literature review of competitive intelligence

The Use of Theories in Competitive Intelligence: a Systematic Literature Review

• Tumelo Maungwa
• Paul Laughton

Abedin, B. 2022. Managing the tension between opposing effects of explainability of artificial intelligence: a contingency theory perspective. Internet Research 32(2): 425-453.

Ahmadinia, H. and Karim, M. 2016. Competitive intelligence: A case study on Qoros automotive manufacturing. Journal of Intelligence Studies in Business 6(2): 52-65.

Ali, B. J. and Anwar, G. 2021. Measuring competitive intelligence Network its role on Business Performance. International Journal of English Literature Social Sciences, 6(2).

Bergeron, P. and Hiller,C. A. 2002. Competitive intelligence. Annual Review of Information Science Technology 36(1): 353-390.

Blenkhorn, D. L., and Fleisher, C. S. (Eds.). 2005. Competitive intelligence global business. Greenwood Publishing Group.

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Botha, D.F. and Boon, J.A. 2008. Competitive intelligence in support of strategic training learning. South African Journal of Information Management 10(3): 1-6.

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Cavallo, A. Sanasi, S. Ghezzi, A. and Rangone, A. 2021. Competitive intelligence strategy formulation: connecting the dots. Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal 31(2): 250-275.

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Cloutier, A. 2013. Competitive intelligence process integrative model based on a scoping review of the literature. International Journal of Strategic Management 13(1): 57-72.

De Pelsmacker, P. Muller, M.L. Viviers, W. Saayman, A. Cuyvers, L. and Jegers, M. 2005. Competitive intelligence practices of South African Belgian exporters. Marketing Intelligence and Planning 23(6): 606-620.

Dishman, P.L. and Calof, J.L. 2008. Competitive intelligence: a multiphasic precedent to marketing strategy. European Journal of Marketing 42(7/8): 766-785

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Du Toit, A.S.A. 2015. Competitive intelligence research: an investigation of trends in the literature. Journal of Intelligence Studies in Business 5(2): 14-21.

Ezenwa, O. Stella, A. and Agu, A. O. 2018. Effect of competitive intelligence on competitive advantage in Innoson technical industry limited, Enugu state, Nigeria. International Journal of Business, Economics and Management 1(1): 28-39.

Fellman, P. V. and Post, J. V. 2008. Complexity, competitive intelligence the “first mover” advantage. In Unifying Themes in Complex Systems: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Complex Systems (pp. 114-121). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

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Freyn, S. and Hoffman, F. 2022. Competitive intelligence in an AI world: Practitioners’ thoughts on technological advances the educational needs of their successors. Journal of Intelligence Studies in Business 12(3): 6-17.

Gatibu, J. and Kilika, J. 2017. Competitive intelligence practices performance of Equity Bank in Kenya. International Academic Journal of Human Resource Business Administration 2(4): 219-239.

Grant R.M. 1991. The resource based theory of competitive advantage: implications for strategy formulation. California Management Review 33(3): 114–135.

Hanif, N. Arshed, N. and Farid, H. 2022. Competitive intelligence process strategic performance of banking sector in Pakistan. International Journal of Business Information Systems 39(1): 52-75.

Hazen, B. T. Skipper, J. B. Ezell, J. D. and Boone, C. A. 2016. Big data predictive analytics for supply chain sustainability: A theory-driven research agenda. Computers and Industrial Engineering 101(1): 592-598.

Heppes, D. and Du Toit, A. 2009. Level of maturity of the competitive intelligence function: case study of a retail bank in South Africa. Association for information Management Proceedings: New Information Perspectives 61(1): 48-66.

Heppes, D.W. 2006. An assessment of the level of maturity of the competitive intelligence function within a South African retail ankb. Master’s dissertation, University of Johannesburg. [Online]. Available from: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Repository/uj:8447 [22 May 2017]

Hoffman, F. P. and Freyn, S. L. 2019. The future of competitive intelligence in an AI-enabled world. International Journal of Value Chain Management 10(4): 275-289.

