literature review of solar panels

MPPT techniques for photovoltaic systems: a systematic review in current trends and recent advances in artificial intelligence

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• Published: 06 December 2023
• Volume 3 , article number  9 , ( 2023 )

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• Olfa Boubaker   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8656-4090 1  

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Over the past decades, solar photovoltaic (PV) energy has been the most valuable green energy. It is renowned for its sustainability, environmentally friendly nature, and minimal maintenance costs. Several methods aiming to extract the highest photovoltaic energy are found in the vast literature. The aim of this systematic review is to focus on current trends and the most recent advances in the field. A “Scopus” bibliographic survey is conducted around survey and research articles published over the past three years (2019–2022). Over the selected works, different taxonomies of maximum power point tracking (MPPT) approaches are found. The list of associated performance criteria is also established, current trends, future directions and challenges in the field are well identified. This survey paper could be a useful reference for researchers and companies concerned by the sustainable development goals (GSD) for clean energy production and climate change.

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1 Introduction

According to the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) briefing note on its Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7), electricity is unavailable for one billion people in the world while more than three billion people still cook their food and heat their homes using solid fuels like wood. Worse still, four million people die from these wasteful practices and air pollution [ 1 ]. To reduce human health problems around the globe, UNEP calls for a reduction of emissions caused by fuel combustion by 40%. Achieving SDG 7 will certainly act to have a positive impact on other SDGs such as combating climate change (SDG 13) and helping to end global poverty (SDG1) by achieving energy justice in developing countries [ 2 , 3 ]. Among the renewable energy sources (RES), solar energy is the promising alternative and the most useful energy from an ecological point of view as it is an available and a clean energy.

According to the global status report (REN21) [ 4 ], “the total installed capacity of RES was about 3146 GW, at the end of 2021” [ 4 ]; “hydropower is 1195 GW, PV is 942 GW, wind is 845 GW, bio-power is 143 GW, geothermal is 14.5 GW, concentrating solar thermal power is 6 GW, and ocean power is 0.5 GW” [ 4 ]. Even if the largest contribution is from hydropower, PV exposed the fastest growth rate among all RES from 2016 to 2021. The total installed capacity of PV from 2011 to 2021 is presented in Fig.  1 [ 4 , 5 ].

Total installed capacity of PV along with an annual increment from 2011 to 2021. Used under CCBY. https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/16/15/5665 [ 5 ]

Understanding the technology of solar energy extraction and optimization, especially in developing countries where advances have been seen since 2017, would certainly help to strengthen efforts to achieve 2030 Agenda for the SDGs for all the globe [ 1 ]. Advances of solar energy for SDG are described in [ 6 ]. Furthermore, “Photovoltaic (PV) systems have developed to be the cheapest source of electrical power in areas with high solar potential, with low cost, 0.01567 US$/kWh in 2020, panel prices have declined by the factor of 10 within a decade” [ 7 ]. The environmental impacts of solar energy are told in [ 8 ] where a comprehensive review of various applications of solar energy is given in [ 9 ].

In general, a PV power system can be either a stand-alone system or grid-connected [ 10 ]. In grid-connected PV systems, the energy produced is either consumed on-site or sold to the grid in case of surplus production. When there is a deficit, or during unfavorable moments, the grid supplies the site. Stand-alone PV systems are used in villages and isolated companies in remote areas. They are also helpful for many applications like health, agriculture, and utilities [ 9 ]. Solar PV panels absorb sunshine and convert it to electricity. This energy can power devices or be saved in batteries. However, several problems related to low conversion efficiency, high-cost level of PV panels and multiple local peaks of energy caused by partial shading conditions (PSCs) may be met [ 11 ]. PSCs are phenomena occurring in PV cells due to the uneven radiation distribution in solar panels. The main goal is minimizing the fluctuations over the maximum power point (MPP) and increasing efficiency and tracking speed under steady-state or rapid changing of climatic conditions. To optimize energy extraction in PV systems, several maximum power point tracking (MPPT) methods are proposed in the literature for uniform solar irradiance conditions (USICs) and for PSCs [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. The most used techniques are described in [ 15 , 16 ]. MPPT algorithms are evaluated and classified using different criteria including software and hardware complexity, tracking speed, convergence time and speed, efficiency, accuracy, number of required sensors, cost and so on [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ].

A “Scopus” survey was conducted in this paper around classification approaches for MPPT approaches evaluation criteria as well used by researchers to compare these approaches. It has been found that a large number of research and survey articles have been published since 1985 for which different classifications are proposed. MPPT techniques are divided into two groups: MPPT techniques for UICs and MPPT techniques for PSCs. A selection method is considered in order to extract not only basic classifications but also the most recent advances related to these approaches. The result of the selection is thirty articles published in the last three years including surveys and research papers able to give an overview of this field of research as well as the latest advances and the latest trends. Different taxonomies of MPTT approaches are found and revised. Compared to the related survey papers, not only this work revises main approaches of MPPT developed so far, an analysis for which a great need exists from time to time, but also it uses a strict minimum number of well selected articles with distinguishable taxonomies chosen from different editors/journals. Additionally, this paper tries to answer the following key questions:

What are the most important taxonomies related to MPPT approaches and what are the main performance criteria?

What are the current trends in MPPT algorithms?

Compared to each other, what are the strengths and weaknesses of the most newly proposed approaches?

What are the future directions and challenges?

This work is organized as follows: the following section describes basics on PV systems as well those of MPPT approaches. In Sect.  3 , the systematic review with the paper’s selection methodology is introduced. Section  3 depicts the main taxonomies told in selected survey papers. In Sect.  4 , the most recent advances in the field are exposed pointing out the strong points of newly proposed approaches and comparative analyses. Finally, Sect.  5 , presents future directions and open challenges in the field.

2 Basics on a PV system and MPPT approaches

2.1 solar pv system with mppt.

It is well recognized that MPPT is an operating point approach connected between PV arrays and a power converter to extract the maximum power energy. To perfect energy extraction in PV systems at any environmental condition, especially solar irradiance, and temperature, MPPT techniques are used. The basic block diagram of a typical PV system with MPPT is shown in Fig.  2 .

Solar PV system with MPPT

2.2 Partial shading conditions

Due to varying shadows over large surfaces of PV modules, PV cells are constrained to experience nonuniform solar irradiation conditions disturbing the nonlinear characteristics of these systems. This irregular distribution is caused by clouds, bird droppings, and shadows from buildings and trees. An example of such phenomena is illustrated in Fig.  3 . Comparable situation directly affects the power–voltage (P–V) and the current–voltage (I–V) nonlinear curves of the PV system as shown by Fig.  4 . The I–V and P–V characteristics can show multiple local maximum power points (MLMPP) and only one global maximum power point (GMPP) under PSCs. Such a situation requires an identification of the GMPP for a better extraction of the PV energy. Researchers have proposed and have practically experimented with different MPPT techniques to reach stable optimized outputs from PV systems under PSCs using different approaches. The following section presents the systematic review as well as the selection methodology conducted to find the main taxonomies of these approaches.

