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Conclusions, author contributions, acknowledgments, competing interests, supplemental material, using case studies to improve the critical thinking skills of undergraduate conservation biology students.

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Ana L. Porzecanski , Adriana Bravo , Martha J. Groom , Liliana M. Dávalos , Nora Bynum , Barbara J. Abraham , John A. Cigliano , Carole Griffiths , David L. Stokes , Michelle Cawthorn , Denny S. Fernandez , Laurie Freeman , Timothy Leslie , Theresa Theodose , Donna Vogler , Eleanor J. Sterling; Using Case Studies to Improve the Critical Thinking Skills of Undergraduate Conservation Biology Students. Case Studies in the Environment 5 February 2021; 5 (1): 1536396. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/cse.2021.1536396

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Critical thinking (CT) underpins the analytical and systems-thinking capacities needed for effective conservation in the 21st century but is seldom adequately fostered in most postsecondary courses and programs. Many instructors fear that devoting time to process skills will detract from content gains and struggle to define CT skills in ways relevant for classroom practice. We tested an approach to develop and assess CT in undergraduate conservation biology courses using case studies to address both challenges. We developed case studies with exercises to support content learning goals and assessment rubrics to evaluate student learning of both content and CT skills. We also developed a midterm intervention to enhance student metacognitive abilities at a light and intensive level and asked whether the level of the intervention impacted student learning. Data from over 200 students from five institutions showed an increase in students’ CT performance over a single term, under both light and intensive interventions, as well as variation depending on the students’ initial performance and on rubric dimension. Our results demonstrate adaptable and scalable means for instructors to improve CT process skills among undergraduate students through the use of case studies and associated exercises, aligned rubrics, and supported reflection on their CT performance.

Educating the next generation of professionals to address complex conservation and environmental challenges involves more than teaching disciplinary principles, concepts, and content—it also requires cultivating core competencies in critical thinking (CT), collaboration, and communication [ 1 , 2 ]. CT skills are key desired outcomes of college and university education [ 3 ] and can strongly influence how students make life decisions [ 4 ]. Unfortunately, college graduates in the United States appear to lack strong CT skills despite several years of instruction [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. This may be due to overreliance on teaching and assessment approaches that emphasize mastery of large volumes of content and offer few opportunities to think critically while acquiring and using knowledge [ 8 , 9 ]. Courses that take an alternative approach, using active, collaborative, or inquiry-based approaches to learning could contribute to both long-term retention of knowledge and CT skills [ 10 , 11 , 12 ].

Using case studies to support active, inquiry-based approaches can be especially effective [ 13 , 14 ]. Case study pedagogies are well suited to supporting the development of CT skills because of their sustained focus on a theme with applications in a specific setting and the opportunity to emphasize distinct steps in the processes of understanding and analyzing issues that comprise essential CT skills. Creating exercises that foster CT using a case study approach combines strengths from both inquiry-based and case study–based best practices.

While definitions vary, CT is broadly recognized as “a habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of issues and evidence before accepting or formulating an opinion or conclusion” [ 15 ]. CT involves higher-order thinking skills, as well as a suite of concrete capacities, including the ability to select, analyze, infer, interpret, evaluate, and explain information, as well as draw conclusions based on varied and conflicting evidence [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Not confined to specific analytical tasks, strong CT skills support the ability to think in a complex manner and to process and assess diverse inputs in a constantly changing environment [ 17 ]. This capacity is essential to effective decision-making, problem solving, and adaptive management in conservation research and practice, particularly in addressing the tradeoffs and multiplicity of perspectives at the core of environmental concerns.

CT has been a focus of K–12 educational and cognitive researchers, who show that explicit instruction can enhance learning of CT skills [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Unfortunately, adoption of these ideas and practices has been slower in tertiary STEM education [ 22 ]. Educators in undergraduate science classrooms rarely prioritize explicit direct instruction in CT skills or their assessment, fearing compromising the time available for “coverage” of content [ 6 , 23 ]. Thus, many instructors rely on teaching and assessing core content, assuming the CT skills will automatically develop along with deeper disciplinary knowledge [ 17 , 24 ]. Further, educators typically lack training on CT instruction [ 25 ]. Perhaps not surprisingly, on average, very small or empirically nonexistent gains in CT or complex reasoning skills have been found in a large proportion of students over the course of 4-year college programs [ 6 , 7 , 26 ].

Besides the potential to enhance learning outcomes, an emphasis on CT skills through more active and collaborative learning can also promote equal opportunity in STEM and boost completion rates. It has been shown that these approaches to teaching and learning can enhance learning for underrepresented groups in science [ 27 ] and could also boost performance and hence retention in the field in the midst of current high attrition rates in STEM [ 28 ].

Our experience running faculty professional development programs in diverse contexts over several years [ 29 ] has shown that faculty in diverse learning contexts seek and welcome evidence-based guidance on teaching and assessment practices that promote CT. Given only informal preparation on building CT skills and a curricular focus on essential disciplinary concepts, instructors often search for guidelines on how to incorporate these practices while supporting the simultaneous learning of concepts. Case studies can provide a particularly strong way to support the enhancement of CT skills that are adaptable for individual instructors.

To better understand the investment in time and effort needed for conservation students to learn process skills and for faculty to develop efficient teaching tools, we designed a multi-institutional study on three fundamental process skills: oral communication [ 30 ], data analysis [ 31 ], and CT. These different skills were selected to match the diverse interests of the participating faculty and were targeted by different faculty in different “arms” of the study (in different institutions, courses, and groups of students) to allow for comparison among results. Here we report on the results for CT. A key component of this portion of the study was the use of case studies to foster both content and skill development.

Our study design built on evidence showing that case study exercises help reinforce concept knowledge, as well as cognitive skills, and further, that repetition and reflection [ 32 ] support development of higher-order thinking skills. We investigated three questions: (1) Does instructor emphasis on CT skills—providing metacognitive support for reflection on their performance at light and intensive levels—influence the magnitude of individual CT skill gains? (2) Do students show similar responses for the different dimensions of CT learning, or are any of them more challenging than others? and (3) How does our intervention influence students at different initial achievement levels?

To address these questions, we first created and validated instructional materials in the form of case study exercises and assessment rubrics designed to develop and assess four main dimensions of CT skills (see below) and piloted these materials in diverse classroom settings across five institutions. We assessed student learning using a common rubric to score CT performance on two case study–based exercises, and using an independent assessment of CT skills (The Critical Thinking Assessment Test (CAT) [ 33 ]), applied at the start and end of each course. To address the frequent concern of instructors regarding trade-off with content learning, we investigated these questions while also measuring content gains. A key aim of this study was to develop and use approaches for active teaching using case studies that instructors can readily adopt as part of their regular teaching practices.

Developing, Validating, and Implementing Assessment Tools

Between April and July 2011, we created and validated a set of instructional materials based on case studies designed to develop CT skills (Instructional Unit for CT skills). The Instructional Unit consisted of (1) Case Study Exercise 1 on amphibian declines, with a solution file, (2) Case Study Exercise 2 on invasive species, with a solution file, (3) a pre/post content knowledge assessment for each exercise, (4) a student’s pre/post self-assessment of their CT skills, (5) our CT Rubric, and (6) the files associated with the intensive versus light Teaching Intervention, including a third brief Case Study on climate change used in the intensive intervention, with a solution file. The complete Instructional Unit as used in the study, as well as updated versions of the case studies, can be downloaded from the website of the Network of Conservation Educators and Practitioners (NCEP). 1

Development and Validation of the CT Rubric and Case Study Exercises

To evaluate student CT performance, we developed a rubric based on elements found in existing and available rubrics (e.g., Washington State University’s Guide to Rating Critical & Integrative Thinking from 2006, and Northeastern Illinois University CT Rubric from 2006) and the VALUE Rubric for CT [ 34 ]. The resulting rubric included descriptions of four performance levels (from 1 to 4) for four dimensions of CT: (1) explanation of issues or problems, (2) selection and use of information, (3) evaluation of the influence of context and assumptions, and (4) reaching positions or drawing conclusions. The final rubric drew on broadly validated rubrics and was adapted by a core group of eight participating project faculty at a workshop in 2011. Using a collaborative and participatory approach to rubric development, we sought to validate rubric content, ensure familiarity of faculty participants with the rubric, and minimize scoring differences among project participants.

We then developed two exercises based on real-world case studies, as recommended by the Vision and Change Report [ 1 ]. Case study topics were selected to correspond to core topics that could be incorporated into all courses with minimal syllabus disruption. We developed Case Study Exercise 1 with a focus on threats to biodiversity, specifically on understanding the causes of amphibian declines. We adapted Case Study Exercise 2 on the topic of invasive species, specifically on rusty crayfish in the Eastern United States, from a version previously published by the NCEPs ( http://ncep.amnh.org ). Each case study exercise contained three main parts: (1) a short introduction and instructions to the exercise, (2) the case study, and (3) a section with questions designed to prompt students’ CT skills in relation to the case. Each case study exercise was designed to teach conservation biology content in alignment with the CT skills assessed in the rubric; it included questions and tasks intended to elicit student performance in each of the four CT dimensions described in the rubric.