Hristovski, R. and Balagué, N. 2020. Theory of cooperative-competitive intelligence: principles, research directions, applications. Frontiers in Psychology 11(1): 2220.

Hughes, S. F. 2017. A new model for identifying emerging technologies. Journal of Intelligence Studies in Business 7(1): 20-35.

Jafar, M. (2020). The impact of competitive intelligence (CI) management on the competitiveness performance of retail companies in Indonesia. Journal of Social Science Advanced Research 1(2):138-159.

Jin, T. 2008. An exploratory study on information work activities of competitive intelligence professionals. Quebec: McGill University.

Jin, T. and Bouthillier, F. 2006. Understanding information transformation process in the context of competitive intelligence. Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science Technology 43(1): 1-14.

Johannesson, J. and Palona I. 2010. Environmental turbulence the success of a firm's intelligence strategy: Development of research instruments. International Journal of Management 27(3): 448.

Johannesson, J. and Palona, I. 2010. Environmental turbulence and the success of a firm's intelligence strategy: Development of research instruments. International Journal of Management 27(3): 448.

Johnson, A.R. 2004. The top 12 priorities for competitive intelligence [Online]. Available from: http://www-sop.inria.fr/acacia/WORKSHOPS/ECAI2002-OM/soumissions/ECAI2002- johnson-1.htm [28 June 2023].

Kahaner, L. 1996. Competitive Intelligence: From Black Ops to Boardrooms – How Businesses Gather, Analyse, Use Information To Succeed in The Global Marketplace. New York: Simon Schuster

Kun, S. 2014. Enterprise competitive intelligence system research based on data mining technology. Applied Mechanics Materials 654(1): 1562-1565.

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Madureira, L. Popovič, A. and Castelli, M. 2021. Competitive intelligence: A unified view modular definition. Technological Forecasting Social Change 173(1): 121086.

Maune, A. 2014. Competitive intelligence as an enabler for firm competitiveness: An overview. Journal of Governance Regulation 3(2): 29-42.

Author 1 and Fourie, I. 2018. Competitive intelligence failures: An information behaviour lens to key intelligence information needs. Aslib Journal of Information Management, 70(4): 367-389.

McGonagle, J. J. and Vella, C. M. 2002. Bottom line competitive intelligence. Greenwood Publishing Group.

McGonagle, J. J.2016. Competitive intelligence. Journal of US Intelligence Studies Volume 22(2): 55-56.

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Muritala, A. S. Asikhia, O. U. Makinde, O. G. and Akinlabi, H. B. 2019. Competitive Intelligence Employee Productivity Of Selected Insurance Companies In Nigeria. International Journal of Innovative Research Advanced Studies 6(6): 128-134.

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Murphy, C. 2016. Competitive intelligence: Gathering, analysing putting it to work. Routledge

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Nemutanzhela, P. and Iyamu, T. 2011. The impact of competitive intelligence on products services innovation in organizations. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science Applications 2(11): 9-157.

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Obonyo, M. O. and Kilika, J. M. 2020. Competitive Intelligence Corresponding Outcome in a Strategic Management Process: A Review of Literature. Journal of Economics Business, 3(4): 1689-1707.

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Competitive Intelligence: An Exploratory Literature Review of Its Positioning

2014, Journal of Governance and Regulation

This article is a qualitative-exploratory literature review. The primary concern of the author is to explore the positioning of the competitive intelligence function within organisations so as to establish the best positioning. To ensure reliability of the literary exploration, only peer-reviewed journal articles were used. The findings of this article will make it possible to generalise about the best position of the competitive intelligence function and to develop some valuable propositions for future studies. The findings show that there is no single criterion on which to base the positioning of the competitive intelligence function within organisations. This article will assist business managers to understand and improve their positioning of the competitive intelligence function. This article has therefore academic value

