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• Published: 30 October 2018

‘Green’ synthesis of metals and their oxide nanoparticles: applications for environmental remediation

• Jagpreet Singh 1 ,
• Tanushree Dutta 2 ,
• Ki-Hyun Kim 3 ,
• Mohit Rawat 1 ,
• Pallabi Samddar 3 &
• Pawan Kumar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0712-8763 4  

Journal of Nanobiotechnology volume  16 , Article number:  84 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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In materials science, “green” synthesis has gained extensive attention as a reliable, sustainable, and eco-friendly protocol for synthesizing a wide range of materials/nanomaterials including metal/metal oxides nanomaterials, hybrid materials, and bioinspired materials. As such, green synthesis is regarded as an important tool to reduce the destructive effects associated with the traditional methods of synthesis for nanoparticles commonly utilized in laboratory and industry. In this review, we summarized the fundamental processes and mechanisms of “green” synthesis approaches, especially for metal and metal oxide [e.g., gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper oxide (CuO), and zinc oxide (ZnO)] nanoparticles using natural extracts. Importantly, we explored the role of biological components, essential phytochemicals (e.g., flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, amides, and aldehydes) as reducing agents and solvent systems. The stability/toxicity of nanoparticles and the associated surface engineering techniques for achieving biocompatibility are also discussed. Finally, we covered applications of such synthesized products to environmental remediation in terms of antimicrobial activity, catalytic activity, removal of pollutants dyes, and heavy metal ion sensing.

Introduction

Over the last decade, novel synthesis approaches/methods for nanomaterials (such as metal nanoparticles, quantum dots (QDs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and their composites) have been an interesting area in nanoscience and technology [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. To obtain nanomaterials of desired sizes, shape, and functionalities, two different fundamental principles of synthesis (i.e., top down and bottom up methods) have been investigated in the existing literature (Fig.  1 ). In the former, nanomaterials/nanoparticles are prepared through diverse range of synthesis approaches like lithographic techniques, ball milling, etching, and sputtering [ 10 ]. The use of a bottom up approach (in which nanoparticles are grown from simpler molecules) also includes many methods like chemical vapor deposition, sol–gel processes, spray pyrolysis, laser pyrolysis, and atomic/molecular condensation.

Different synthesis approaches available for the preparation of metal nanoparticles

Interestingly, the morphological parameters of nanoparticles (e.g., size and shape) can be modulated by varying the concentrations of chemicals and reaction conditions (e.g., temperature and pH). Nevertheless, if these synthesized nanomaterials are subject to the actual/specific applications, then they can suffer from the following limitation or challenges: (i) stability in hostile environment, (ii) lack of understanding in fundamental mechanism and modeling factors, (iii) bioaccumulation/toxicity features, (iv) expansive analysis requirements, (v) need for skilled operators, (vi) problem in devices assembling and structures, and (vii) recycle/reuse/regeneration. In true world, it is desirable that the properties, behavior, and types of nanomaterials should be improved to meet the aforementioned points. On the other hand, these limitations are opening new and great opportunities in this emerging field of research.

To counter those limitations, a new era of ‘green synthesis’ approaches/methods is gaining great attention in current research and development on materials science and technology. Basically, green synthesis of materials/nanomaterials, produced through regulation, control, clean up, and remediation process, will directly help uplift their environmental friendliness. Some basic principles of “green synthesis” can thus be explained by several components like prevention/minimization of waste, reduction of derivatives/pollution, and the use of safer (or non-toxic) solvent/auxiliaries as well as renewable feedstock.

‘Green synthesis’ are required to avoid the production of unwanted or harmful by-products through the build-up of reliable, sustainable, and eco-friendly synthesis procedures. The use of ideal solvent systems and natural resources (such as organic systems) is essential to achieve this goal. Green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles has been adopted to accommodate various biological materials (e.g., bacteria, fungi, algae, and plant extracts). Among the available green methods of synthesis for metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, utilization of plant extracts is a rather simple and easy process to produce nanoparticles at large scale relative to bacteria and/or fungi mediated synthesis. These products are known collectively as biogenic nanoparticles (Fig.  2 ).

Key merits of green synthesis methods

Green synthesis methodologies based on biological precursors depend on various reaction parameters such as solvent, temperature, pressure, and pH conditions (acidic, basic, or neutral). For the synthesis of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, plant biodiversity has been broadly considered due to the availability of effective phytochemicals in various plant extracts, especially in leaves such as ketones, aldehydes, flavones, amides, terpenoids, carboxylic acids, phenols, and ascorbic acids. These components are capable of reducing metal salts into metal nanoparticles [ 11 ]. The basic features of such nanomaterials have been investigated for use in biomedical diagnostics, antimicrobials, catalysis, molecular sensing, optical imaging, and labelling of biological systems [ 12 ].

Here, we summarized the current state of research on the green synthesis of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles with their advantages over chemical synthesis methods. In addition, we also discussed the role of solvent systems (synthetic materials), various biological (natural extracts) components (like bacteria, algae, fungi, and plant extracts) with their advantages over other conventional components/solvents. The main aim of this literature study is to provide detailed mechanisms for green synthesis and their real world environmental remediation applications. Overall, our goal is to systematically describe “green” synthesis procedures and their related components that will benefit researchers involved in this emerging field while serving as a useful guide for readers with a general interest in this topic.

Biological components for “green” synthesis

Innumerable physical and chemical synthesis approaches require high radiation, highly toxic reductants, and stabilizing agents, which can cause pernicious effects to both humans and marine life. In contrast, green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles is a one pot or single step eco-friendly bio-reduction method that requires relatively low energy to initiate the reaction. This reduction method is also cost efficient [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ].

Bacterial species have been widely utilized for commercial biotechnological applications such as bioremediation, genetic engineering, and bioleaching [ 20 ]. Bacteria possess the ability to reduce metal ions and are momentous candidates in nanoparticles preparation [ 21 ]. For the preparation of metallic and other novel nanoparticles, a variety of bacterial species are utilized. Prokaryotic bacteria and actinomycetes have been broadly employed for synthesizing metal/metal oxide nanoparticles.

The bacterial synthesis of nanoparticles has been adopted due to the relative ease of manipulating the bacteria [ 22 ]. Some examples of bacterial strains that have been extensively exploited for the synthesis of bioreduced silver nanoparticles with distinct size/shape morphologies include: Escherichia coli , Lactobacillus casei , Bacillus cereus , Aeromonas sp. SH10 Phaeocystis antarctica , Pseudomonas proteolytica , Bacillus amyloliquefaciens , Bacillus indicus , Bacillus cecembensis , Enterobacter cloacae , Geobacter spp., Arthrobacter gangotriensis , Corynebacterium sp. SH09, and Shewanella oneidensis . Likewise, for the preparation of gold nanoparticles, several bacterial species (such as Bacillus megaterium D01, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans , E. coli DH5a, Bacillus subtilis 168, Shewanella alga , Rhodopseudomonas capsulate , and Plectonema boryanum UTEX 485) have been extensively used. Information on the size, morphology, and applications of various nanoparticles is summarized in Table  1 .

Fungi-mediated biosynthesis of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles is also a very efficient process for the generation of monodispersed nanoparticles with well-defined morphologies. They act as better biological agents for the preparation of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, due to the presence of a variety of intracellular enzyme [ 23 ]. Competent fungi can synthesize larger amounts of nanoparticles compared to bacteria [ 24 ]. Moreover, fungi have many merits over other organisms due to the presence of enzymes/proteins/reducing components on their cell surfaces [ 25 ]. The probable mechanism for the formation of the metallic nanoparticles is enzymatic reduction (reductase) in the cell wall or inside the fungal cell. Many fungal species are used to synthesize metal/metal oxide nanoparticles like silver, gold, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, as discussed in Table  1 .

Yeasts are single-celled microorganisms present in eukaryotic cells. A total of 1500 yeast species have been identified [ 26 ]. Successful synthesis of nanoparticles/nanomaterials via yeast has been reported by numerous research groups. The biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles by a silver-tolerant yeast strain and Saccharomyces cerevisiae broth has been reported. Many diverse species are employed for the preparation of innumerable metallic nanoparticles, as discussed in Table  1 .

Plants have the potential to accumulate certain amounts of heavy metals in their diverse parts. Consequently, biosynthesis techniques employing plant extracts have gained increased consideration as a simple, efficient, cost effective and feasible methods as well as an excellent alternative means to conventional preparation methods for nanoparticle production. There are various plants that can be utilized to reduce and stabilize the metallic nanoparticles in “one-pot” synthesis process. Many researchers have employed green synthesis process for preparation of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles via plant leaf extracts to further explore their various applications.

Plants have biomolecules (like carbohydrates, proteins, and coenzyme) with exemplary potential to reduce metal salt into nanoparticles. Like other biosynthesis processes, gold and silver metal nanoparticles were first investigated in plant extract-assisted synthesis. Various plants [including aloe vera ( Aloe barbadensis Miller), Oat ( Avena sativa ), alfalfa ( Medicago sativa ), Tulsi ( Osimum sanctum ), Lemon ( Citrus limon ), Neem ( Azadirachta indica ), Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum ), Mustard ( Brassica juncea ) and lemon grass ( Cymbopogon flexuosus )] have been utilized to synthesize silver nanoparticles and gold nanoparticles, as listed in Table  2 . The major part of this type of research has explored the ex vivo synthesis of nanoparticles, while metallic nanoparticles can be formed in living plants (in vivo) by reducing metal salt ions absorbed as soluble salts. The in vivo synthesis of nanoparticles like zinc, nickel, cobalt, and copper was also observed in mustard ( Brassica juncea ), alfalfa ( Medicago sativa ), and sunflower ( Helianthus annuus ) [ 27 ]. Also, ZnO nanoparticles have been prepared with a great variety of plant leaf extracts such as coriander ( Coriandrum sativum ) [ 28 ], crown flower ( Calotropis gigantean ) [ 29 ], copper leaf ( Acalypha indica ) [ 30 ], China rose ( Hibiscus rosa - sinensis ) [ 31 ], Green Tea ( Camellia sinensis ) [ 32 ], and aloe leaf broth extract ( Aloe barbadensis Miller) [ 33 ]. Readers can refer to the work of Iravani [ 34 ] for a comprehensive overview of plant materials utilized for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles.

Solvent system-based “green” synthesis

Solvent systems are a fundamental component in the synthesis process, whether it is “green” synthesis or not. Water is always considered an ideal and suitable solvent system for synthesis processes. According to Sheldon, “the best solvent is no solvent, and if a solvent is desirable then water is ideal” [ 35 ]. Water is the cheapest and most commonly accessible solvent on earth. Since the advent of nanoscience and nanotechnology, the use of water as a solvent for the synthesis of various nanoparticles has been carried out. For instance, synthesized Au and Ag nanoparticles at room temperature using gallic acid, a bifunctional molecule, in an aqueous medium [ 36 ]. Gold nanoparticles were produced via a laser ablation technique in an aqueous solution. The oxygen present in the water leads to partial oxidation of the synthesized gold nanoparticles, which finally enhanced its chemical reactivity and had a great impact on its growth [ 37 ].

In the literature, “green” synthesis consists of two major routes:

Wherein water is used as a solvent system.

Wherein a natural source/extract is utilized as the main component.

Both of these routes have been covered in the coming section according to the present literature. Hopefully, our efforts will help researchers gain a better knowledge of ‘green’ synthesis methods, the role of toxic/non-toxic solvents (or components), and renewable resources derived from natural sources. Ionic and supercritical liquids are one of the best examples in this emerging area. Ionic liquids (ILs) are composed of ions that have melting points below 100 °C. Ionic liquids are also acknowledged as “room temperature ionic liquids.” Several metal nanoparticles (e.g., Au, Ag, Al, Te, Ru, Ir, and Pt) have been synthesized in ionic liquids [ 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. The process of nanoparticle synthesis is simplified since the ionic liquid can serve as both a reductant and a protective agent.

ILs can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic depending on the nature of the cations and anions. For example, 1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium (Bmim) hexafluorophosphate (PF6) is hydrophobic, whereas its tetrafluoroborate (BF4) analogue is hydrophilic. Since both species are ionic in nature, they can act as catalysts [ 40 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ]. Bussamara et al. have performed a comparative study by controlling the synthesis of manganese oxide (Mn 3 O 4 ) nanoparticles using imidazolium ionic liquids and oleylamine (a conventional solvent). They found that smaller sized nanoparticles (9.9 ± 1.8 nm) were formed with better dispersity in ionic liquids than in the oleylamine solvent (12.1 ± 3.0 nm) [ 46 ]. Lazarus et al. synthesized silver nanoparticles in an ionic liquid (BmimBF4). The synthesized nanoparticles were in both smaller isotropic spherical and large-sized anisotropic hexagonal shaped forms [ 47 ]. An electrochemical method was employed for this purpose [ 48 ]. Ionic liquid was used in the electrolytic reaction as a substitute for water without mechanical stirring. For the first time, Kim et al. developed a one-phase preparation technique for gold (Au) and platinum (Pt) nanoparticles by means of thiol-functionalized ionic liquids (TFILs). TFILs acted as a stabilizing agent to produce crystalline structures with small sizes [ 49 ]. Dupont et al. used 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (which is room temperature ionic liquid) for synthesizing Ir(0) nanoparticles by Ir(I) reduction. The average size of synthesized nanoparticles was ~ 2 nm. Interestingly, the ionic liquid medium is impeccable for the production of recyclable biphasic catalytic systems for hydrogenation reactions [ 50 ].

The benefits of using ionic liquids instead of other solvents include the following. (a) Many metal catalysts, polar organic compounds, and gases are easily dissolved in ILs to support biocatalysts. (b) ILs have constructive thermal stabilities to operate in a broad temperature range. Most of these melt below room temperature and begin to decompose above 300 or 400 °C. As such, they allow a broader synthesis temperature range (e.g., three to four times) than that of water. (c) The solubility properties of IL can be modulated by modifying the cations and anions associated with them. (d) Unlike other polar solvents or alcohols, ILs are non-coordinating. However, they have polarities comparable to alcohol. (e) ILs do not evaporate into the environment like volatile solvents because they have no vapor pressure. (f) ILs have dual functionality because they have both cations and anions. The problems associated with the biodegradability of ionic liquids make them not acceptable for synthesis of metallic nanoparticles. To diminish these non-biodegradability issues, many new potentially benign ionic liquids are being developed with maximum biodegradation efficiency [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. The innumerable ILs are used to synthesize various metallic nanoparticles as listed in Table  3 .