Solar PV arrays subject to PSCs caused by clouds and shadows from trees [ 22 ]. Used under CCBY. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3028609

IV–PV characteristic curves of a solar PV array under PSCs a I–V b P–V characteristics [ 23 ]. Used under CCBY. https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-rpg.2019.1163

3 The systematic review

3.1 survey methodology.

The systematic review, respecting the PRIMA methodology [ 24 ], was managed using the “Scopus database” by selecting the keyword “MPPT”. The objective is to answer the fundamental questions already asked in the introduction section. The exploration shows the wealth of the considered research field, and more than 10,408 document results are found in January 2023. The investigation was limited in a second stage to journal papers written in English by excluding publication in 2023. It has been found 3573 journal papers written in English over the period 1985–2022. As shown by Fig.  5 , the peak of production for this category is seen in 2019 with 491 publications. Over the total number of these journal papers, more than 60% are written during the last four years (2018–2022).

Data on MPPT techniques literature from Scopus in January 2023 over the period (1985–2022). Query: KEY (mppt) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, "English")) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, "j")) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2023))

We have also investigated the leading countries with the most publications. Figure  6 reveals that the India with 1164 publications (34%), China with 377 (11%), and Algeria with 356 (10%) are the three leading countries in the research production. Furthermore, we can conclude that for the MENA region, the researchers from Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Tunisia are the most active in the field.

Article publications on MPPT techniques by country. KEY (mppt) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, "English")) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, "j")) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2023))

Figure  7 shows the considerable number of review papers published for the period 1991–2022 displaying more than 136 survey papers. The peak of production for this category is seen in 2018, 2020 and 2021 with eighteen survey papers, respectively. Production shows the steepest rising slope since 2011.

Data on MPPT techniques literature from Scopus in March 2022. Query: KEY (mppt) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, "English")) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, "j")) AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, "re")) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2023))

3.2 Selection method

The papers selected to build the study consist of a set of thirty articles created as follows: fifteen survey papers published during 2019–2022 and fifteen research papers all published during the two last years. For the latter category, the goal is to find current trends in the field. The complete set (survey and research papers) is built in two stages shown in Fig.  8 according to the PRISMA selection methodology [ 24 ]. We suppose that the selected references are able to give an overview of recent advances and new developments in MPPT techniques. For the first set of survey papers, only articles giving distinguish classifications based on evaluation criteria and comparative studies are considered. Using this exclusion criteria leads for example to consider only one survey paper in 2022.

Selection methodology following PRISMA methodology

3.3 Selection analysis

Table 1 presents the sample of the fifteen selected survey papers carefully chosen from different publishers/journals and listed in sequential from the earliest to the present. This choice shows that PV MPPT approaches are classified according to different taxonomies using different evaluation criteria. Most selected papers refer to a set of “classical” or “conventional” MPPT approaches widely applied for their simplicity and easy implementation. They are applied for their algorithms lower complexity making them the best techniques for simple applications not requiring high performances. As specified by most survey papers, these methods are known for their efficiency in USICs. However, they show poor dynamic responses and high oscillation dynamics around MMPP under PSCs and rapidly changing weather conditions as they cannot track the GMPP. As shown by Fig.  9 , conventional MPPT can be depicted on two groups [ 14 ]: online and offline methods. Many selected papers also refer to another category of approaches, the hybrid approaches. A hybrid approach is an advanced approach inspired by the fusion of more than one MPPT approach.

Conventional MPPT techniques. Adopted from [ 14 ]. Used under CCBY. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9134709

3.4 Selection synthesis

For better understanding of MPPT techniques, we explore in this section the different classification approaches considered in the literature and presented in the last section, and we group them in five large categories:

Classification depending on the tracking algorithm [ 16 , 23 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]

Classification based on the tracking nature [ 20 , 21 , 25 ]

Classification based on selected variables (inputs, parameters…) [ 14 , 26 ]

Hybrid classification approaches [ 15 , 21 ]

Other [ 11 , 14 , 31 ].

To better illustrate these categorizations, we give in Figs.  10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 several examples of classifications approaches.

Classification of MPPT approaches on three classes depending on the tracking algorithm: (1) classical algorithms, (2) intelligent algorithms, and (3) optimization algorithms [ 23 ]. Used under CCBY. https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-rpg.2019.1163

Classification of MPPT approaches on four classes depending on the tracking algorithm: (1) classical algorithms, (2) intelligent algorithms, (3) optimization algorithms, and (4) hybrid Algorithms [ 16 ]. Used under CCBY. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/9171659

Classification of soft-computing MPPT approaches in three classes depending on the tracking algorithm: (1) AI, (2) BioI and (3) hybrid algorithms. Adopted from [ 14 ] and [ 28 ]. Used under CCBY. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9134709 . https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/19/10575

Classification of MPPT approaches based on the tracking nature [ 20 ]. Used under CC BY 4.0. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666188820300137

Classification of MPPT approaches based on the tracking nature [ 25 ]. Adapted and used under CC BY 4.0. https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-rpg.2018.5946 . Linear reoriented coordinates method (LRCM); Incremental resistance (INR); Variable step size (VSS); Parasitic capacitance (PC); Ripple correlation control (RCC); Analytical solution (AS); Variable step-size (VSS); Load current or voltage maximization (LCVM); Linear current control (LCC); Constant voltage (CV); Constant current (CC); short circuit current (SCC); Open-circuit voltage (OCV); Temperature parametric (TP); Best fixed voltage (BFV); PV output senseless (POS); sliding control (SC); Extremum seeking method (ESM); Newton–Raphson method (NRM); Secant method (SM); Central point iterative (CPI); False position method (FPM); Brent method (BM); Bisection search method (BSM); fuzzy logic control (FLC); Artificial neural network (ANN); Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS); Evolutionary algorithm (EA); firefly algorithm (FA); Predictor method (PM); Chaos Optimization search (COS); Ant colony optimization (ACO); Artificial bee colony (ABC); Shuffled frog leaping algorithm (SFLA); Bayesian network (BN);

Categorization of MPPT approaches according to sensed variables: Some examples. Adopted from [ 26 ]. Used under CC BY 4.0. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9212352 . Solar irradiance (λ); Variations of PV array’s temperature (T); Sensed PV arrays’ terminal voltage (V); Sensed PV arrays’ terminal current (I)

4 New trends on GMPP tracking approaches

To explore contemporary trends around MPPT approaches, Table 2 has been compiled.

