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The relationship between erosion and precipitation and the effects of different riparian practices on soil and total-p losses via streambank erosion in small streams in iowa, usa.

1. Introduction

The study scope, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. characteristics of the studied regions and sub-reaches of the streams, 2.2. streambank erosion pins, 2.3. severely and very severely eroded streambank areas and soil bulk densities of stream banks, 2.4. soil and soil total-p losses from streambanks, 2.5. precipitation data, 2.6. data analysis, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. precipitation and streambank erosion relationships and erosion rate differences between riparian practices, 3.2. riparian practices streambank soil and soil total-p losses, 3.3. regional streambank soil and soil total-p losses from riparian practices, 3.4. streambank soil and soil total-p losses from riparian practices across the study regions, 3.5. yearly streambank soil and soil total-p losses from the riparian practices, 4. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Tufekcioglu, M.; Zaimes, G.N.; Kahriman, A.; Schultz, R.C. The Relationship between Erosion and Precipitation and the Effects of Different Riparian Practices on Soil and Total-P Losses via Streambank Erosion in Small Streams in Iowa, USA. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 8329. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198329

Tufekcioglu M, Zaimes GN, Kahriman A, Schultz RC. The Relationship between Erosion and Precipitation and the Effects of Different Riparian Practices on Soil and Total-P Losses via Streambank Erosion in Small Streams in Iowa, USA. Sustainability . 2024; 16(19):8329. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198329

Tufekcioglu, Mustafa, George N. Zaimes, Aydın Kahriman, and Richard C. Schultz. 2024. "The Relationship between Erosion and Precipitation and the Effects of Different Riparian Practices on Soil and Total-P Losses via Streambank Erosion in Small Streams in Iowa, USA" Sustainability 16, no. 19: 8329. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198329

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• Published: 02 December 2019

Countries and the global rate of soil erosion

• David Wuepper   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1344-6023 1 ,
• Pasquale Borrelli   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4767-5115 2 &
• Robert Finger 1  

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Soil erosion is a major threat to food security and ecosystem viability, as current rates are orders of magnitude higher than natural soil formation. Governments around the world are trying to address the issue of soil erosion. However, we do not know whether countries have much actual control over their soil erosion. Here, we use a high-resolution, global dataset with over 35 million observations and a spatial regression discontinuity design to identify how much of the global rate of soil erosion is actually affected by countries and which country characteristics, including their policies, are associated with this. Overall, moving just across the border from one country to the next, the rate of soil erosion changes on average by ~1.4 t ha −1  yr −1 , which reveals a surprisingly large country effect. The best explanation we find is countries’ agricultural characteristics.

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Wuepper, D., Borrelli, P. & Finger, R. Countries and the global rate of soil erosion. Nat Sustain 3 , 51–55 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0438-4

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Soil Erosion: Cause, Affect and Remedies

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TERI University

Kirtiraj Lahiry

When soil particles are transported from one location in the landscape to another, this physical movement is termed as soil erosion. It has numerous direct and indirect impacts on the geography, economy, and society where it occurs. While the harmful consequences of soil erosion as well as its degradation are recognized widely and there has been a radical increase in the number of soil conservation and restoration programmes and projects, adoption rates and efficiency in the implementation of improved land-management practices have been unsatisfactory. In this context, this paper studies the soil erosion problem in the Indian context. Almost 130 million hectares of land, i.e. 45% of the total land area of India is affected by soil erosion in a serious form1. And this figure is rising even though many programmes, schemes and land-management practices have been implemented over the years since Independence. Presently this has become a major area of concern for the Indian government. This is due to the fact that it affects farming, cultivation, soil quality, crops and agriculture as a whole and almost 58% of our total workforce still depends on agriculture (Bhalla & Singh, 2009). Thus, economic evaluation of soil erosion can give a quantifiable rationale and justifiable cause so as to speed up our efforts towards conservation and judicious use of soil. This paper explores the reasons why the programmes, already implemented, have not been fully able to tackle the problem and suggests some policy changes.