Likewise, ordinary solvents can be converted into super critical fluids at temperatures and pressures above critical point. In the supercritical state, solvent properties such as density, thermal conductivity, and viscosity are significantly altered. Carbon dioxide is the most feasible super critical, non-hazardous, and inert fluid [ 55 , 56 ]. Also, supercritical water can serve as a good solvent system for several reactions. As, water has critical temperature of 646 K and pressure of 22.1 MPa [ 57 ]. Silver and copper NPs can be synthesized in supercritical carbon dioxide [ 58 ]. Sue et al. suggested that decreasing the solubility of metal oxides around the critical point can lead to super saturation and the ultimate formation of nanoparticles [ 59 ]. Kim et al. synthesized tungsten oxide (WO 3 ) and tungsten blue oxide nanoparticles by using sub- and supercritical water and methanol [ 60 ].

Stability and toxicity of the nanoparticles

The environmental distribution and transport of released nanoparticles depend on their ability to make metastable aqueous suspensions or aerosols in environmental fluids. The stability of the nanoparticles in the environment can therefore be evaluated by estimating their propensity to aggregate or interact with the surrounding media. Aggregation is a time-dependent phenomena associated with the rate of particle collision while the stability of the suspension is largely determined by the size of the particles and affinity toward other environmental constituents. The “green” synthesis of AgNPs from tea leaf extraction was found to be stable after entering the aquatic environment [ 61 ]. Likewise, the stability of AgNPs (in aqueous medium) manufactured using plant extracts and plant metabolites was confirmed from the resulting material [ 62 ]. Surface complexation is also reported to affect the intrinsic stability of nanoparticles by regulating its colloidal stability. The nature and stability of nanoparticles were theoretically predicted through a mechanistic understanding of the surface complexation processes [ 63 ]. The colloidal stability (or rate of dissolution) of nanoparticles can be regulated by controlling the particle size and surface capping or through functionalization techniques [ 64 , 65 ]).

Transformation of nanoparticles is an essential property to consider when assessing their environmental impact or toxicity. For instance, sulfurization of AgNPs greatly reduced their toxicity due to the lower solubility of silver sulfide [ 66 ]. For similar reasons, the use of biocompatible stabilizing agents (e.g., biodegradable polymers and copolymers) have opened up a “greener” avenue of nanomaterial surface engineering. Such techniques can impart remarkable stability, e.g., in situ synthesis of AuNPs capped with Korean red ginseng root [ 67 ]. Apart from surface chemistry, other key structural features determining the nanomaterial toxicity are the size, shape, and composition of the nanomaterials [ 68 ]. Toxicity analysis of AgNP synthesized using plant leaf extracts showed enhanced seed germination rates in the AgNP chemical treatment for activation than the corresponding control treatments [ 69 ]. However, the mechanism of such rate enhancement effects was not reported.

Mechanism of “green” synthesis for metals and their oxide nanoparticles

Microorganism-based mechanism.

There are different mechanisms for the formation of nanoparticles using different microorganisms. First, metallic ions are captured on the surface or inside the microbial cells, and then these arrested metal ions are reduced into metal nanoparticles by the action of enzymes. Sneha et al. [ 70 ] described the mechanism of microorganism-assisted silver and gold nanoparticles formed via Verticillium sp. or algal biomass based on the following hypothesis. (a) First, the silver or gold ions were captured on the surface of fungal cells via electrostatic interactions between ions and negatively charged cell wall enzymes. (b) Then, silver or gold ions were bioreduced into silver or gold nuclei, which subsequently grew. The two key aspects in the biosynthesis of nanoparticles are NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADH-dependent nitrate reductase. Kalishwaralal et al. [ 71 ] demonstrated that the nitrate reductase was responsible for the production of bioreduced silver nanoparticles by B. licheniformis . Nonetheless, the bioreduction mechanisms associated with the production of metal salt ions and the resulting metallic nanoparticles formed by microorganisms remain unexplored.

Plant leaf extract-based mechanism

For nanoparticle synthesis mediated by plant leaf extract, the extract is mixed with metal precursor solutions at different reaction conditions [ 72 ]. The parameters determining the conditions of the plant leaf extract (such as types of phytochemicals, phytochemical concentration, metal salt concentration, pH, and temperature) are admitted to control the rate of nanoparticle formation as well as their yield and stability [ 73 ]. The phytochemicals present in plant leaf extracts have uncanny potential to reduce metal ions in a much shorter time as compared to fungi and bacteria, which demands the longer incubation time [ 74 ]. Therefore, plant leaf extracts are considered to be an excellent and benign source for metal as well as metal oxide nanoparticle synthesis. Additionally, plant leaf extract play a dual role by acting as both reducing and stabilizing agents in nanoparticles synthesis process to facilitate nanoparticles synthesis [ 75 ]. The composition of the plant leaf extract is also an important factor in nanoparticle synthesis, for example different plants comprise varying concentration levels of phytochemicals [ 76 , 77 ]. The main phytochemicals present in plants are flavones, terpenoids, sugars, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, and amides, which are responsible for bioreduction of nanoparticles [ 78 ].

Flavonoids contain various functional groups, which have an enhanced ability to reduce metal ions. The reactive hydrogen atom is released due to tautomeric transformations in flavonoids by which enol-form is converted into the keto-form. This process is realized by the reduction of metal ions into metal nanoparticles. In sweet basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) extracts, enol- to keto-transformation is the key factor in the synthesis of biogenic silver nanoparticles [ 79 ]. Sugars such as glucose and fructose exist in plant extracts can also be responsible for the formation of metallic nanoparticles. Note that glucose was capable of participating in the formation of metallic nanoparticles with different size and shapes, whereas fructose-mediated gold and silver nanoparticles are monodisperse in nature [ 80 ].

An FTIR analysis of green synthesized nanoparticles via plant extracts confirmed that nascent nanoparticles were repeatedly found to be associated with proteins [ 81 ]. Also, amino acids have different ways of reducing the metal ions. Gruen et al. [ 82 ] observed that amino acids (viz cysteine, arginine, lysine, and methionine are proficient in binding with silver ions. Tan et al. [ 83 ] tested all of the 20 natural α-amino acids to establish their efficient potential behavior towards the reduction of Au 0 metal ions.

Plant extracts are made up of carbohydrates and proteins biomolecules, which act as a reducing agent to promote the formation of metallic nanoparticles [ 34 ]. Also, the proteins with functionalized amino groups (–NH 2 ) available in plant extracts can actively participate in the reduction of metal ions [ 84 ]. The functional groups (such as –C–O–C–, –C–O–, –C=C–, and –C=O–) present in phytochemicals such as flavones, alkaloids, phenols, and anthracenes can help to generate metallic nanoparticles. According to Huang et al. [ 85 ], the absorption peaks of FTIR spectra at (1) 1042 and 1077, (2) 1606 and 1622, and (3) 1700–1800 cm −1 imply the stretching of (1) –C–O–C– or –C–O–, (2) –C=C– and (3) –C=O, respectively. Based on FTIR analysis, they confirmed that functional groups like –C–O–C–, –C–O–, –C=C–, and –C=O, are the capping ligands of the nanoparticles [ 86 ]. The main role of the capping ligands is to stabilize the nanoparticles to prevent further growth and agglomeration. Kesharwani et al. [ 87 ] covered photographic films using an emulsion of silver bromide. When light hit the film, the silver bromide was sensitized; this exposed film was placed into a solution of hydroquinone, which was further oxidized to quinone by the action of sensitized silver ion. The silver ion was reduced to silver metal, which remained in the emulsion.

Based on the chemistry of photography, we assumed that hydroquinone or plastohydroquinone or quinol (alcoholic compound) serve as a main reducing agent for the reduction of silver ions to silver nanoparticles through non-cyclic photophosphorylation [ 87 ]. Thus, this experiment proves that the biomolecules and heterocyclic compounds exist in plant extract were accountable for the extracellular synthesis of metallic nanoparticles by plants. It has already been well established that numerous plant phytochemicals including alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolic acids, sugars, polyphenols, and proteins play a significant role in the bioreduction of metal salt into metallic nanoparticles. For instance, Shanakr et al. [ 88 ] confirmed that the terpenoids present in geranium leaf extract actively take part in the conversion of silver ions into nanoparticles. Eugenol is a main terpenoid component of Cinnamomum zeylanisum (cinnamon) extracts, and it plays a crucial role for the bioreduction of HAuCl 4 and AgNO 3 metal salts into their respective metal nanoparticles. FTIR data showed that –OH groups originating from eugenol disappear during the formation of Au and Ag nanoparticles. After the formation of Au nanoparticles, carbonyl, alkenes, and chloride functional groups appeared. Several other groups [e.g., R–CH and –OH (aqueous)] were also found both before and after the production of Au nanoparticles [ 89 ]. Thus, they proposed the possible chemical mechanism shown in Fig.  3 . Nonetheless, the exact fundamental mechanism for metal oxide nanoparticle preparation via plant extracts is still not fully tacit. In general, there are three phases of metallic nanoparticle synthesis from plant extracts: (1) the activation phase (bioreduction of metal ions/salts and nucleation process of the reduced metal ions), (2) the growth phase (spontaneous combination of tiny particles with greater ones) via a process acknowledged as Ostwald ripening, and (3) the last one is termination phase (defining the final shape of the nanoparticles) [ 90 , 91 ]. The process of nanoparticle formation by plant extract is depicted in Fig.  4 [ 92 ].

Schematic for the reduction of Au and Ag ions [ 89 ]

Mechanism of nanoparticle formation by plant leaf extract [ 228 ]

Environmental remediation applications

Antimicrobial activity.

Various studies have been carried out to ameliorate antimicrobial functions because of the growing microbial resistance towards common antiseptic and antibiotics. According to in vitro antimicrobial studies, the metallic nanoparticles effectively obstruct the several microbial species [ 93 ]. The antimicrobial effectiveness of the metallic nanoparticles depends upon two important parameters: (a) material employed for the synthesis of the nanoparticles and (b) their particle size. Over the time, microbial resistance to antimicrobial drugs has become gradually raised and is therefore a considerable threat to public health. For instance, antimicrobial drug resistant bacteria contain methicillin-resistant, sulfonamide-resistant, penicillin-resistant, and vancomycin-resistant properties [ 94 ]. Antibiotics face many current challenges such as combatting multidrug-resistant mutants and biofilms. The effectiveness of antibiotic is likely to decrease rapidly because of the drug resistance capabilities of microbes. Hence, even when bacteria are treated with large doses of antibiotics, diseases will persist in living beings. Biofilms are also an important way of providing multidrug resistance against heavy doses of antibiotics. Drug resistance occurs mainly in infectious diseases such as lung infection and gingivitis [ 95 ]. The most promising approach for abating or avoiding microbial drug resistance is the utilization of nanoparticles. Due to various mechanisms, metallic nanoparticles can preclude or overwhelm the multidrug-resistance and biofilm formation, as described in Figs.  5 and 6 .

Schematic for the multiple antimicrobial mechanisms in different metal nanoparticles against microbial cells [ 96 ]

Various mechanisms of antimicrobial activity of metal nanoparticles [ 93 ]

Various nanoparticles employ multiple mechanisms concurrently to fight microbes [e.g., metal-containing nanoparticles, NO-releasing nanoparticles (NO NPs), and chitosan-containing nanoparticles (chitosan NPs)]. Nanoparticles can fight drug resistance because they operate using multiple mechanisms. Therefore, microbes must simultaneously have multiple gene mutations in their cell to overcome the nanoparticle mechanisms. However, simultaneous multiple biological gene mutations in the same cell are unlikely [ 96 ].

Multiple mechanisms observed in nanoparticles are discussed in Table  4 . Silver nanoparticles are the most admired inorganic nanoparticles, and they are utilized as efficient antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory agents [ 97 ]. According to a literature survey, the antimicrobial potential of silver nanoparticles can be described in the following ways: (1) denaturation of the bacterial outer membrane [ 98 ], (2) generation of pits/gaps in the bacterial cell membrane leading to fragmentation of the cell membrane [ 99 , 100 ], and (3) interactions between Ag NPs and disulfide or sulfhydryl groups of enzymes disrupt metabolic processes; this step leads to cell death [ 101 ]. The shape-dependent antimicrobial activity was also examined. According to Pal et al. [ 102 ], truncated triangular nanoparticles are highly reactive in nature because their high-atom-density surfaces have enhanced antimicrobial activity.

The synthesis of Au nanoparticles is highly useful in the advancement of effective antibacterial agents because of their non-toxic nature, queer ability to be functionalized, polyvalent effects, and photo-thermal activity [ 103 , 104 , 105 ]. However, the antimicrobial action of gold nanoparticles is not associated with the production of any reactive oxygen species-related process [ 106 ]. To investigate the antibacterial potential of the Au nanoparticles, researchers attempted to attach nanoparticles to the bacterial membrane followed by modifying the membrane potential, which lowered the ATP level. This attachment also inhibited tRNA binding with the ribosome [ 106 ]. Azam et al. [ 107 ] examined the antimicrobial potential of zinc oxide (ZnO), copper oxide (CuO), and iron oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ) nanoparticles toward gram-negative bacteria ( Escherichia coli , Pseudomonas aeruginosa ) and gram-positive bacteria ( Staphylococcus Aureus and Bacillus subtilis ). Accordingly, the most intense antibacterial activity was reported for the ZnO nanoparticles. In contrast, Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles exhibited the weakest antibacterial effects. The order of antibacterial activities of nanoparticles was found to be as ZnO (19.89 ± 1.43 nm), CuO (29.11 ± 1.61 nm), and Fe 2 O 3 (35.16 ± 1.47 nm). These results clearly depicts that the size of the nanoparticles also play a momentous role in the antibacterial potential of each sample [ 107 ]. The anticipated mechanism of antimicrobial action of ZnO nanoparticles is: (1) ROS generation, (2) zinc ion release on the surface, (3) membrane dysfunction, and (4) entry into the cell. Also, the antimicrobial potential of ZnO nanoparticles is concentration and surface area dependent [ 108 ]. Mahapatra et al. [ 109 ] determined the antimicrobial action of copper oxide nanoparticles towards several bacterial species such as Klebsiella pneumoniae , P. aeruginosa , Shigella Salmonella paratyphi s. They found that CuO nanoparticles exhibited suitable antibacterial activity against those bacteria. It was assumed that nanoparticles should cross the bacterial cell membrane to damage the crucial enzymes of bacteria, which further induce cell death. For instance, green synthesized nanoparticles show enhanced antimicrobial activity compared to chemically synthesized or commercial nanoparticles. This is because the plants [such as Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) and Azadirachta indica (neem)] employed for synthesis of nanoparticles have medicinal properties [ 110 , 111 ]. For example, green synthesized silver nanoparticles showed an efficient and large zone of clearance against various bacterial strains compared to commercial silver nanoparticles (Fig.  7 ) [ 112 ].