The analysis of the selected articles shows that trends are moving more towards the use of metaheuristic and swarm algorithms including PSO, GWO, ACO, ABC, CS and so on. Figure  16 shows a summary of current trends in tracking approaches depicted in six groups including the extended class of metaheuristic and BioI algorithms [ 5 ]. The later methods have proven high performance to manage tracking problems under different weather scenarios and hardware configurations by reaching GMPP [ 28 , 30 ]. Table 3 gives a comparative analysis between the most used Metaheuristic methods with high ability to track GMPP under PSCs [ 44 , 46 ]. Conventional methods like P&O, INC, and HC, used for comparative studies with new proposed methods, are simple but less exact in PSCs. Their responses are slow and present oscillations under PSCs [ 25 ]. Indeed, these algorithms are not suitable to be employed in PSCs due to their convergence to local maxima [ 22 ]. “The intelligent prediction methods such as FLC, ANN or ANFIS have an ability to manage non-linearities without an exact mathematical model supplies conspicuous tracking efficiency. They have downsides as they are expensive [ 29 ].” Furthermore, they need a huge amount of data for their training process which imposes an extreme load on processor memory [ 22 ]. Recent proposed swarm algorithms [ 34 , 36 , 37 , 39 , 41 , 42 ] and enhanced ones [ 22 , 32 , 33 , 35 , 40 , 44 , 45 ] have shown improved performances compared to earliest ones. Figure  17 , 18 give examples of such performance. The contribution of the new swarm algorithms was proved in terms of stability, oscillations around MPP, efficiency, settling time, robustness, dependance to different module configurations and sensitivity to different shading scenarios and dynamically varying insolation conditions.

Summary of current trends in tracking approaches depicted in six groups by extending the class of metaheuristic and BioI algorithms [ 5 ]. Used under CCBY. https://www.mdpi.com/199-1073/16/15/5665

Comparative approach between most used approaches and of the most recently proposed ones, FOA algorithm [ 43 ]. Used under CCBY. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9969612

Comparative approach between PSO, Jaya and the improved Ajaya algorithm on convergence time [ 22 ]. Used under CCBY. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9212370

5 Future directions and challenges

This section exposes potential future directions and challenges that can be envisioned. The selected works was based on journal articles written in English published in 2023 or still in press using the keyword “MPPT”. By compiling these last publications, we detected the following still relevant open directions and several challenges:

Implementing novel metaheuristics approaches for GMPP tracking [ 47 ].

Enhancing GMPP metaheuristics approaches by improving existing algorithms [ 48 ].

Proposing new hybrid approaches [ 5 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. The objective is to advance the performances of GMPP algorithms by increasing the tracking efficiency and lowering computational burden of hardware [ 16 ]. Frequently, combining off-line and online techniques can lead to enhancing the running of the entire system.

Proposing new GMPPT approaches using data-driven energy extraction and trained deep learning and/or machine learning models [ 53 , 54 ].

Proposing novel nonlinear robust controllers to optimize energy extraction [ 55 , 56 ].

Proving the validity of the new proposed approaches for different standard benchmarks and using structured methodologies including different scenarios (“zero shading/non-shading, weak partial shading, strong partial shading, and continuously changing weather conditions [ 44 ]”), different hardware configurations, a variety of procedures, inputs, and perturbations. Figure  19 gives a graphical representation of such an example of structured methodology used to validate a new controller model for GMPP tracking [ 55 ].

Proving the validity of the new proposed approaches via comparative approaches using relevant performance criteria including structures, procedures, computations, oscillations, implementation, memory, efficiency, system dependency, tracking speed, and performance under different shading conditions [ 44 ]. Figure  20 shows an example of an explicit comparative approach including relevant criteria.

Proposing and testing novel MPPT approaches using hybrid energy renewable sources (HERS) combining two or more modes of electricity generation together like PV systems and wind turbines [ 57 ] and photovoltaic-thermoelectric generation systems [ 53 ]. These technologies often incorporate a storage system (battery, fuel cell) to ensure maximum supply reliability and security [ 52 , 57 ]. Figure  21 gives two examples of HERS.

Proving the applicability of the novel proposed approaches for real applications including power system supplying electric vehicles [ 56 ], water heating systems [ 58 ], water pumping systems [ 59 ] and so on. Fig.  22 shows an example of such applications.

Graphical representation of an example of structured methodology for a proposed GMPP technique including different scenarios, architectures, inputs, and perturbations [ 55 ] used under CCBY. https://pcmp.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41601-023-00288-9

Example of an explicit comparative approach including the relevant criteria of tracking speed, operating at PSC, oscillation, complexity, and efficiency [ 55 ]. Adopted under CCBY. https://pcmp.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41601-023-00288-9 . Adaptive robust fuzzy proportional-integral (ARFPI); Adaptive sliding mode MPPT controller with quantized input (QI SMC); Variable step backstepping controller (VS-BS); Improved bat algorithm and fuzzy logic controller (IBA FLC); coarse and fine control algorithm (Coarse and Fine); Load voltage based MPPT (LVB); Reduced oscillation P&O (ROP&O); Steady output and fast tracking MPPT (SOFT MPPT); Fuzzy aided integer order proportional integral derivative with filter (FPINDN); Lyapunov-based robust model reference adaptive controller (LRMRAC)

Graphical representation of two cases of HERS: a Wind turbine/PV/pump-hydro storage/biomass system. Used under CCBY. https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/14/2/489 . b Wind turbine/PV/system associated with an electrochemical/hydraulic storage system. Used under CCBY. https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9292/11/20/3261

Example of an application of a novel approach for photovoltaic power system supplying electric vehicle. Adopted under CCBY [ 56 ]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352484723002317

6 Conclusion

Since the eighties, researchers around the globe have been working to improve the performance of solar panels. Several MPPT approaches have been proposed to extract the highest amount of power from the PV arrays. Through this survey paper, it is clear that the trends are moving towards artificial intelligence-based approaches. However, it is obvious there is not a 100% guaranteed algorithm to give the best ability in any conditions. Any algorithm should be carefully evaluated using different modules configurations under different shading scenarios. Compared with conventional MPPT techniques, all intelligent MPPT like FLC, ANN and ANFIS techniques show high tracking efficiency of MPP and less steady-state oscillation in rapidly changing weather conditions without prior knowledge of the mathematical model. However, these methods suffer from implementation complexity, long response times, big data processing, and high realization cost. Hybrid MPPT techniques are more efficient, and they are well recommended for complex applications for which PV systems are susceptible to output power fluctuation. They are known for fast convergence, utmost precision, and ability to predict nonlinearities of a PV cell without falling into local MPP under PSCs. Finally, metaheuristic and swarm-based algorithms have proven the highest performances to manage tracking problems under rapidly changing weather conditions and PSC. They have the ability to reduce the computation burden and improve accuracy and convergence speed. They are recommended for complex optimization problems and applications needing high performance. Compared to other MPPT groups, metaheuristic algorithms offer better performance in tracking speed, efficiency accuracy, sampling rate and stability.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Abbreviations