Implementation of the Case Study Exercises and CT Interventions

Between August 2011 and August 2013, we implemented the Instructional Unit following the experimental design shown in figure 1 in upper-level conservation biology courses given at five U.S. higher education institutions ( table 1 ). Case Study Exercise 1 was administered within the first 2 weeks of class as a preassessment and Case Study Exercise 2 was administered within the last 2 weeks of class in the term as a postassessment (see figure 1 ). To guide and facilitate data collection, we provided each professor with a scoring guide to assign points to answers to each question in the case study exercise and a spreadsheet to enter points. Scores from specific questions were assigned to one of the four CT dimensions. Professors then reported these final scores on each dimension of the rubric to the students. Scores from both case study exercises contributed toward students’ grades.

Experimental design and main questions within and across terms. The discontinuous arrow between Light and Intensive Teaching Interventions (TI) indicates an interchangeable order. Abbreviations are as follows: CAT = Critical Thinking Assessment Test; CE Ex = case study exercise. Not all students completed all components, so total sample size differs in our analyses of these data. N ranged from 52 to 82 for completion of the pre-/postcase study exercise content assessments for the specific case studies, with N = 113 total for the light teaching intervention and N = 103 total for the intensive teaching intervention. For CT skill gains across the case study exercises, N = 216. For the pre- and postcourse student-self assessments, N = 76 for the light and 79 for the intensive teaching intervention. N = 78 for the light and 71 for the intensive teaching interventions for the pre- and postcourse CAT tests.

Institution Type, Student Level, Class Size, and Term When the Instructional Unit With the Intensive (ITI) and/or Light (LTI) Teaching Intervention Was Used for Each Participating Course.

a Following the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education http://classifications.carnegiefoundation.org/ .

b Class size = average number of students enrolled in ITI and LTI sections of the course.

We evaluated whether students gained CT skills, content knowledge, and self-confidence in their skills in courses that used the Instructional Unit with one of two levels of teaching intervention: light and intensive. The intervention differed in the amount of time spent in class and the level of reflection required from the students. In the light intervention, students were only given the CT rubric and their scores from the first exercise, while in the intensive intervention, students received the same and also worked in groups around the CT rubric on an additional case over a single class period, followed by individual reflection on how to improve their performance in CT. Using both interventions in the same course, but during different academic terms, we investigated whether the intensity of emphasis on CT in a course influences students’ overall CT gains.

In addition, we conducted an independent assessment of CT gains under the two interventions. At the beginning and end of each course, we administered the Critical Thinking Assessment Test (CAT), a published, validated instrument developed by the Center for Assessment & Improvement of Learning at Tennessee Tech University (CAIL at TTU [ 33 ]; see figure 1 ). The CAT is a 1-h written test consisting of 15 questions that assesses student performance in evaluation and interpretation of graphical and written information, problem solving, identifying logical fallacies or needs for information to evaluate a claim, understanding the limitations of correlational data, and developing alternative explanations for a claim. These CT dimensions were comparable to those we evaluated in our rubric, particularly those under Evidence, Influence of context and assumptions , and Conclusions .

Further, to examine whether explicit instruction in CT skills was more influential than explicit instruction in other skills, the CAT assessments were also given in the other two arms of the study that evaluated interventions designed to improve data analysis [ 31 ] and oral communication skills [ 30 ]. Unfortunately, only one instructor in the oral communication study applied the CAT instrument, so we restricted comparison to the data analysis study, where four instructors applied the CAT in their courses.

We scored batches of completed CAT tests in nine full-day scoring sessions, including only tests for which we have both a pre- and postcourse test from the same student ( N = 290 total; CT study, N = 149; data analysis study, N = 141). In each session, we scored a sample of tests from across multiple institutions, study arms, and intervention levels, and each test was assigned a numerical code so that all scoring was blind. Following CAT procedures, scoring rigorously adhered to CAT scoring rubrics and was discussed by the scoring group as needed to ensure inter-scorer reliability. The CAT tests and scores were then sent to Tennessee Tech University for independent assessment, cross-validation, and analysis. For 2 of the 15 questions, the CAT scoring performed by our team was more generous than norms for these assessments performed nationally, but otherwise scores fell within those norms (results not included; analysis performed by CAIL at TTU). However, this did not affect the use of this tool as an independent assessment of CT skill gains because the scoring sessions were internally consistent and apply to both pre- and postcourse scores.

The project received an exemption from the AMNH Institutional Review Board (IRB 09-24-2010) and the Stony Brook University IRB (265533-1), and the other institutions operated under these exemptions.

A total of 217 students from five upper-level Conservation Biology courses completed both case study exercises over one term. We excluded one student who obtained the maximum score on both exercises while using the light intervention because no improvement was possible, leaving us with N = 216 students in this study. To assess CT skills, content knowledge, and self-confidence, we calculated changes in student performance using normalized change values ( c ) [ 35 ] and compared pre- and postassessments with paired Wilcoxon signed-rank tests [ 36 ]. The two teaching intervention groups (light and intensive) were assessed independently. Changes in the proportions of students scoring in a given quartile before and after the interventions were analyzed using χ 2 tests. We tested for the effect of instructional emphasis using the light versus intensive intervention with a linear mixed-effects model. Online Appendix 1 has additional description of these analyses.

Because we found no differences among courses given at the different institutions, and CAT test samples were homoscedastic, a repeated-measures ANOVA was used on data pooled across institutions. This ANOVA tested overall differences across teaching interventions, across instructional units, and effects on gains for specific skills measured in the CAT. All calculations and statistical analyses were performed in R [ 37 ].

Gains in CT Skills as Measured by Performance Over the Instructional Unit

Most students gained CT skills in each term, as measured by their relative CT performance on the two case study exercises ( figure 2 ). In terms where a light intervention was used ( N = 113 students), 81 students (72%) gained CT skills (positive c value), improving their performance, on average, by 34%. With the intensive intervention ( N = 103 students), 79 students (77%) gained in skills, improving by 37% ( table 2 ).

Percent scores for Case Study Exercises 1 and 2 used as pre- and postassessment of critical thinking skills, respectively, under the light and intensive teaching interventions (TI). Asterisks indicate significant differences ( p < .001) tested with the paired Wilcoxon paired signed rank test. In addition, differences in the percent scores were not equally distributed across quartiles in both the light ( N = 113; X 2 = 23.415, p = .0005) and intensive comparisons ( N = 103; X 2 = 31.893, p = .0005), and the contingency tables indicated shifts in frequency from the bottom quartile before the intervention to the highest quartile after the intervention.

Overall Average Gains for Conservation Biology Courses That Used the Instructional Unit for Critical Thinking With the Light (LTI) and Intensive Teaching Interventions (ITI).

Notes: n.s. = no significant gains between Case Study Exercises 1 and 2 using a paired Wilcoxon signed-rank test.

a Percentage of students that gained skills in parenthesis.

b average normalized gains ± mean standard error.

** Highly significant, * significant.

Significant shifts in performance between the first and second case study exercises were notable in both the light and intensive intervention, based on χ 2 analysis that indicates shifts in frequency from the bottom quartile before the intervention to the highest quartile after the intervention. We found no significant effect of the level of intervention on mean skill gains ( N = 216 students; F (1,216) = 1.359; p = .18). However, the level of intervention was associated with differential gains when students are grouped by initial level of performance, above or below the median; only in the intensive intervention did those performing above the median also show significant gains ( table 2 ). Under the light intervention, 54 students scored below the median of 66%, and 59 scored equal to or above the median in Case Study Exercise 1. Students below the median had greater gains than students with scores equal to or above the median. Students below the median improved their performance by an average of 41%, with 81% of them showing gains ( table 2 ). Students equal to or above the median improved their CT skills by an average of 27%, with 63% of them showing gains.

Under the intensive intervention, 48 students scored below the median score of 64%, and 55 scored equal to or above the median score in Case Study Exercise 1. Students below the median improved by an average of 44% with 90% of them showing gains, while students equal to or above the median improved their CT skills on average by 29% with 65% of them having gains ( table 2 ).

A detailed analysis shows students improved their levels of performance in most of the four dimensions of CT defined for this study. However, achievement level varied among dimensions ( figure 3 ). Surprisingly, for Explanation of the issues to be considered critically , students decreased their level of performance under both interventions ( v = 1542; p < .0025, with Bonferroni correction). In the case of Evidence and Influence of context and assumptions , students significantly improved regardless of which intervention was used ( v = 524 and 39; p < .0025; see figure 3 ).

Distribution of students’ performance within the four levels of proficiency for critical thinking skills (1 = lowest, 4 = highest) when using the instructional unit with the light ( N = 113 students) and intensive ( N = 103 students) teaching interventions. Asterisks indicate significant differences ( p < .0025) and n.s. indicates no significant differences ( p > .0125) between the rubric scores for Exercises 1 (preteaching intervention) and 2 (post teaching intervention), tested with the paired Wilcoxon test, Bonferroni corrected.

Student Content Knowledge, CT Skills, and Self-Confidence

Students gained content knowledge related to the topics of both case study exercises under the light and the intensive intervention, with gains greater than 26% from pre- to postexercise (see table 3 ). Gains in concept knowledge associated with both case studies were greater than 35% for the light teaching intervention and similarly high for the first case study in the intensive teaching intervention group.

Average Gains in Students’ Content Knowledge Measured as the Average Normalized Change ( c ave ) While Using Exercises 1 and 2 of the Instructional Unit With the Light (LTI) and Intensive Teaching Interventions (ITI).

Note: p values are for the paired Wilcoxon signed-rank test on the percentages of the pre- and postcontent scores.

In addition, there was a marginally significant correlation between gains in CT skills and content knowledge ( N = 136 students; ρ = .161; p = .06). Students who showed greater gains in CT skills also showed greater gains in their content knowledge in the topic areas that were the focus of the case studies.