Schematic for the antimicrobial activity for the five bacterial strains: a Staphylococcus aureus , b Klebsiella pneumonia , c Pseudomonas aeruginosa , d Vibrio cholera , and e Proteus vulgaris . Numbers of 1 through 6 inside each strain denote: (1) nickel chloride, (2) control ciprofloxacin, (3) Desmodium gangeticum root extract, (4) negative control, (5) nickel NPs prepared by a green method, and (6) nickel NPs prepared by a chemical method [ 229 ]

Catalytic activity

4-Nitrophenol and its derivatives are used to manufacture herbicides, insecticides, and synthetic dyestuffs, and they can significantly damage the ecosystem as common organic pollutants of wastewater. Due to its toxic and inhibitory nature, 4-nitrophenol is a great environmental concern. Therefore, the reduction of these pollutants is crucial. The 4-nitrophenol reduction product, 4-aminophenol, has been applied in diverse fields as an intermediate for paracetamol, sulfur dyes, rubber antioxidants, preparation of black/white film developers, corrosion inhibitors, and precursors in antipyretic and analgesic drugs [ 113 , 114 ]. The simplest and most effective way to reduce 4-nitrophenol is to introduce NaBH 4 as a reductant and a metal catalyst such as Au NPs [ 115 ], Ag NPs [ 116 ], CuO NPs [ 117 ], and Pd NPs [ 118 ]. Metal NPs exhibit admirable catalytic potential because of the high rate of surface adsorption ability and high surface area to volume ratio. Nevertheless, the viability of the reaction declines as a consequence of the substantial potential difference between donor (H 3 BO 3 /NaBH 4 ) and acceptor molecules (nitrophenolate ion), which accounts for the higher activation energy barrier.

Metallic NPs can promote the rate of reaction by increasing the adsorption of reactants on their surface, thereby diminishing activation energy barriers [ 119 , 120 ] (Fig.  8 ). The UV–visible spectrum of 4-nitrophenol was characterized by a sharp band at 400 nm as a nitrophenolate ion was produced in the presence of NaOH. The addition of Ag NPs (synthesized by Chenopodium aristatum L. stem extract) to the reaction medium led to a fast decay in the absorption intensity at 400 nm, which was concurrently accompanied by the appearance of a comparatively wide band at 313 nm, demonstrating the formation of 4-aminophenol [ 121 ] (Fig.  9 ).

Schematic of the metallic NP-mediated catalytic reduction of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol [ 120 ]

UV-visible spectra illustrating Chenopodium aristatum L. stem extract synthesized Ag NP-mediated catalytic reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP at three different temperatures a 30 °C, b 50 °C, and c 70 °C. Reduction in the absorption intensity of the characteristic nitrophenolate band at 400 nm accompanied by concomitant appearance of a wider absorption band at 313 nm indicates the formation of 4-AP [ 121 ]

Removal of pollutant dyes

Cationic and anionic dyes are a main class of organic pollutants used in various applications [ 122 ]. Organic dyes play a very imperative role due to their gigantic demand in paper mills, textiles, plastic, leather, food, printing, and pharmaceuticals industries. In textile industries, about 60% of dyes are consumed in the manufacturing process of pigmentation for many fabrics [ 123 ]. After the fabric process, nearly 15% of dyes are wasted and are discharged into the hydrosphere, and they represent a significant source of pollution due to their recalcitrance nature [ 124 ]. The pollutants from these manufacturing units are the most important sources of ecological pollution. They produce undesirable turbidity in the water, which will reduce sunlight penetration, and this leads to the resistance of photochemical synthesis and biological attacks to aquatic and marine life [ 125 , 126 , 127 ]. Therefore, the management of effluents containing dyes is one of the daunting challenge in the field of environmental chemistry [ 128 ].

The need for hygienic and safe drinking water is increasing day by day. Considering this fact, the use of metal and metal oxide semiconductor nanomaterials for oxidizing toxic pollutants has become of great interest in recent material research fields [ 129 , 130 , 131 ]. In the nano regime, semiconductor nanomaterials have superior photocatalytic activity relative to the bulk materials. Metal oxide semiconductor nanoparticles (like ZnO, TiO 2 , SnO 2 , WO 3 , and CuO) have been applied preferentially for the photocatalytic activity of synthetic dyes [ 31 , 132 , 133 , 134 ]. The merits of these nanophotocatalysts (e.g., ZnO and TiO 2 nanoparticles) are ascribable to their high surface area to mass ratio to enhance the adsorption of organic pollutants. The surface energy of the nanoparticles increases due to the large number of surface reactive sites available on the nanoparticle surfaces. This leads to an increase in rate of contaminant removal at low concentrations. Consequently, a lower quantity of nanocatalyst will be required to treat polluted water relative to the bulk material [ 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 ]. Like metal oxide nanoparticles, metal nanoparticles also show enhanced photocatalytic degradation of various pollutant dyes; for example, silver nanoparticles synthesized from Z. armatum leaf extract were utilized for the degradation of various pollutant dyes [ 127 ] (Fig.  10 ).

Schematic for the reduction of a safranine O, b methyl red, c methyl orange, and d methylene blue dyes using silver NPs synthesized from Z. armatum leaf extract by metallic nanoparticles [ 136 ]

Heavy metal ion sensing

Heavy metals (like Ni, Cu, Fe, Cr, Zn, Co, Cd, Pb, Cr, Hg, and Mn) are well-known for being pollutants in air, soil, and water. There are innumerable sources of heavy metal pollution such as mining waste, vehicle emissions, natural gas, paper, plastic, coal, and dye industries [ 139 ]. Some metals (like lead, copper, cadmium, and mercury ions) shows enhanced toxicity potential even at trace ppm levels [ 140 , 141 ]. Therefore, the identification of toxic metals in the biological and aquatic environment has become a vital need for proper remedial processes [ 142 , 143 , 144 ]. Conventional techniques based on instrumental systems generally offer excellent sensitivity in multi-element analysis. However, experimental set ups to perform such analysis are highly expensive, time-consuming, skill-dependent, and non-portable.

Due to the tunable size and distance-dependent optical properties of metallic nanoparticles, they have been preferably employed for the detection of heavy metal ions in polluted water systems [ 145 , 146 ]. The advantages of using metal NPs as colorimetric sensors for heavy metal ions in environmental systems/samples include simplicity, cost effectiveness, and high sensitivity at sub ppm levels. Karthiga et al. [ 147 ] synthesized AgNPs using various plant extracts used as colorimetric sensors for heavy metal ions like cadmium, chromium, mercury, calcium, and zinc (Cd 2+ , Cr 3+ , Hg 2+ , Ca 2+ , and Zn 2+ ) in water. Their as-synthesized Ag nanoparticles showed colorimetric sensing of zinc and mercury ions (Zn 2+ and Hg 2+ ). Likewise, AgNPs synthesized using mango fresh leaves and dried leaves (fresh, MF-AgNPs and sun-dried, MD-AgNPs) exhibited selective sensing for mercury and lead ions (Hg 2+ and Pb 2+ ). Also, AgNPs prepared from pepper seed extract and green tea extract (GT-AgNPs) showed selective sensing properties for Hg 2+ , Pb 2+ , and Zn 2+ ions [ 147 ] (Fig.  11 ).

Schematic of metal removal using metal oxides prepared by green synthesis. Left— a digital images and b absorption spectra of neem bark extract-mediated silver NPs (NB-AgNPs) with different metal ions and concentration-dependent studies of c Hg 2+ and d Zn 2+ . Right— a digital images and b absorption spectra of fresh mango leaf extract-mediated silver NPs (MF-AgNPs) with different metal ions and c concentration-dependent studies of Pb 2+ removal [ 147 ]

Conclusion and future prospects

‘Green’ synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles has been a highly attractive research area over the last decade. Numerous kinds of natural extracts (i.e., biocomponents like plant, bacteria, fungi, yeast, and plant extract) have been employed as efficient resources for the synthesis and/or fabrication of materials. Among them, plant extract has been proven to possess high efficiency as stabilizing and reducing agents for the synthesis of controlled materials (i.e., controlled shapes, sizes, structures, and other specific features). This review article was organized to encompass the ‘state of the art’ research on the ‘green’ synthesis of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles and their use in environmental remediation applications. Detailed synthesis mechanisms and an updated literature study on the role of solvents in synthesis have been reviewed thoroughly based on the literature available to help encounter the existing problems in ‘green’ synthesis. In summary, future research and development of prospective ‘green’ materials/nanoparticle synthesis should be directed toward extending laboratory-based work to an industrial scale by considering traditional/present issues, especially health and environmental effects. Nevertheless, ‘green’ material/nanoparticle synthesis based on biocomponent-derived materials/nanoparticles is likely to be applied extensively both in the field of environmental remediation and in other important areas like pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries. Biosynthesis of metals and their oxide materials/nanoparticles using marine algae and marine plants is an area that remains largely unexplored. Accordingly, ample possibilities remain for the exploration of new green preparatory strategies based on biogenic synthesis.

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JS, KHK and PK made substantial contributions to interpretation of literature; drafted the article and revised it critically. All made substantial contributions to draft the article and revised it critically for important intellectual content and gave approval to the submitted manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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The corresponding author (KHK) acknowledges a supporting Grant from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT, & Future Planning (No. 2016R1E1A1A01940995). Dr. Pawan Kumar would like to thank SERB and UGC, New Delhi, for the ‘Empowerment and Equity Opportunities for Excellence in Science’ video file No. EEQ/2016/00484 and the UGC-BSR Start Up-Research Project.

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Singh, J., Dutta, T., Kim, KH. et al. ‘Green’ synthesis of metals and their oxide nanoparticles: applications for environmental remediation. J Nanobiotechnol 16 , 84 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-018-0408-4

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• Published: 19 May 2022

Green synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Eugenia roxburghii DC. extract and activity against biofilm-producing bacteria

• Alok Kumar Giri 1 ,
• Biswajit Jena 1 ,
• Bhagyashree Biswal 1 ,
• Arun Kumar Pradhan 1 ,
• Manoranjan Arakha 1 ,
• Saumyaprava Acharya 2 &
• Laxmikanta Acharya   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8434-8500 1  

Scientific Reports volume  12 , Article number:  8383 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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• Nanoscience and technology

The green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and their applications have attracted many researchers as the AgNPs are used effectively in targeting specific tissues and pathogenic microorganisms. The purpose of this study is to synthesize and characterize silver nanoparticles from fully expanded leaves of Eugenia roxburghii DC., as well as to test their effectiveness in inhibiting biofilm production. In this study, at 0.1 mM concentration of silver nitrate (AgNO3), stable AgNPs were synthesized and authenticated by monitoring the color change of the solution from yellow to brown, which was confirmed with spectrophotometric detection of optical density. The crystalline nature of these AgNPs was detected through an X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) pattern. AgNPs were characterized through a high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM) to study the morphology and size of the nanoparticles (NPs). A new biological approach was undertaken through the Congo Red Agar (CRA) plate assay by using the synthesized AgNPs against biofilm production. The AgNPs effectively inhibit biofilm formation and the biofilm-producing bacterial colonies. This could be a significant achievement in contending with many dynamic pathogens.

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Introduction

Most of the plants found in the family Myrtaceae are medicinally important. The secondary metabolites found in these plants can be utilized to cure different diseases. Among the different genera, Eugenia is an important taxon in the family having active principles which have pharmaceutical importance. Eugenia species produce delicious edible fruits with high vitamin and mineral content. Eugenia roxburghii DC. is one such wild edible fruit-producing plant under the family Myrtaceae. It is also known as Roxburgh’s Cherry due to the deliciousness of its fruits. This plant species is mostly found in the coastal and tropical areas of India and Sri Lanka. This species, containing the various secondary metabolites, has anticancer and antibacterial activity 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 . Though there is no such systematic study on the medicinal utilization of the species, the plant is used to treat diseases associated with diabetes, arthritis, hypertension, etc., as revealed by the local people 8 , 9 .

The bioavailability of the active principle is drastically reduced when it is supplied in the form of crude extract, but this can be enhanced when the crude extract is supplied in a modified form like nanomaterial 10 . A nanoparticle (NP) is a microscopic particle having a high surface area. Synthesis of NPs has picked up most attention in recent years due to their vast application in areas like catalysis, optics, electronics 11 , 12 , 13 , antibacterial, and antimicrobial activity 14 , 15 , 16 . The physical and chemical properties of metallic nanoparticles are remarkably different from their corresponding bulk form and can be used as an anti-microbial agent 17 . Plant and plant parts can be used for the reduction of metal to prepare respective metal nanoparticles 18 , 19 . Among the different metallic NPs, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have enormous applications in the medical and biotechnological fields 20 . The synthesis of AgNPs can be achieved both chemically and physically. Physicochemical approaches, on the other hand, include drawbacks such as high running costs, the use of toxic chemicals, and increased energy limits. Physical operations are complex procedures that fail to regulate particle sizes in the nanoscale range. The biggest drawbacks are that they create irregularly sized particles and have a high manufacturing cost 21 . Chemically synthesized NPs are not cost-effective and harm the environment with high energy requirements 22 . This is when biological approaches employing less expensive sources are exploited as AgNPs precursors. The green synthesis of nanoparticles has gained a lot of attraction since it uses non-toxic phytochemicals and avoids the dangerous ingredients that would otherwise be used in chemical synthesis 23 . Green synthesis methods use extracts from diverse plant parts, microbial cells, and biopolymers, and are so classified as such. The nanoparticles created are biocompatible and have the correct level of efficacy for the purpose for which they were created 24 . Metallic NPs can be synthesized biologically using various plants and their extracts which are easily available in huge quantities. The plants and their extracts are safe to handle, less toxic and eco-friendly.

From the leaf extract of Eugenia jambolana, silver nanoparticle synthesis was carried out and their phytochemical screening was evaluated 25 . Earlier, reports are available regarding the formation of AgNPs and their biological applications from Syzygium cumini   26 , Eugenia caryophyllata 27 . From the leaf extract of Eugenia uniflora, silver nanoparticle formation was carried out and their antibacterial and antidiabetic potential were evaluated 28 .

Biofilm is a very fine extracellular polymer fibril that helps the bacteria adhere to the surface 29 . The bacterial community secrets an extracellular polymeric substance after adherence to a matrix or substratum which results in an alternation of phenotype and genetic change with the growth rate 30 . Bacteria forming biofilms possess great resistance to numerous stress conditions including some antibiotics, high salt concentration, acidic conditions, and many oxidizing agents, which results in increasing their pathogenicity 31 . Biofilm formation is seen in most medical devices, catheters, and other implants 32 .