United Nations Environment Program

Sustainable Development Goal

Renewable Energy Sources

Photovoltaic

Partial shading conditions

Maximum power point

Maximum power point tracking

Uniform solar irradiation conditions

Power–voltage

Current–voltage

Multiple local maximum power points

Global maximum power point

Artificial neural-fuzzy inference systems algorithm

Artificial neural network

Fuzzy logic

Artificial intelligence

Bio-inspired

Genetic algorithm

Machine learning

Particle swarm optimization

Grey wolf optimization

Ant colony optimization

Artificial bee colony

Cuckoo search

Cat swarm optimization

Slap swarm algorithm

Firefly algorithm

Falcon optimization algorithm

Flower pollination algorithm

Ten check algorithm

Hybrid renewable energy system

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Boubaker, O. MPPT techniques for photovoltaic systems: a systematic review in current trends and recent advances in artificial intelligence. Discov Energy 3 , 9 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43937-023-00024-2

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Solar photovoltaic technology: A review of different types of solar cells and its future trends

Mugdha V Dambhare 1 , Bhavana Butey 1 and S V Moharil 2

Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd Journal of Physics: Conference Series , Volume 1913 , International Conference on Research Frontiers in Sciences (ICRFS 2021) 5th-6th February 2021, Nagpur, India Citation Mugdha V Dambhare et al 2021 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1913 012053 DOI 10.1088/1742-6596/1913/1/012053

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1 G H Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur, India

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The Sun is source of abundant energy. We are getting large amount of energy from the Sun out of which only a small portion is utilized. Sunlight reaching to Earth's surface has potential to fulfill all our ever increasing energy demands. Solar Photovoltaic technology deals with conversion of incident sunlight energy into electrical energy. Solar cells fabricated from Silicon aie the first generation solar cells. It was studied that more improvement is needed for large absorption of incident sunlight and increase in efficiency of solar cells. Thin film technology and amorphous Silicon solar cells were further developed to meet these conditions. In this review, we have studied a progressive advancement in Solar cell technology from first generation solar cells to Dye sensitized solar cells, Quantum dot solar cells and some recent technologies. This article also discuss about future trends of these different generation solar cell technologies and their scope to establish Solar cell technology.

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1 Introduction

2 review methodology, 3 results and discussion, 4 conclusions, acknowledgements.

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Review Article

A literature review on Building Integrated Solar Energy Systems (BI-SES) for façades − photovoltaic, thermal and hybrid systems

Karol Bot 1 * , Laura Aelenei 1 , Maria da Glória Gomes 2 and Carlos Santos Silva 3

1 Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia (LNEG), 1649–038 Lisbon, Portugal 2 CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georesources (DECivil), Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049–001 Lisbon, Portugal 3 IN+, Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research /LARSyS, Department of Mechanical Engineering (DEM), Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049–001 Lisbon, Portugal

* e-mail: [email protected]

Received: 9 August 2021 Received in final form: 11 November 2021 Accepted: 11 November 2021

The building façade has a crucial role in acting as the interface between the environment and the indoor ambient, and from an engineering and architecture perspective, in the last years, there has been a growing focus on the strategic development of building façades. In this sense, this work aims to present a literature review for the Building Integrated Solar Energy Systems (BI-SES) for façades, subdivided into three categories: thermal, photovoltaic and hybrid (both thermal and photovoltaic). The methodology used corresponds to a systematic review method. A sample of 75 works was reviewed (16 works on thermal BI-SES, 37 works on photovoltaic BI-SES, 22 works on hybrid BI-SES). This article summarises the works and later classifies them according to the type of study (numerical or experimental), simulation tool, parametric analysis and performance when applied.

© K. Bot et al., Published by EDP Sciences, 2022

In order to overcome the substantial challenges faced by building sector in European Commission, being responsible for approximately 40% of the energy consumption and 36% of the greenhouse gas emissions, the scientific community together with policy makers are continuously working on delivering and adopting innovative solutions, advanced practices and regulations, respectively. In recent years, building regulations have gradually introduced new requirements to ensure a phased decarbonization of building sector and an increasing of its energy performance. In 2010, the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) recast [ 1 ] introduced requirements with the objective of attaining environmental and energy efficiency goals adopting the nearly Zero Energy Buildings (nZEB) Performance for new and existing buildings. A special attention was given to the public building sectors in terms of energy efficiency measures, drivers and barriers [ 2 ] and their optimal calculation [ 3 ].

For a building to be considered nZEB, it must reduce its energy consumption and generate energy from renewable sources, which can compensate for the majority of the building's consumption assuring at the same time thermal comfort. Taking into account the specific requirements and specifications for nZEB performance, a special attention has been paid to the integration of renewable systems in the buildings footprint or nearby. At building level these renewable technologies are mostly integrated in the building envelope (walls and roofs).

Usually, the building façade has a crucial role in performing as the interface between the environment and the indoor ambient. With the integration of renewable energy (especially solar), the buildinǵs facade has a significant impact on the occupant's comfort, building energy demands, and the aesthetics of the building. Commonly, designing a building façade takes into consideration several factors, as the climatic conditions and surrounding structures, indoor and spatial characteristics, needs of the building occupants regarding comfort and costs, among others. From an engineering and architecture perspective, in the last years, there has been a growing focus on the strategic development of building façades, it is, to contribute to meet the requirements of the high-performance regulations while being sustainable and aesthetically pleasant. This strategic development brings new experiments, innovative systems, and technology to be integrated into the formal functions of the envelope [ 4 ].

The façade elements may improve the energy flexibility of the building by the adequation of the constructive elements thermal performance to climate and building usage profile, also by being adaptive or automated to adapt to the different boundary conditions. Given this context and the flexibility that façade elements can offer in the design process, innovative façade elements based on solar energy systems can significantly reduce the building energy demand [ 5 ].

Entire buildings are broad, multi-scale, multi-material, with exceptionally unique analysis approach frameworks with vast influences. When addressing the design, applications and control of Building Integrated Photovoltaic System (BIPV) and its relationship with the building itself, it becomes very complex to create functional systems that are adaptable and generally relevant to the improvement of energy performance; once there must be a trade-off between factors as life-cycle assessment and real improvement it brings to the energy demand reduction [ 6 ].

The present article provides a concise review of a sample of studies concerning Building Integrated Solar Energy Systems integrated into façades published in the last five years. This article presents the main scope of the works, a comparison of the outcomes through a table classification, and a discussion about trends in the field.

The present study presents a systematic review concerning innovative systems on façade BI-SES. The source of information used to acquire the data is the Clarivate Analytics Web-of-Science. Figure 1 presents in detail the survey method and rationale used for the systematic review. In summary, the eligibility criteria and study selection are based on the published material within the search terms, period, the relevance, keywords and abstract pertinent to the objectives, and consideration through the screening of appropriate content throughout the text. Thus, Figure 1 also presents the results regarding the number of publications filtered through the adopted survey methodology. The data items, summary measures and report characteristics are based on the study details (reference), study characteristics (study type and technology type), extension of analysis, among others.

In the survey step previous to the detailed consideration of the title and abstract pertinent to the objective of the study (resulting in 115 articles), the results obtained by the source of information were segmented concerning the year of publication ( Fig. 2 ), journal of publication ( Fig. 3 ) and country of submission ( Fig. 4 ).