Land Degradation & Development

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International Journal of Plant & Soil Science

The present study uncovering the impact of erosion conservation techniques on soil attributes in Shivaliks of lower Himalayas of Jammu. Soil erosion is considered as the main cause of land degradation in hilly areas espially in outer Himalayas. Although the problem persisted on the earth for a longer period, it has become severe in recent times due to increased man-environment interactions. The study was conducted in 2021 at the Merth village of Jammu and Kashmir, India, which is situated in the Kathua district. The catchment area investigated had a clay loam texture and a slope gradient of 3-6%, with a total area of 24.8 acres. The result shows that mean value of bulk density under various erosion control techniques was highest in overgrazing prevention (1.40g cm-3) followed by perimeter runoff control, terrace farming and contour plowing and was lowest in cover crop (1.33g cm-3). The carbon content also increased with the and was highest under cover crop. Carbon act as bridge betw...

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The Causes and Effects of Soil Erosion, and How to Prevent It

• restoration
• agriculture
• food security

Soil erosion is agriculture’s enemy: a major environmental threat to sustainability and productivity with knock-on effects on the climate crisis and food security.  

This is particularly true for places with the highest risk of erosion , such as watersheds in Indonesia, India, the Philippines and more. In these areas, protecting against soil erosion through sustainable land management can solve a multitude of problems.

Here’s a deeper look at the causes and solutions to soil erosion:

Why Is Soil Erosion Such a Big Problem?

Soil is a natural resource that may look robust and endless, but is in fact the fragile product of thousands of years of formation. Topsoil, which lies closest to the surface of the land, contains essential nutrients for crops. It is this layer of soil that is endangered by wind and water erosion. Soil erosion decreases soil fertility, which can negatively affect crop yields. It also sends soil-laden water downstream, which can create heavy layers of sediment that prevent streams and rivers from flowing smoothly and can eventually lead to flooding. Once soil erosion occurs, it is more likely to happen again.

This is a global problem. Soil is eroding more quickly than it is being formed, causing land to become unsuitable for agriculture – a particularly serious concern in a world where the population is expected to top 9 billion by midcentury. Smarter land management is a necessity.

How Does Soil Erosion Affect Climate Change?

Erosion degrades land, which means it can support fewer plants that can take in climate-warming carbon dioxide. Soils themselves could potentially sequester enough greenhouse gases in a year to equal about 5% of all annual human-made GHG emissions. Better land management can help keep soils intact so they can grow more carbon-sucking vegetation. This is already happening in China, where the Grain-for-Green project in the Yellow River basin conserved soil and water and reduced carbon emissions.     

On the flip side, unchecked climate change can worsen erosion. A report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) found that when cultivated without conservation practices, soil is currently eroding up to 100 times quicker than it’s forming.  The risk of erosion will become even higher in the future due to emissions-driven temperature changes, with resulting decreases in agricultural production, land value and human health.

What Are the Impacts of Soil Erosion?

We’re already seeing the risks of soil erosion play out around the world. Jakarta’s deadly floods earlier this year are a prime example. Eroded sediments from further upstream clogged Jakarta’s rivers and canals, causing them to overflow. Similar erosion-related floods have occurred in many other countries, such as Colombia , India , the Philippines and Democratic Republic of the Congo .

Soil erosion is not only an environmental issue; it also causes huge losses to the economy. One  study  estimated global economic losses from soil erosion to be around $8 billion, due to reduced soil fertility, decreased crop yields and increased water usage. In Java, Indonesia, soil erosion is responsible for a 2% loss in total agricultural GDP , taking into account the losses farmers face directly and the losses others face downstream. Another study showed that soil erosion in Sleman, a district located in Java, costs 17% of an average farmer’s net income per hectare of agricultural land.

The U.S. agricultural sector loses about $44 billion per year from erosion. This value includes lost productivity, along with sedimentation and water pollution. Lost farm income is estimated at $100 million per year. Soil erosion also costs European countries $1.38 billion in annual agricultural productivity losses and $171 million in lost GDP (about 1% of total GDP). South Asia loses $10 billion annually thanks to soil erosion.

What Solutions Exist to Prevent Soil Erosion?

1. use soil-friendly agricultural practices.

Terraced farming needs to be implemented to make hillside agriculture manageable. Terraces prevent erosion and allow more water to flow to crops. In addition, hillside farm fields need full crop cover to help keep the soil in place. This can be accomplished by intercropping, which means growing two crops together in the same field, such as planting rows of maize or soybean between rows of oil palm trees. For smallholders, agroforestry systems where a diverse set of crops, including trees, are grown together can be effective. Access to manure improves the organic matter of the soil, which inhibits erosion. Finally, alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted crops improves soil structure and reduces erosion at the same time.