Based on individual self-assessment questionnaires, we found average gains in student self-confidence with CT skills of 21% regardless of intervention. Increases were statistically significant for some of the self-assessment questions, under the intensive intervention only ( figure 4 ). Our results indicate no correlation between gains in CT skills and self-confidence ( N = 155 students; ρ = .049; p = .5).

Frequency distribution of students’ self-assessed confidence levels with their critical thinking skills when using the instructional unit with the light ( N = 79 students) and intensive ( N = 76 students) teaching interventions. One and two asterisks indicate significant differences between pre- and postassessment scores with p < .0125 and p < .0025, respectively, and n.s. indicates no significant differences ( p > .0125) tested with the paired Wilcoxon test, Bonferroni corrected.

Gains in CT Skills as Measured by the CAT Instrument

We also evaluated differences in CT gains as measured by the CAT instrument, both within the CT study arm described here, and the additional arm of the larger study focused on data analysis skills [ 31 ].

Students gained CT skills in both the light and the intensive intervention, with a significant interaction effect of teaching intervention as students had greater gains in the intensive intervention (repeated measures ANOVA: F (1,147) = 4.081, p = .045; figure 5 ). Significant gains were seen with the light intervention for two questions related to the ability to summarize the pattern of results in a graph without making inappropriate inferences, and the use of basic mathematical skills to help solve a real-world problem, with effect sizes of 0.28 and 0.35, respectively. Over all 15 questions, CT gains were moderate, with an effect size of 0.19 ( table 4 ). Under the intensive CT intervention, significant gains were seen in five different questions, with effect sizes ranging from 0.32 to 0.38, and overall gains across the 15 questions were large, with an effect size of 0.49 ( table 4 ).

Comparison of gains in total CAT scores administered pre- versus postcourse by teaching intervention, as measured by the CAT instrument, across all institutions. Scores (SD indicated between parentheses) of the light teaching intervention were 20.00 (5.87) precourse and 21.22 (6.71) postcourse; scores for the intensive intervention were 19.39 (5.74) precourse and 22.37 (6.30) postcourse. A repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to compare the effect of teaching intervention (Light/Intensive) and test administration (pre-/postcourse) on the CAT total score for courses using the CT Unit, showing a significant interaction of Teaching Intervention and pre-/postcourse administration ( F (1,147) = 4.081, p = .045). Students in the Intensive Intervention made greater gains on the CAT total score than students in the light intervention.

Specific CT Skills Identified in CAT Questions in Which the Students in This Study Showed Significant Gains.

Notes: The specific CAT question numbers are given, with a brief description of the CT skill addressed by the question. The pre- and postcourse means, probability of difference, and effect sizes are given only for those cases in which there was a significant difference observed.

Students using the CT Instructional Unit showed greater increases in CAT scores than those in the data analysis arm of the study ( F 1,290 = 9.505, p = .002), a pattern driven by the results of the intensive teaching intervention. Students in the Intensive Teaching Intervention treatment of the CT arm of the study had significantly higher gains in CAT scores than those in the data analysis arm of the study ( F 1,148 = 11.861, p < .001). There was no significant difference in student CAT scores for those in the light teaching intervention of the two arms of the study ( F 1,142 = 2.540, p = .113).

Our study adds to recent literature on effective approaches for teaching and learning of CT skills (e.g., [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]), an essential outcome of college and university education. Our pedagogical intervention hinges on the use of case studies to foster both content knowledge and CT skills, with support of an assessment rubric. We show that educators can foster measurable gains in CT over the course of a single term or semester by giving students an opportunity to practice these skills through case study exercises at least twice and reflect on their performance midway through the term, using a rubric that provided an operational definition of CT.

We chose a case study approach because real-world problem solving involves making decisions embedded in context [ 14 , 38 ]. Learning how to think critically about information available in its context and evaluating evidence through identifying assumptions and gaps to arrive at strong inference is better supported through lessons presented in case studies, rather than as abstract principles alone. A key to our process was to help students identify the steps they are taking—enhancing their metacognition—through naming specific skills in formative rubrics. In this way, we specifically targeted enhancing their CT skills while gaining concept knowledge about conservation.

Does Instructor Emphasis on CT Skill Affect the Magnitude of Individual Skill Gains?

The light and intensive interventions used in our study differed in level of engagement with a rubric specifically designed to promote and assess CT skills—a type of formative rubric use. Rubrics are generally designed with assessment and grading in mind and developed to fit a specific assignment; however, they have great potential to help with process skill development [ 39 ]. In this study, students were given the detailed rubric after completing the first case study exercise and were encouraged to locate their performance on the rubric. In the intensive intervention, students were further tasked with using the rubric to evaluate and improve sample answers to an additional, short case study.

The formative rubric use allowed us to align assignments to the dimensions of a given skill, in line with the principles of backwards design [ 40 ] and constructive alignment [ 41 ], and to identify the components where students struggle the most, as areas to target. Our results provide support to the benefits of rubric use [ 39 , 42 ]. Using a rubric to codify and operationalize a complex skill like CT seems to help both educators and learners. Our results are concordant with those of Abrami et al. [ 18 ] and Cargas et al. [ 19 ], as we show that “corrective feedback on a common rubric” aligned with relevant, authentic tasks supported learning, and that the simple act of sharing a rubric with the students may not be sufficient by itself [ 43 ]. We encourage others to make use of available collections of rubrics, such as those generated by the VALUE initiative [ 15 ].

The rubric allowed us to provide qualitative feedback to students as they practiced—an anchor for student reflection—and to analyze gains quantitatively. Furthermore, the unit as a whole was designed to promote self-reflection, which has been shown to increase students’ ability to monitor their own selection and use of resources and evidence [ 44 ]. Self-reflection was also found to increase oral communication performance in a parallel arm of our study [ 30 ].

Finally, using case study exercises aligned to the rubric but designed to encompass topics relevant to course content, we were able to assess the learning of content while practicing CT skills. Our results support previous findings [ 45 ] that students can experience simultaneous gains in knowledge and skills, even when instructional materials and class time are dedicated to CT skill development. Indeed, we found student content knowledge gains were positively correlated with their CT skill gains, although this was marginally significant. Taken together, our results suggest that cultivation of CT skills not only does not compete with content knowledge gains but that the focus on CT skills may well enhance content knowledge.

Do Students Show Similar Responses for the Different Dimensions of CT Learning?

Formative rubric use provided insights into which dimensions of CT are more challenging to students, providing valuable feedback to educators. Our results indicate that some dimensions of CT are more challenging to improve than others. A finer examination of the CT gains shows that the changes driving our results stem from two dimensions in our rubric: selection and use of evidence and recognition of the influence of context and assumptions (see figure 3 ). Several aspects of the CT Instructional Unit are likely to have enhanced outcomes in these dimensions, such as the fact that both exercises were based on case studies where students were asked to explain how a change in context would change their course of action or conclusions. Case studies are considered valuable for science teaching because they can reflect the complexity of problems and professional practice in social-environmental systems [ 14 , 38 ]. Cases present concepts and connections among them in a specific context, therefore highlighting the influence of context and assumptions, and require students to evaluate the information being presented and to select the most useful or relevant evidence for a particular task or decision. Our results support previous studies showing case studies can enhance CT skills and conceptual understanding by design [ 45 , 46 , 47 ].

Student performance did not significantly improve in the remaining dimensions of our CT rubric. In the case of ability to clearly and comprehensively explain the issue , overall students showed a loss ( figure 3A ). This dimension was unique in that students were already high achievers at the outset of the term, and the slight loss may correspond to noise along a dimension in which students were already at maximum performance levels. Alternatively, exercise structure could have played a role. The instructions for Case Study Exercises 1 and 2 were not identical in the questions relating to this dimension. Case Study Exercise 1 scores were derived from three separate questions ( What problem are amphibians facing? Summarize the Climate hypothesis; Summarize the Spread hypothesis ), while Case Study Exercise 2 scores rested on a single answer ( Write a paragraph for your supervisors describing and explaining the problem Bright Lake is facing and why it is important to address it ). Despite the former scores being averaged, having separate questions may have offered more opportunities for achievement in the first exercise and fewer in the second, resulting in an observed loss in this dimension. This was the only rubric dimension for which the number of questions contributing to a dimension’s overall score varied between case study exercises.

Finally, the most challenging dimension for students was the ability to make judgments and reach a position, drawing appropriate conclusions based on the available information, its implications, and consequences. No significant gains and the lowest rates of achievement were observed for this dimension, which maps to higher-order cognitive tasks or higher Bloom’s taxonomy levels, and has also been shown to be the most challenging for students in a broader science context [ 48 , 49 ]. In a review of student writing in biology courses, Schen [ 49 ] observed that students were often adept at formulating simple arguments but showed limited ability to craft alternative explanations or to engage with other more sophisticated uses of available information. Our results mirrored this observation, as students generally only made simple use of information. Becker [ 50 ] found similar patterns in student performance and further showed that explicit instruction in constructing arguments based on evidence resulted in students developing more accurate and more sophisticated conclusions. Again, our results spotlight the importance of explicit instruction in CT. Focusing student attention on how to sift among details presented in case studies to draw inferences and conclusions and on expressing their arguments with clear connection to the evidence within case studies may be necessary steps for students to have significant gains in these more advanced aspects of CT.