Related Papers

Journal of Governance and Regulation

ALEXANDER MAUNE

The purpose of this article is to provide an overview, from literature, about how competitive intelligence can be an enabler towards a firm's competitiveness. This overview is done under the background of intense global competition that firms are currently experiencing. This paper used a qualitative content analysis as a data collection methodology on all identified journal articles on competitive intelligence and firm competitiveness. To identify relevant literature, academic databases and search engines were used. Moreover, a review of references in related studies led to more relevant sources, the references of which were further reviewed and analysed. To ensure reliability and trustworthiness, peer-reviewed journal articles and triangulation were used. The paper found that competitive intelligence is an important enabler of firm competitiveness. The findings from this paper will assist business managers to understand and improve their outlook of competitive intelligence as an enabler of firm competitiveness and will be of great academic value.

Corporate Ownership & Control

The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship that exists between competitive intelligence and firm competitiveness through literature review. This study is being done under the background of intense competition being experienced by firms globally. The methodology used for this article was a literature review of published electronic journal articles. The paper found the following two critical issues: there are varying perceptions of the relationship that exists between competitive intelligence and firm competitiveness; and that there is no universally accepted model of best practice for adoption and adaption. The findings from this research will assist business managers improve their CI outlook by understanding how CI is related to firm competitiveness and will be of great value to academics.

American Journal of Business and Management

Wadie Nasri

Sheila Wright, DipMan, MBA, PhD

Purpose – The article traces the origins of the Competitive Intelligence fields and identifies both the practitioner, academic and inter-disciplinary views on CI practice. An examination of the literature relating to the field is presented, including the identification of the linear relationship which CI has with marketing and strategic planning activities. Design/methodology/approach – Bibliometric assessment of the discipline. Findings reveal the representation of cross disciplinary literature which emphasises the multi-faceted role which competitive intelligence plays in a modern organization. Research limitations/implications – The analysis only uses ABI Inform as the primary sources for literature alongside Society of Competitive Intelligence Professionals (SCIP) and competitive Intelligence Foundation (CIF) publications, particularly the Journal of Competitive Intelligence and Management. A more comprehensive bibliometric analysis might reveal additional insights. Simple counts were used for analytical purposes rather than co-citation analysis. Findings – The analysis supports the view of competitive intelligence being an activity consisting dominantly of environmental scanning and strategic management literature. New fields of study and activity are rapidly becoming part of the Competitive Intelligence framework. Practical implications – Attention is drawn to the need for the integration of additional, complementary fields of study and competitive intelligence practice. It is clear that today's competitive intelligence practitioner cannot afford to rely on what they learned 20 years ago in order to ensure the continued competitive advantage of their firm. A keen understanding of all business functions, especially marketing and planning is advocated. Originality/value – While there have been bibliographies of competitive intelligence literature there have been few attempts to relate this to the three distinct areas of practice. This article is of use to scholars in assisting them to disentangle the various aspect of competitive intelligence and also to managers who wish to gain an appreciation of the potential which competitive intelligence can bring to marking and business success.

Dejan Jovanović , Šaban Gračanin

Paper represents positive effects of competitive intelligence (CI) usage in the process of strategic decision making within the company. We analyze current state of CI awareness in Serbian businesses, and influence of CI on business performance of companies operating in Serbia. Study provides empirical comparative data on competitive intelligence implementation practices in developed countries and Serbia. Survey results, based on summarising and comparative analysis of field data, indicate that there are small differences in practical implementation of CI between companies in Serbia and those in EU. We indentified differences between the CI practices in Japan and USA on one side, and EU countries and Serbia on the other. Research aim is to make an assessment of competitive intelligence systems application in practice, and to provide necessary recommendations for companies based on the “best CI practices” in most developed countries, as well as basis for future studies.