Silver nanoparticle formation has already been reported from different plant extracts such as Azadirachta indica (Neem), Aloe vera , Emblica Officinalis (Amla), Cinnamomum camphora 19 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 . However, there is no such information about the synthesis of silver nanoparticles and any of their biological applications from the plant Eugenia roxburghii . Hence, in this study, an attempt was made to synthesize silver nanoparticles from the leaf extract and their activity against microbes. In our previous study, we found that leaf extract is highly effective in inhibiting the growth of microbes 37 . To enhance the antimicrobial activity of the leaf extract we have tried to prepare AgNPs from the extract to access the effect of the nanoparticles, we have used it to inhibit the growth of biofilms by S. aureus . As it has been seen that nanomaterial is better at combating microbes than normal crude extracts, our present investigation will help evaluate the antimicrobial effect of Eugenia AgNPs.

Characterization by UV–Vis spectrophotometer

UV–Vis spectrophotometric analysis was carried out for the primary investigation of silver nanoparticle synthesis. A color change has been observed in the mixture of plant extract and AgNPs. The color of the mixture gradually changes from green to yellowish-brown confirming the production of E. roxburghii AgNPs. The absorbance of the solution was investigated for one week. From the spectral analysis, it is observed that the AgNPs peak was obtained at 417 nm with the highest peak (Fig.  1 ) and was stable thereafter for a few days as there was no increase in the absorption.

UV–Vis absorption spectra of synthesized AgNPs from E. roxburghii leaf extract.

Characterization by XRD

The crystallinity of the synthesized silver nanoparticle using E. roxburghii leaf extract was examined through X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Fig.  2 ). The size of the nanoparticles was calculated based on the Debye–Scherrer equation: (D = kλ/βcosθ).

XRD pattern of AgNPs synthesized from E. roxburghii leaf extract.

In the above equation: D represents particle diameter size, K: a constant with a value of 0.9, λ: X-ray source wavelength (0.1541 nm), β and θ represent the FWHM (full width at half maximum), and diffraction angle concerning the (111) lattice planes respectively. The average crystalline size was found to be approximately 35 nm. The lattice parameters for the synthesized AgNPs were determined to be a = 0.4086 nm, b = 0.4086 nm, c = 0.4086 nm respectively. The calculated lattice value was 0.4086 nm, which was nearly identical to the normal lattice parameter of 0.4073 nm for silver 38 .

Characterization by HR-TEM

The resulted colloidal particles were characterized to determine their shape and size by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM). For the preparation of the TEM grid, a carbon-coated copper grid was used. A drop of the particle solution was placed over the grid and dried at room temperature. Different TEM micrograph images including SAED pattern and HR-TEM images of the synthesized AgNPs were obtained which are displayed in Fig.  3 a–d. The estimated average particle size was approximately 24 nm whereas particle sizes ranged from approximately 19–39 nm.

( a ) TEM micrographs image of the synthesized AgNPs, ( b ) TEM image of different sized AgNPs, ( c ) SAED image of AgNPs, ( d ) HR-TEM image of AgNPs.

Characterization by Zeta sizer

The surface potential of nanoparticles is the potential difference between the medium where nanoparticles are dispersed and the accessible surface of dispersed nanoparticles, which can be analyzed using a zeta sizer. Figure  4 demonstrates the zeta potential of the biosynthesized AgNPs which was found to be  − 37.8 mV. This shows that the AgNPs synthesized from the leaf extract of E. roxburghii are highly stable.

Zeta potential of synthesized AgNPs.

Analysis of antimicrobial activity

An antibacterial activity assay was carried out by using disc diffusion and the MIC method. It was observed that among all the bacteria taken, the AgNPs extract of E. roxburghii showed maximum effectiveness towards S. aureus (Fig.  5 a). So, the MIC experiment was continued with the selection of S. aureus bacterium and the MIC test revealed that there was a continuous increase in absorbance at 120 µg/ml concentration whereas, at 240 µg/ml concentration of extract, there was a continuous decrease in absorbance. However, there was no such change in absorbance observed in other concentrations of the extract (Fig.  5 b).

( a ) Antimicrobial activity test by Disc Diffusion Method against different bacterial strains, ( b ) Minimal Inhibitory Concentration test on S. aureus.

Examine the effect on biofilm

In this study, it was observed that bacteria changed their color in the control plate (CRA plate without AgNPs) whereas there was no change in the color of bacteria in AgNPs treated CRA plate (Fig.  6 ). This confirmed the direct inhibition of the biofilm production of bacteria by AgNPs.

Effect of AgNPs on biofilm production by S. aureus on Congo Red Agar plates. *Control = without AgNPs, Treated = With AgNPs.

The essential enzyme for nitrogen assimilation in a variety of species is nitrate reductase (NR) 39 , which catalyses the conversion of nitrate to nitrite in the cytoplasm of plant cells 40 . An enzymatic pathway involving NADPH-dependent reductase was shown to be responsible for the bioreduction of silver ions. Silver ions exposed to nitrate reductase resulted in the formation of very stable silver NPs and NADPH was found to be the cofactor of the nitrate reductase enzyme 41 . From a previous study, the absorption spectra of synthesized AgNPs from Syzygium Jambola was found to be 460 nm and its particle size from TEM analysis was found to be ranging from 6 to 23 nm 42 , similarly in Syzygium cumini the UV spectra of synthesized nanoparticle was observed at ~ 450 nm with particle size 3.5 nm from the XRD analysis 43 and also in Eugenia uniflora UV spectra of synthesized nanoparticle was observed at 440 nm having its particle size was ranging from 25 to 50 nm 44 .

In this study, after mixing of extract and silver nitrate solutions a color change of extract was observed over the progression of time which may be due to the reduction of the silver ions leading to the excitation of Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) of the AgNPs 45 . To confirm this, UV spectra analysis was carried out and a peak was observed at 417 nm which showed a stable range for nanoparticle formation.

From the XRD pattern of the silver nanoparticle, the structure obtained to be a face-centered cubic one 46 . Four Bragg’s reflections conforming to (111), (200), (220), and (311) planes of metallic silver with FCC crystal structures are understood clearly from the XRD plot (JCPDS No. 89-3722) 47 . So, in the present study, the average crystalline nanoparticle size was measured to be approximately 35 nm. The extra peak obtained at 2θ nearly equal to 28 may be due to the bio-organic phase crystallization over silver nanoparticles surface 48 .

From the resulting images of HR-TEM analysis of synthesized AgNPs, it was observed that there was a presence of few agglomerated AgNPs in some places (Fig.  3 a) which may be an indication of further sedimentation. Mostly spherical-shaped particles were observed with variations in their size (Fig.  3 b). The average particle size was measured to be approximately 24 nm and the overall particle size ranged between 19 and 39 nm. The electron beam was directed perpendicular to one of the spheres to obtain the SAED (selected area electron diffraction) pattern and the crystallinity of the synthesized AgNO 3 was confirmed through this pattern (Fig.  3 c) which was recorded from one of the nanoparticles. The morphology of a single AgNO 3 was obtained from the HR-TEM (high-resolution transmission electron microscopy) image and found to be spherical (Fig.  3 d).

The antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticle extract of E. roxburghii was tested against four different types of bacteria viz . E. coli, P. aeruginosa, V. cholera and S. aureus. In the disc diffusion method, the nanoparticle extract showed a significant effect towards S. aureus among the above four bacteria for that reason MIC experiment was conducted by taking S. aureus bacteria against which different concentrations (120 µg/ml, 160 µg/ml, 200 µg/ml and 240 µg/ml) of nanoparticle extract were treated. In this experiment, while measuring OD, a continuous increase in absorbance at 120 µg/ml concentration of extract may suggest that at a low concentration the bacteria get dominant over the activity of the extract while a continued decrease in absorbance at 240 µg/ml concentration of extract may suggest that at this concentration the extract is efficient enough to remove the bacterial colony.

As the bacteria, S. aureus itself is a biofilm-producing bacterium, confirmed biofilm production was observed in the control plate as the plate contains Congo Red media turns into a back color. It was reported that the biofilm-producing capacity of pathogenic bacteria was due to the secretion of exopolysaccharides (EPS) 49 . The change of color from red to black in CRA plates is due to EPS secretion by bacteria 50 . Because of the clinical approach, nowadays biofilm production by the microbes and their growth on the surfaces of medicating instruments and disposable products are the major paths through which microbes enter into the body 51 , 52 . The biofilms are extremely resistant to host defense mechanisms and also to antibiotic treatment. Adhesion or attachment of microorganisms to a substrate is the first step towards colonization and this strategy has been used for microbial biofilm production 53 . In this study, a new approach was undertaken by synthesizing nanoparticles from biomaterial and using them against biofilm-producing microorganisms to test their effects on them.

Material and methods

Preparation of plant extract.

Fresh (disease-free) and fully expanded leaves of Eugenia roxburghii were collected with the permission of local authorities from the coastal area of Konark, Odisha (latitude 19.878 and longitude 86.101). The plant was taxonomically identified and authenticated by Dr. Laxmikanta Acharya (Associate professor, Centre for Biotechnology, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan University, Odisha, India) and a voucher specimen (SOAU/CBT/2020/ER/01) was retained in the department for future reference and the plant has been maintained in an environmentally controlled greenhouse. Experimental research on the plant used for the study complies with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation. For the experiment, fresh and healthy leaves were taken and washed three times with distilled water. After washing, the methanolic extract was prepared by finely grinding 25 g of leaves with liquid nitrogen in a mortar and pestle followed by the addition of 250 ml of methanol. The debris from the leaf extract was separated with filter paper (Whatman No 1). The filtrate was collected and preserved at − 20 °C.

Preparation of AgNPs with Eugenia roxburghii leaf extract

One molar silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ) stock solution was prepared. From that stock solution, 0.1 mM AgNO3 solution was taken along with the leaf extract in a 5:1 proportion for the preparation of AgNPs. 20 ml of leaf extract was mixed with 100 ml of 0.1 mM AgNO 3 solution and incubated in a shaker incubator at 300 rpm at 37 °C for 48 h. Gradually the deep green color solution changed to yellowish-brown color which indicated the conversion of Ag + to Ag 0 (Fig.  7 ). The effect of this synthesis of silver nanoparticles was monitored in UV–VIS spectrophotometer. The spectrophotometric reading was taken at different time intervals.

Synthesis of AgNPs from E. roxburghii leaf extract.

Characterization of AgNPs

Various analytical techniques were used for the characterization of green synthesized silver nanoparticles from E. roxburghii leaf extract. Constant monitoring of the reaction for the reduction of Ag + ion by taking the OD (optical density) from 200–700 nm in a double beam UV–Vis spectrophotometer (Hitachi, UH5300). Further characterization of AgNPs was carried out through XRD (Rigaku, Ultima IV, Japan) equipped with Cu-Kα radiation; a crystal monochromator employing wavelengths of 0.1541 nm in a 2θ range from 20° to 80°. HR-TEM analysis of derived nanoparticles was carried out on a JEM 2100 (Jeol), operated at 200 kV.

Antimicrobial activity test

By disc diffusion method.

To check the antimicrobial activity of E. roxburghii AgNPs extract, a disc diffusion method was carried out. For this test, different strains of bacteria such as E. coli (ATCC-443) , P. aeruginosa (Clinically isolated from SCB medical college, Microbiology department, Cuttack, Odisha, India) , V. cholera (ATCC-3906), and S. aureus (ATCC-96) were used which were identified and confirmed at the Centre for Biotechnology, Siksha O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Odisha, India. Active bacterial cultures were revived by inoculating a loop full of bacterial culture in nutrient broth from the stock maintained at 4 °C and incubated overnight at 37 °C in a shaker incubator at 800 rpm. Nutrient agar plates were prepared and spreading of 60 µl of each bacterial culture was carried out. Different concentrations such as 120 µg/ml, 160 µg/ml, 200 µg/ml, and 240 µg/ml of AgNPs extract infused discs were prepared and placed over the bacterial spread plates followed by incubation overnight at 37 °C. the observed zone of inhibition was measured in mm against the commercially available antibiotic ciprofloxacin.

By minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)

To evaluate the minimal inhibitory concentration, different concentrations (120 µg/ml, 160 µg/ml, 200 µg/ml and 240 µg/ml) of AgNPs extract were tested against S. aureus. For this experiment, 25 ml of nutrient broth was added to four different conical flasks containing different concentrations of the AgNPs extract mentioned above followed by the addition of 100 µl of bacterial culture. After the addition of bacterial culture, OD was measured at 600 nm in every 2 h interval of time from 0 to 12 h followed by incubation at 37 °C at 800 rpm.

Effect of AgNPs on Biofilm synthesis

In this study, the main target was to evaluate the effectiveness of AgNPs extract of E. roxburghii against biofilm production and this experiment was carried out by selecting the S. aureus bacterium. A Congo Red Agar (CRA) plate assay was carried out to investigate the activity of AgNPs on Biofilm production 54 . Two media plates named control and treated were taken in which the control plate was incorporated with Congo Red Dye mixed nutrient agar streaked with S. aureus bacteria and the treated plate was incorporated with a mixture of nutrient agar, Congo Red Dye, and AgNPs extract (0.065 g/ml) streaked with S. aureus . Then the plates were incubated at 34 °C for 3 days.

The silver nanoparticle prepared from E. roxburghii leaf extract were observed under UV–Vis Spectroscopy monitored at 417 nm and their crystallinity nature was confirmed from their XRD study. AgNPs are found to be very effective against biofilm production by bacteria. However, an experiment must be carried out to find the effect of the NPs on the animal model as well as on human beings for the evaluation of efficacy. Toxicological studies are also required to eradicate any kind of intoxication in a mouse model or human being. Once the NP is found nontoxic or safe in vivo studies, the nanoparticle can be utilized for the treatment of various diseases such as diabetes, arthritis, hypertension, etc. AgNPs play a major role in inhibiting bacterial colonies and biofilm formation. This study springs a new approach for synthesizing nanoparticles from the leaves of E. roxburghii which is found out to be inhibiting biofilm production and bacterial colonies can be a significant achievement in contending many dynamic pathogens. Other nanoparticles besides AgNPs can also be prepared from the leaf extract and their medicinal properties can be exploited for the remedy of various diseases. So, the present work can be considered an attempt to exploit the active principle present in the leaf of E. roxburghii to cure various ailments.

Abbreviations

Silver nanoparticles

Nanoparticles

Silver nitrate

Xray Diffraction

Transmission Electron Microscope

Selected Area Electron Diffraction

Full Width at Half Maximum

Face Centered Cubic

Congo Red Agar

Exopolysaccharide

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Alok Kumar Giri, Biswajit Jena, Bhagyashree Biswal, Arun Kumar Pradhan, Manoranjan Arakha & Laxmikanta Acharya

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Sample collection and experiment were performed by G.A.K., J.B., and B.B. Data analysis was carried out by P.A.K., A.M., and A.S.. Final manuscript was written by G.A.K. Overall experiment was designed and guided by A.L. All authors have contributed to this study.