Similarly, gains in CAT scores were not randomly distributed throughout questions or dimensions of CT. Students significantly improved their CAT scores in questions measuring the ability to evaluate and interpret information, think creatively, and communicate effectively. Conversely, students did not gain in their capacities to use information critically in drawing conclusions (e.g., identify additional information needed to evaluate a hypothesis , use and apply relevant information to evaluate a problem , or explain how changes in a real world problem situation might affect the solution ). The results of the CAT and our case study assessments were broadly similar, with many significant gains seen in CT, except in those dimensions that required more sophisticated reasoning. Together, these results suggest that more, and perhaps different, instructional attention is needed to help students achieve certain specific dimensions of CT (see also [ 11 ]).

How Does the Intervention Affect Students at Different Achievement Levels?

Students with lower initial performance (i.e., below the median in the first exercise) gained more than those with a higher performance (above the median). These differential CT gains suggest that distinct mechanisms for improvement may be at play. We hypothesize those students who were initially least proficient in CT were assisted by the combination of repeated practice (two case study exercises) and calling attention to the components of CT through the rubric-driven intervention, along with self-reflection. Using similar instructional activities could enhance performance or retention in science courses in general [ 51 ], given links between process skills and risk of failing introductory biology [ 52 ]. We further hypothesize that for higher achieving students, the greater emphasis on metacognition in the intensive intervention may be critical to promote gains in performance. Simply prompting students to reflect on their learning may be insufficient [ 53 ], as many students need support in implementing metacognitive strategies despite being familiar with them, such as purposeful peer interaction [ 54 ]. The combination of repeated practice and reflection through the intervention’s in-class discussion may have helped students engage more effectively with their learning.

Students showed significant gains in CAT scores under both interventions, although significantly higher under the intensive intervention. Importantly, because the students took the CAT at the end of the course, the CAT measured their response to both exercises plus the intervention , which, in the case of the intensive intervention, included practice in improving responses to a short case study exercise in alignment with the CT rubric. This contrasts with the instructional assessment, which measured gains corresponding only to the midterm teaching intervention as measured by improvement in scores for the second case study exercise. Thus, as measured by the CAT, the whole unit improved CT skills among these students over the term in both interventions, while the extensive discussion of CT skills that was part of the intensive intervention improved CT performance even further.

Advancing CT skills has proven to be challenging for many institutions. The CAT test has been used in over 250 institutions around the world [ 55 ], but few have observed gains in CT overall (see [ 11 , 56 ]), although some have found an effect on individual CT dimensions [ 19 , 57 ]. We consider the inclusion of case study–based exercises to be an important factor in activating student learning and fostering strong CT gains among students in our study.

The CAT assessments were also given in another arm of the overall study that evaluated interventions designed to improve data analysis skills [ 31 ], enabling us to compare CT gains when directly targeted (in the CT arm of the study) to when they were not (the data analysis arm of the study). Only students in the CT arm of the study showed notable CT gains under a light intervention, and the gains were greater under the intensive intervention in the CT arm than in the data analysis arm. The intensive intervention was designed particularly to foster student capacity to reflect on their own learning, or metacognition, as this skill has been shown to improve academic performance [ 53 , 58 ]. Thus, the independent CAT assessment shows that explicit instruction in CT, coupled with repeated practice and reflection, is effective in improving student CT (see also [ 57 ]). Importantly, the CAT results imply that by developing CT in a conservation biology context, students are also enhancing their ability to apply that CT skill to other domains of their learning, such as the more general tasks required in the CAT.

Implications for Future Research and Scaling

While the results of this study are promising, our approach could be subjected to further testing. A limitation of the study was the lack of collateral data collection, such as GPA averages or overall course grades, which would have allowed for additional comparison of the student populations in each intervention. Differences in course achievement among classes, however, would not affect our interpretation of the effect of the intervention because the CT gains were observed between exercises in each term and are an internal comparison within the same student population within a given course. Our study did not use a treatment and control design or randomly assign students to the interventions. An approach based on multiple linear regression at the student level [ 59 ] could be a helpful alternative.

Adoption of the approach presented here was successful in a variety of contexts and situations. The institutions in this study varied in size and type, class size, and instructor; they included those ranked as R1, MA-granting and undergraduate only, private and public, a Minority Serving Institution, part-time and residential, and with class sizes between 10 and 60 students (see table 1 for details). Despite this variation, in 9 of the 10 classes, we observed an increase in students’ CT performance over a term, under both light and intensive interventions.

Our study shows educators can foster measurable gains in CT over the course of a single term or semester by giving students an opportunity to practice at least twice and reflect midway using case study exercises aligned to both course content and a rubric that provides an operational definition of CT. Despite the brevity of the interventions, the study has provided valuable new findings on student performance in different dimensions of CT and shows promising results from instructional approaches that can be easily adapted and integrated into a variety of courses and contexts. Importantly, the study design also allowed us to work together as a team with diverse faculty in the design and application of assessment materials, which served as a professional development for faculty that can help “close the loop” between assessment and future teaching practice.

CT underpins the kind of leadership capacity needed in society today, including “ethical behavior, the ability to work with diverse populations, and the ability to think from a systems perspective” [ 17 ]. These skills are essential for conservation biology researchers and professionals because of the multidisciplinary nature of challenges comprising various forms of evidence [ 60 ], the potential for consequences to diverse stakeholders, and the high prevalence of trade-offs among alternative scenarios. Encouraged by the results of this study, we urge educators to explore these and other approaches to target CT explicitly in their learning activities and teaching practice.

ALP, AB, NB, and EJS developed the study framework. ALP, AB, MJG, NB, BJA, JAC, CG, MC, TT, DSF, DV, and EJS contributed to development of the instructional units. ALP, MJG, LMD, BJA, JAC, CG, DLS, MC, DSF, LF, TL, and DV implemented the CT study in their classrooms and collected data for the study. AB, LMD, and ALP performed the data analysis. ALP, MJG, and AB led the writing of the manuscript, with contributions from EJS, LMD, and NB. All authors contributed to CAT scoring sessions and to the discussions that supported writing of the manuscript. The study was made possible by an NSF grant to EJS, ALP, and NB.

We are grateful to all study participants, those who helped score the CAT, and K. Douglas and N. Gazit for key assistance. We thank G. Bowser, A. Gómez, S. Hoskins, K. Landrigan, D. Roon, and J. Singleton for their contributions to the initial design and the original authors of the NCEP materials adapted for this study. The Biology Education Research Group at UW provided helpful input in initial discussions.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Martha J. Groom is an editor at Case Studies in the Environment . She was not involved in the review of this manuscript.

This project was supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) CCLI/TUES Program (DUE-0942789). Opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect NSF views.

Appendix 1. Supplementary Information on Methods.

Both versions can be downloaded by registering as an educator on http://ncep.amnh.org . To find the original versions used in the study, which also include all instructions given to participating faculty, see “NSF CCLI / TUES Instructional Unit: Critical Thinking.” For classroom-ready, updated versions of the case studies, see “Applying Critical Thinking to an Invasive Species Problem,” and “Applying Critical Thinking to the Amphibian Decline Problem.” These cite more current literature and have been edited for clarity.

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• Effective Teaching Strategies

Guiding Students to Think Critically Using Case Studies

• February 21, 2014
• Laura Trujillo-Jenks, PhD

One of the best practices in teaching and learning is the use of a three-part case study, or a scenario-based story, to help students deepen their understanding of a concept. The three parts of a case study are a scenario-based story that focuses on a specific, hypothetical problem, supporting literature that aligns with the main themes of the story, and guiding questions that help the learner gain the most from understanding the concepts and objectives of the case study by applying critical and higher order thinking skills.

A scenario-based story is a situation, problem, or issue that is used to help students grasp the learning objectives of a lesson. For example, in an educational leadership law course that I teach, one day I might create an elaborate scenario that focuses on several problems and issues that also align with the lesson’s objectives and concepts. Another day, the scenario could be a short one- to two-sentence story that is used at the beginning of class to engage students in reviewing key concepts and prepare them for the day’s lesson, or at the end of a lesson to review what was discussed during class. Finally, I might present a scenario-based story through a video or news story. There are many great videos on YouTube and many great news stories all over the Internet that offer up scenarios that are easily accessible and provide a visual that may help stimulate learning.

Supporting literature that aligns with the main themes of the case study helps students focus on what is important. This literature can be the texts and supplemental material that are required for students to read for a course, or, for example, it can be state and federal codes that must be followed. Then, the guiding questions are created and used to help students think about the different outcomes that could occur and possibly prepare for confronting an issue in the real-world. These questions can be as elaborate or straightforward as needed.

Like a book study, a case study can provide the necessary platform for students to communicate and collaborate about a situation that concerns a certain group. They can be used to help a group of learners or others focus on a specific concept, or they can help those solve a problem. Additionally, they can be used to analyze a current practice, like an ineffective policy. Although case studies are not a new teaching method, they are a method that can be useful, providing an opportunity for students to think outside the box. Through the use of a case study, students can actively engage in applying learned concepts, objectives, and knowledge to hypothetical situations by using critical and higher order thinking skills to answer tough questions.

Below are brief examples of the three types of case studies that I’ve used in my graduate course:

1. Elaborate Case Study: A high school senior is caught cheating on an exam. A passing grade on this exam is essential, since the exam grade will be applied to the senior’s overall GPA. The teacher respects the student and counts the student as a favorite, especially since the student was accepted to attend Harvard. The teacher decides to ignore the policy and does not report the student’s cheating, and allows the grade to be averaged with the student’s GPA.

