and German literature ([ 185 ], for review), and reviews of the English literature [ 186 , 187 , 188 , 189 ] show that lesions causing a visual neglect of one half of space are predominately located in the the caudal parts of the supramarginal gyrus, angular gyrus, and the superior temporal sulcus of the right cerebral hemisphere. This demonstrates that conscious visual experience can only appear when many brain structures interact with the visual system.

7. Summary and Conclusions

In the present paper, it has been shown that the concepts “conscious visual experience” and “unconscious visual processing” can be introduced in a logically and methodologically correct way in the scientific language. Whether visual performance is classified as conscious or unconscious depends strongly on the experimental procedure used to draw the boundary between conscious and unconscious visual processing of stimuli. It turns out that patients’ claims of seeing nothing in a perimetrically blind visual hemifield and of only guessing the presence, orientation, shape, color or direction of motion of stimuli are not sufficient to determine whether a stimulus elicits a visual or other type of conscious experience. Unconscious processing of visual stimuli (blindsight), the feeling of the presence of a light stimulus, without conscious visual experience, and an elevated threshold for the emergence of conscious visual experience, are a consequence of the loss of neurons, and their dendritic and axonal connections, and downregulation of cell metabolism after damage to the visual cortex. Normal conscious visual experience requires a sufficiently activated number of interconnected neurons with sufficient metabolism. In the complete absence of the visual cortex, blindsight can also be mediated by a secondary visual pathway from the retina via the midbrain to cortical areas V4 and MT/V5.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Introspection and Observation Method in Psychology

Educational psychology is the scientific or systematic study of the behaviour of the learner in relation to his educational environment. This behaviour can be studied by a simple approach called observation. However, this observation method has to be adjusted depending upon the conditions in which observations have to be made, the procedure and tools adopted. The following are the various methods of observation under different situations:

1. Introspection method

The word ' Introspection ' is made up of two Latin words. “ Intro ” meaning within and “ Spection ” meaning looking i.e. looking inwards. Hence it is a method where an individual is looking within one self. This method which is the oldest method of studying behaviour where the learner should make a self-observation. For example, when a person is angry he may be asked to determine how he felt during that period of anger by his own observation.

Introspection method is one of the oldest methods to collect data about the conscious experiences of the subject. It is a process of self–examination where one perceives, analyses and reports one‘s own feelings. Let us learn this process with the help of an example, suppose you are happy and in the state of happiness you look within yourself. It is said you are introspecting your own mental feelings and examining what is going on in your mental process in the state of happiness. Similarly, you may introspect in a state of anger or fear; etc Introspection is also defined as the notice, which the mind takes of itself.

This method is simple, direct, clear and reveals one's behaviour. But this method lacks reliability and can be used only for adult normal human beings. This method requires the support of other methods which are more reliable.

Stages of Introspection

There are three clear stages in introspection-

1. During the observation of external object, the person beings to ponder over his own mental state. For example While listening to music, which is to him pleasant or unpleasant, he starts thinking about his own mental state.

2. The person begins to question the working of his own mind. He thinks and analyses: Why has he said such and such thing? Why has he talked in a particular manner? And so on.

3. He tries to frame the laws and conditions of mental processes: He thinks in terms of improvement of his reasoning or the control of his emotional stages. This stage helps in the advancement of our scientific knowledge.

Merits of Introspection Method

• It is the cheapest and most economical method of studying behaviour. We do not need any apparatus or laboratory for its use.
• This method can be used any time and anywhere. You can introspect while walking, traveling, sitting on a bed & so on.
• It is the easiest method and is readily available to the individual.
• The introspection data is first-hand as the person himself examines his own activities.
• Introspection has generated research which gradually led to the development of more objective methods.
• It is still used in all experimental investigation.
• It is the only method with the help of which an individual can know his emotions and feelings.