Sheila Wright, DipMan, MBA, PhD , David W Pickton

The relevance of monitoring, understanding and responding to competitors has long been recognised as a significant aspect of marketing activity. Yet analysis of the competitive environment seems often to be subordinated as greater emphasis is placed on understanding customers and consumers. Clearly important though customers are, they should not dominate marketing strategy and planning. Although accused of blasphemy, some might argue that marketing management has lost its way by focusing too narrowly on customers to the exclusion of other influential groups, one of these being competitors. A pilot research project was undertaken to gain a better understanding of how Competitive Intelligence is conducted by UK companies. Its four principal objectives being.- 1. To determine the attitude towards, and understanding of, Competitive Intelligence by UK companies 2. To identify Competitive Intelligence gathering strategies 3. To assess the use of Competitive Intelligence in the formulation of strategy 4. To identify where the responsibility for Competitive Intelligence gathering was located From this pilot, a tentative typology of companies was developed to reflect Attitude, Gathering, Use and Location of Competitive Intelligence. The findings revealed that if companies were to produce valuable Competitive Intelligence, firms needed to take a specific stance on all four strands in order to produce successful, targeted marketing strategies. The fact that only 3 of the responding firms demonstrated such an approach was of concern. Further research was therefore undertaken through the use of questionnaires and in-depth interviews with CI active UK firms. The purpose was to corroborate the findings of the pilot study, test the appropriateness of the typology and further develop the classification definitions. This research has resulted in a typology that illustrates a continuum of behaviour on the four strands of investigation. From this, an ideal situation to ensure that CI activity has strategic impact can be deduced, but that is not to denigrate the intervening developmental stages. For many UK firms, Competitive Intelligence is a new philosophy and this was reflected in the survey responses. It is sensible to remember that you need to learn how to walk before you can run.

Journal of Market-Focused Management

Bernard Jaworski , Deborah Macinnis

David W Pickton

Academic literature on Competitive Intelligence is limited. Numerous books have been written, but by just a few authors, all of them Americans. Two hundred and eighty two articles on the topic of Competitor(ive) Intelligence were studied. Of these, 85% were of American origin, whilst the rest were primarily the work of Ian Gordon, a Canadian. Of the British periodicals only Long Range Planning published articles on the subject, and then only 5. Of these, 194 were oriented toward the 'circulation' of information within 'the organisation' and focused on the use of Information Technology as an analytical tool of Competitor(ive) Intelligence. The remaining 88 articles concentrated on Competitive Intelligence theory and/or case studies. None of these case studies concerned UK companies. It seems that UK companies either do not want to make any comments about their experience in Competitive Intelligence or simply had no experience at all. Indeed there is little evidence to show that UK companies have acknowledged the importance of Competitive Intelligence or have developed Competitive Intelligence Units within their organisational structure. The primary objective of this research was to obtain a qualitative picture of Competitive Intelligence in the UK. The findings suggest key issues related to CI attitudes, gathering processes, use and location type.

Foresight and STI Governance

Nisha Sewdass

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A Review of Existing Literature on Competitive Intelligence and Insurance Markets

Corporate Governance and Organizational Behavior Review, Volume 7, Issue 4, 2023

17 Pages Posted: 20 Dec 2023

Mpho Maluleka

University of Kwazulu-Natal, Students

Bibi Zaheenah Chummun

University of kwazulu-natal.

Date Written: November 8, 2023

Competitive intelligence (CI) involves monitoring competitors and providing organisations with actionable and meaningful intelligence (Ranjan & Foropon, 2021). This paper aims to examine current trends in the CI and insurance literature. A qualitative approach with an exploratory-driven design was used to examine CI-related articles. A systematic literature review found 24 publications from 2008 to 2022. Thematic content analysis was used to analyse the qualitative data. Journal articles were obtained from Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, and Google Scholar. Publications were classified according to journal, publication year, article count, citations and methodology. The findings showed that Iranian authors produced more CI-related academic articles focusing on insurance. Only a few CI studies in insurance have been published in other countries. The global insurance industry’s CI research was underdeveloped, with articles scattered across various journals. Two South African authors contributed multiple articles. Research in this area needs to be tested more thoroughly before maturity can be achieved. Furthermore, most of the studies the authors reviewed were quantitative. Mixing research methods could contribute more substantive theoretical contributions. In addition, more studies need to investigate the use of data analytics tools and conceptual frameworks for theory testing.