• What are the implications of the teacher not reporting the cheating?
• How would you have handled this situation differently?

2. One- to Two-Sentence Case Study: You are on campus late one night working on paperwork when you hear laughter and loud talking down the hall. As you approach the raucous, you enter a classroom to find three teachers and their spouses drinking beer.

• What do you do next and is your decision based on ethics or fear?

3. Video/News Story Case Study: Please view the assigned videos. As you watch them, keep in mind what you have learned about student speech and academic freedom.

• Are there any student speech or academic freedom issues?
• Has the student code of conduct been violated with these dances?

Dr. Laura Trujillo-Jenks is an assistant professor in the Department of Teacher Education at Texas Woman’s University.

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• Case Based Learning

What is the case method?

In case-based learning, students learn to interact with and manipulate basic foundational knowledge by working with situations resembling specific real-world scenarios.

How does it work?

Case studies encourage students to use critical thinking skills to identify and narrow an issue, develop and evaluate alternatives, and offer a solution.  In fact, Nkhoma (2016), who studied the value of developing case-based learning activities based on Bloom’s Taxonomy of thinking skills, suggests that this approach encourages deep learning through critical thinking:

Sherfield (2004) confirms this, asserting that working through case studies can begin to build and expand these six critical thinking strategies:

• Emotional restraint
• Questioning
• Distinguishing fact from fiction
• Searching for ambiguity

What makes a good case?

Case-based learning can focus on anything from a one-sentence physics word problem to a textbook-sized nursing case or a semester-long case in a law course.  Though we often assume that a case is a “problem,” Ellet (2007) suggests that most cases entail one of four types of situations:

• Evaluations
• What are the facts you know about the case?
• What are some logical assumptions you can make about the case?
• What are the problems involved in the case as you see it?
• What is the root problem (the main issue)?
• What do you estimate is the cause of the root problem?
• What are the reasons that the root problem exists?
• What is the solution to the problem?
• Are there any moral or ethical considerations to your solution?
• What are the real-world implications for this case?
• How might the lives of the people in the case study be changed because of your proposed solution?
• Where in your world (campus/town/country) might a problem like this occur?
• Where could someone get help with this problem?
• What personal advice would you give to the person or people concerned?

Adapted from Sherfield’s Case Studies for the First Year (2004)

Some faculty buy prepared cases from publishers, but many create their own based on their unique course needs.  When introducing case-based learning to students, be sure to offer a series of guidelines or questions to prompt deep thinking.  One option is to provide a scenario followed by questions; for example, questions designed for a first year experience problem might include these:

Before you begin, take a look at what others are doing with cases in your field.  Pre-made case studies are available from various publishers, and you can find case-study templates online.

• Choose scenarios carefully
• Tell a story from beginning to end, including many details
• Create real-life characters and use quotes when possible
• Write clearly and concisely and format the writing simply
• Ask students to reflect on their learning—perhaps identifying connections between the lesson and specific course learning outcomes—after working a case

Additional Resources

• Barnes, Louis B. et al. Teaching and the Case Method , 3 rd (1994). Harvard, 1994.
• Campoy, Renee. Case Study Analysis in the Classroom: Becoming a Reflective Teacher . Sage Publications, 2005.
• Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook . Harvard, 2007.
• Herreid, Clyde Freeman, ed. Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . NSTA, 2007.
• Herreid, Clyde Freeman, et al. Science Stories: Using Case Studies to Teach Critical Thinking . NSTA, 2012.
• Nkhoma, M., Lam, et al. Developing case-based learning activities based on the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy . Proceedings of Informing Science & IT Education Conference (In SITE) 2016, 85-93. 2016.
• Rolls, Geoff. Classic Case Studies in Psychology , 3 rd Hodder Education, Bookpoint, 2014.
• Sherfield, Robert M., et al. Case Studies for the First Year . Pearson, 2004.
• Shulman, Judith H., ed. Case Methods in Teacher Education . Teacher’s College, 1992.

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• SAGE Open Nurs
• v.7; Jan-Dec 2021

Case Study Analysis as an Effective Teaching Strategy: Perceptions of Undergraduate Nursing Students From a Middle Eastern Country

Vidya seshan.

1 Maternal and Child Health Department, College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 66 Al-Khoudh, Postal Code 123, Muscat, Oman

Gerald Amandu Matua

2 Fundamentals and Administration Department, College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 66 Al-Khoudh, Postal Code 123, Muscat, Oman

Divya Raghavan

Judie arulappan, iman al hashmi, erna judith roach, sheeba elizebath sunderraj, emi john prince.

3 Griffith University, Nathan Campus, Queensland 4111

Background: Case study analysis is an active, problem-based, student-centered, teacher-facilitated teaching strategy preferred in undergraduate programs as they help the students in developing critical thinking skills. Objective: It determined the effectiveness of case study analysis as an effective teacher-facilitated strategy in an undergraduate nursing program. Methodology: A descriptive qualitative research design using focus group discussion method guided the study. The sample included undergraduate nursing students enrolled in the Maternal Health Nursing Course during the Academic Years 2017 and 2018. The researcher used a purposive sampling technique and a total of 22 students participated in the study, through five (5) focus groups, with each focus group comprising between four to six nursing students. Results: In total, nine subthemes emerged from the three themes. The themes were “Knowledge development”, “Critical thinking and Problem solving”, and “Communication and Collaboration”. Regarding “Knowledge development”, the students perceived case study analysis method as contributing toward deeper understanding of the course content thereby helping to reduce the gap between theory and practice especially during clinical placement. The “Enhanced critical thinking ability” on the other hand implies that case study analysis increased student's ability to think critically and aroused problem-solving interest in the learners. The “Communication and Collaboration” theme implies that case study analysis allowed students to share their views, opinions, and experiences with others and this enabled them to communicate better with others and to respect other's ideas which further enhanced their team building capacities. Conclusion: This method is effective for imparting professional knowledge and skills in undergraduate nursing education and it results in deeper level of learning and helps in the application of theoretical knowledge into clinical practice. It also broadened students’ perspectives, improved their cooperation capacity and their communication with each other. Finally, it enhanced student's judgment and critical thinking skills which is key for their success.

Introduction/Background

Recently, educators started to advocate for teaching modalities that not only transfer knowledge ( Shirani Bidabadi et al., 2016 ), but also foster critical and higher-order thinking and student-centered learning ( Wang & Farmer, 2008 ; Onweh & Akpan, 2014). Therefore, educators need to utilize proven teaching strategies to produce positive outcomes for learners (Onweh & Akpan, 2014). Informed by this view point, a teaching strategy is considered effective if it results in purposeful learning ( Centra, 1993 ; Sajjad, 2010 ) and allows the teacher to create situations that promote appropriate learning (Braskamp & Ory, 1994) to achieve the desired outcome ( Hodges et al., 2020 ). Since teaching methods impact student learning significantly, educators need to continuously test the effectives of their teaching strategies to ensure desired learning outcomes for their students given today's dynamic learning environments ( Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018 ).

In this study, the researchers sought to study the effectiveness of case study analysis as an active, problem-based, student-centered, teacher-facilitated strategy in a baccalaureate-nursing program. This choice of teaching method is supported by the fact that nowadays, active teaching-learning is preferred in undergraduate programs because, they not only make students more powerful actors in professional life ( Bean, 2011 ; Yang et al., 2013 ), but they actually help learners to develop critical thinking skills ( Clarke, 2010 ). In fact, students who undergo such teaching approaches usually become more resourceful in integrating theory with practice, especially as they solve their case scenarios ( Chen et al., 2019 ; Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018 ; Savery, 2019 ).

Review of Literature

As a pedagogical strategy, case studies allow the learner to integrate theory with real-life situations as they devise solutions to the carefully designed scenarios ( Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018 ; Hermens & Clarke, 2009). Another important known observation is that case-study-based teaching exposes students to different cases, decision contexts and the environment to experience teamwork and interpersonal relations as “they learn by doing” thus benefiting from possibilities that traditional lectures hardly create ( Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018 ; Garrison & Kanuka, 2004 ).

Another merit associated with case study method of teaching is the fact that students can apply and test their perspectives and knowledge in line with the tenets of Kolb et al.'s (2014) “experiential learning model”. This model advocates for the use of practical experience as the source of one's learning and development. Proponents of case study-based teaching note that unlike passive lectures where student input is limited, case studies allow them to draw from their own experience leading to the development of higher-order thinking and retention of knowledge.

Case scenario-based teaching also encourages learners to engage in reflective practice as they cooperate with others to solve the cases and share views during case scenario analysis and presentation ( MsDade, 1995 ).

This method results in “idea marriage” as learners articulate their views about the case scenario. This “idea marriage” phenomenon occurs through knowledge transfer from one situation to another as learners analyze scenarios, compare notes with each other, and develop multiple perspectives of the case scenario. In fact, recent evidence shows that authentic case-scenarios help learners to acquire problem solving and collaborative capabilities, including the ability to express their own views firmly and respectfully, which is vital for future success in both professional and personal lives ( Eronen et al., 2019 ; Yajima & Takahashi, 2017 ). In recognition of this higher education trend toward student-focused learning, educators are now increasingly expected to incorporate different strategies in their teaching.

This study demonstrated that when well implemented, educators can use active learning strategies like case study analysis to aid critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaborative capabilities in undergraduate students. This study is significant because the findings will help educators in the country and in the region to incorporate active learning strategies such as case study analysis to aid critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaborative capabilities in undergraduate students. Besides, most studies on the case study method in nursing literature mostly employ quantitative methods. The shortage of published research on the case study method in the Arabian Gulf region and the scanty use of qualitative methods further justify why we adopted the focus group method for inquiry.