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Giri, A.K., Jena, B., Biswal, B. et al. Green synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Eugenia roxburghii DC. extract and activity against biofilm-producing bacteria. Sci Rep 12 , 8383 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-12484-y

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Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles from Various Biological Sources and Its Biomedical Applications

Gopalu karunakaran.

1 Institute for Applied Chemistry, Department of Fine Chemistry, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, 232 Gongneung-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul 01811, Republic of Korea

Kattakgoundar Govindaraj Sudha

2 Department of Biotechnology, K. S. Rangasamy College of Arts and Science (Autonomous), Tiruchengode 637215, Tamil Nadu, India

3 Department of Periodontics, Saveetha Dental College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Chennai 600077, Tamil Nadu, India

Eun-Bum Cho

Associated data.

Not applicable.

In the last few decades, the broad scope of nanomedicine has played an important role in the global healthcare industry. Biological acquisition methods to obtain nanoparticles (NPs) offer a low-cost, non-toxic, and environmentally friendly approach. This review shows recent data about several methods for procuring nanoparticles and an exhaustive elucidation of biological agents such as plants, algae, bacteria, fungi, actinomycete, and yeast. When compared to the physical, chemical, and biological approaches for obtaining nanoparticles, the biological approach has significant advantages such as non-toxicity and environmental friendliness, which support their significant use in therapeutic applications. The bio-mediated, procured nanoparticles not only help researchers but also manipulate particles to provide health and safety. In addition, we examined the significant biomedical applications of nanoparticles, such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidant, and other medical applications. This review highlights the findings of current research on the bio-mediated acquisition of novel NPs and scrutinizes the various methods proposed to describe them. The bio-mediated synthesis of NPs from plant extracts has several advantages, including bioavailability, environmental friendliness, and low cost. Researchers have sequenced the analysis of the biochemical mechanisms and enzyme reactions of bio-mediated acquisition as well as the determination of the bioactive compounds mediated by nanoparticle acquisition. This review is primarily concerned with collating research from researchers from a variety of disciplines that frequently provides new clarifications to serious problems.

1. Introduction

1.1. history.

The word “nano” was derived from the Greek word “nanos,” it means “little,” and it is the cognomen of the one-thousandth bit (109). Nanoparticles (NPs) confer a solid colloidal particle with at least one dimension ranging from 1 to 100 nm [ 1 ]. However, the majority of materials that are applied in drug delivery are in the range of 100–200 nm. Because of their unique electronic structure, massive conductivity, wide exterior position, and quantum size significance, these particles can change their chemical and physical properties. Nanoparticles are used in a variety of applications today, including anti-viral, cosmetics, electronics, and textiles [ 2 , 3 ]. Researchers have discovered numerous beneficial effects of nanotechnology, and it now plays an important role globally. Nanotechnology has created several material industries, including the food industry, and now its role in the biomedical field has increased, providing better results in the future medicine field [ 4 , 5 ].

1.2. Different Properties of Nanoparticles

The nanoparticles’ small size has several extraordinary properties that play an important role in various reactions [ 6 ]. Nanoparticles are nanoscale systems that are gaining popularity among researchers due to their ability to develop a wide range of shapes and sizes that can be used in a variety of advanced biotechnological applications. Nanoparticles have distinct physicochemical and optoelectronic properties that may be unique properties of implementations such as electronics, pharmaceutical compounds, chemical sensors, catalysts, antimicrobial agents, clinical diagnostics, and mapping. These features provide nanoparticles with more specific and significant effects than bulk particles or unique individual molecules. Due to these properties, improved electrical transport, stimulated roughness, and stability make it most effective for the medicine, textile, defense, agriculture, food, cosmetics, and space sectors [ 7 ]. Nanoparticles exhibit tremendous shape and size characteristics, as well as a broad spectrum of applications when compared to other bulk materials, and are used for broad-scope implementations [ 8 ].

1.3. Several Approaches for Nanoparticle Synthesis

The top-down method, in which the synthesis begins with breaking bulk material into pieces and the development of nanoparticles, is the most widely used approach for nanoparticle synthesis. The bottom-up method involves gathering atoms and molecules to develop various nanoparticles. The most effective merit of the top-down method is that it facilitates the development of nanoparticles in large numbers in a short amount of time. However, the main merit of the bottom-up method is that it leads to the formation of nanoparticles with defined crystallographic properties and a higher specific surface area ( Figure 1 ) [ 9 ].

Schematic representation of top-down and bottom-up method for the obtaining of nanoparticles.

A top-down approach for synthesizing the defined shape is not feasible. However, by using a bottom-up approach, waste components can be eliminated and fewer nanoparticles can be created. The chemical reduction method is one of the main approaches for obtaining nanoparticles using the bottom-up method. Commonly, the nanoparticle synthesis method might be categorized into three parts: chemical, physical, and bio-mediated approaches [ 10 ]. Additionally, this method was suggested as the most significant and widely used approach for synthesizing nanoparticles.

Temperature, pressure, and energy are all used in the physical approach to obtain NPs [ 11 ]. By the chemical method, NPs are obtained through sol–gel, atomic condensation, chemical etching, laser pyrolysis, spray-mediated pyrolysis, and sputtering. The morphologies of the nanoparticles can be altered by chemical and reaction ratios. After the synthesis, the obtained nanoparticles might encounter difficulties in terms of bioaccumulation, the toxic nature, regrowth, reuse, and recycling [ 12 , 13 ]. However, green-approach-mediated synthesized NPs have proven to be non-toxic [ 14 ].

The biosynthesis of nanoparticles with distinct sizes and shapes has been used for a variety of applications in biomaterials science [ 15 , 16 ]. Nanoparticles have been developed for several applications in the pharmaceutical field to treat several viral and bacterial diseases [ 4 ]. The biosynthesis approach has various merits compared to other classical synthesis protocols because of the capacity for bulk production under eco-friendly approaches. The vast biological diversity and easy sources of plant output have been thoroughly investigated for the amalgamation of nanomaterials. These biologically synthesized nanomaterials have significant applications in various fields such as diagnosis, treatment, manipulation of surgical nanodevices, and other product formations. Nanomedicine has shown promising clinical results in the management of diverse chronic diseases. Moreover, eco-friendly methods of obtaining NPs were marked as fundamental materials for the upcoming generations to protect from several diseases [ 1 ].

1.4. Antibacterial and Antiviral Properties, the Importance of Zeta Potential, and Mode of Action of Nanoparticles

Greenly synthesized metal and metal oxide NPs such as Au, Ag, Pt, ZnO, and Se NPs are used in pharmaceutical products, cosmetics, antimicrobial applications, and medical applications. Bio-manipulated nanoparticles are currently being used in clinical settings for the diagnosis, treatment, transportation, and manipulation of specific medicines [ 3 ]. Metallic NPs such as Ag, Au, Zn, Pt, Fe, Ni, Cu, Mg, Ti, and their oxides have provided clear ideas of the process of obtaining them for various decades [ 4 ]. The variously obtained nanoparticles show several uses in different fields, such as chemical sensing, optical elements, catalysis, pharmaceutical agents, and antibacterial agents.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are highly reactive and are coupled with tissue proteins, causing morphology changes in the bacterial nuclear and cell membranes, resulting in cell breakage and mortality [ 17 ]. The destruction of the cell wall takes place when the nanoparticles come into contact with the cell wall. Maillard et al., gave a detailed explanation of the role of the zeta potential in antibacterial activity [ 18 ]. According to this review, the zeta potential is a very useful tool to understand the viability and membrane permeability of bacteria and how the zeta potential of materials is important to develop new advanced antibacterial materials. In a study, ZnO nanoparticles were used to evaluate their antimicrobial properties using different zeta potential bacteria from −14.7 to −23.6 mV. In this study, it was shown that Gram-positive bacteria have a lower zeta potential value, whereas Gram-negative bacteria have a higher zeta potential value [ 19 ]. In this study, the ZnO zeta potential value was altered to see the effect on different bacteria. An attempt was made to neutralize the opposite zeta potential, which is the positive and negative value, and to thus have a higher positive charge. ZnO nanoparticles had a higher antibacterial activity against negatively charged Gram-negative bacteria. Thus, this study confirms that the zeta potential plays an important role in the design of antibacterial agents. Ag can also interact with bacterial RNA and DNA by damaging them and suppressing bacterial growth. Ag has stronger antifungal and antiviral properties. Ag metal and Ag coatings are applied in considerable amounts and have no side-effects in the human system against various diseases, due to viruses, bacteria, fungi, and yeast [ 3 ].

AgNPs exhibit better efficiency toward bacteria and less toxicity to the human system. Commonly, Ag ions might be attached to negative-power molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins. Silver NPs, obtained through biological methods, exhibit anti-bacterial activity toward bacteria, including the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ( S. aureus ) [ 4 ].

Yazdanian and coauthors showed that AuNPs were also found to be an excellent antibacterial obtained from Alternanthera philoxeroides -mediated green synthesis. The obtained nanoparticles were around 72 nm in size [ 3 ]. CuNP was synthesized using Cardiospermum halicacabum as a biosynthesis, and the synthesized nanoparticles were 30–40 nm in size with a hexagonal shape. The obtained CuNP was found to inhibit the bacterial cell wall and inhibit the growth of bacteria [ 3 ]. FeNPs were also obtained using Euphorbia hirta through green synthesis, and the obtained nanoparticles were 25–80 nm in size with a cavity-like structure. They showed excellent antibacterial and antifungal activities against various pathogens [ 3 ]. TiNP obtained using Azadirachta indica was found to be around 18 nm with crystalline structures and to possess outstanding antibacterial activity against various bacteria [ 3 ]. Further, ZnONP obtained using Costus pictus was found to be around 40 nm in size and have excellent antibacterial and antifungal activities [ 3 ].

Viruses are a major threat to humans, as about 60% of major illnesses are due to virus-based infections [ 20 ]. The virus infects through respiratory or enteric channels. Viruses are transferred in different ways, such as by surface contact, direct transfer from an infected person to another person through secretions, aerosol particulates, and inanimate surfaces [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. There is a demand for the development of antiviral agents to control infections caused by viruses [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. According to Choudhary et al. (2020), tiny AgNPs are acceptable to human immune viruses, and the coupling of Ag nanoparticles of 5 nm with the gp120 protein of the HIV suppresses the virus by targeting itself in the host tissue [ 22 ]. Gold nanoparticles of around 17 nm were also inhibiting HIV-1 infections through fusion [ 21 ].

Copper iodide nanoparticles of around 160 nm were found to inhibit the Feline calicivirus infection by ROS generation and also by the oxidation of capsid proteins [ 21 ]. Cuprous oxide nanoparticles of around 45 nm were found to inhibit the Hepatitis C virus infection by preventing the HCV virus’s entry through attachment mechanisms [ 21 ]. Iron oxide nanoparticles of 10–15 nm were also found to be very effective in inhibiting the H1N1 influenza virus infection by inactivating the cellular proteins by interacting with the proposed -SH functional group [ 21 ]. ZnO nanoparticles of 16 to 20 nm were also found to be effective against H1N1 influenza, which inhibits the proliferation of the virus [ 21 ]. Up until now, various metal nanoparticles have been obtained and analyzed for their different biomedical applications. Hence, in this review, we describe the various synthesis methods for NPs and their biological mechanisms to feature their various biomedical applications.

2. Different Types of Nanoparticles

Generally, nanoparticles are categorized into three kinds: organic (polymers, proteins, and lipids), inorganic (salts and metals), and hybrid (nanofoams) ( Figure 2 ). Organic nanoparticles or polymers were identified as dendrimers, micelles, liposomes, and ferritin. These particles are not toxic or biocatalytic, and a few particles such as micelles and liposomes include a hollow core, which is marked as a nanocapsule, and are sensitive to electromagnetic rays such as light and heat [ 25 ]. Numerous organic chemicals are used in different pharmaceutical products, such as dyes, flavors, inks, and household products. In several of these products, the organic chemicals are diluted for development or chemically altered to enhance the particle properties. Chemicals are not dispersed in a liquid that is essential for development; their properties and applications are effectively restricted [ 26 ].

Schematic representation of various types of nanoparticles.

The pharmaceutical outcome has limitations in bioavailability and efficiency because it is not soluble in water. This might be due to limitations in the formation of new drugs or the area of recent medicine [ 27 ]. The same can be said for nutraceuticals, biocides, and a variety of other important essential compounds. For developing a tiny dilution of organic components, non-soluble particles might be used to act as purely dispersed molecules. It is not essential to develop new chemicals or utilize burnable, toxic, or vaporous solutions. This selection was necessary for the development and formation of new results due to the extent of chemical components that must be accessible, which gives high importance to a novel and merciless outline. Organic nanoparticles may provide a solid material coupled with organic components such as polymers or lipids, particularly at scales ranging from 10 nm to 1 m. The particles attained more intention as compared to inorganic particles, where numerous studies and trade speculations were being formed [ 28 ].

In recent years, the pharmaceutical industry has conducted interesting research on organic nanoparticles, as a result of which nanomedicine has enabled the formation of new particles and the purification of better-developed methods. The formation of dendrimers, protein connections, DNA-transferring devices, liposomes, and shell-over-coupled brick co-polymer micelles may be noted for nanoparticles synthesized from the “bottom-up” method of transferring active molecules. A “top-down” approach has gained more researcher interest, as have methods such as wet nano-milling to grind large materials and attain material separation with sub-micron maximum material cadence. Various wet methods to develop colloidal dilutions form liquid mixtures, which critically depend on the particular excretion of the oil phase of an amalgam and ensure solidification through precipitation, enclosure, and crystallization of any organic particles that are dispersed within the solvents dropwise [ 29 ].

All of these techniques have been proven to be purely generic, and they may have been limited to specific classes of particles classified by their chemical reactivity or physical characteristics. Organic suspension environments, which might be diluted by dropwise differentiation from their inorganic constituents, do not hold organic nanoparticles tenaciously in the environment for a lengthy manufacturing process [ 30 ].

Organic and inorganic hybrid nanoparticles are most effective at attracting people’s attention. Combining inorganic and organic substances in the nanoscopic range is not a novel idea. Nature has a plethora of hybrid particles such as nacre, bone, and corals that interact with biogenic substances and inorganic agents to transfer hybrid biomaterials for the benefit of humans [ 31 ]. Inorganic and organic combined nanomaterials are used in various fields, including optics, optoelectronics, coating, and bio-clinical applications. In common terms, polymer substances have critical structural properties that can be manipulated for their mechanical properties and accessibility at the end products, whereas the inorganic substances might induce unique properties such as luminescence, magnetism, and catalytic features to induce the heating and mechanical features in the organic materials [ 32 ].