Keywords: Competitive Intelligence, Big Data, Data Analytics, Insurance, South Africa

JEL Classification: D80, D83, G52, I21, O55

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Mpho Maluleka (Contact Author)

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Competitive intelligence and strategy formulation: connecting the dots

Competitiveness Review

ISSN : 1059-5422

Article publication date: 13 May 2020

Issue publication date: 4 February 2021

This paper aims to examine how competitive intelligence (CI) relates to the strategy formulation process of firms.

Design/methodology/approach

Due to the novelty of the phenomenon and to the depth of the investigation required to grasp the mechanisms and logics of CI, a multiple case study has been performed related to four companies located in Brazil that adopted CI practices within dedicated business units to inform and support strategic decision-making.

The authors provide detailed empirical evidence on the connection and use of CI practices throughout each stage of the strategy formulation process. Moreover, the study suggests that CI practices, despite their strategic relevance and diffusion, are still extensively adopted for tactical use.

Originality/value

This study sheds light on how CI practices may inform, support, and be integrated in the strategy formulation process, as few studies have done before.

• Competitiveness
• Competitive intelligence
• Business model

Cavallo, A. , Sanasi, S. , Ghezzi, A. and Rangone, A. (2021), "Competitive intelligence and strategy formulation: connecting the dots", Competitiveness Review , Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 250-275. https://doi.org/10.1108/CR-01-2020-0009

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2020, Angelo Cavallo, Silvia Sanasi, Antonio Ghezzi and Andrea Rangone.

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

Good intelligence, by itself, will not make a great strategy. ( Herring, 1992 , p. 57)

The markets where companies operate today are becoming ever more turbulent and uncertain due to the rapid pace of technological change ( Iansiti and Euchner, 2018 ; Trabucchi et al. , 2019 ). This is why gathering competitive intelligence (CI) is increasingly relevant for businesses ( Du Plessis and Gulwa, 2016 ). CI is a process that generates actionable information about the firm and its external environment to help firms in making market-related decisions ( De Almeida et al. , 2016 ; Kahaner, 1996 ; Prescott, 1995 ). Its relevance goes beyond developing competitive advantage ( Calof et al. , 2008 ), but rather toward enhancing the sustainability of a business ( Cosway, 2018 ). Companies need to assess current and future competitive landscapes to survive, namely, data, information, knowledge and, mostly, intelligence become crucial resources ( Markovich et al. , 2019 ). Recent advances in digital technologies and big data have increased both internal and external information availability ( Trabucchi and Buganza, 2019 ), which is leading to a “networked and digital economy” ( Subramaniam et al. , 2019 ; Cavallo et al. , 2019a ), extending the competitive arena from firm level to ecosystem [ 1 ] level ( Iansiti and Euchner, 2018 ). This brings both a wide variety of opportunties and threats into managers’ agendas ( Artusi and Bellini, 2020 ). More information should lead to better decisions, but, to make order and select the “quality” information is a critical and not trivial task. Some scholars argue that CI can be used to spot whether industry distruption is about to occur ( Vriens and Søilen, 2014 ). Firms need to develop advanced analytical capabilities ( Itani et al. , 2017 ) and make a better use of CI, now more then ever because of the extended boundaries of competition beyond and cross industries and within ecosystems ( Iansiti and Euchner, 2018 ). Indeed, more and more businesses are investing in CI as a specific function, creating formal structures and processes ( Crayon, 2019 ; Calof, 2014 ; Reinmoeller and Ansari, 2016 ). Despite the growing attention that scholars reserved to CI, critical gaps remain ( Davison, 2001 ; Reinmoeller and Ansari, 2016 ). An ongoing and central debate is discussing whether CI can play a role in strategic planning or at a more tactical level by supporting and driving shorter-time-oriented decisions ( Calof et al. , 2017 ; Arrigo, 2016 ; Calof and Smith, 2010 ). Although extant literature encompasses an extensive body of research on strategic analysis and strategy formulation ( Leiblein and Reuer, 2019 ), the current debate still lacks of research that can provide the basis for integrating CI into the overall strategy of a company ( Badr et al. , 2006 ; Arrigo, 2016 ; Calof et al. , 2017 ).