Limitations of Introspection Methods

• The data collected by introspection cannot be verified. An individual may not pass through the same mental state again. There is no independent way of checking the data.
• The data collected by introspection lacks validity and reliability. It is impossible to acquire validity and exactness in self- observation of one‘s own mental processes.
• The data collected by introspection in highly subjective. It has danger of being biased and influenced by preconceptions of the individual.
• The observer and the observed are the same. Hence there is ample scope for the individual to lie deliberately and hide the facts to mislead others.
• Introspection cannot be applied to children, animal and abnormal people.
• Introspection is logically defective because one and the same person is the experimenter and observer. It is not possible for the same individual to act as an experimenter as well as an observer. Thus introspection is logically defective.

2. Observation Method

In this method the learner's behaviour is observed under natural conditions by other individuals. Such observation will be interpreted according to the perception of the observer. This helps to find out behaviour by observing a person's external behaviour.

For example, if a person frowns we can say that he is angry. But when we are studying behaviour in natural conditions we have to wait for the event to take place. This method is helpful in studying the behaviour of the children. However, this method will explain only observed behaviour, subjectivity of the investigation may affect the results.

Theories of behaviour can be developed. These experiments require the creation of artificial environment. Therefore, the scope is limited. Human behaviour is very dynamic and unpredictable. This method is also costly and time consuming.

• Case Study Method in Psychology
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Methods of Extrospection: Interview, Questionnaire, Experiment

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Extrospection is introspection turned outward—from the experiencer (ordinary observer or scientist). Its process is thus similar to that of introspection—it is constructive of the knowledge of the object of extrospection. In the human world of experiencing, the results of the extrospection become introspectively consolidated. A questionnaire is an extension of the interview that excludes the direct presence of the researcher from the process of responding. Independent of its administration (on paper, individually or in a group, on computer screen, via Facebook, etc.) or format (open answers, Likert scales, sentence completion tasks, yes/no answers, etc.), it involves the immediate nonavailability of the researcher. The chapter includes the focus on two inductions (C. L. Morgan). The three-step interviewing tactic, double-blank sentence completion tests are outlined. A special analysis of the qualitative structure of Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment is included. The contrast between various methods that is basic is that between stability-oriented and process-oriented kinds. The methods described in this chapter were all process oriented in their nature. This follows the general assumption of the open-systemic nature of all psychological phenomena where even stability is dynamic (steady state).

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In contrast to formal—exemplified by signatures on pieces of paper called “consent forms”—as symbolic products of legal consequences but possible symbolic remove from the phenomena.

Note that the latter case coincides to the fate of the manifest answers (“yes” or “no”) in the Würzburg method of introspection (Chap. 6 above), while it is the qualitative explanation that attains the status of the data.

Even in the simplest laboratory experiments with lower psychological functions, the theatrical moment is present. Consider a reaction time task where the researcher instructs the participant to “react as quickly as you can ” to a particular stimulus. The demand— as quickly as you can— is a demand upon the acting by the actor, whose counter-interpretations of the task (see Fig. 6.2) determine what the actual performance is like.

That study has even led to transposition into neurosciences where the result of running it in the fMRI “tube” context has been claimed to show the importance of different brain areas in case of non-conformity (Berns et al. 2005 ). Discovering the concurrent activation of the amygdala and relating it to emotional activation is a result where the latter psychological side was evident in the classic study itself. Demonstrating that psychological functions are based on differential brain activation does not give us any evidence of either neuronal or psychological processes. It is the process—cultural regulation—of emotional upheaval under pressure of social discrepancies that escapes neuroscientific efforts.

Note that the group of confederates and the experimental subject were not selected as a small group with its own integration history (e.g., group of friends, relatives, sports team members), but was a quasi-self-selected “bunch” of college students. In this sense it could be considered a “minimal crowd” rather than a group.

The process of “scoring” seems to indicate quantification (attributing a score to an event) but can also be done in qualitative ways (in nominal scale—attaching a category label to an event). In both cases the dynamic constructed data become treated as if ontological givens.