The remaining 75 articles were later segmented in the three mentioned categories: thermal, photovoltaic and hybrid BI-SES. The results are then presented in terms of summary of the manuscripts, and classification concerning the detailed system type, study type (experimental and/or numerical), simulation tool or technique, parameters under study in case of existence of a parametric analysis, and performance of the system considering its thermal, electrical and total efficieny.

The obtained results were segmented into three categories: integrated solar thermal systems, integrated photovoltaic systems and integrated hybrid systems (both thermal and photovoltaic). The thermal system converts the solar radiation into thermal energy, the photovoltaic converts it into electricity and the hybrid converts both in electricity and thermal energy. The results presented here are described concerning their core information and are further classified in a table to compare the different studies.

3.1 Integrated solar thermal systems

A sample of 16 scientific articles was considered representative innovative solar thermal systems pertinent, among the 75 articles reviewed. A summary of the most pertinent is presented here, followed by a table summarising the studies.

In Prieto et al. [ 7 ], there is a detailed review concerning the possibilities of using solar cooling integrated façades by exploring their feasibility concerning orientation, efficiency, and climate in which it is used. It is concluded that warm-dry climates and east/west orientations are the best situations for solar cooling façade applications, reaching a theoretical solar fraction of 100% [ 7 ]. In Maurer et al. [ 8 ], a review is done on the most important contributions of recent years of building-integrated solar thermal systems, in terms of systems being designed, results being achieved in terms of thermal characterization, and simple models to evaluate the systems − being this publication an interesting compilation of studies to have an overall view of the current technology status for building integration. Valladares-Rendon et al. [ 9 ] developed a review of shading thermal solutions to decrease direct solar gains and improve energy savings, balanced with visual comfort. This publication emphasizes the importance of employing the solar thermal elements with more than one purpose in a single element, reinforcing that solar façade elements shall not have a static goal.

Velasco et al. [ 10 ], a Venetian blind double-skin façade with the integrated solar thermal collector is analysed through CFD software. The authors emphasize that the system would promote energy efficiency through avoiding direct solar gains while being aesthetically pleasant. In Sun et al. [ 11 ], the authors present a façade system with parallel transparent plastic slats sandwiched between glass panes to form a parallel slat transparent insulation material to reduce coupled convective and radiative heat transfer inside the air cavity of the panes of a double glazed window. It contributes to increasing the thermal resistance without constraining the daylight access to the point of visual comfort reduction. In Li et al. [ 12 ], the work focuses on the innovation of building-integrated solar thermal shading systems to reduce the energy demand and improve the daylight levels through modelling and simulations.

In O’Hegarty et al. [ 13 ], the authors review and analyse solar thermal façades in terms of the type, technology used, and the materials that constitute it. Daily efficiency models are presented based on a combination of analysis methods, comprising a good data resource for comparison among technologies. Lamnatou et al. [ 14 ] give a critical review of building-integrated solar thermal systems' simulation methods and usage. Not only thermal but other types of BI solar configurations such as photovoltaic and hybrid systems are covered.

In Buonomano et al. [ 15 ], the design and the thermodynamic analysis of a new prototype of a flat-plate water-based solar thermal collector are developed, to integrate the system in building façades. The innovation is based on inexpensive materials and simplified design, aiming to reduce production and installation costs to improve market penetration. The applications are the production of hot water for domestic uses and space thermal comfort. This study contrasts with academia's tendency to develop expensive prototypes, as it aims to reach buildings in a faster manner by implications and technology transfer. As in the previously mentioned work, in Agathokleous et al. [ 16 ], it is also possible to find a flat-plate based thermal collector integrated into building façade envelopes but based on using air as the fluid. The authors also focused on the use of cost-effective materials and simple design solutions. They developed an energy dynamic simulation model and economic performance analyses and concluded that the system payback would be close to six years.

In Garnier et al. [ 17 ], a novel incorporated solar collector with storage for water heaters was created, followed by a praiseworthy CFD investigation. The proposed project is composed of a heating component to give household independence through the high-temperature water system and considers the coordination of the system and the rooftop configuration, enabling the system unit to be inserted inside an auxiliary protected material board framework. In Resch-Fauster et al. [ 18 ], the proposition focuses on an integrated solar thermal collector and latent heat storage modules. The overheating protection supplied by this system has high efficiency of the optimized configuration, calculated in function of other thermophysical characteristics. This study also reinforces the modularity that the BI-SES systems have been adopting in recent years. In Ibanez-Puy et al. [ 19 ], a ventilated active thermoelectric envelope component is studied. It focuses on a modular active ventilated façade prototype with a thermoelectric system to be installed in the building envelope and provide a high comfort level. The system integrates a passive design strategy through the ventilation and an active strategy through an active thermoelectric solution. This study is an example of coupling passive and active techniques to improve the overall system performance.

In Guarino et al. [ 20 ], the authors study the performance of a building-integrated thermal storage system, intending to improve the energy performances of the system in a cold climate. Navarro et al. [ 21 ] presented a novel phase change material (PCM) system inside the structural horizontal building component. The structural element was a composed concrete with micro-encapsulated PCM located into 14 channels, coupled to a solar air collector to melt and induce the phase change. The technique presented by these authors may be considered more intrusive once coupled with hard materials of civil construction (concrete), which per si deliver a reliable structural performance throughout the whole building lifetime. In Hengstberger et al. [ 22 ], a solution is presented by using PCM embedded into the absorber insulation which buffers the heat during the day and releases it at night. A parametric analysis is developed using a dynamic simulation tool to find the best melting temperature of a thin layer of PCM at different positions.

In Shen et al. [ 23 ], the authors introduce an innovative compact solar thin film with an interiorly extruded pin-fin flow channel convenient for building integration. A simulation model was used, and a prototype of the solar thin film was fabricated to test the system under different controlled conditions. The methodology presented by this work is pertinent once it discusses the process of designing and testing. In He et al. [ 24 ], an innovative tile-shaped dual-function solar collector is analysed for water heating. The study is developed using CFD software and aims not only to provide optimal designs but also to meet pleasing aesthetics. In Giovanardi et al. [ 25 ], a modular unglazed solar thermal façade system was developed to aid the installation of active solar façades, with a particular focus on the renovation of existing buildings. In He et al. [ 26 ], the authors investigate the loop-heat-pipe water heating performance of an innovative heat pump assisted solar, using theoretical and experimental methods.

Table 1 presents the complete list and classification of the solar thermal systems reviewed in this work, considering the system type, existence/non-existence of experimental and numerical analysis, existence/non-existence of parametrical analysis and details, reached efficiency of the system under study. The terminology (N.S.) stands for “not stated”, meaning that the article did not mention the feature.