This study aims at contributing to such current and relevant debate, by investigating whether and how CI relates to the strategy formulation process of firms. Due to its novelty and to the depth of the investigation required to grasp the mechanisms and logics of CI and the strategy formulation process, our research aim requires a qualitative research methodology. Specifically, we conducted a multiple case study based on qualitative interviews and additional data gathered from secondary sources related to four companies located in Brasil to ensure data triangulation.

In this study, we will provide at least two contributions. First, we shed light on how CI practices may inform, support and be integrated in the strategy formulation process. Second, we offer detailed empirical evidence concerning how CI practices are performed and what factors may enhance/limit their effectiveness for companies.

2. Literature review

2.1 defining competitive intelligence.

Companies have virtually the same access to information, but it is the ones that convert such information into actionable intelligence that will end up winning the game ( Fuld, 1995 ). Organizations need systems and processes to gather and analyze reliable , relevant and timely information about competitors and markets that is available in vast amounts ( Trim and Lee, 2008 ). This is where CI comes to aid. Several scholars have investigated CI as business concept ( Prescott and Bhardwaj, 1995 ; Krizan, 1999 ; Miller, 2000 ; Dishman and Calof, 2008 ) and various definitions have been provided (for a selection of the most significant CI definitions see Table A1 in the Appendix ) ( Du Toit, 2013 ). In accordance with Calof et al. (2017) , we report a recent and comprehensive definition of CI provided by Bulger (2016 , p. 63):

[…] the robust integration of insights from ‘intelligence pools’ that are identified across the business environment and in collaboration with other functional areas and disciplines that are synthesized to gain a comprehensive picture of a market in its current state and in its probable future state. The resulting outcome of integrated intelligence efforts is critical decisions influencing and supporting recommendations required to drive and gain a competitive advantage for an organization.

Despite the innumerable interpretations of CI, the concepts of data, information and knowledge are ever-present in its core idea of collecting fragmented data, making sense of it and creating insights to better understand the competitive environment of an organization and to make better strategic decisions. In this perspective, information is collected for a purpose, aimed at specific actions ( Erickson and Rothberg, 2015 ; Bernhardt, 1994 ). CI has been considered both a product (the created intelligence) and a process (set of activities to transform the collected data) ( Bose, 2008 ), whose main objective is to support decision-makers into strategic planning, moving from knowledge to intelligence with some additional level of insight or understanding. Knowledge, information and/or data subjected to analysis and applied to decision-making can be considered intelligence ( Erickson and Rothberg, 2015 ).Following, we develop further on CI practices, contextual factors and from the CI’s origins to the ongoing and open debate linking it to strategy formulation process.