2. Offer Incentives for Land Management

Although the science of sustainable land management has been gaining support, the socio-economic context often makes implementation difficult. Sustainable land practices need to be financially viable for farmers. Anti-erosion measures have a median cost of $500 per hectare , a considerable investment for a farmer. Governments and banks must help farmers get access to credit and support in implementing erosion prevention. This is not only a good deal for the farmer, but for the whole community. The cost of erosion prevention is far lower than the price of land restoration and rehabilitation, which one source estimated to be around $1,500–$2,000 per hectare . Another source found it could reach $15,221 per hectare.

3. Prevention AND Rehabilitation

The key to managing and reducing soil erosion is to rehabilitate already-damaged land , stop further degradation and put erosion-preventative measures at the core of land management policy. In this way, we can help prevent hunger and mitigate the climate crisis.

To learn more about WRI's work restoring eroded soils, click here .

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Understanding Soil Erosion: Causes and Effects

• August 23, 2024

Joel Cunningham

Soil erosion is a natural process, but human activities can make it worse. When the top layer of soil washes or blows away, it can lead to serious problems for agriculture, ecosystems, and our environment. By exploring what causes soil erosion and how we can prevent it, we can take simple steps to protect our soil and ensure a healthier future for our planet.

What is Soil Erosion?

Soil erosion is the gradual removal of the top layer of soil by natural forces such as wind and water. This process can occur at a slow, almost imperceptible rate or more rapidly during heavy rainstorms or high winds. The topsoil, which is rich in nutrients essential for plant growth, is particularly vulnerable. When this layer is stripped away, it diminishes the soil’s fertility and can lead to reduced agricultural productivity and increased sedimentation in rivers and lakes.

Human activities, such as deforestation, overgrazing, and improper land use, can exacerbate soil erosion by disrupting the natural soil structure and vegetation cover. Without plants to anchor the soil in place, it becomes more susceptible to erosion. Addressing soil erosion requires a combination of natural and engineered solutions to stabilize the soil, restore vegetation, and manage land use practices more sustainably.

What Causes Soil Erosion?

Soil erosion mainly happens when soil is exposed to harsh winds, heavy rains, and flowing water. Human activities, particularly farming and land clearing, can exacerbate the problem. For instance, plowing fields before or after a crop season can leave soil vulnerable for extended periods. Overgrazing by livestock like cattle and sheep removes ground-covering plants that help anchor the soil.

Additionally, deforestation , especially through clearcutting, removes trees that stabilize the soil with their roots, leaving it prone to erosion from wind and rain. Climate conditions also play a crucial role in soil erosion. Variations in rainfall and water levels can shift soil, extreme temperature changes can weaken the topsoil, and prolonged droughts can prevent vegetation from growing, which leaves soil exposed and more susceptible to erosion.

What is Water Erosion?

Water erosion happens when rain or melting snow washes away soil from the land. The amount of soil transported depends on the volume of water flowing over the surface. Areas without vegetation such as bare farm fields after harvest are particularly at risk. Without plants to absorb water, stabilize the soil, or reduce the impact of falling rain, these areas experience increased runoff and erosion. Extreme weather events, like heavy rainfall, flash floods, and rapid snowmelt, can accelerate this process.

For example, in 2019, the Midwest experienced prolonged spring rainstorms that inundated the region and caused significant erosion of its fertile soil. Farmers reported seeing water sweeping across fields and washing away soil, with some areas even showing sand deposits, highlighting the severe impact on agricultural lands.

Common Forms of Water Erosion

Sheet erosion.

Sheet erosion involves the gradual removal of thin layers of soil across a wide area by evenly distributed, slow-moving water. This form of erosion is often subtle and less noticeable because the loss of soil occurs uniformly and gradually. It usually happens on gently sloping lands where water runoff is spread out rather than concentrated.

Despite its slow onset, sheet erosion can be quite damaging over time, as the continuous removal of topsoil leads to a significant loss of soil fertility. Without sufficient topsoil, plant growth can be severely affected, and the land’s agricultural productivity may decrease.

Rill Erosion

Rill erosion occurs when water concentrates in small, shallow channels or furrows on a slope. These rills form when the surface water flow becomes concentrated enough to start cutting into the soil, creating small, visible channels. Initially, rills may appear as minor depressions or grooves on the land.