The results obtained show that there is no specific trend concerning the systems under study in the most recent publications concerning the solar thermal systems. However, the focus can be given to the integration between passive and active techniques and the modularity and multiple purposes of the same element. The technologies vary from innovative system design to innovative methods of operation or material combination. Also, the thermal efficiency ( η t ) of the systems is, in most cases, not directly assessed. Most of the studies using dynamic simulation evaluated the impact of the systems in thermal behaviour by calculating nominal energy needs for heating and cooling of the thermal zone, based on determined setpoints. Others use computational fluid dynamics analysis to have a detailed profile of the thermal behaviour of the systems given the specified boundary conditions and evaluate the systems in terms of temperatures (primarily based on the outlet-inlet differences). Parametric analysis is not always done in the reviewed studies. Still, in the studies that develop this component, the geometry, inlet velocity and inlet temperature ( T inl ) are the most used variables of variation.

Summary of the studies − solar thermal systems.

3.2 Integrated photovoltaic systems

A sample of 37 scientific articles presented innovative solar photovoltaic systems (working only with the photovoltaic effect), among the 75 articles reviewed. A summary of the most pertinent is presented here, followed by a table summarising the studies. In Shukla et al. [ 28 ], an extensive review is given concerning the design of Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) systems. It focuses on developing the technology, classification of cells and products, and industry/research opportunities. Another study, developed by Tripathy et al. [ 29 ], presents a review of the state-of-the-art PV products for building different components of envelopes, their properties and their accordance with international standards.

In Aguacil et al. [ 30 ], the work aims to provide a methodology to contribute to the decision-making process concerning the use of BIPV in the urban renewal process. It considers the surface types and trade-offs between self-consumption and self-sufficiency. It is a straightforward approach that aims to facilitate the analysis of suitability concerning different factors. Chen et al. [ 31 ] explored the impact of archetypes and confounding factors in optimising the design. They focus specifically on high-rise buildings with BIPV façades, using data-driven models incorporating qualitative and quantitative analysis. It intends to facilitate the analysis by defining typical types of façades in which the buildings In Biyik et al. [ 32 ], the authors reviewed the BIPV and BIPVT possible uses in terms of types, supply, generation power, performance characterization, and approaches of analysis. They identify two crucial research areas concerning this subject: (i) increase in system efficiency utilizing ventilation while reducing the modules temperature; (ii) use of thin-film applicable for integration in buildings. This study is an excellent source to assess the comparison between BIPVT and BIPVT. In Shukla et al. [ 33 ], the study also presents a comprehensive review of the BIPV commercial solutions and their characteristics and a comparison of international testing and operation standards and instructions. The authors focus on BIPV solutions for different façade elements.

In Agathokleous and Kalogirou [ 34 ], the authors study a naturally ventilated BIPV system, and the assessment is based on experimental thermal analysis. This study is particularly attractive, and further results obtained by the authors are presented in Table 2 . In Agathokleous et al. [ 16 ], the authors continued the previous work by introducing a simulation-based thermal analysis of the same system. In Wang et al. [ 45 ], a ventilated PV double-skin façade and a PV insulating glass unit are studied through comparative experiments to evaluate the systems' solar heat gain and U-value. In Cipriano et al. [ 54 ], the focus was on a PV ventilated component and a data-driven approach to iteratively identify the unknown parameters, determine their impact in the simulation outputs and ultimately, assess the deviations of the computational outcomes against the measured data. In Peng et al. [ 56 ], the authors used EnergyPlus and developed a whole-year energy performance evaluation and saving potential of a ventilated photovoltaic double-skin façade in a cool-summer Mediterranean climate zone. The work developed a sensitivity analysis over the numerical model, considering different air gap width and operation models of the ventilation. In Pantic et al. [ 57 ], they present a theory-based and experimental investigation of electricity generation potential concerning different orientations of the modules in the façade elements.

In Asfour [ 37 ], the study focuses on the association of the PV modules in shading devices, and the investigation is oriented to hot climates. They also develop a parametric simulation to evaluate the potential of different designs. In Luo et al. [ 60 ], PV-blind embedded double skin façade is studied by coupling thermal-electrical-optical models. The aim was to evaluate and optimize the system by using ray-tracing, radiosity and net radiation methods, and other usual thermal models for buildings. In Tablada et al. [ 40 ], the authors also study the use of PV coupled to shading devices for farming plants growing application − focusing on windows and balconies. In [ 35 ], the study derived a new metric for assessing the daylight quality by comparing different coverage ratios of the PV cell and window-wall ratios. They also compared different orientations and estimated the net electricity use of the building. Karthick et al. [ 42 ], they investigated semi-transparent building integrated photovoltaic modules on façades, focusing on different coverage ratios. In Zhang et al. [ 43 ], the authors also explore the potential savings generated by the use of PV associated with shading elements, developing a parametric analysis concerning tilt angles and orientation of the system.

In Connelly et al. [ 48 ], the idea of semi-transparent BIPV with concentrator is additionally investigated. They propose a “smart window” framework comprising a thermotropic layer with integrated PV modules. The authors propose a system that naturally reacts to climatic conditions and analyse the power generation, natural light availability and heat transfer from the system to the building structure through parametric analysis of different solar energy ratios incident on the PV. In Wang et al. [ 49 ], they evaluated the energy performance of an a-Si semi-transparent PV insulating glass unit via numerical simulation and experimental tests. Considering the measured optical and electrical features of the PV, an integrated model was made to simulate the system's energy performance under analysis. In Favoino et al. [ 50 ], they propose a novel simulation framework for the performance evaluation of a responsive structure based on envelope advances in the switchable photochromatic coating. The analysis is done by incorporating building energy simulation and lighting simulation and varying parameters as the climate in which it is inserted.

In Wu et al. [ 52 ], a novel static concentrating PV system, reasonable for use in windows or coating exteriors, has been proposed. The proposed concentrating PV system is lightweight, with minimal economic effort and ready to produce power. Moreover, this system consequently reacts to atmospheric conditions by changing the parity of power created by the PV with the measure of sunlight-based light and heat allowed through it into the structure. It also offers the possibility to control the energy utilization in the building. Liu et al. [ 58 ], improved the structure of a commonplace semitransparent PV module and investigated the utilization of three sorts of high-reflectivity heat protection movies to frame the BIPV. Hence, the creators broke down the impact of the system structures on the optical, heat, and control time execution of the semitransparent PV module and how much the execution improved.

Qiu et al. [ 36 ] investigate mergers of vacuum glazing and BIPV integration and analyse its capacity to reduce the energy needs of the buildings. Huang et al. [ 38 ] also present a detailed investigation of a similar novel system's thermal and power efficiencies, a combined design improvement of photovoltaic envelope solutions. In Sun et al. [ 48 ], they combine optical, electrical and energy models to assess the integration of semi-transparent photovoltaic in commercial buildings. The publication assesses the effect of window design on the energy needs of the building. In Tak et al. [ 44 ], the authors structured a semi-transparent sun-powered cell window, in which the transparency can be changed by modifying its temperature and dissolvable vapour pressure. Further details may be seen in the reference. A modelling test with the proposed system was led to look at the impacts on energy utilization, power generation, and inhabitant comfort. The outcomes demonstrate that the proposed window has a significant potential to generate electrical energy.