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Valsiner, J. (2017). Methods of Extrospection: Interview, Questionnaire, Experiment. In: From Methodology to Methods in Human Psychology . SpringerBriefs in Psychology(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61064-1_7

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What kind of god does buber’s “i-thou” offer to the world: an introduction to buber’s religious thought  †, 1. on the difficulty in explaining the primary words at the center of buber’s thought.

• The world is two-fold for man in accordance with his two-fold attitude.
• The attitude of man is two-fold in accordance with the two basic words he can speak.
• The basic words are not single words but word pairs.
• One basic word is the word pair I-You (=I-Thou).
• The other basic word is the word pair I-It, but this basic word is not changed when He or She takes the place of It.
• Thus, the I of man is also two-fold.
• For the I of the basic word I-You (=I-Thou) is different from that in the basic word I-It.

[…] in the final analysis one cannot make a clear distinction between Thou and It. The branching-off of Thou from It is not to be grasped in clear concepts. ( Bloch 1984b, p. 60 ) 2

Buber distinguishes between two “primary words”: the primary word of I-Thou, and that of I-It. A person’s “I” also has two countenances [i.e., how he relates to the other]. The “I” of the I-Thou primary word is not the same as that of the I-It primary word. The I-Thou relation requires effort and energy from both sides of the dialogue, and this energy wanes. The “objective” “It” does not demand of us the special efforts which are required by the “Thou”, with which we have a direct relation. The bounds of our capability to contain, of our preparedness vis-a-vis the other, are limited. The busy physician cannot mobilize the necessary mental powers for the realization of I-Thou, and for him the patient is transformed from “Thou” to nameless “case”, to “It”. This is also true for the social worker, and for all of us as regards our attitude to the other. ( Bergman 1968, cols. 682–83 ) 3

The address itself […] when one person turns to another in conversation and calls him by his name—frees the Thou from the surroundings, and when the person with whom I am talking turns to me, this relationship is created. ( Bergman 1991, p. 227 )

When Jephthah calls his daughter “my daughter” (Judg. 11:35), or when David laments “I am distressed for you my brother Jonathan” (Sam. 1:26), on the other hand, there is in the address what Buber has called ‘exclusiveness’. The Thou is taken out of the surroundings and is no longer contiguous with it, as the paper is to the table on which it rests. ( Bergman 1991, pp. 226–27 )

2. On the Meaning of the Primary Words “I-Thou” and “I-It”

the lust to make use [in verbal communication] […] in his relation to men remaining as in a relation to things; to things, moreover, with which he will never enter into relation, which he is indeed eager to rob of their distance 15 and independence. ( Buber 1988a, p. 59 )

The evocative rhetoric of I and Thou misleads the reader into a feeling of having understood, which does not stand up to close examination. My objection is that the center of Buber’s thought lies outside the objectifying, noetic 20 domain of critical philosophy since Descartes. Our task in dealing with Buber’s work is to thematize the practical components in a philosophically appropriate manner: to pay attention not only to its concepts and logic, but also to the dynamics of intersubjective relations which accompany his logic, or are mixed in with it—the delicate or direct play of the struggle for power over and influence on the Other, the pressure toward a desired change and the resistance of the other to that pressure, in short, the game that is played whenever two or more people confront each other. 21 Buber’s interest in problems of psychotherapy shows his sensitivity to the dynamic aspect of language, and only from this aspect can he be adequately understood. ( Wachinger 1984 ; see also Kosman 2007a, pp. 511–16 )

3. The Basic Word I-It

• I settled in with a pile of books in my living room in order to prepare the material for an article that I committed myself to write by a specific date for a prestigious journal.
• All of a sudden, my eyes started closing and I thought that I should take a short nap.
• I left the books, but on my way to my bed I remembered that my wife would soon return from work. I knew that she would be upset by such a pile of books in the living room.
• Now, a silent battle is being waged within me between two voices. 22 On the one hand, since I was so tired, I did not marshal my flagging strength for this paltry task to return the pile of books to my already overflowing study, knowing full well that I would have to return them to the living room when I went back to working. On the other hand, I also knew that if I would not clean up the living room and fell asleep, this would result in tension between me and my wife. This tension would not be pleasant for me, and not only that, it would waste precious time.
• The rational consideration won out over my tiredness and laziness. I went back to the living room and returned the pile of books to my study.