However, as water continues to flow through these channels, they can become deeper and wider, worsening the erosion and potentially evolving into larger gullies. This type of erosion can rapidly degrade the land if not managed properly, leading to more severe erosion problems and impacting the landscape’s stability.

Gully Erosion

Gully erosion is a more advanced stage of erosion where rills evolve into larger, deeper, and more pronounced channels known as gullies. These gullies are significant features in the landscape, cutting deeply into the ground and often changing the natural drainage patterns.

They can be several feet deep and wide, making them particularly damaging to both the land and any structures or vegetation in their path. Gullies can form quickly in areas with intense water flow and are challenging to reclaim once established, often requiring substantial intervention to repair and stabilize the affected land.

Streambank Erosion

Streambank erosion occurs along the edges of rivers and streams where the flowing water undermines and removes soil from the banks. This process can lead to significant loss of land, as the banks become unstable and collapse into the water.

Streambank erosion is exacerbated by increased runoff, which can carry more sediment into the waterways, and alterations to the natural flow, such as dam construction or channelization. Over time, this erosion can lead to wider and deeper streams or rivers, impacting water quality and aquatic habitats, as well as potentially causing property damage.

Coastal Erosion

Coastal erosion affects the shorelines where the land meets the sea, driven by the action of waves, tides, and currents. This type of erosion results in the loss of coastal land as waves and tidal forces continuously wear away the shoreline. Coastal erosion can lead to the retreat of beaches, cliffs, and other coastal features, posing risks to coastal habitats, property, and infrastructure.

It is often accelerated by human activities such as construction near the shore, which can disrupt natural sediment movement and increase erosion rates. Coastal erosion can also have significant ecological impacts, affecting coastal ecosystems and biodiversity.

Effects of Water Erosion

The impact of water erosion largely depends on the amount and depth of topsoil lost. As topsoil is eroded, the remaining soil’s ability to retain nutrients and moisture decreases, which can significantly hinder crop growth and reduce yields. In severe cases, heavily eroded soils may become unsuitable for farming. Additionally, eroded soil often has a reduced capacity to absorb water, which can lead to flooding and the formation of large, stagnant water bodies. Persistent flooding during the planting season can delay or obstruct the sowing of new crops. Beyond agricultural impacts, water erosion can contribute to broader environmental issues. For example, the intense flooding in the Midwest in 2019 resulted in a high volume of agricultural runoff entering nearby waterways.

This runoff, rich in fertilizers and chemicals, contributed to an unusually large “dead zone” in the Gulf of Mexico, where low oxygen levels harm marine life. Excessive nutrient runoff can have severe consequences for aquatic ecosystems and public health. High levels of manure and fertilizers can cause harmful algal blooms, which deplete oxygen in the water and create conditions where marine life cannot survive. These blooms also affect freshwater resources, making them unsafe for drinking and recreational use. In 2014, a significant algal bloom in Lake Erie led to a water contamination crisis in Toledo, Ohio, where over 500,000 residents were advised to avoid using tap water due to unsafe toxin levels.

What is Wind Erosion?

Wind erosion occurs when strong winds blow across loose, dry, and bare soil, lifting and transporting soil particles through the air. This process can strip away the top layer of soil, leading to a loss of fertile topsoil and degradation of the land. Areas with little vegetation or poorly managed land are particularly vulnerable to wind erosion, as there are fewer natural barriers to protect the soil.

This type of erosion can create dust storms and contribute to air quality issues, as airborne soil particles can be carried over long distances. Wind erosion also impacts agriculture by reducing soil fertility and damaging crops, and it can lead to the formation of features like sand dunes or desertification in extreme cases.

Effects of Wind Erosion

Soil Degradation

Wind erosion leads to the removal of the topsoil, which is the most fertile layer of soil due to its high content of organic matter and nutrients. This loss diminishes the soil’s ability to retain moisture and nutrients, making it less productive for agriculture.

As the quality of the soil decreases, farmers may experience reduced crop yields and may need to apply additional fertilizers and soil amendments to compensate for the nutrient loss. Over time, continuous soil degradation can result in long-term reductions in agricultural productivity and may necessitate significant investments in soil restoration and conservation efforts .

Dust Storms

Wind erosion can generate large dust storms by lifting and transporting fine soil particles into the atmosphere. These storms can spread dust over vast distances, significantly affecting air quality. The airborne dust can contribute to respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis, for people living in affected areas.