In Sornek et al. [ 41 ], a Fresnel lens is used to increase the efficiency of BIPV systems. The analysis of the system is made both employing dynamic simulations and experimental campaigns. They improved the general productivity of the building integrated photovoltaic systems by the use of a Fresnel lens. During the tests, the efficiency of the photovoltaic module increased by about 7% (reaching an η e of 22%). In Bunthof et al. [ 47 ], they build up the examination dependent on three Concentrator Photovoltaic (CPV) systems arrangements that consider the development of semi-straightforward structure veneer components. The systems likewise are a Fresnel focal point based concentrator and a novel level planar optic concentrator. In Correia et al. [ 51 ], Luminescent Solar Concentrators are displayed as financially savvy parts effectively incorporated in PV that can improve and advance the integration between PV components and building structures, with considerable potential outcomes for energy generation in façades, while improving urban aesthetics. In Sabry [ 53 ], a range of prismatic total interior reflection low concentration PV façades with different head angles has been evaluated, dependent on the location and characteristics of the surrounding areas of the building. Every veneer design is mimicked by ray-tracing procedure. Its presentation is examined against sensible direct sun-based radiation information in two clear sky days representing the summer and winter of the area under study. Ray-tracing recreations uncovered that most of the chosen arrangements could gather the vast majority of the direct solar radiation in summer.

Kang et al. [ 59 ] developed a light-catching system connected to BI-SES based on the PV use, which naturally promotes light exposure during the entire year. The structure is streamlined for the precise scope of the occurrence light by breaking the underlying symmetry. The authors show the viability of the designed light-catching structure for different occurrence point ranges employing exhaustive reproduction studies and trial results utilizing organic photovoltaic elements. In Hofer et al. [ 55 ], they present a modelling framework, coupling parametric 3D with high-resolution electrical modelling of the shading devices composed by thin-film PV modules, to reenact electric energy of geometrically complex PV applications. The proposed modelling framework can foresee with high spatial-transient resolution the shading positioning and adapt it over each PV module, being critical to improving the electricity generation through the adequate positioning of the modules and contributing to the control of direct solar gains in the building.

In Palacios-Jaimes et al. [ 46 ], a plan to transform a university building into NZEB is presented. It demonstrates that the BIPV system may provide the power needs and lessen the structure's energy use in a financially savvy way. The investigation emphatically centres around the life cycle assessment, surveying the net emissions of CO 2 and the harms caused in a near setting with traditional power sources. In Yang [ 61 ], they identify the technical barriers and risks related to the utilization of BIPV in different building life-cycle stages, together with the proposal of potential arrangements. When a straightforward answer could not be proposed, suggestions for future innovative work are made. The proposed approach incorporates assessment of past productions and gathering of criticism from the business experts.

Table 2 presents the complete list and classification of the solar photovoltaic systems reviewed in this work, considering the system type, existence/non-existence of experimental and numerical analysis, existence/non-existence of parametrical analysis and details, reached efficiency of the system under study.

The results of this sub-section show a considerable amount of studies being made concerning BI-SES based on photovoltaic technology. Based on this review, three main design trends were identified: (i) improvement of standard BIPV configurations through smart ventilation; (ii) use of photovoltaic technology integrated into building façades as shading devices; and (iii) use of concentrators in the PV systems integrated into building façades and rooftop. As in the previous category, many studies do not approach the systems in direct terms of efficiency (in this case, η e ). They are approached in terms of nominal energy needs, energy balances (demand and on-site supply), and system temperatures. Also, a parametric analysis is done mainly by varying parameters as orientation, cell coverage ratio, air gap width, ventilation rates, and geometries.

Summary of the studies − solar photovoltaic systems.

3.3 (Building) integrated hybrid systems

Compared with solar thermal collectors and photovoltaic systems, the integrated hybrid systems employ both technologies in the same system, generating both thermal energy and electricity. A sample of 22 scientific articles was considered as presenting coupled innovative solar photovoltaic and thermal systems, among the 75 are reviewed. A summary of the most pertinent is presented here, followed by a table summarising the studies.

In Lee et al. [ 62 ], an extensive review is presented on PV/T systems, being of particular interest to works concerning the design of innovative energy façade elements due to the novelty of the strategies presented. The study reviews the structure guidelines and working instruments of the PV/T façade systems, execution, control procedures and building applications. They highlight the use of electrochromic coating as the most used smart coating for thermal applications in PV systems and also stress that concerning PV shading, the external shading is the most utilized due to its low initial costs. The authors also state that algae growth façades and folding façades (complex geometry) shading systems are rising solutions, with high initial investment costs and requiring professional installers. They are, indeed, a promising arrangement because of their multi-purpose capabilities. Dynamic shading systems were found to spare 12% to 50% of the structure cooling power utilization. In Lai and Hokoi [ 63 ], a survey of a significant number of shading systems on the main façades facing south or north (depending on the hemisphere, referred to as sun-oriented façades) is presented, considering studies that have been published after 2010, segmenting the study in opaque and translucid elements.

In a most recent study by Lai and Hokoi [ 64 ], the state of the art sun-oriented control systems for façades are introduced, with a comparative assessment of sun-powered control systems and guidelines for improving new ones. It incorporates multifunctional frameworks and modelling with BIPV and thermal energy generation. In complement, in Debbarma et al. [ 65 ], the authors survey the BIPV and BIPVT advancements and energy, and the exergy examination of BIPV and BIPVT systems are likewise discussed. This work reviews the ongoing betterment of innovation around the world. In Agathokleous and Kalogirou [ 66 ], the work presents state of the art on thermal analysis of double skin façades with BIPV in terms of the published studies on these systems. In Zhang et al. [ 67 ], an in-depth review of the recently emerging active building-integrated solar thermal/PV technologies is also provided. The authors elaborate on the concept, parameters of classification and assessment, among other topics.

In Nagy et al. [ 68 ], they propose a modular adaptive solar façade to couple the element with the very dynamic environment surrounding the building boundaries. The energy behaviour and aesthetic expression of the façade can be managed to employ high Spatio-temporal resolution responses. The design process and operational plan are described, along with simulation results of the thermal behaviour and power production/consumption. In Peng et al. [ 69 ], the authors elaborate on the energy performance of a ventilated photovoltaic façade under varied ventilation modes and controlling modes for different climacteric conditions, aiming to improve the energy conversion efficiency.

In Chialastri and Isaacson [ 70 ], a prototype of a BIPVT was constructed based on thermal and electrical energy, aiming to achieve visual comfort and shading control through the system application. In this article, the prototype was evaluated under various conditions to characterize its performance. Dehra [ 71 ] presents a study on energy evaluation of a photovoltaic wall using either natural convection incited or fan-helped ventilation system. The vertical photovoltaic sun-oriented wall was introduced on the façade of a pre-assembled outside test room. The prototype was developed with two economically accessible photovoltaic modules, an air cavity and an insulated back layer.