This essential two-foldness cannot be overcome by invoking a “world of ideas” as a third element that might transcend this opposition. For I speak only of the actual human being, of you and me, of our life and our world, not of any I-in-itself and not of any Being-in-itself. ( Buber 1970, pp. 64–65 ) 23

• The striving-for: For weeks, I was driven by the need for results, to finish the academic work that I had taken upon myself. On the one hand, I wanted to remove the tenseness of this situation and enjoy some peace (homeostasis); on the other hand, there was also the desire for the pleasure I would derive from completing this work. Additionally, in my heart of hearts, I anticipated the enhanced power of the “cultural capital” 24 at my disposal. In my mind’s eye, I imagined that society would appreciate the greatness of my contribution and reward me for it in some way or another.
• Physical tiredness: The tiredness that suddenly came over me prevented me from seeking a solution that would reduce my suffering. My urge to get up and leave my work in the middle ensued from the thought that sleep would assuage the physical suffering that I felt at that moment. Moreover, I knew that while sleeping I would gain new energy, which I would put to good use when I resumed my work.

The fact of the Other is incontestable and touches me to the heart. I realize him through uneasiness; through him I am perpetually in danger . ( Sartre 1966, p. 275 ) 29

The other is not only the one whom I see; to the same degree, he sees me. And just as, while seeing, I turn him into an object, so, too, while seeing, he turns me into an object. By his turning me into an object, by clipping my wings, by his freezing me, the other constitutes for me (and I for him) a constant threat. ( Dreyfus 1993, p. 152 ) 30

The life of a human being does not exist merely in the sphere of goal-directed verbs. It does not consist merely of activities that have something for their object.

All this and its like is the basis of the realm of It. ( Buber 1970, p. 54 )

Now I confidently maintain that what opens the hand of the above-described […] loveless doer of good, who is indifferent to the sufferings of others, can never be anything […] but a slavish deisidaimonía [=Greek: superstition, irrational fear], no matter whether he calls his fetish “categorical imperative” or Fitzlipuzli [=a Mexican deity]. For what except fear could move a hard heart? ( Schopenhauer 1995, p. 66 ) 34

4. The Basic Word I-Thou

I am sure you all know the story of the engineer who wrote a very long and learned paper about how the bumble bee cannot possibly fly by the laws of aerodynamics; but the bumble bee does fly […] Therefore the trick is not to ground the bumble bee, but to adjust the laws of aerodynamics […] The “I-Thou” flies , and the job of the philosopher is not to show that the “I-Thou” doesn’t fly, but to show how we must readjust our ontology, our logic, our categories of thought, to deal with this, or at least cope with it. ( Wyschogrod 1984, p. 115 ) 40

[…] another’s suffering in itself and as such directly becomes my motive […] not only restrains me from injuring another, but even impels me to help him. Now according as, on the one hand, that direct participation is keenly and deeply felt, and, on the other, the distress of someone else is great and urgent, I shall be induced by that purely moral motive to make a greater or smaller sacrifice for another’s needs or distress. Such sacrifice may consist in an expenditure of my bodily and mental powers on his behalf, in the loss of property, health, freedom, and even life itself. ( Schopenhauer 1995, p. 163 ) 43

But now how is it possible for a suffering which is not mine and does not touch me to become just as directly a motive as only my own normally does, and to move me to action? As I have said, only by the fact that although it is given to me merely as something external, merely by means of external intuitive perception or knowledge, I nevertheless feel it with him, feel it as my own , and yet not within me , but in another person ; and thus there occurs what is expressed by Calderon: 44 que entre el ver Padecer y el padecer Ninguna distancia habia. (“No siempre el peor es cierto”, Jornale , II, p. 229) (“that there is no difference between suffering and seeing suffering”) ( Schopenhauer 1995, p. 165 )