Additionally, dust storms can reduce visibility on roads, leading to hazardous driving conditions and potential accidents. The environmental impact includes the deposition of dust on crops, which can affect photosynthesis and further degrade plant health.

Desertification

In severe cases, wind erosion can contribute to desertification, a process where once-fertile land becomes increasingly dry and barren. Desertification transforms productive landscapes into arid deserts, diminishing their agricultural potential and altering local ecosystems.

This process is often exacerbated by poor land management practices, such as overgrazing and deforestation, which remove vegetation that helps stabilize the soil. Desertification can lead to the loss of arable land, forcing communities to relocate and impacting food security and local economies.

Damage to Vegetation

Wind erosion can physically damage plant roots and uproot vegetation, leading to further soil instability. The removal of plants not only exposes soil to additional erosion but also disrupts the natural processes that help maintain soil health.

Vegetation serves as a natural barrier that protects soil from wind and water erosion, so its loss exacerbates the problem. Without adequate ground cover, soil becomes increasingly vulnerable to erosion, creating a cycle of degradation that can be challenging to reverse.

Sedimentation in Waterways

Soil particles carried by wind can eventually settle into rivers, streams, and other water bodies, increasing sedimentation. This sediment can cloud the water, reduce light penetration, and smother aquatic habitats, affecting fish and other aquatic organisms.

Elevated sediment levels can also disrupt water treatment processes and degrade water quality. The increased sedimentation can lead to the formation of sedimentary deposits that alter the natural flow of water and impact the health of aquatic ecosystems.

Infrastructure Damage

Wind erosion can undermine infrastructure by eroding the soil around the foundations of roads, buildings, and other structures. As the supporting soil is removed, it can lead to instability and potential structural damage.

This can result in costly repairs and maintenance, and in severe cases, structural failures. The erosion of soil around infrastructure can also affect the stability of roadways and embankments, leading to additional safety hazards and repair expenses.

Impacts of Erosion

Erosion has far-reaching impacts that affect both the environment and human activities. The removal of topsoil due to erosion reduces soil fertility, which can diminish agricultural productivity and require increased use of fertilizers and soil amendments. As fertile soil is lost, it can lead to lower crop yields and economic losses for farmers. Erosion also contributes to sedimentation in waterways, which degrades water quality and disrupts aquatic ecosystems by smothering habitats and affecting water flow.

Beyond agricultural and ecological effects, erosion can result in significant infrastructure damage. The destabilization of soil can undermine roads, bridges, and buildings, leading to costly repairs and potential safety hazards. Additionally, erosion can exacerbate flooding by altering natural drainage patterns and increasing runoff. This combination of effects on economic strain, environmental degradation, and infrastructure damage highlights the broad and interconnected impacts of erosion on both natural and human systems.

Soil erosion has significant impacts on both the environment and human activities. It depletes fertile topsoil, reducing agricultural productivity and harming ecosystems. Erosion also leads to sedimentation in waterways, which affects water quality and aquatic life, and can damage infrastructure, resulting in economic costs. Addressing soil erosion through sustainable land management and effective erosion control is essential to protect our soil resources, safeguard the environment, and support agricultural and infrastructure resilience.

• What is soil erosion? Soil erosion is the process where soil is removed from the Earth’s surface by natural forces such as wind and water, or through human activities. This can lead to the loss of fertile topsoil and affect land productivity.
• What causes soil erosion? Soil erosion is caused by a variety of factors, including heavy rainfall, strong winds, poor land management practices, deforestation, and construction activities. These factors can expose soil to erosion and disrupt its stability.
• How does soil erosion impact agriculture? Soil erosion reduces soil fertility by stripping away the nutrient-rich topsoil, which can lead to decreased crop yields and require additional fertilizers. This impacts agricultural productivity and increases farming costs.
• What are the environmental effects of soil erosion? Erosion can lead to sedimentation in rivers and streams, degrading water quality and harming aquatic habitats. It can also contribute to the loss of natural habitats and biodiversity, and exacerbate flooding.
• How can soil erosion be prevented? Soil erosion can be managed through practices such as planting cover crops, creating windbreaks, using erosion control mats, and implementing sustainable land management techniques. Proper vegetation and soil conservation practices help protect soil from erosion.
• What are some common forms of soil erosion? Common forms include sheet erosion (thin layers of soil being removed evenly), rill erosion (small channels forming on slopes), gully erosion (larger, deeper channels), and streambank erosion (erosion along riverbanks).
• How can I tell if soil erosion is affecting my land? Signs of soil erosion include visible loss of topsoil, the formation of channels or gullies, increased sediment in nearby water bodies, and reduced plant growth or productivity. Monitoring these indicators can help assess the extent of erosion.
• What role does vegetation play in preventing soil erosion? Vegetation helps stabilize the soil with its root system, reduces the impact of raindrops, and slows down water runoff, all of which help prevent soil erosion. Plants act as a natural barrier to protect soil from erosion.
• Can erosion be reversed? While it can be challenging, erosion can be mitigated and reversed through restoration practices such as replanting vegetation, stabilizing slopes, and applying soil conservation techniques. Effective management can help restore soil health and prevent further erosion.
• How does climate change affect soil erosion? Climate change can increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events like heavy rainfall and strong winds, which can exacerbate soil erosion. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can also affect soil stability and vegetation.