A descriptive qualitative research design using focus group discussion method guided the study. The authors chose this method because it is not only inexpensive, flexible, stimulating but it is also known to help with information recall and results in rich data ( Matua et al., 2014 ; Streubert & Carpenter, 2011 ). Furthermore, as evidenced in the literature, the focus group discussion method is often used when there is a need to gain an in-depth understanding of poorly understood phenomena as the case in our study. The choice of this method is further supported by the scarcity of published research related to the use of case study analysis as a teaching strategy in the Middle Eastern region, thereby further justifying the need for an exploratory research approach for our study.

As a recommended strategy, the researchers generated data from information-rich purposively selected group of baccalaureate nursing students who had experienced both traditional lectures and cased-based teaching approaches. The focus group interviews allowed the study participants to express their experiences and perspectives in their own words. In addition, the investigators integrated participants’ self-reported experiences with their own observations and this enhanced the study findings ( Morgan & Bottorff, 2010 ; Nyumba et al., 2018 ; Parker & Tritter, 2006 ).

Eligibility Criteria

In order to be eligible to participate in the study, the participants had to:

• be a baccalaureate nursing student in College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University
• register for Maternity Nursing Course in 2017 and 2018.
• attend all the Case Study Analysis sessions in the courses before the study.
• show a willingness to participate in the study voluntarily and share their views freely.

The population included the undergraduate nursing students enrolled in the Maternal Health Nursing Course during the Academic Years 2017 and 2018.

The researcher used a purposive sampling technique to choose participants who were capable of actively participating and discussing their views in the focus group interviews. This technique enabled the researchers to select participants who could provide rich information and insights about case study analysis method as an effective teaching strategy. The final study sample included baccalaureate nursing students who agreed to participate in the study by signing a written informed consent. In total, twenty-two (22) students participated in the study, through five focus groups, with each focus group comprising between four and six students. The number of participants was determined by the stage at which data saturation was reached. The point of data saturation is when no new information emerges from additional participants interviewed ( Saunders et al., 2018 ).Focus group interviews were stopped once data saturation was achieved. Qualitative research design with focus group discussion allowed the researchers to generate data from information-rich purposively selected group of baccalaureate nursing students who had experienced both traditional lectures and case-based teaching approaches. The focus group interviews allowed the study participants to express their perspectives in their own words. In addition, the investigators enhanced the study findings by integrating participants’ self-reported experiences with the researchers’ own observations and notes during the study.

The study took place at College of Nursing; Sultan Qaboos University, Oman's premier public university, in Muscat. This is the only setting chosen for the study. The participants are the students who were enrolled in Maternal Health Nursing course during 2017 and 2018. The interviews occurred in the teaching rooms after official class hours. Students who did not participate in the study learnt the course content using the traditional lecture based method.

Ethical Considerations

Permission to conduct the study was granted by the College Research and Ethics Committee (XXXX). Prior to the interviews, each participant was informed about the purpose, benefits as well as the risks associated with participating in the study and clarifications were made by the principal researcher. After completing this ethical requirement, each student who accepted to participate in the study proceeded to sign an informed consent form signifying that their participation in the focus group interview was entirely voluntary and based on free will.

The anonymity of study participants and confidentiality of their data was upheld throughout the focus group interviews and during data analysis. To enhance confidentiality and anonymity of the data, each participant was assigned a unique code number which was used throughout data analysis and reporting phases. To further assure the confidentiality of the research data and anonymity of the participants, all research-related data were kept safe, under lock and key and through digital password protection, with unhindered access only available to the research team.

Research Intervention

In Fall 2017 and Spring 2018 semesters, as a method of teaching Maternal Health Nursing course, all students participated in two group-based case study analysis exercises which were implemented in the 7 th and 13 th weeks. This was done after the students were introduced to the case study method using a sample case study prior to the study. The instructor explained to the students how to solve the sample problem, including how to accomplish the role-specific competencies in the courses through case study analysis. In both weeks, each group consisting of six to seven students was assigned to different case scenarios to analyze and work on, after which they presented their collective solution to the case scenarios to the larger class of 40 students. The case scenarios used in both weeks were peer-reviewed by the researchers prior to the study.

Pilot Study

A group of three students participated as a pilot group for the study. However, the students who participated in the pilot study were not included in the final study as is general the principle with qualitative inquiry because of possible prior exposure “contamination”. The purpose of piloting was to gather data to provide guidance for a substantive study focusing on testing the data collection procedure, the interview process including the sequence and number of questions and probes and recording equipment efficacy. After the pilot phase, the lessons learned from the pilot were incorporated to ensure smooth operations during the actual focus group interview ( Malmqvist et al., 2019 .

Data Collection

The focus group interviews took place after the target population was exposed to case study analysis method in Maternal Health Nursing course during the Fall 2017 and Spring 2018 semesters. Before data collection began, the research team pilot tested the focus group interview guide to ensure that all the guide questions were clear and well understood by study participants.

In total, five (5) focus groups participated in the study, with each group comprising between four and six students. The focus group interviews lasted between 60 and 90 min. In addition to the interview guide questions, participants’ responses to unanswered questions were elicited using prompts to facilitate information flow whenever required. As a best practice, all the interviews were audio-recorded in addition to extensive field notes taken by one of the researchers. The focus group interviews continued until data saturation occurred in all the five (5) focus groups.

Credibility

In this study, participant's descriptions were digitally audio recorded to ensure that no information was lost. In order to ensure that the results are accurate, verbatim transcriptions of the audio recordings were done supported by interview notes. Furthermore, interpretations of the researcher were verified and supported with existing literature with oversight from the research team.

Transferability

The researcher provided a detailed description about the study settings, participants, sampling technique, and the process of data collection and analyses. The researcher used verbatim quotes from various participants to aid the transferability of the results.

Dependability

The researcher ensured that the research process is clearly documented, traceable, and logical to achieve dependability of the research findings. Furthermore, the researcher transparently described the research steps, procedures and process from the start of the research project to the reporting of the findings.

Confirmability

In this study, confirmability of the study findings was achieved through the researcher's efforts to make the findings credible, dependable, and transferable.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed manually after the lead researcher integrated the verbatim transcriptions with the extensive field notes to form the final data set. Data were analyzed thematically under three thematic areas of a) knowledge development; b) critical thinking and problem solving; and (c) communication and collaboration, which are linked to the study objectives. The researchers used the Six (6) steps approach to conduct a trustworthy thematic analysis: (1) familiarization with the research data, (2) generating initial codes, (3) searching for themes, (4) reviewing the themes, (5) defining and naming themes, (6) writing the report ( Nowell et al., 2017 ).

The analysis process started with each team member individually reading and re-reading the transcripts several times and then identifying meaning units linked to the three thematic areas. The co-authors then discussed in-depth the various meaning units linked to the thematic statements until consensus was reached and final themes emerged based on the study objectives.

A total of 22 undergraduate third-year baccalaureate nursing students who were enrolled in the Maternal Health Nursing Course during the Academic Years 2017 and 2018 participated in the study, through five focus groups, with each group comprising four to six students. Of these, 59% were females and 41% were males. In total, nine subthemes emerged from the three themes. Under knowledge development, emerged the subthemes, “ deepened understanding of content ; “ reduced gap between theory and practice” and “ improved test-taking ability ”. While under Critical thinking and problem solving, emerged the subthemes, “ enhanced critical thinking ability ” and “ heightened curiosity”. The third thematic area of communication and collaboration yielded, “ improved communication ability ”; “ enhanced team-building capacity ”; “ effective collaboration” and “ improved presentation skills ”, details of which are summarized in Table 1 .

Table 1.

Objective Linked Themes and Student Perceptions of Outcome Case Study Analysis.

Theme 1: Knowledge Development

In terms of knowledge development, students expressed delight at the inclusion of case study analysis as a method during their regular theory class. The first subtheme related to knowledge development that supports the adoption of the case study approach is its perceived benefit of ‘ deepened understanding of content ’ by the students as vividly described by this participant:

“ I was able to perform well in the in-course exams as this teaching method enhanced my understanding of the content rather than memorizing ” (FGD#3).

The second subtheme related to knowledge development was informed by participants’ observation that teaching them using case study analysis method ‘ reduced the gap between theory and practice’. This participant's claim stem from the realization that, a case study scenario his group analyzed in the previous week helped him and his colleagues to competently deal with a similar situation during clinical placement the following week, as articulated below:

“ You see when I was caring for mothers in antenatal unit, I could understand the condition better and could plan her care well because me and my group already analyzed a similar situation in class last week which the teacher gave us, this made our work easier in the ward”. (FGD#7).

Another student added that:

“ It was useful as what is taught in the theory class could be applied to the clinical cases.”

This ‘theory-practice’ connection was particularly useful in helping students to better understand how to manage patients with different health conditions. Interestingly, the students reported that they were more likely to link a correct nursing care plan to patients whose conditions were close to the case study scenarios they had already studied in class as herein affirmed:

“ …when in the hospital I felt I could perceive the treatment modality and plan for [a particular] nursing care well when I [had] discussed with my team members and referred the textbook resource while performing case study discussion”. (FGD#17).

In a similar way, another student added:

“…I could relate with the condition I have seen in the clinical area. So this has given me a chance to recall the condition and relate the theory to practice”. (FGD#2) .