Metal and metal-based nanoparticles are frequently classified as inorganic nanomaterials. Nanoparticles have various advantages, such as their small size and higher surface area, which have stimulated the interest of researchers in recent years, and they are now being used in a variety of biological and engineering fields [ 33 ]. In comparison to organic and hybrid nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles are now modified with several chemical features that allow them to bind with antibodies, drugs, and ligands, launching a different range of significant implementations in filtration, drug delivery, biotechnology, and as carriers for gene-mediated transfer with improved disease mapping [ 34 ]. However, this mapping has developed in recent years as magnetic mapping, computed tomography, ultrasound, and Raman spectroscopy have been used to map several disease stages. Nanoparticles such as gold, titanium, and silver are developed for use in numerous mapping applications. Furthermore, nanoshells and nanocapsules have been created to use mapping methods in a broad implementation. In the past few decades, nanoparticles such as Au, Ag, and magnetic nanoparticles have been effectively utilized for their use in disease treatment and as diagnostic agents. The future usage of inorganic nanoparticles such as silicas, quantum dots, titania, and many catalysts is not an inquiry but will give nano-solutions a more fanciful time in the numerous non-dispersible or imperfectly soluble organic components that are applied over various improved technologies and materials outlined [ 35 ].

Various types of inorganic nanomaterials and various methods of obtaining them have made it possible to manipulate new drug delivery systems. Several significant issues should be considered before converting these inorganic nanomaterials into medicinal products. Differentiated from the better-organized organic nanoparticles, the medicinal conversion of inorganic nanomaterials for drug delivery is still under stable argument because of the absence of a stronger proof and data relating to biological safety, especially the bio-catalytic features, elimination methods, and long-use toxicity assays to support its in vitro and in vivo biological safety. The biocompatible inorganic particle-dependent nanomaterials provide an unrivaled opportunity and demonstrate a better scope for effective clinical implementation in a variety of diseases [ 36 ].

3. Various Biosources Are Used to Synthesize Nanoparticles

3.1. green synthesis of nanoparticles.

Green-mediated nanoparticle synthesis is a low-cost, environmentally friendly method with no toxic properties. This method uses various stabilizing and reducing substances, such as plants, microbes, and some natural agents, to develop NPs. The green-mediated obtaining of nanoparticles has gained popularity due to their low cost, non-toxicity, and high stability. The green-mediated synthesizing approach was an eco-friendly method to manipulate nanoparticles that did not cause toxic effects on the environment or human health. The conventional approach might manipulate nanoparticles in large amounts with defined shapes and sizes. Furthermore, these approaches necessitate massive economies, are difficult, and adhere to outdated protocols. The green synthesis method has numerous advantages over chemical and physical methods, including ease of development, simplicity, low cost, and low waste in the development of NPs [ 37 , 38 ].

The green-mediated approach to obtaining NPs is differentiated, but organisms or their extracts are easily responsive to metallic salt, and biological stabilization was analyzed to turn metal into NPs. The formation of nanoparticles by organisms was a green method that used fungi, bacteria, and viruses’ enzymes and secondary metabolites. These kinds of organisms provide primary substances for the synthesis and manipulation of better-organized nanoparticles [ 39 ]. For differentiation, the microbially mediated obtaining method was a significant one, and plants might be applied as a beneficial method for nanoparticle formation. For obtaining nanoparticles, it might be easier to use plant extracts. Furthermore, plant extracts may reduce metallic ions, allowing microbes to easily form and stabilize metallic nanoparticles [ 40 , 41 ]. Plant extracts and various components such as proteins, polysaccharides, amino acids, and phytochemicals such as flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, and polyphenols are appearing that might stabilize and reduce the nanoparticles ( Figure 3 ).

Pictorial presentation of biologically mediated synthesis of nanoparticles.

3.2. Plant-Based Synthesis of Nanoparticles

Plant parts such as leaves, stems, flowers, bark, roots, fruits, vegetables, and shoots are used as a primary compound for the synthesis process of nanoparticles. A variety of plant leaf extracts are used for synthesis, which includes bioactive components that occur during the synthesis process using an eco-friendly approach [ 42 , 43 ]. Plant extracts are used to obtain metallic nanoparticles, but recent research has demonstrated an effective and unique method for obtaining nanoparticles via well-managed purified plant components [ 44 , 45 ]. Plant bioactive components are used as effective cancer drugs to treat a variety of cancers and dangerous diseases ( Table 1 ).

Biosynthesis of nanoparticles using plant extract.

As a result, the downstream processing-related scale-up approach effectively stimulated and reduced manipulation duration. Many studies have suggested the use of extracted phenolic components such as secondary metabolites, sugars, and proteins for the synthesis of various metallic nanoparticles. Plants or their extracts, particularly flavonoids, have been used for the bioremediation of metals for a lengthy period. Plant metabolite flavonoids, such as quercetin, were applied to biosynthesize copper and silver nanoparticles in micelle suspension, which have better antibacterial activity and a higher surface area. The Desmodium triflorum plants were given silver ions in an agar suspension, followed by shooting, resulting in an increase in the concentration of silver ions in the tissue, and this clearly shows the uptake of silver ions by plants [ 46 ]. The detoxification, capping of silver, and development of AgNPs in the tissue were observed. The different nanoparticles developed with Chrysophyllum oliviforme plants are in the range from 20 to 50 nm in diameter and have less polydispersity, which reveals the effective in vivo synthesis of nanoparticles. These materials allow for the development of a higher positioning of materials, with the possibility of synthesis [ 47 ]. The extract of Veronica amygdalina was observed for the bioconversion of silver ions. Faster development of silver nanoparticles with a merit size of 15 nm was achieved, as was a controlled scale of material size between 2 and 18 nm. Terpenoids such as geraniol, linalool, and citronellal found in geranium leaf extracts are feasible reducing substances for silver ions [ 48 ].

3.3. Amalgamation of Nanoparticles Using Marine Algae

For the amalgamation of marine algae nanoparticles, different literature data are available ( Table 2 ). The brown seaweed Sargassum wightii was stated to have the ability to synthesize nanoparticles with a defined range between 8 and 12 nm [ 62 ]. The synthesis of nanoparticles using seaweed ( Fucus vesiculosus ) is reported to have the capacity for Au bio-absorption and bio-reduction reactions, which are useful to extract Au from dispersing hydrometallurgical solutions and electronic scrapes for obtaining NPs with different shapes and sizes ( Figure 3 ). The synthesized nanoparticles made from algae extracts produce that stabilizing effect on cotton fabrics with excellent antibacterial activity. G. acerosa was stated to include the significance of obtaining antifungal Ag NPs [ 62 , 63 ].

Biosynthesis of nanoparticles using marine algae.

3.4. Bacteria-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles

Multicellular and single-cellular organisms are used to produce materials that might be intracellular or extracellular. The bacterial enzymes occur through an intracellular signaling mechanism for the conversion of ions into NPs [ 67 ]. The main merits of the bacterially mediated amalgamation of nanoparticles are that it is easy to use and better controls the whole process of biosynthesis. Following genetic engineering methods, the development could be formed quickly for effective purposes such as reducing toxic effects and achieving defined nanoparticle synthesis [ 68 ]. This method also has some restrictions, such as downstream reactions, a cost-effective but laborious approach, and the need to maintain control over size and shape.

Moreover, metal nanoparticles are synthesized through intra- and extracellular bacterial extracts. The extraction process of nanoparticles uses mainly cellular extract via the downstream method. In this protocol, a diverse group of sulfate-reducing bacteria, such as Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, is used for the controlled development of nanoparticles of controlled size ( Figure 3 and Table 3 ). These bacteria have a unique feature that gives them the capability to convert precursor solutions into nanoparticles. At 37 °C and a neutral pH, the reducing bacterium Rhodopseudomonas capsulate was used to obtain nanoparticles by using elemental nanoparticles [ 69 ].

Biosynthesis of nanoparticles using bacteria.

3.5. Fungi-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles

Various fungal species are used to obtain different NPs ( Table 4 ). The obtained nanoparticles, which include various microorganisms and fungi, are more effective prokaryotes. Fungi have some advantages over other microbial methods of obtaining nanoparticles in that it is easy to develop media, scale-up formation is easier, downstream reactions are easier, an increased number of proteins are generated, and biomass is simple to prepare. However, fungal enzymes increase the number of nanoparticles synthesized and have achieved the reductive properties required for the production of stable nanoparticles. Commonly, extracellularly produced nanoparticles are low in toxicity. Nanoparticles are developed extracellularly at 37 °C with a wide range from 15 to 30 nm via Fusarium oxysporum [ 79 ]. Moreover, this research provides that the obtaining of nanoparticles by fungal extracts would be through the processes of reduction and stabilization of substances [ 80 ].

Biosynthesis of nanoparticles using fungi.

The synthesis of fungal-associated nanoparticles is a hot topic in the scientific community. Fungi have been commonly used for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles and have attracted researchers’ attention for their ability to develop well-managed shapes and sizes of nanoparticles [ 88 ]. Fungi have been commonly used for the bio-mediated obtaining of nanoparticles, and better-managed dimensions might be obtained. Fungi, as they differentiate from bacteria, produce a higher ratio of NPs. Fungi excrete increased protein ratios, which effectively alter the formation of nanoparticles [ 89 ].

3.6. Actinomycetes-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles

Actinomycetes have significant features similar to fungi and prokaryotes such as bacteria. It was concluded that the Ag and Au NPs are stabilized by proteins. Free amino acids or cysteine remain on proteins that have been coupled with Au NPs. Initially, gel electrophoresis reveals that the actinomycetes excrete four particular proteins of molecular aggregate in the range from 10 to 80 kDa. Hence, it was confirmed that the reduction and stabilization of the gold nanoparticles were brought about by various proteins present in them [ 90 ].

Thus, by developing various proteins and their ability to connect with various crystallographic features of gold nanocrystals, it is possible to develop complex shapes with manageable sizes. Actinomycetes have unique properties for which secondary metabolites can be used to create antibiotics. It was noted that actinomycetes play a significant role in the synthesis of metal nanoparticles [ 91 ]. An alkalothermophilic actinomycete obtained Au ions of 8 nm in size under extremely alkaline conditions and at constant temperatures. Rhodococcus sp. and Thermomonospora sp., both alkalotolerant actinomycetes, are used to produce gold nanoparticles. Intracellularly synthesized gold nanoparticles with diameters of 5 and 15 nm were also created. According to the findings, the ratio of NPs on the cell membrane was higher than on the cell barrier. The enzyme formed on the cell barrier and cell membrane was responsible for the formation of Au NPs. The cells were followed to develop nanoparticles, which revealed that the obtained nanoparticles were non-toxic to the cells [ 91 ].

3.7. Yeast-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles

Biological reactions can manage the shape of materials better. In the log phase, Schizosaccharomyces pombe synthesized semiconductor nanocrystals. Extracellularly synthesized particles from microorganisms have a broad spectrum of benefits because protein-mediated interactions with the organisms make it easier for downstream reactions ( Figure 3 and Table 5 ). Yeasts, a group of ascomycetes in fungi, have been shown to have more significant capabilities for obtaining NPs. Au NPs have been obtained intracellularly through the fungus Verticillium luteoalbum. The ratio of material development and the scale range of the NPs could be areas to explore by controlling physical parameters such as pH and temperature.

The tremendous amount of published data showed that the entire yeast family might aggregate various heavy metals. They can aggregate potential ratios of increased toxic metals. Several reports concluded that extracellular polysaccharides or peptides, which manage the cell barrier of heavy metals against or to active efflux from the cell, are the various mechanisms formed through these species that overwhelm the toxic properties of heavy metals [ 92 ]. Direct administration of intracellular metal ions required yeast cells to eliminate negative or fetal outcomes. Toxicity to cells is reduced by maximizing metal ion retention or by exposing cells to metals that do not have the same potential properties as lead, mercury, and cadmium.

Yeast-mediated synthesis of nanoparticles.

The greater difference in size, particle arrangement, mono-dilution, and features is due to various mechanisms studied using yeast strains from different families for nanoparticle formation. GSH (glutathione) and two classes of metal-accepting coupling metallothioneins and phytochelatins (PC) were used to create a detoxification mechanism in yeast cells. In the majority of the yeast species reported, these molecules analyzed the pathway for the development of NPs and stabilized the compounds. Resistance was defined as the ability of yeast cells to change the absorption of metal ions into non-toxic compound polymer complexes. The yeast is commonly marked as “semi-transfer crystals” or “quantum semi-transfer crystals.” Current research has revealed that yeasts can also form other nanoparticles. In eukaryotes, yeast species are the most studied for bioprocesses [ 92 ].

Extracellular methods were used to obtain AgNPs from Cladosporium cladosporioides. It was stated that the proteins, organic acids, and polysaccharides excreted through fungus were capable of comparing various shapes and were used to regulate the formation of spherical crystals. Penicillium fellutanum was collected from coastal mangrove sediment, and using this sediment, AgNPs were synthesized by the extracellular synthesis method [ 92 ].

4. Biomedical Applications of Nanoparticles

4.1. antibacterial activity.

In disease-causing organisms, nanoparticles are designed to break the polymer sub-group of the cell membrane. The opposite role of NPs effectively disrupts protein formation and damages cell membranes in bacterial cells. Silver nanoparticles at higher concentrations induced membrane rupture compared with low concentrations and effectively damaged the bacterial cell wall ( Figure 4 ). R. apiculate -mediated silver nanoparticles showed a lower rate of growth than silver-nitrate-exposed bacterial cells, which could be because of particle size and increased exterior interaction, which resulted in induced cell membrane rupture and cell interruption [ 96 ].

Application of biologically mediated synthesized nanoparticles in biomedical field.

The current study reported on the significance of Pt nanoparticles in human health and their application to various disease targets via microbes. Microbes show effective resistance to many antibiotics [ 97 ]. However, the formation of nanoparticles along with strong antimicrobial activity was effective in the biomedical area. Several studies on metallic nanoparticles such as Ag, Au, Pt, Pd, ZnO, and TiO 2 have depicted a strong role in their antibacterial properties toward pathogenic microbes. Several metallic NPs, including Au, Ag, Pt, and ZnO, have strong cell death mechanisms. Another major feature of nanoparticles is their effective negative zeta potential, which induces antibacterial activity [ 98 ].