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I'm Joel Cunningham, an expert in pruning and weed management with over a decade of experience. My skills are rooted in formal training and extensive practice, focusing on advanced pruning techniques and efficient weed control. I'm known for my quality work, precision, and deep understanding of plant health and soil dynamics. My contributions extend to educational initiatives where I share sustainable practices and advice, establishing myself as a reliable and authoritative figure in the gardening community.

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Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural forces such as wind or water.

Earth Science, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography

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Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural forces such as wind or water . A similar process, weathering , breaks down or dissolves rock , but does not involve movement. Erosion is the opposite of deposition , the geological process in which earthen materials are deposited, or built up, on a landform . Most erosion is performed by liquid water, wind, or ice (usually in the form of a glacier ). If the wind is dusty , or water or glacial ice is muddy, erosion is taking place. The brown color indicates that bits of rock and soil are suspended in the fluid (air or water) and being transported from one place to another. This transported material is called sediment .

Physical Erosion

Physical erosion describes the process of rocks changing their physical properties without changing their basic chemical composition. Physical erosion often causes rocks to get smaller or smoother. Rocks eroded through physical erosion often form clastic sediments . Clastic sediments are composed of fragments of older rocks that have been transported from their place of origin. Landslides and other forms of mass wasting are associated with physical weathering. These processes cause rocks to dislodge from hillsides and crumble as they tumble down a slope.

Plant growth can also contribute to physical erosion in a process called bioerosion . Plants break up earthen materials as they take root, and can create cracks and crevices in rocks they encounter. Ice and liquid water can also contribute to physical erosion as their movement forces rocks to crash together or crack apart. Some rocks shatter and crumble, while others are worn away. River rocks are often much smoother than rocks found elsewhere, for instance, because they have been eroded by constant contact with other river rocks.

Erosion by Water

Liquid water is the major agent of erosion on Earth. Rain, rivers, floods , lakes, and the ocean carry away bits of soil and sand and slowly wash away the sediment. Rainfall produces four types of soil erosion: splash erosion , sheet erosion , rill erosion , and gully erosion . 

• Splash erosion describes the impact of a falling raindrop, which can scatter tiny soil particles as far as 0.6 meters (two feet). 
• Sheet erosion describes erosion caused by runoff . 
• Rill erosion describes erosion that takes place as runoff develops into discrete streams (rills). 
• Finally, gully erosion is the stage in which soil particles are transported through large channels .

Gullies carry water for brief periods of time during rainfall or snowmelt but appear as small valleys or crevasses during dry seasons . Valley erosion is the process in which rushing streams and rivers wear away their banks , creating larger and larger valleys.

The Fish River Canyon , in southern Namibia, is the largest canyon in Africa and a product of valley erosion. Over millions of years, the Fish River wore away at the hard gneiss bedrock , carving a canyon about 160 kilometers (99 miles) in length, 27 kilometers (17 miles) wide, and 550 meters (1,084 feet) deep.

The ocean is a huge force of erosion. Coastal erosion —the wearing away of rocks, earth, or sand on the beach —can change the shape of entire coastlines . During the process of coastal erosion, waves pound rocks into pebbles and pebbles into sand. Waves and currents sometimes transport sand away from beaches, moving the coastline farther inland. Coastal erosion can have a huge impact on human settlement as well as coastal ecosystems . The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse , for example, was nearly destroyed by coastal erosion.