The other subtheme closely related to case study scenarios as helping to deepen participant's understanding of the course content, is the notion that this teaching strategy also resulted in ‘ improved test taking-ability’ as this participant's verbatim statement confirms:

“ I could answer the questions related to the cases discussed [much] better during in-course exams. Also [the case scenarios] helped me a great deal to critically think and answer my exam papers” (FGD#11).

Theme 2: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

In this subtheme, students found the case study analysis as an excellent method to learn disease conditions in the two courses. This perceived success with the case study approach is associated with the method's ability to ‘ enhance students’ critical thinking ability’ as this student declares:

“ This method of teaching increased my ability to think critically as the cases are the situations, where we need to think to solve the situation”. (FGD#5)

This enhanced critical thinking ability attributed to case study scenario analysis was also manifested during patient care where students felt it allowed them to experience a “ flow of patient care” leading to better patient management planning as would typically occur during case scenario analysis. In support of this finding, a participant mentioned that:

“ …I could easily connect the flow of patient care provided and hence was able to plan for [his] management as often required during case study discussion” (FGD#12)

Another subtheme linked with this theme is the “ heightened curiosity” associated with the case scenario discussions. It was clear from the findings that the cases aroused curiosity in the mind of the students. This heightened interest meant that during class discussion, baccalaureate nursing students became active learners, eager to discover the next set of action as herein affirmed:

“… from the beginning of discussion with the group, I was eager to find the answer to questions presented and wanted to learn the best way for patient management” (FGD#14)

Theme 3: Communication and Collaboration

In terms of its impact on student communication, the subtheme revealed that case study analysis resulted in “ improved communication ability” among the nursing students . This enhanced ability of students to exchange ideas with each other may be attributed to the close interaction required to discuss and solve their assigned case scenarios as described by the participant below:

“ as [case study analysis] was done in the way of group discussion, I felt me and my friends communicated more within the group as we discussed our condition. We also learnt from each other, and we became better with time.” (FGD#21).

The next subtheme further augments the notion that case study analysis activities helped to “ enhance team-building capacity” of students as this participant affirmatively narrates:

“ students have the opportunity to meet face to face to share their views, opinion, and their experience, as this build on the way they can communicate with each other and respect each other's opinions and enhance team-building”. (FGD#19).

Another subtheme revealed from the findings show that the small groups in which the case analysis occurs allowed the learners to have deeper and more focused conversations with one another, resulting in “ an effective collaboration between students” as herein declared:

“ We could collaborate effectively as we further went into a deep conversation on the case to solve”. (FGD#16).

Similarly, another student noted that:

“ …discussion of case scenarios helped us to prepare better for clinical postings and simulation lab experience” (FGD#5) .

A fourth subtheme related to communication found that students also identified that case study analysis resulted in “ improved presentation skills”. This is attributed in part to the preparation students have to go through as part of their routine case study discussion activities, which include organizing their presentations and justifying and integrating their ideas. Besides readying themselves for case presentations, the advice, motivation, and encouragement such students receive from their faculty members and colleagues makes them better presenters as confirmed below:

“ …teachers gave us enough time to prepare, hence I was able to present in front of the class regarding the finding from our group.” (FGD#16).

In this study, the researches explored learner's perspectives on how one of the active teaching strategies, case study analysis method impacted their knowledge development, critical thinking, and problem solving as well as communication and collaboration ability.

Knowledge Development

In terms of knowledge development, the nursing students perceived case study analysis as contributing toward: (a) deeper understanding of content, (b) reducing gap between theory and practice, and (c) improving test-taking ability. Deeper learning” implies better grasping and retention of course content. It may also imply a deeper understanding of course content combined with learner's ability to apply that understanding to new problems including grasping core competencies expected in future practice situations (Rickles et al., 2019; Rittle-Johnson et al., 2020 ). Deeper learning therefore occurs due to the disequilibrium created by the case scenario, which is usually different from what the learner already knows ( Hattie, 2017 ). Hence, by “forcing” students to compare and discuss various options in the quest to solve the “imbalance” embedded in case scenarios, students dig deeper in their current understanding of a given content including its application to the broader context ( Manalo, 2019 ). This movement to a deeper level of understanding arises from carefully crafted case scenarios that instructors use to stimulate learning in the desired area (Nottingham, 2017; Rittle-Johnson et al., 2020 ). The present study demonstrated that indeed such carefully crafted case study scenarios did encourage students to engage more deeply with course content. This finding supports the call by educators to adopt case study as an effective strategy.

Another finding that case study analysis method helps in “ reducing the gap between theory and practice ” implies that the method helps students to maintain a proper balance between theory and practice, where they can see how theoretical knowledge has direct practical application in the clinical area. Ajani and Moez (2011) argue that to enable students to link theory and practice effectively, nurse educators should introduce them to different aspects of knowledge and practice as with case study analysis. This dual exposure ensures that students are proficient in theory and clinical skills. This finding further amplifies the call for educators to adequately prepare students to match the demands and realities of modern clinical environments ( Hickey, 2010 ). This expectation can be met by ensuring that student's knowledge and skills that are congruent with hospital requirements ( Factor et al., 2017 ) through adoption of case study analysis method which allows integration of clinical knowledge in classroom discussion on regular basis.

The third finding, related to “improved test taking ability”, implies that case study analysis helped them to perform better in their examination, noting that their experience of going through case scenario analysis helped them to answer similar cases discussed in class much better during examinations. Martinez-Rodrigo et al. (2017) report similar findings in a study conducted among Spanish electrical engineering students who were introduced to problem-based cooperative learning strategies, which is similar to case study analysis method. Analysis of student's results showed that their grades and pass rates increased considerably compared to previous years where traditional lecture-based method was used. Similar results were reported by Bonney (2015) in an even earlier study conducted among biology students in Kings Borough community college students, in New York, United States. When student's performance in examination questions covered by case studies was compared with class-room discussions, and text-book reading, case study analysis approach was significantly more effective compared to traditional methods in aiding students’ performance in their examinations. This finding therefore further demonstrates that case study analysis method indeed improves student's test taking ability.

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

In terms of critical thinking and problem-solving ability, the use of case study analysis resulted in two subthemes: (a) enhanced critical thinking ability and (b) heightened learner curiosity. The “ enhanced critical thinking ability” implies that case analysis increased student's ability to think critically as they navigated through the case scenarios. This observation agrees with the findings of an earlier questionnaire-based study conducted among 145 undergraduate business administration students at Chittagong University, Bangladesh, that showed 81% of respondents agree that case study analysis develops critical thinking ability and enables students to do better problem analysis ( Muhiuddin & Jahan, 2006 ). This observation agrees with the findings of an earlier study conducted among 145 undergraduate business administration students at Chittagong University, Bangladesh. The study showed that 81% of respondents agreed that case study analysis facilitated the development of critical thinking ability in the learners and enabled the students to perform better with problem analysis ( Muhiuddin & Jahan, 2006 ).

More recently, Suwono et al. (2017) found similar results in a quasi-experimental research conducted at a Malaysian university. The research findings showed that there was a significant difference in biological literacy and critical thinking skills between the students taught using socio-biological case-based learning and those taught using traditional lecture-based learning. The researchers concluded that case-based learning enhanced the biological literacy and critical thinking skills of the students. The current study adds to the existing pedagogical knowledge base that case study methodology can indeed help to deepen learner's critical thinking and problem solving ability.

The second subtheme related to “ heightened learner curiosity” seems to suggest that the case studies aroused problem-solving interest in learners. This observation agrees with two earlier studies by Tiwari et al. (2006) and Flanagan and McCausland (2007) who both reported that most students enjoyed case-based teaching. The authors add that the case study method also improved student's clinical reasoning, diagnostic interpretation of patient information as well as their ability to think logically when presented a challenge in the classroom and in the clinical area. Jackson and Ward (2012) similarly reported that first year engineering undergraduates experienced enhanced student motivation. The findings also revealed that the students venturing self-efficacy increased much like their awareness of the importance of key aspects of the course for their future careers. The authors conclude that the case-based method appears to motivate students to autonomously gather, analyze and present data to solve a given case. The researchers observed enhanced personal and collaborative efforts among the learners, including improved communication ability. Further still, learners were more willing to challenge conventional wisdom, and showed higher “softer” skills after exposure to case analysis based teaching method. These findings like that of the current study indicate that teaching using case based analysis approach indeed motivates students to engage more in their learning, there by resulting in deeper learning.

Communication and Collaboration

Case study analysis is also perceived to result in: (a) improved communication ability; (b) enhanced team -building capacity, (c) effective collaboration ability, and (d) enhanced presentation skills. The “ improved communication ability ” manifested in learners being better able to exchange ideas with peers, communicating their views more clearly and collaborating more effectively with their colleagues to address any challenges that arise. Fini et al. (2018) report comparable results in a study involving engineering students who were subjected to case scenario brainstorming activities about sustainability concepts and their implications in transportation engineering in selected courses. The results show that this intervention significantly improved student's communication skills besides their higher-order cognitive, self-efficacy and teamwork skills. The researchers concluded that involving students in brainstorming activities related to problem identification including their practical implications, is an effective teaching strategy. Similarly, a Korean study by Park and Choi (2018) that sought to analyze the effects of case-based communication training involving 112 sophomore nursing students concluded that case-based training program improved the students’ critical thinking ability and communication competence. This finding seems to support further the use of case based teaching as an effective teaching-learning strategy.