But this presupposes that to a certain extent I have identified myself with the other man, and in consequence the barrier between the ego and non-ego is for the moment abolished; only then do the other man’s affairs, his need, distress, and suffering, directly become my own. I no longer look at him as if he were something given to me by empirical intuitive perception, as something strange and foreign, as a matter of indifference, as something entirely different from me. On the contrary, I share the suffering in him , in spite of the fact that his skin does not enclose my nerves. Only in this way can his woe, his distress, become a motive for me ; otherwise, it can be absolutely only my own. I repeat that this occurrence is mysterious , for it is something our faculty of reason can give no direct account of, and its grounds cannot be discovered on the path of experience. ( Schopenhauer 1995, p. 166 )

Simone Weil’s idea was to serve mankind and so she again and again took to heavy manual labor on the land, but her soul was always put to flight by reality. And she began with her own reality: she contested the “I”; it was one’s duty, she thought, to slay the “I” in oneself. “We possess nothing in this world”, she wrote, “other than the power to say I. This is what we should yield up to God, and that is what we should destroy”. ( Buber 1967c, p. 210 )

Such a basic orientation is, indeed, diametrically opposed to Judaism; for the real relationship taught by Judaism is a bridge that spans across two firm pillars, man’s “I” and the “I” of his eternal partner. It is thus the relation between man and God, thus also the relation between man and man. Judaism rejects the “I” that connotes selfishness and pride, but it welcomes and affirms the “I” of the real relationship, the “I” of the partnership between I and Thou, the “I” of love. For love does not invalidate the “I”; on the contrary, it binds the “I” more closely to the “Thou”. It does not say: “Thou are loved” but “I love Thee”. 55

In intimate or problematic situations, each must speak in humility of how they feel. It is simply a statement of facts with no justification, no interpretation. We must not look for a conclusion. If we allow the situation complete freedom from evaluation and judgment and pressure to find a conclusion, many things appear which do not belong to our memory.

The more powerful the response, the more powerfully it ties down the You [=Thou] and as by a spell binds it into an object. Only silence toward the You [=Thou], the silence of all tongues, the taciturn waiting in the unformed, undifferentiated, prelinguistic word leaves the You [=Thou] free and stands together with it in reserve where the spirit does not manifest itself but is. All response binds the You [=Thou] into the It-world. ( Buber 1970, p. 89 )

This truth is not a What but a How. Not the matter of a deed determines its truth but the manner in which it is carried out: in human conditionality, or in divine unconditionality. Whether a deed will peter out in the outer courtyard, in the realm of things, or whether it will penetrate into the Holy of Holies is determined not by its content but by the power of decision which brought it about, and by the sanctity of intent that dwells in it. Every deed, even one numbered among the most profane, is holy when it is performed in holiness, in unconditionality. ( Buber 1977a, p. 87 ) 65

It has come to the point where the human language has become two languages, built upon one another’s destruction: one, an internal language, that of the individual and the soul, in which what is essential is ‘how?’ as in music—the domain of poetry; the other, the external language, that of abstraction and generalization, in which the essential is ‘what?’ as mathematics—the domain of logic. 66

5. Belief in God and Revelation in Buber’s Thought

Religions speak of God in the third person, mostly as a He. People seldom realize the extent to which this pronoun is already an anthropomorphism or, more correctly, to what extent this pronoun means a displacement of God into the world of things […] into the creation that has run away from God. In other words, in [the] history [of religions] God is a thing. (From the seventh of the “Religion as Presence” lectures, in Horwitz 1988, p. 108 ) 68

The third-person God was invented [according to Buber] by human imagination, a figment of the imagination which is fed by the worldly at the expense of the experiences from this world. This is a creation in the image of man which is anthropomorphic. It can take shape in the image of God or the image of an idol or in the nonmaterial abstraction of metaphysics. ( Horwitz 1989, p. 179 ) 69