The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse was built on the Outer Banks, a series of barrier islands off the coast of the U.S. state of North Carolina, in 1870. At the time, the lighthouse was nearly 457 meters (1,500 feet) from the ocean. Over time, the ocean eroded most of the beach near the lighthouse. By 1970, the pounding surf was just 37 meters (120 feet) away and endangered the structure. Many people thought the lighthouse would collapse during a strong storm . Instead, thanks to a significant engineering feat completed in 1999, it was moved 880 meters (2,900 feet) inland.

The battering force of ocean waves also erodes seaside cliffs . The action of erosion can create an array of coastal landscape features. For example, erosion can bore holes that form caves . When water breaks through the back of the cave, it can create an arch. The continual pounding of waves can cause the top of the arch to fall, leaving nothing but rock columns called sea stacks . The seven remaining sea stacks of Twelve Apostles Marine National Park, in Victoria, Australia, are among the most dramatic and well-known of these features of coastal erosion.

Erosion by Wind

Wind is a powerful agent of erosion. Aeolian (wind-driven) processes constantly transport dust, sand, and ash from one place to another. Wind can sometimes blow sand into towering dunes . Some sand dunes in the Badain Jaran section of the Gobi Desert in China, for example, reach more than 400 meters (1,300 feet) high. In dry areas, windblown sand can blast against a rock with tremendous force, slowly wearing away the soft rock. It polishes rocks and cliffs until they are smooth—giving the stone a so-called “ desert varnish .” Wind is responsible for the eroded features that give Arches National Park, in the U.S. state of Utah, its name.

Wind can also erode material until little remains at all. Ventifacts are rocks that have been sculpted by wind erosion. The enormous chalk formations in the White Desert of Egypt are ventifacts carved by thousands of years of wind roaring through the flat landscape. Some of the most destructive examples of wind erosion are the dust storms that characterized the “ Dust Bowl ” of the 1930s in North America. Made brittle by years of drought and agricultural mismanagement, millions of tons of valuable topsoil were eroded away by strong winds in what came to be known as “black blizzards.” These dust storms devastated local economies, forcing thousands of people who depended on agriculture for their livelihoods to migrate.

Erosion by Ice

Ice, usually in the form of glaciers, can erode the earth and create dramatic landforms. In frigid areas and on some mountaintops, glaciers move slowly downhill and across the land. As they move, they transport everything in their path, from tiny grains of sand to huge boulders. Rocks carried by glaciers scrape against the ground below, eroding both the ground and the rocks. In this way, glaciers grind up rocks and scrape away the soil. Moving glaciers gouge out basins and form steep-sided mountain valleys. Eroded sediment called moraine is often visible on and around glaciers.

Several times in Earth’s history, vast glaciers covered parts of the Northern Hemisphere . These glacial periods are known as ice ages . Ice Age glaciers carved much of the modern northern North American and European landscape. Ice Age glaciers scoured the ground to form what are now the Finger Lakes in the U.S. state of New York, for example. They carved fjords , deep inlets along the coast of Scandinavia . The snout of a glacier eroded Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts, U.S., and formed the recognizable fishhook shape of Cape Cod itself.

Today, in places such as Greenland and Antarctica, glaciers continue to erode the earth. Ice sheets there can be more than a mile thick, making it difficult for scientists to measure the speed and patterns of erosion. However, ice sheets do erode remarkably quickly—as much as half a centimeter (0.2 inch) every year.

Other Forces of Erosion

Thermal erosion describes the erosion of permafrost along a river or coastline. Warm temperatures can cause ice-rich permafrost to break off coastlines in huge chunks, often carrying valuable topsoil and vegetation with them. These eroded “ floating islands ” can disintegrate into the ocean, or even crash into another piece of land—helping spread new life to different landscapes. Mass wasting describes the downward movement of rocks, soil, and vegetation. Mass wasting incidents include landslides, rockslides, and avalanches . Mass wasting can erode and transport millions of tons of earth, reshaping hills and mountains and, often, devastating communities in its path.

Factors Impacting Erosion

Some of the natural factors impacting erosion in a landscape include climate , topography , vegetation, and tectonic activity . Climate is perhaps the most influential force impacting the effect of erosion on a landscape. Climate includes precipitation and wind. Climate also includes seasonal variability, which influences the likelihood of weathered sediments being transported during a weather event such as a snowmelt, breeze, or hurricane . Topography, the shape of surface features of an area, can contribute to how erosion impacts that area. The earthen floodplains of river valleys are much more prone to erosion than rocky flood channels, which may take centuries to erode. Soft rock like chalk will erode more quickly than hard rocks like granite.