Apigenin from chamomile extract was used to create Pt nanoparticles with effective antibacterial potential against S. aureus. Previously, researchers discovered that the development of E. coli is suppressed by Pt electrolysis [ 99 ]. Another study found that a combination of Pt nanoparticles and partial ammonium had antibacterial effects by significantly suppressing Streptococcus mutans. Pt mixtures of polyamide S, including sulfones, reveal stronger antibacterial properties against E. coli and S. aureus [ 100 ].

Silver-Pt nanoparticles doped with particles of a size scale between 2 and 3 nm have induced significant antibacterial properties against K. pneumonia , P. aeruginosa , E. coli, and S. choleraesuis . Recent research has stated that the suppression of bacterial development is due to ATP generation and mitochondrial membrane stability. In addition, other reports stated that the implementation of polyvinylpyrrolidone-doped Pt nanoparticles with unique shapes and size scales ranging from 2 to 20 nm toward P. aeruginosa analyzed their antibacterial properties [ 101 ]. PVP-coupled Pt nanoparticles with diameters of 5.7 and 5.8 nm were exposed to S. aureus and E. coli Gram-negative bacteria, which are nanoparticles with small sizes that effectively suppress E. coli growth. Pt and Ag mixed nanoparticles are used for the reduction of graphene oxide (rGO) nanosheets, along with holes that lead to the induction of antibacterial properties against E. coli in the membrane between metal components, the rGO matrix, and bacteria. When combined with Pt NPs as a nano-mixture, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) exhibits effective antibacterial properties against K. pneumonia , Lactococcus lactis, and E. coli [ 102 ]. Krishnaraj et al. (2010) stated that the A. indica -mediated Ag NPs strongly deplete the water-related pathogenic bacteria at a low concentration [ 103 ].

Based on the epidemic of infectious diseases caused by various pathogenic bacteria, there is an emerging need to discover novel antibacterial materials [ 104 , 105 ]. Several classes of NPs, such as Mg, Ti, Cu, or alginate, have effective antibacterial properties; gold and silver NPs have demonstrated a strong antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal effect. The broad range of antibacterial properties of metallic nanoparticles, primarily gold and silver, encourages their use as disinfectants in the sterilization process of common water, medicine, food preparation, makeup, and various domestic items [ 106 ].

The biosynthesis of nanoparticles with antibacterial properties from fungi, bacteria, and algae to plant and tree root, leaf, bark, and tuber extract, and the mycosynthesis of Ag nanoparticles have excellent antibacterial activity against a variety of human-infection-causing organisms, including multidrug-resistant S. aureus and S. epidermidis. Similarly, the fungal strain Aspergillus was implanted for the extracellular synthesis of strong silver NPs with antibacterial properties against methicillin-resistant S. aureus and S. epidermidis [ 107 ]. Silver nanoparticles bio-mediated by Aspergillus oryzae filamentous mold showed antibacterial properties against S. aureus KCCM 12256. Bipolaris nodulosa fungal species might act as stabilizing substances for silver nitrate, which leads to the formation of silver nanoparticles in P. vulgaris and B. subtilis pathogens [ 108 ]. Silver nanoparticles were bio-mediated and obtained via gilled mushrooms of the species Pleurotus sajor-caju, which were effective against S. aureus [ 109 ].

Phoma glomerata fungal plant pathogens were studied for the production of silver nanoparticles and better antibacterial potential against S. aureus. Trichoderma viride -mold-species-bio-mediated vancomycin binds to nanoparticles and has demonstrated properties against vancomycin-resistant E. coli. Metal-reducing S. oneidensis was implemented for the biofabrication of Ag nanocrystals. Bacterial toxicity assays revealed that the obtained biogenic silver NPs had better bacterial properties toward S. oneidensis than other methods of obtaining colloidal silver NPs [ 110 ].

Several marine algae species are used to improve the antimicrobial properties of bio-mediated silver nanoparticles against human infectious pathogens P. vulgaricus , Klebsiella sp., E. coli , and P. aeruginosa . Garcinia mangostana leaf extract was tested in silver nanoparticles for biofabrication. For significant results, antibacterial assessment of human pathogens S. aureus and E. coli is performed using standard disc diffusion. The biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their properties toward the bacterial pathogen V. cholera are also assessed. While antibacterial agents are used, changes in membrane porousness and the reciprocal silver NP exposure in bacterial cells have been reported [ 111 ].

Antibacterial activities of Ag nanoparticles interacting with sodium alginate films are exposed to S. aureus strains, and disc diffusion depicts an antibacterial potential toward bacteria. The antibacterial coating is implemented on the pear and carrot exteriors, and the outcome is differentiating between exposed and unexposed samples. The silver nanoparticles significantly break the polymer subgroups of the cell wall in disease-causing bacteria. The considerable role of NPs frequently damages the cell barrier and breaks protein pathways in bacteria. The higher ratios of Ag nanoparticles cause quicker membrane damage than the low ratios and significantly damage the cell membrane of bacteria.

The Rhizophora apiculata -stabilized Ag nanoparticles reveal a lower ratio of bacterial growth on the culture plate compared to silver-nitrate-exposed cells; this might be because of the lower size of the materials and higher exterior interaction, which results in increased membrane damage and cell breakage in bacterial cells [ 112 ].

4.2. Fungicidal Activity

General antifungal agents can generate several side-effects such as diarrhea, increased renal failure, nausea, and increased body temperature; hence, for fungal diseases, substitutive treatment is needed. A recent study stated that Pt nanoparticles exhibited antifungal activity against several hazardous fungi such as C. acutatum , D. bryoniae , C. fulvum , P. capsici, and P. drechsleri . Biopolymer-based Pt nanocomposites GKPt NPs are tested for antifungal activity against various strains of fungi, such as A. parasiticus and A. flavus. Prior research has stated that the antifungal properties of Pt nanoparticles in a nano-mixture-induced membrane breakage raised the ratio of ROS, changed the shape of the mycelia, and resulted in damage to DNA and cellular breakage ( Figure 4 ) [ 113 ].

The fungicidal activity mechanism of biosynthesized metallic NPs has a higher efficiency compared to commonly available antibiotics such as amphotericin and fluconazole. The plant-extract-procured silver NPs have effectively revealed membrane breakage in Candida sp., which interrupts fungal intracellular constituents and results in cellular damage [ 114 ]. Some of the available antifungal substances have restricted implementation and also minimized activities and the lack of curing of microbial infections. The wide-spectrum properties of silver nanoparticles have an interesting activity toward spore-spreading fungus and significantly damage fungal development. Exposure to NPs effectively altered the fungal cell wall structure.

4.3. Anti-Plasmodial Activity

Recently, the main factors that generate disease are spreading ubiquitously through trajectories. Trajectory management is a crucial need in the current state. Further, the developed anti-plasmodial species’ unique management method has a higher cost and lower efficiency to manage the specific organism in the medical field. However, efficient and predominant antimalarial medicines remain needed to manage plasmodial properties. In previous years, plants were used for customary agents of usual outcome and had all the substances for drug manufacturing for antimalarial disease. Secondary phytochemical components such as artemisinin and quinine constituents have been effectively used against the resistant malaria parasite. The substitute drug was required for managing the various strains based on increased parasite defense. The plant extract produced metallic NPs such as Ag, Pt, and Pd NPs, which help control malarial growth. The bio-mediated amalgamation of metallic Ag NPs by plant extract has halted malarial growth [ 115 ].

4.4. Antiviral Activity

Antivirals have been studied in conjunction with different degrees of completion for Hepatitis C, and target-acting drugs have resulted in a higher 90% treatment ratio. Despite the better outcome revealed with Hepatitis C, target-acting antiviral technology was not followed, to induce activity due to limitations in availability [ 116 ]. Several viral infections, including specific virus targets, have been left unfinished due to the urgent need for antiviral drug resistance. Current research has found a link between pharmaceuticals and a specific viral target. Furthermore, developing technologies that interact with altered host components can induce a viral disease cure. One feasible target was host cell agents that are needed for viral duplication but are excreted by the host. These specificities reduce viral growth via termination duplication and also lower the activities of the host [ 117 ]. The inherent viral infections were the first line of defense against viral dysfunction and death. The secondary host was targeted to induce the immune action that led to tissue damage in the reaction of viral elimination. The host immune response may be another viable target for infection cure, to induce host-mediated viral control while restricting tissue-breaking immunopathology. Furthermore, antiviral therapy may stimulate collaboration with target-acting antivirals with the goal of hosting immuno-manipulation to clear up both anguish and death etiologies.

Plant-associated NPs serve as replacement drugs in the treatment and management of viral diseases. The virus’s entry into the host is extremely dangerous, and it requires a faster adaptation reaction to develop its growth. The biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles might play an efficient role as wide-scope antiviral substances to limit virus cell features. Ambrose et al. (2022) stated that the bio-mediated synthesized silver nanoparticles have effective anti-HIV agents at the prior step of the backward transcription mechanism [ 118 ]. Nanomaterials have effective antiviral substances that suppress the virus before it enters the host system. The bio-mediated synthesized metallic NPs have various coupling actions to enable them to interact with groups of viral cells to manage the features of viruses. The bio-associated NPs play a strong broad-spectrum agent role against cell-free viruses and cell-mediated viruses. Furthermore, Ag and Au NPs strongly suppress the HIV-1 life cycle before arrival. Furthermore, metallic nanoparticles have antiviral properties against retroviruses [ 118 ].

The antivirus pathway of magnesium nanoparticles based on their metal ions, size, and shape—especially stabilized magnesium nanoparticles—reveals a notably higher number of connections, including those between host cells and viruses differentiated with nanoparticles. The antivirus process for MNPs can take place inside or outside of the host cell [ 119 ]. The mechanism, which began when nanoparticles communicated with gp120 proteins, terminated host cell coupling positions and suppressed virus adhesion to host cells ( Figure 4 ). Another feasible mechanism was mediated by scattering the virus pieces before they made their way into the cell, which caused viral genome coupling to the virus pieces. The MONPs might be applied as antivirus agents by coupling the materials to the exterior of the virus [ 120 ]. This holds the connections between the coupling area on the exterior of the virus and the receivers on the exterior of the host cell. Furthermore, the virus does not enter the cell. MNPs, particularly silver and gold nanoparticles, are said to have antiviral properties against various viruses. Gold nanoparticles terminate the gp120 coupling to CD4 and suppress the virus’s arrival, while silver nanoparticles suppress viral arrival, coupling, and growth. Silver NPs terminate CD4-associated virion coupling, amalgamation, and pathogenesis by connecting with the viral gp120 in the cell-mediated viruses. In dual-standard viruses, the silver NPs, after connecting with the viral genome, terminate virus growth. Zn nanoparticles disturb viral DNA polymerase activity, resulting in the termination of viral growth. The size of Zn nanoparticles combined with virions may inhibit virus entry into the cell.

4.5. Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Anti-inflammatory therapy is a cascade method that induces immune reactive composites such as cytokinins and interleukins that may develop keratinocytes as well as T, B, and C lymphocytes and macrophages. The endocrine system produces several anti-inflammatory mediators, such as antibiotics and enzymes. Another significant anti-inflammatory substance, such as cytokines (IL-1 and IL-2), is formed via the primary immune organs. These anti-inflammatory agents stimulate healing activity. Inflammatory arbitrators occur in biochemical mechanisms and control disease spread. Bio-mediated, obtained AgNPs attain a better wound healing pathway and tissue regrowth in inflammatory features. According to one study, bio-mediated Au and Pt NPs are substitute agents for treating inflammation via the traditional route [ 121 ].

In recent years, nanoparticles have been developed as anti-inflammatory agents. Nanoparticles have a high exterior-position-to-interior ratio and are used to block inflammatory agents such as cytokines and inflammation-mediating enzymes, as well as other supplements. Several metal-mediated nanoparticles, such as those based on Ag, Au, copper, and iron oxide, have been reported to have effective anti-inflammatory properties. Swelling is the body’s immediate response to internal breakage, transmission, hormone checks, and damage in the internal shape and outer functions, such as infection by infectious microorganisms or an external component. Individual resistance cells trigger antigen receptors to assume biochemical actions. Inflammation is affected by tissue and cellular damage, which leads to a disparity in the signals managing the inflammation. When injured or infected, tissue produces an inflammatory response that results in the formation of macrophages and killer cells. Macrophages have an important role in auto-inflammatory reactions. Macrophages are large, single-nucleated phagocytes that develop in the bone marrow as completed white blood cells migrate to monocytes in the bloodstream. These monocytes then float to various tissues and develop into macrophages. Macrophages are divided into two steps: pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages, whose development induces inflammation, and anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages, which are activated as an anti-inflammatory reaction and induce the reassembly of the inflamed tissue and organs. Macrophages are capable of withstanding the inflammation reaction by stimulating the two characteristics unexpected in the retarder’s disorder. The macrophages overcome the inflammation and skin injury via phagocytosis, resulting in inflammation via initiation signals inducing the macrophages [ 122 ].

4.6. Antidiabetic Activity

A type of metabolic disorder in which the blood sugar ratio is uncontrolled is diabetes mellitus. Some foods and stability diets, as well as synthetic drugs, may suppress diabetes in some food scales, making DM therapy a difficult task. Furthermore, the biosynthesized NPs could be used as a replacement drug to treat diabetes mellitus. According to Daisy and Saipriya (2012), Au NPs have better medicinal activity for diabetic control. Au nanoparticles effectively lower the ratio of liver enzymes such as alanine movement, serum creatinine, uric acid alkaline, and phosphatase in exposed diabetes mice. Au NPs exposed to a diabetic model demonstrated a reduction in the HbA (glycosylated hemoglobin) scale that was managing the standard scale [ 123 ]. Swarnalatha et al.’s (2012) research stated that Sphaeranthus amaranthoides -bio-medially obtained AgNPs suppressed a-amylase and a carbohydrate sugar in diabetes under an animal study [ 124 ]. Premna herbacea Roxb extract contains antidiabetic properties [ 125 ]. Pickup et al. (2008) stated that NPs are important treatment substances for better diabetes management. The medicinal research in mice completely managed the sugar ratio of 140 mg/dL in Ag NP treatment [ 126 ].

4.7. Antioxidant Activity

Antioxidant activity, along with non-enzymatic and enzymatic agents, manages free radical development. Along with brain injury, atherosclerosis, and cancer, free radicals target cellular breakage. Free radicals are developed through ROS such as hydrogen peroxide and SOD. Bio-constituents such as glycoproteins, proteins, phenolics, lipids, and flavonoids effectively manage free radical development. Furthermore, the scavenging action of antioxidants is essential to controlling several diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases and metabolic diseases. Silver nanoparticles have stronger antioxidant properties compared to standard drugs such as ascorbic acid.