But I have not been at all concerned about a metaphysical thesis. Rather, I have been concerned about establishing the simple fact that I do not mean by ‘God’ the highest idea but that which can be fit into no pyramid as its apex, and that, accordingly, the link between God and man does not go by way of the universals, but by way of concrete life. ( Buber 1967b, p. 694 . The translation is mime)

But I am absolutely not capable nor even disposed to teach this or that about God. Certainly, when I seek to explain the fact of man, I cannot leave out of consideration that he, man, lives over against God. But I cannot include God himself at any point in my explanation. ( Buber 1967b, p. 690 ) 76

He [Buber] wanted a religion in which the individual could address God and be addressed by God, 77 but a religion that left no room to talk about God. ( Kaufmann 1984a, p. 17 )

Buber’s ‘I-You [=Thou]’ relation is one that can only be of short duration, but its significance is that after one has had an ‘I-You [=Thou]’ relation with the divine, the ‘It-World’ is transformed. There are, so to speak, [according to Buber] two sorts of ‘I-It’ relations: mere ‘I-It’ relations and transformed ‘I-It’ relations. ( Putnam 2008, p. 63 ) 82

Feelings dwell in man, but man dwells in his love […] love does not cling to an I, as if the You [=Thou] were merely its “content” or object; it is between I and You [=Thou]. Whoever does not know this, know this with his being, does not know love. ( Buber 1970, p. 66 ) 86

[…] it is senseless to ask how far my action reaches, and where God’s grace begins; there is no common border-line; what concerns me alone, before I bring something about, is my action, and what concerns me alone, when the action is successfully done, is God’s grace. The one is no less real than the other, and neither is a part-cause. ( Buber 1948a, p. 110 ) 88

6. “Hebrew Humanist” versus the “Arbitrary Man”

Extended, the lines of relationships intersect in the eternal You [=Thou]. Every single You [=Thou] is a glimpse of that. Through every single You [=Thou] the basic word addresses the eternal You [=Thou]. The relationship of the You [=Thou] of all beings accounts for the fullness of our relationships to them—and for the lack of fulfillment. The innate You [=Thou] is actualized each time without ever being perfected. It attains perfection solely in the immediate relationship to the You [=Thou] that in accordance with its nature cannot become an It. ( Buber 1970, p. 123 )

Creation is not a hurdle on the road to God, it is the road itself. We are created along with one another and directed to a life with one another. Creatures are placed in my way so that I, their fellow-creature, by means of them and with them find the way to God. ( Buber 2002d, p. 60 )

Above and below are bound to one another. The word of him who wishes to speak with men without speaking with God is not fulfilled; but the word of him who wishes to speak with God without speaking with men goes astray. ( Buber 2002a, p. 18 ) 91

I do not know of any other proper way to convey what I believe, what Hasidism taught me to believe: that the divine being is concealed in things and objects, and that I have no way to sense this being, but only incidental to sincere contact with them, incidental to contact of I and Thou. In this contact, however, I have the way to act upon it, I have the way to perform a ‘redemptive’ action upon it. ( Buber 1945, p. 6 )

But the Other for Sartre is he who “looks at” me, who makes me into an object, as I make him. The idea of God, moreover, he also understands as that of an inescapable witness, and if that is so, “What need have we of God? The Other is enough, no matter what other”. ( Buber 2016c, pp. 55–56 )

But what if God is not the quintessence of the Other, but rather its absoluteness? 94 And what if it is not primarily the reciprocal relation of subject and object which exists between me and the other, but rather the reciprocal relation of I and Thou? ( Buber 2016c, p. 56 )