2.2 The competitive intelligence practices

Despite some negligible differences, the main recurrent activities of the CI production process are planning , collection , analysis and dissemination ( Meyer, 1987 ; Bernhardt, 1994 ; Kahaner, 1996 ; Krizan, 1999 ; Miller, 2000 ; Dishman and Calof, 2008 ; Saayman et al. , 2008 ). These activities are often considered as a cycle that starts with intelligence needs and ends with their communication to the original inquirer. According to Dishman and Calof (2008) , there is strong support in the literature for the idea that a formal and systematic CI process has a positive impact on a company’s performance, but empirical studies reveal that several companies deploy informal and short-term-oriented CI practices in place of structured systems ( Prescott and Smith, 1987 ). An effective and efficient intelligence process does not aim at collecting all possible data, but focuses on the issues that are relevant to decision-makers. As a matter of fact, CI concerns identifying actionable information ( Aguilar, 1967 ; Bernhardt, 1994 ; Gilad and Gilad, 1985 ; Gilad, 1989 ; Herring, 1999 ; Porter, 1980 ; Prescott and Smith, 1987 ; Prescott, 1995 ; Trim and Lee, 2008 ). Therefore, the first stage of the CI process should encompass the identification of intelligence requirements ( Meyer, 1987 ; Fuld, 1988 ; Prescott, 1989 ; Herring, 1999 ). Data are then collected from several sources including formal, informal, internal, external, published, unpublished and human sources ( Aguilar, 1967 ; Cox and Good, 1967 ; Daft et al. , 1988 ; Fahey and King, 1977 ). Given the importance of timing, it is necessary to own mining tools (data/text/web) that allow one to rapidly extract the relevant information and provide some analytical capability ( Bose, 2008 ; Cobb, 2003 ; Bose, 2008 ). Following this step, the data analysis stage requires creativity, intuition and insight. Pattern recognition, trend analysis, deductive and inductive reasoning are fundamental to convert information into exploitable intelligence on which strategic decisions can be made ( Bose, 2008 ; Saayman et al. , 2008 ). For this step, Bose (2008) discerned analytical techniques (SWOT analysis, Porter’s Five Competitive Forces, environmental analysis, PEST analysis, etc.) and analysis tools (data/text mining, statistical technics, visualization-based tools). Finally, the output of the CI process should be disseminated in various formats. The solution for accelerating the dissemination of the created intelligence inside and outside the company has been identified in the great enabler tool of IT.

2.3 The competitive intelligence contextual factors

The majority of the literature focuses on the technical aspects of the CI process and on the technologies available to improve it. However, Prescott and Miller (2002) define the creation and use of intelligence as a social process , underling that social aspects such as organizational and individual aspects, cannot be overlooked. As a consequence of this, several circumstantial and social factors have been explored in this research paper and described as contextual factors in the following.

With varying levels of intent, a number of authors have discussed the infrastructure and the organizational and behavioral factors influencing the CI process ( Ghoshal and Westney, 1991 ; Gibbons and Prescott, 1996 ; Maltz and Kohli, 1996 ; Prescott, 2001 ; Rouach and Santi, 2001 ; Prescott and Miller, 2002 ; Jaworski et al. , 2002 ; Badr et al. , 2006 ; Dishman and Calof, 2008 ; Choo et al. , 2008 ; Saayman et al. , 2008 ; Garcia-Alsina et al. , 2013 ). The main contextual aspects in the literature can be categorized as individual, organizational and industry environment factors.

Among the individual factors, information consciousness represents the personal sense of responsibility for environmental scanning and the communication pattern developed by the individual ( Correia and Wilson, 2001 ). Rouach and Santi (2001) identified five types of managerial attitudes toward CI, namely, warrior, active, reactive, sleepers. At the individual level, another relevant aspect is the exposure to information – the level of opportunities of contact with well-informed people and information-rich contexts – for example, the frequency, the variety and the amplitude of contact networks ( Correia and Wilson, 2001 ; Prescott, 2001 ; Garcia-Alsina et al. , 2013 ). Outwardness – the openness of the organization to the external environment – and information climate – set of conditions required to access and use the information – are instead the main organizational factors ( Correia and Wilson, 2001 ; Garcia-Alsina et al. , 2013 ), together with firm culture, management style and awareness for CI capabilities ( Prescott, 2001 ; Saayman et al. , 2008 ; Wright et al. , 2002 ; Trim and Lee, 2008 ).