The nanoparticles revealed increased antioxidant activity, and the tea extract showed increased flavonoids and phenolic components. Yazdi et al. (2020), stated that reactive oxygen species and free radicals have revealed activity in the biological system [ 127 ]. These agents are natural metabolic outcomes that damage cell development, which leads to cell breakage, the unreliability of biological components, and damage to common features in several cells.

Oxidative stress is involved in the epidemic of several diseases, including cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, and blindness. Plants have a lot of antioxidants, which protect human health because they strongly preserve biological systems against these substances, select toxic free radicals, and lower cell destruction. The nanomaterial is familiar as a vehicle system for selected drug transmission in current years [ 128 ]. The CeO 2 nanoparticles used as vehicles for cancer therapy due to their antioxidant activities might standardize ROS. Current research states that these nanoparticles have anti-cancer activities during their antioxidant activities and secure healthy cells [ 129 ]. Bio-mediated synthesized nanoparticles revealed various biomedical applications, which are depicted in Table 6 .

Various source-synthesized nanoparticles used for biomedical application.

4.8. Anticancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the deadliest causes of death today [ 150 ]. Cancer develops due to environmental and genetic factors. Several advancements due to the use of different nanoparticles have been made in recent years. Some of the nanoparticles are highlighted in this section. A silver nanoparticle obtained from the probiotic bacteria L. rhamnosus GG was very helpful in dealing with HT-29 cells in colorectal cancer [ 150 ]. Gold nanoparticles from L. kimchicus DCY51T showed excellent anticancer activity against A549 cells (a human lung adenocarcinoma cell line) and HT29 cells (a human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line) [ 150 ]. SeNPs from L. casei were very effective against colon cancer cells. CuO NPs obtained from L. casei subsp. casei were found to be effective against human gastric carcinoma cells (AGS) and the human colon carcinoma cell line (HT-29) [ 150 ]. Pt nanoparticles obtained from Streptomyces sp. were found to be effective against the breast cancer MCF-7 cell line [ 150 ]. Furthermore, ZnO obtained from Lactobacillus spp. was found to be effective against human colon cancer (HT-29) [ 150 ]. Thus, it is clear that different nanoparticles obtained from the biosynthesis approach have effective actions toward cancer treatment.

4.9. Bio-Sensing Applications

The sensing of biological materials using nanoparticles is very useful for the betterment of mankind [ 151 ]. Several nanoparticles are used for these kinds of bio-sensing applications [ 152 ]. In a study, chloroplast-mediated green synthesis of Au-Ag alloy was used to analyze cancer [ 153 ]. S. myriocystum -mediated PtNPs were used for the detection of allergies and asthma [ 154 ]. Hypnea valencia -mediated synthesis of AuNPs was used to detect pregnancy in women [ 155 ]. Furthermore, Noctiluca scintillans -mediated biosynthesis of AgNPs was evaluated to detect mouth gum and oral discharge issues [ 156 ].

4.10. Other Medical Applications

The wound-healing properties of silver NPs obtained by the extracellular method from Aspergillus niger were studied using a rat model for an ablation and thermal wound. The studies reported that silver NPs have effective antimicrobial properties and that nano-Ag can control cytokines that occur during wound restoration. Other medical implementation studies with diabetes, especially the suppression of the enzyme PTP, class PTP1B, Interrupting PTP is a cause of various diseases, such as cancer and metabolic diseases [ 157 ]. A quick formation of gold nanoparticles containing guavanoic acid via Psidium guajava leaf extract was observed. These were applied in the PTP-1B suppressive study, which revealed the importance of suppressive action with an IC 50 of 1.14 g/mL −1 . The biofabrication of gold nanoparticles and their implementation on the glucose biosensor for blood glucose identification were reported by Zheng et al. (2022) [ 158 ]. The biosensor is used to determine glucose levels in blood samples, revealing the distribution along with commercial clinical protocols. Other research reported that the green medium mediated the obtaining of gold and silver nanoparticles and was reduced by Brevibacteriumcasei . These nanoparticles revealed anti-coagulant properties by suppressing the development of blood clots in the sample that attained blood, including silver nanoparticles [ 159 ]. The solidity of Au and Ag nanoparticles in the blood was also confirmed through the treatment of the blood plasma with the materials for 1 day, which did not reveal any considerable lowering in the properties [ 160 ].

5. Conclusions and Future Scope

The nanotechnology field is mainly interconnected with physics, chemistry, biology, and material science, and it creates new biomedical nano-sized particles for therapeutic and pharmaceutical implementations. In recent years, nanoscience has gained researchers’ interest because of its significant applications in medical diagnosis, pharmacy, disease curing, electronics, agriculture, space, and chemical industries. Nanoparticles are currently thought to be extremely useful materials. The biologically mediated nanoparticles are procured through various organisms such as plants, bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and yeast. Bio-mediated nanoparticles have been widely used to treat various pathogenic diseases while having fewer toxic effects. Non-biological approaches such as physical and chemical methods are used in the production of nanoparticles, which have a variety of toxic properties for the environment and human health. Hence, as a result, biologically mediated metallic nanoparticles are non-toxic, less expensive, and less harmful to the environment. Moreover, the obtained nanoparticles might stimulate activity using genetic engineering methods. Bio-mediated nanoparticles have specific properties such as being more biocompatible, having a larger surface area, being more reactive, and being non-toxic. The current review provides a clear point of view on various sources of synthesized nanoparticles and their medical applications, such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidant, and other medical applications.

Acknowledgments

E.-B. Cho and Gopalu Karunakaran were supported by Brain Pool Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT (Grant no. 2022H1D3A2A02044281).

Funding Statement

E.-B. Cho and Gopalu Karunakaran were supported by the Brain Pool Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT (Grant No. 2022H1D3A2A02044281).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.K. and K.G.S.; methodology, G.K. and K.G.S.; resources, E.-B.C.; writing—original draft preparation, G.K. and K.G.S.; writing—review and editing, S.A. and E.-B.C.; visualization. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Green synthesis of nanoparticles using plant extracts: a review

• Published: 13 August 2020
• Volume 19 , pages 355–374, ( 2021 )

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• Sapana Jadoun   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3572-7934 1 ,
• Rizwan Arif 1 ,
• Nirmala Kumari Jangid 2 &
• Rajesh Kumar Meena 3  

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Green synthesis of nanoparticles has many potential applications in environmental and biomedical fields. Green synthesis aims in particular at decreasing the usage of toxic chemicals. For instance, the use of biological materials such as plants is usually safe. Plants also contain reducing and capping agents. Here we present the principles of green chemistry, and we review plant-mediated synthesis of nanoparticles and their recent applications. Nanoparticles include gold, silver, copper, palladium, platinum, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide.

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Abbreviations

4-Amino phenol

Brunauer–Emmett–Teller

Dynamic light scattering

2,4-Dinitrophenilhydrazine

Energy-dispersive spectroscopy

Field emission scanning electron microscopy

Fourier transform infrared

Graphene oxide

Methylene blue

Methyl orange

4-Nitrophenol

Rhodamine B

Reduced graphene oxide

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering

Tannery wastewater

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Jadoun, S., Arif, R., Jangid, N.K. et al. Green synthesis of nanoparticles using plant extracts: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19 , 355–374 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01074-x

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PhD Thesis IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES AND THEIR TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS: IN VIVO AND IN VITRO STUDIES

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Size-tunable silicon nanoparticles synthesized in solution via a redox reaction †

* Corresponding authors

a Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux-INP, ICMCB, UMR 5026, Pessac, France E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected] , [email protected]

b Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Paris (LCMCP), F-75005 Paris, France

c Institut Charles Gerhardt Montpellier, Univ. Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, UMR 52531919 route de Mende, France

d Univ.Montpellier, CNRS, ICGM, ENSCM, UMR-5618, F-34293, Montpellier, France

A current challenge in silicon chemistry is to perform liquid-phase synthesis of silicon nanoparticles, which would permit the use of colloidal synthesis techniques to control size and shape. Herein we show how silicon nanoparticles were synthesized at ambient temperature and pressure in organic solvents through a redox reaction. Specifically, a hexacoordinated silicon complex, bis( N , N ′-diisopropylbutylamidinato)dichlorosilane, was reduced by a silicon Zintl phase, sodium silicide (Na 4 Si 4 ). The resulting silicon nanoparticles were crystalline with sizes tuned from a median particle diameter of 15 nm to 45 nm depending on the solvent. Photoluminescence measurements performed on colloidal suspensions of the 45 nm diameter silicon nanoparticles indicated a blue emission signal, attributed to the partial oxidation of the Si nanocrystals or to the presence of nitrogen impurities.

• This article is part of the themed collection: Fundamental Processes in Optical Nanomaterials

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Size-tunable silicon nanoparticles synthesized in solution via a redox reaction

M. A. Parker, M. L. De Marco, A. Castro-Grijalba, A. Ghoridi, D. Portehault, S. Pechev, E. A. Hillard, S. Lacomme, A. Bessière, F. Cunin, P. Rosa, M. Gonidec and G. L. Drisko, Nanoscale , 2024, Advance Article , DOI: 10.1039/D3NR05793C

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UCF’s 2024 Order of Pegasus, Other Distinguished Student Honors 

The Founders’ Day event on April 3 honors 51 Knights — including Order of Pegasus inductees — who exemplify excellence in academics, service and leadership.

By Nicole Dudenhoefer ’17 | April 2, 2024

UCF’s extraordinary students honored on Wednesday for Founders’ Day have unleashed their potential and excelled in colleges and disciplines across the university.

Among the undergraduate and graduate students are groundbreaking national and global scholarship winners, researchers, athletes, teaching assistants, residence assistants and leaders in campus organizations such as Student Government, LEAD Scholars and the President’s Leadership Council.

The honorees include students in the Burnett Honors College, transfer students, and those from first-generation and international backgrounds.

Aside from focusing on academics and campus causes, many of the student honorees volunteered at hospitals, food banks, schools, parks, shelters, clinics, youth clubs and with many community service organizations — at times as organizers and coordinators for support drives and campaigns.

The Student Honors Celebration is Wednesday from 6:30 p.m. to 8 p.m. in the Student Union’s Pegasus Ballroom. The annual event is part of a  Founders’ Day celebration  with separate staff, faculty and student ceremonies at the same place. The campus community is invited to all the celebrations.

Student award categories highlight inductees of the Order of Pegasus, UCF’s highest student honor; graduate awards for outstanding master’s thesis and outstanding dissertation; undergraduate awards for honors undergraduate thesis; and individual college awardees as chosen by the respective college deans. All honorees earned financial awards.

The Order of Pegasus features 31 inductees with exceptional achievements as undergraduate or graduate students. The group includes National Merit Scholars, Burnett Medical Scholars and earners of prestigious honors such as the Astronaut Scholarship, Jack Kent Cooke Scholarship, McKnight Doctoral Fellowship and the Newman Civic Engagement Fellow. Some of the students have worked with national organizations, such as the Department of Defense, Department of Energy and the National Nuclear Security Administration.

They conducted, presented and published research on many subjects, including simulation training, asteroid surface science, cardiovascular health, experimental game design, nanoparticles treatments for illnesses and diseases, mathematics education, quality of life for those with ALS and limb differences, wetland systems, health impacts of pickleball, and bridging the gap between art and STEM-based studies.

Each student aspires to make a difference in the world in their own way with dreams of become educators, doctors, a lawyer, a professional athlete, a hospitality leader, a foreign service officer, a dentist, an accountant, an engineer and an advocate for corrections reform.

Here are the students being honored.

Order of Pegasus Inductees

• Jida Awa ’23 , Rosen College of Hospitality Management
• Leah Basaria, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• PS Berge, College of Arts and Humanities
• Olivia Bitcon, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Jada Cody, College of Health Professions and Sciences
• Nathalia Cordero Rodriguez, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Akhila Damarla, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Justin Davis, College of Sciences, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Yasmine Ghattas, College of Medicine
• Brandon Greenaway, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Taylor Haycock, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Katherine Johnsen, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Alejandro Lopez Zelaya, College of Optics and Photonics, Burnett Honors College
• Calvin MacDonald, College of Health Professions and Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Nisha Phillip-Malahoo ’21MEd , College of Community Innovation and Education
• Sydney Martinez ’23 , College of Health Professions and Sciences
• Rebekah May, College of Nursing, Burnett Honors College
• Aadith Menon, College of Health Professions and Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Charlotte Moore, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Keidra Daniels Navaroli, College of Arts and Humanities
• Mai Ly Nguyen-Luu, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Ishaan Patel, College of Health Professions and Sciences, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Lauren Ray, College of Engineering and Computer Science
• Paola Rivera, College of Health Professions and Sciences
• James Rujimora, College of Community Innovation and Education
• Mariana Sorroza Aguilar, College of Engineering and Computer Science, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Samantha Stoltz, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Darya Sulkouskaya, College of Medicine, College of Arts and Humanities, Burnett Honors College
• Isabeau Tyndall, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Lucas Vieira, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Gianna Wegman ’23 , College of Business

Graduate Awards

Award for Outstanding Creative Work

• Anne Njeri Kinuthia, College of Arts and Humanities

Award for Outstanding Master’s Thesis

• Tajnuba Hasan ’23MS , College of Engineering and Computer Science
• Jason Pagan ’21 ’23MS , College of Health Professions and Sciences

Award for Outstanding Dissertation 

• Ce Zheng ’23PhD , College of Engineering and Computer Science
• Corey Seavey ’15 ’21MS ’23PhD , College of Medicine

Undergraduate Awards

Founders’ Day College Awards 

• Shreya Pawar, College of Medicine (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Thomas Robertson, College of Community Innovation and Education
• Rebekah May, College of Nursing (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Eduin Rodriguez, Rosen College of Hospitality Management
• Emily Padden, College of Undergraduate Studies
• Christine Bui, College of Sciences (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Catherine Gregorius, Burnett Honors College
• Isabella Moreno, College of Arts and Humanities
• Natalie Longtin, College of Engineering and Computer Science (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Calvin MacDonald, College of Health Professions and Sciences (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Isabelle Lebron, College of Optics and Photonics
• Trey Abrahams, College of Business

Award for Honors Undergraduate Thesis

• Raj Patel ’23 , College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Kevin Hanekom ’23 , College of Engineering and Computer Science, Burnett Honors College
• Nefertari Elshiekh ’23 , College of Business Administration, College of Sciences and Burnett Honors College
• Alyssa Bent ’23 , College of Arts and Humanities, Burnett Honors College

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Pegasus magazine.

Founded to help fuel talent for the nearby space industry , UCF continues to build its reputation as SpaceU. Here's a look at the early days of UCF's space ties and journey to new frontiers.