In Smyth et al. [ 72 ], the authors propose a modular hybrid photovoltaic/solar thermal façade technology that uses an Integrated collector storage solar technology. In light of a patented solar thermal diode concept and shaped into a flat modular profile incorporating PV cells/module, the proposed system aims to heat the indoor environment, provide hot water, and generate electricity. In Luo et al. [ 60 ], the authors proposed a building-integrated photovoltaic, thermoelectric wall solution. It is examined by a numerical model comprising a PV framework and thermoelectric brilliant wall element. The thermal and electrical components of the system under cooling prevailing atmospheres was numerically researched utilizing an iterative system model. The presentation of the system is optimized by a comparative investigation with a traditional solid wall.

In Barman et al. [ 73 ], the study investigates the outcomes of a solar transparent photovoltaic window, focusing on angles of incidence, thermal gains using direct solar gains and energy generation. In Ahmed-Dahmane et al. [ 74 ], the proposed BIPVT system prototype comprises air collectors connected to an air handling unit to manage the airflow. The solution works based on two applications, namely for heating and cooling needs.

In Gaur and Tiwari [ 75 ], a BIPVT system is analysed. There is a focus on improving the articulation between electrical and thermal efficiencies and heat transfer through the structure. These thermal and electrical efficiencies articulations are crucial for various climatic conditions and diverse façade BI-SES designs. The system modules have been intensely studied for their energy, exergy and operational attributes with and without associated air pipe. Buonomano et al. [ 76 ], a BIPVT system has been analysed for residential applications, assessing active and passive operational applications. In Oh et al. [ 77 ], they built up an incorporated model for evaluating the techno-financial execution of the BIPVT on façades, emphasising energy demand and supply. In [ 78 , 79 ], the authors develop an experimental study of a Building-Integrated Photovoltaic system combined with a water storage tank prototype. The authors achieve a thermal efficiency of nearly 8% during the winter and 40% during the summer. In [ 80 ], a CFD study is presented for the prototype with an interior module of insulation instead of the water tank. This new modular prototype constituted a next step study of previous prototypes proposed by the research group, as may be consulted in [ 81 , 82 ]. Also to note is the work presented in [ 83 ], in which they assess a BIPVT-PCM prototype via genetic algorithm optimization. Having as case study the same living lab in which these prototypes were tested, in [ 84 ] it is possible to find a numerical study of a full scale BIPVT system. In [ 85 ], the experimental results for this BIPVT system are presented.

Table 3 presents the complete list and classification of the hybrid solar systems reviewed in this work, considering the system type, existence/non-existence of experimental and numerical analysis, existence/non-existence of parametrical analysis and details, reached efficiency of the system under study.

The hybrid systems presented by the sample of publications reviewed in the scope of this work are, mainly, façade elements of BIPVT walls, in which the principal analysis is made through numerical simulation via a finite element of CFD analysis. Also, as in the previous sub-sections, many of the studies do not present the results in terms of system efficiency, and parametric analysis is developed in nearly half of them. The parameters under examination in the parametric analysis are ventilation nodes and velocity, geometry (duct width, for example) and glazing type.

Summary of the studies − hybrid systems.

This article intended to present a literature review to contribute to increasing knowledge and systematization of different building-integrated solar energy systems. The façades of the buildings offer huge potential to increase the sustainability of the built sector. Its association with building-integrated solar energy systems demonstrates that they can not only increase the comfort of the building and reduce the energy consumption but also respond to the necessities of the grid, especially concerning adaptive systems. A sample of 71 studies was reviewed in this study, and the results were segmented into three categories: thermal systems, photovoltaic systems, and hybrid systems integrated into the façades. When applicable, the studies were further classified regarding the type of study, the tool used, parametric analysis parameters, and performance.

Concerning the solar thermal systems, the results show that there is not a specific trend concerning the systems under study in the most recent publications. However, the focus can be given to the integration between passive and active techniques and the modularity and multiple purposes of the same element. The technologies vary from innovative system design to innovative methods of operation or material combination. The results concerning the photovoltaic systems presented three main design trends were identified based on this review: i) improvement of standard BIPV configurations through smart ventilation; ii) use of photovoltaic technology integrated into building façades as shading devices, and iii) use of concentrators in the PV systems integrated into building façades and rooftop. The hybrid systems presented by the sample of publications reviewed in the scope of this work are, mainly, façade elements of BIPVT walls, in which the principal analysis is made through numerical simulation via a finite element of CFD analysis.

NZEB_LAB—Research Infrastructure on Integration of Solar Energy Systems in Buildings” (Refª. LISBOA-01-0145-FEDER-022075)” is financed by national funds FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC) and European FEDER from Regional Operation Program of Lisbon.

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Cite this article as : Karol Bot, Laura Aelenei, Maria da Glória Gomes, Carlos Santos Silva, A literature review on Building Integrated Solar Energy Systems (BI-SES) for façades − photovoltaic, thermal and hybrid systems, Renew. Energy Environ. Sustain. 7 , 7 (2022)

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A review of automatic solar photovoltaic panels cleaning and cooling methods

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Salwan S. Hatif , Haider K. Latif , Ahmad T. Abdulsadda; A review of automatic solar photovoltaic panels cleaning and cooling methods. AIP Conf. Proc. 8 March 2024; 3092 (1): 050013. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0199903

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One of the most significant methods for turning solar energy directly into electrical power is the use of photovoltaic (PV) panels. The operation of solar panels is influenced by a variety of internal and external factors. It is unable to manage external variables including the amount of incoming radiation, the air’s temperature, and the amount of dust buildup about the PV. The inside variables, such the temperature of the PV surface, are controllable. While the majority of incident radiation is immersed within the photovoltaic cell and some of energy that hits PV cell’s outside surface is converted to electricity. Unfortunately, this results in a greater panel temperature, poorer conversion performance, and shorter long-term reliability. To efficiently prevent the extreme heat increasing and improve their performance, numerous cooling systems have been created and researched. Solar cells are cooled using a variety of techniques, including passive cooling, active cooling, Technologies like heat pipes, phase change material cooling, and others that do not need electrical power are classified as passive approaches. While active methods, like the operation of a water pump or an air flow, require electrical power. On the other hand, the methods for cleaning solar photovoltaic panels can significantly improve the effectiveness of power generation and also rise the toughness of solar panels. The methods of cleaning can also be split into active or passive categories. Active techniques include mechanical ones like air flow brushes and others. While passive techniques include manual cleaning and coating methods. There is a thorough analysis of the automatic cleaning systems. The characteristics of each system are described, and the benefits and drawbacks are carefully contrasted. When selecting the best cleaning system, factors such as cost, water usage, efficiency, cleaning time, and human intervention are taken into account. Although being economical devices, brushing cleaning systems still need a man worker. As opposed to that, areas with a limited supply of water are advised to use electrostatic cleaning methods. Robotic cleaning solutions are also not advised for areas with a lot of wind because of their expensive and slow operation. This research aims to study, investigate and review of the various cooling and cleaning techniques. Experiments and researches showed that when compared to a system without the cooling and cleaning components, a solar system equipped with a cooling and cleaning system may yield an energy increase of (34.55%).

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