Vegetation can slow the impact of erosion. Plant roots adhere to soil and rock particles, preventing their transport during rainfall or wind events. Trees, shrubs , and other plants can even limit the impact of mass wasting events such as landslides and other natural hazards such as hurricanes. Deserts, which generally lack thick vegetation, are often the most eroded landscapes on the planet.

Finally, tectonic activity shapes the landscape itself, and thus influences the way erosion impacts an area. Tectonic uplift , for example, causes one part of the landscape to rise higher than others. In a span of about 5 million years, tectonic uplift caused the Colorado River to cut deeper and deeper into the Colorado Plateau, land in what is now the U.S. state of Arizona. It eventually formed the Grand Canyon, which is more than 1,600 meters (one mile) deep and as much as 29 kilometers (18 miles) wide in some places.

Erosion and People  

Deposition, Soils, and Sediments

Eroded sediments have profoundly influenced the development of civilizations around the world. Agricultural development is often reliant on the nutrient -rich soils created by the accumulation of eroded earth. When the velocity of wind or water slows, eroded sediment is deposited in a new location. The sediment builds up in a process called sedimentation and creates fertile land. River deltas are made almost entirely of sediment that has eroded from the banks and bed of a river.

The rich delta soils of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers in northern California, for example, have created one of the most agriculturally productive areas in the world. Loess is an agriculturally rich sediment made almost entirely of wind-blown, eroded sediment.

The Yellow River in central China gets its name from the yellow loess blown into and suspended in its water. The fertile lands around the Yellow River have been among China’s most productive for thousands of years.

Erosion Control

Erosion is a natural process, but human activity can make it happen more quickly. Human activity altering the vegetation of an area is perhaps the biggest human factor contributing to erosion. Trees and plants hold soil in place. When people cut down forests or plow up grasses for agriculture and development, the soil is more vulnerable to washing or blowing away. Landslides become more common. Water rushes over exposed soil rather than soaking into it, causing flooding.

Global warming , the current period of climate change , is speeding erosion. The change in climate has been linked to more frequent and severe storms. Storm surges following hurricanes and typhoons can erode kilometers of coastline and coastal habitat . These coastal areas are home to residences, businesses, and economically important industries, such as fisheries.

The rise in temperature is also quickly melting glaciers. The slower, more massive form of glacial erosion is being supplanted by the cumulative impact of rill, gully, and valley erosion. In areas downstream from glacial snouts, rapidly melting glaciers are contributing to sea level rise . The rising sea erodes beaches more quickly.

Erosion control is the process of reducing erosion by wind and water. Farmers and engineers must regularly practice erosion control. Sometimes, engineers simply install structures to physically prevent soil from being transported. Gabions are huge wireframes that hold boulders in place, for instance. Gabions are often placed near cliffs. These cliffs, often near the coast, have homes, businesses, and highways near them. When erosion by water or wind threatens to tumble the boulders toward buildings and cars, gabions protect landowners and drivers by holding the rocks in place.

Erosion control also includes physically changing the landscape. Communities often invest in windbreaks and riparian buffers to protect valuable agricultural land. Windbreaks, also called hedgerows or shelterbelts , are lines of trees and shrubs planted to protect cropland from wind erosion. Riparian buffers describe plants such as trees, shrubs, grasses, and sedges that line the banks of a river. Riparian buffers help contain the river in times of increased stream flow and flooding.

Living shorelines are another form of erosion control in wetland areas. Living shorelines are constructed by placing native plants, stone, sand, and even living organisms such as oysters along wetland coasts. These plants help anchor the soil to the area, preventing erosion. By securing the land, living shorelines establish a natural habitat. They protect coastlines from powerful storm surges as well as erosion.

Far-Flung Dust Wind is a powerful force. It can carry huge amounts of dust over long distances. In the winter and spring of 2004, winds eroded 45 million tons of dust from a spot called the Bodele Depression in the desert of northern Chad all the way across the Atlantic Ocean to Brazil.

Eroding Animals

Burrowing animals, such as beetles and worms, contribute to erosion by displacing soil.

Solar Erosion The sun itself is actually an instrument of erosion! As rocks heat up, they expand. Expanding rocks can sometimes crack and crumble away.

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Last Updated

April 23, 2024

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