[…] there are other differences between secular [i.e., empty of any foundation of faith, in Freibach-Heifetz’s definition] grace and I-Thou relationship. The most important of them concerns individuality: secular grace is not understood as a foundation of the self, 97 indeed the opposite, grace (at least from the perspective of the inviter) is an existential choice of the self that is already established, as an expression of individualistic self-realization, completely unlike Buber’s self-individualist position. The difference is also expressed in the understanding of self-love: according to Buber, self-love is a delusion, and it’s possible for a person to love himself only by means of mutual love with the other. 98 In secular grace, self-love does not depend on love of the other, but vice-versa. This also means that the I-Thou—unlike grace—involves responsibility. ( Freibach-Heifetz 2017, pp. 94–95 )

Precisely what appears to us as the highest form of piety—to let everything earthly go—is the highest egoism. ( Buber 2002d, p. 66 )

7. Applying the Dialogical Idea in the Everyday Life of the Modern Individual: The Disagreement between Buber and the Opponent

“In all this actuality of our present life, the conditioned nature of life as a whole is not taken into account. All that you speak of takes place in the never-never-land, not in the social context of the world in which we spend our days, and by which if by anything our reality is defined. Your ‘two men’ [=in the imagined ‘dialogue’] sit on a solitary seat, obviously during a holiday journey. In a big city office, you would not be able to let them sit, they would not reach the ‘sacramental’ there […] That may be quite interesting for people who are not taken up with any duty. But is the business employee to ‘communicate himself without reserve’ to his colleagues? Is the worker at the conveyor belt to ‘feel himself addressed in what he experiences’? Is the leader of a gigantic technical undertaking to ‘practice the responsibility of dialogue’? You demand that we enter into the situation which approaches us, and you neglect the enduring situation in which everyone of us, so far as we share in the life of community, is elementally placed”. ( Buber 2002a, pp. 39–40 )

I beg you to notice that I do not demand. I have no call to that and no authority for it. I try only to say that there is something, and to indicate how it is made: I simply record. And how could the life of dialogue be demanded? There is no ordering of dialogue. It is not that you are to answer but that you are able . ( Buber 2002a, p. 40 )

Yes, precisely him I mean, him in the factory, in the shop, in the office, in the mine, on the tractor, at the printing-press: man […] Dialogue is not an affair of spiritual luxury and spiritual luxuriousness, it is a matter of creation, of the creature, and he is that, the man of whom I speak. ( Buber 2002a, p. 41 )

But I am not concerned with the pure. I am concerned with the turbid, the repressed, the pedestrian, with toil and dull contraryness. ( Buber 2002a, p. 41 )

With the break-through and not with a perfection […] not with the great catastrophic break-through which happens once for all (it is fitting to be silent for a while about that, even in one’s own heart), but with the breaking through from the status of the dully-tempered disagreeableness, obstinacy, and contraryness in which the man, whom I pluck at random out of the tumult, is living and out of which he can and at times does break through. Whither? Into nothing exalted, heroic or holy […] only into this tiny strictness and grace of every day […] glance to glance, look to look, word to word […] And now, in all the clanking of routine that I called my reality, 100 there appears to me, homely and glorious, the effective reality, creaturely and given to me in trust and responsibility. ( Buber 2002a, pp. 41–42 ; cf. Frankl 1963, pp. 212–13 )

No factory and no office is so abandoned by creation that a creative glance could not fly up from one working-place to another, from desk to desk, a sober and brotherly glance which guarantees the reality of creation which is happening— quantum satis [the amount which is enough]. And nothing is so valuable a service of dialogue between God and man as such an unsentimental 102 and unreserved exchange of glances between two men in an alien place. ( Buber 2002a, p. 42 )

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

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Kosman, A. What Kind of God Does Buber’s “I-Thou” Offer to the World: An Introduction to Buber’s Religious Thought. Religions 2024 , 15 , 794. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070794

Kosman A. What Kind of God Does Buber’s “I-Thou” Offer to the World: An Introduction to Buber’s Religious Thought. Religions . 2024; 15(7):794. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070794

Kosman, Admiel. 2024. "What Kind of God Does Buber’s “I-Thou” Offer to the World: An Introduction to Buber’s Religious Thought" Religions 15, no. 7: 794. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070794

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