The “ enhanced team-building capacity” arose from the opportunity students had in sharing their views, opinions, and experiences where they learned to communicate with each other and respect each other's ideas which further enhance team building. Fini et al. (2018) similarly noted that increased teamwork levels were seen among their study respondents when the researchers subjected engineering students to case scenario based-brainstorming activities as occurs with case study analysis teaching. Likewise, Lairamore et al. (2013) report similar results in their study that showed that case study analysis method increased team work ability and readiness among students from five health disciplines in a US-based study.

The finding that case study analysis teaching method resulted in “ effective collaboration ability” among students manifested as students entered into deep conversation as they solved the case scenarios. Rezaee and Mosalanejad (2015) assert that such innovative learning strategies result in noticeable educational outcomes, such as greater satisfaction with and enjoyment of the learning process ( Wellmon et al., 2012 ). Further, positive attitudes toward learning and collaboration have been noted leading to deeper learning as students prepare for case discussions ( Rezaee & Mosalanejad, 2015 ). This results show that case study analysis can be utilized by educators to foster professional collaboration among their learners, which is one of the key expectations of new graduates today.

The finding associated with “improved presentation skills” is consistent with the results of a descriptive study in Saudi Arabia that compared case study and traditional lectures in the teaching of physiology course to undergraduate nursing students. The researchers found that case-based teaching improved student’ overall knowledge and performance in the course including facilitating the acquisition of skills compared to traditional lectures ( Majeed, 2014 ). Noblitt et al. (2010) report similar findings in their study that compares traditional presentation approach with the case study method for developing and improving student's oral communication skills. This finding extends our understanding that case study method improves learners’ presentation skills.

The study was limited to level third year nursing students belonging to only one college and the sample size, which might limit the transferability of the study findings to other settings.

Implications for Practice

These study findings add to the existing body of knowledge that places case study based teaching as a tested method that promotes perception learning where students’ senses are engaged as a result of the real-life and authentic clinical scenarios ( Malesela, 2009 ), resulting in deeper learning and achievement of long-lasting knowledge ( Fiscus, 2018 ). The students reported that case scenario discussions broadened their perspectives, improved their cooperation capacity and communication with each other. This teaching method, in turn, offers students an opportunity to enhance their judgment and critical thinking skills by applying theory into practice.

These skills are critically important because nurses need to have the necessary knowledge and skills to plan high quality care for their patients to achieve a speedy recovery. In order to attain this educational goal, nurse educators have to prepare students through different student- centered strategies. The findings of our study appear to show that when appropriately used, case-based teaching results in acquisition of disciplinary knowledge manifested by deepened understanding of course content, as well as reducing the gap between theory and practice and enhancing learner's test-taking-ability. The study also showed that cased based teaching enhanced learner's critical thinking ability and curiosity to seek and acquire a deeper knowledge. Finally, the study results indicate that case study analysis results in improved communication and enhanced team-building capacity, collaborative ability and improved oral communication and presentation skills. The study findings and related evidence from literature show that case study analysis is well- suited approach for imparting knowledge and skills in baccalaureate nursing education.

This study evaluated the usefulness of Case Study Analysis as a teaching strategy. We found that this method of teaching helps encourages deeper learning among students. For instructors, it provides the opportunity to tailor learning experiences for students to undertake in depth study in order to stimulate deeper understanding of the desired content. The researchers conclude that if the cases are carefully selected according to the level of the students, and are written realistically and creatively and the group discussions keep students well engaged, case study analysis method is more effective than other traditional lecture methods in facilitating deeper and transferable learning/skills acquisition in undergraduate courses.

Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

ORCID iD: Judie Arulappan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2788-2755

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Using unfolding case studies to develop critical thinking skills in baccalaureate nursing students: A pilot study

Affiliation.

• 1 University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, College of Nursing, 800 Algoma Blvd, Oshkosh, WI, United States of America. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 32717696
• DOI: 10.1016/j.nedt.2020.104542

Background: Research has consistently demonstrated that new graduate nurses do not possess sufficient critical thinking skills when they transition to clinical practice. Unfolding case studies encourage students to participate in a number of critical thinking skills including information-seeking, logical reasoning, and analyzing of clinical data.

Objective: The aim of this study was to determine how the use of unfolding case studies as a learning modality affected baccalaureate students' critical thinking skills in their Adult Health Theory course. The researcher compared course examination scores earned by nursing students who were taught using traditional case studies to scores obtained by nursing students who completed unfolding case studies.

Setting: The pilot study took place at a moderate-sized comprehensive university in Wisconsin.

Design: A non-experimental correlational design using course examination scores data was employed to examine how the use of unfolding case studies as a learning modality affected baccalaureate students' critical thinking skills in their Adult Health Theory course.

Participants: A total of 160 students comprised the intervention group while an additional 142 students represented the control group in the study.

Methods: An independent-samples t-test was performed to explore differences in mean scores between the intervention and control groups.

Results: Results of the t-test indicate that mean examination scores were significantly higher for the intervention group (M = 234.9, SD = 13.1) than for the control group (M = 228.2, SD = 13.3); t(299) =, p < .001.

Conclusions: Results of this study suggest that unfolding case studies more effectively develop students' critical thinking skills than do a more traditional, static case study.

Keywords: Baccalaureate education; Critical thinking; Nursing students; Unfolding case study.

Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Education, Nursing, Baccalaureate
• Educational Measurement*
• Pilot Projects
• Students, Nursing / statistics & numerical data*

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An exploratory quantitative case study of critical thinking development through adult distance learning

• Research Article
• Published: 20 March 2019
• Volume 68 , pages 17–35, ( 2020 )

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• Christopher P. Dwyer 1 &
• Anne Walsh 2  

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Critical thinking is a metacognitive process that, through purposeful, self-regulatory reflective judgment; skills of analysis, evaluation and inference; and a disposition towards thinking, increases the chances of producing a logical conclusion to an argument or solution to a problem. Critical thinking is vital for not only educational achievement, but also continuous professional development, as it is necessary in social and interpersonal contexts, where adequate decision-making and problem-solving are necessary on a daily basis—which is of particular relevance to adult distance learners, many of whom return to learning to further their professional development. Though a large body of extant research focuses on traditional BA student’s critical thinking performance, there is a dearth of research conducted on more mature adults’ critical thinking. ADL provides a unique opportunity to explore these abilities and the effects of critical thinking instruction through distance learning on such performance. Given the potential benefits linked with critical thinking and associated with adult distance learning, the aim of the current, retrospective, exploratory case study was to examine the effects of an adult distance learning critical thinking module, taught through a BA Training and Education programme, on critical thinking performance. A series of six paired samples t-tests were conducted in order to assess the performance of 95 ADLs from pre-to-post-testing on overall critical thinking performance and the critical thinking sub-scales of hypothesis-testing; verbal reasoning; argument analysis; judging likelihood an uncertainty; and problem-solving. Correlational analysis was also conducted. Results revealed a significant increase from pre-to-post-intervention on overall critical thinking performance, as well as all critical thinking sub-scale performances. However, there were no effects of active engagement with the module, disposition towards thinking or motivation towards learning on critical thinking performance. Results are discussed in light of theory and research on critical thinking.

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Argument mapping visually represents arguments through a ‘box-and-arrow’ style flow-chart, wherein the boxes are used to highlight propositions and the arrows are used to highlight the inferential relationships that link the propositions together (van Gelder 2003 ). Research has shown that argument mapping can facilitate metacognitive acts of critical thinking, both by making the structure of the argument open to deliberation and assessment; and by revealing strengths and weaknesses in the credibility, relevance, and logical soundness within argument structures (e.g. Butchart et al. 2009 ; Dwyer et al. 2011 , 2012 ; van Gelder 2001 ). Thus, the CT intervention in the current case study utilised argument mapping to represent example arguments and facilitate the creation of student answers/arguments.

Results of the current case study indicated that the CT intervention had a beneficial effect on CT performance. However, despite the exploratory and retrospective nature of this case study, it is acknowledged that without a comparison group, these results must be discussed with added caution. In order to further elucidate the potential benefits of this CT intervention in an ADL context, access to data from a comparison and control group was obtained through randomly allocating another undergraduate cohort (i.e. students enrolled in a traditional BA programme) to either the same CT intervention ( N =  42; 22 females, 20 males) or allocating them to a control condition (i.e. N  = 28; 25 females, 7 males); thus, allowing for the comparison of the Adult Distance Learning CT module with a traditional cohort of students. Specifically, to ensure comparability, the experimental cohorts: consisted of undergraduate BA students, completed the same CT intervention through e-learning; and completed the same outcomes measures. Whereas the ADL group were older, full-time employed individuals who were completing the entirety of their Training and Education BA degree through distance learning, the comparison and control groups consisted of younger ( M  = 18.96 years) students enrolled in a full-time general BA, where classes were physically attended (with the exception of this voluntary CT module, which was also completed through e-learning, for which students received academic course credit for their participation as part of their psychology course). The only other minor difference between experimental groups was that whereas the ADL group completed a graded assignment in Week 8, traditional BAs did not, given that participation was voluntary. However, all groups would have completed multiple graded assignments as part of their respective courses. Notably, whereas traditional students significantly outperformed ADLs at baseline ( d  = .77), ADLs significantly outperformed both groups from time 1 to 2, as reflected in the reported effects sizes.

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Dwyer, C.P., Walsh, A. An exploratory quantitative case study of critical thinking development through adult distance learning. Education Tech Research Dev 68 , 17–35 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09659-2

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