Ultimately, it is generally accepted that the structure and decision-making in an organization is influenced by environmental complexity and volatility ( Kourteli, 2005 ). According to Garcia-Alsina et al. (2013) , the industry environment encompasses two relevant factors, namely, uncertainty and external pressure . Ultimately, as pointed out by Blandin and Brown (1977) , managers in environments characterized by rapidly changing constraints, contingencies and opportunities clearly adopt more of an external orientation of information than their counterparts in relatively certain environments.

2.4 From origins to an open and ongoing debate

Environmental scanning : the process that seeks information about events and relationships in a company’s outside environment to assist top management in its task of charting the company’s future course of action ( Aguilar, 1967 ; Fahey and King, 1977 ; Daft et al. , 1988 ).

Competitor analysis : system to develop the profile of the nature and success of the likely strategy changes each competitor might make, each competitor’s probable response to the range of feasible strategic moves other firms could initiate and each competitor’s probable reaction to the array of industry changes and broader environmental shifts that might occur ( Porter, 1980 ).

Corporate intelligence : a function serving as an information aid to the chief executive officer in the execution of his broad responsibilities ( Eells and Nehemkis, 1984 ).

Business intelligence (BI) : process of five tasks from data collection to data dissemination to convert raw data about the environment into a form that decision-makers can use it to make important strategic decisions ( Pearce, 1976 ; Gilad and Gilad, 1986 ).

Strategic intelligence : systems that can aid managers in learning about the relevant environments their organization interrelates to and in raising awareness of the threats and opportunities that are posed to them ( Montgomery and Weinberg, 1979 ).

Market intelligence (MI) ( Maltz and Kohli, 1996 ).

Entering the 2000s because of the much greater complexity ( Magistretti et al. , 2020 ) of the business environment brought by the digital revolution ( Sanasi et al. , 2020 ), CI practices have diffused dramatically ( Green, 1998 ; Javers, 2010 ), attracting large investments leading companies to structure effective and formal CI processes, systems and tools ( Reinmoeller and Ansari, 2016 ). In today’s modern digitalized world, the web and digital information sources are increasing dramatically the amount of data potentially feeding every decision-making process ( Markovich et al. , 2019 ; Du Toit, 2015 ), almost up to the point of generating an information overload ( Saxena and Lamest, 2018 ). As a result, “quality” information and data are becoming much harder to find and a central issue for firms in the modern society. Moreover, the concept of competition is less bounded than in the past, moving beyond industries and toward ecosystems ( Iansiti and Euchner, 2018 ). In a networked economy, ecosystems develop a small number of keystone organizations ( Moore, 1993 ) having several more business connections than any other organization (e.g. Amazon, Apple, Google). These organizations shape much of the effectiveness of trade across a number of different industries ( Iansiti and Euchner, 2018 ), while still leaving several business opportunities to innovative niche players to reach considerable scale in a short time by means of their platform infrastructure ( Trabucchi et al. , 2018 ). This context makes the role of the CI process – also known as the “intelligence cycle,” including planning, collection, analysis and communication ( Nasri, 2011 ) – even more critical and strategic for organizations competing in an extended and interconnected competitive arena. As a result, across the past two decades, CI passed through different stages of sophistication, from informal to more formal structures, balancing between intelligence-oriented and strategic-tactical decisions, type and extent of analysis conducted on the data, degree of top management attention and linking of CI into the decision-making process ( Prescott, 1995 ). From simple competitive data gathering – focused on data acquisition, CI has progressed to the point that its strategic relevance is accentuated. Currently CI is intended as a core capability linked to the learning process of the company and to its ability to transform data into intelligence ( Itani et al. , 2017 ). John Prescott (1995) had already argued that the strategic relevance of CI goes beyond the traditional environmental scanning and market research by focusing on all aspects of the firm’s environment (i.e. competitive, technological, social, political, economic and ecological) and at various levels of the firm’s ecosystem (i.e. remote, industry, operating); whereas Herring (1992) had been even more explicit linking CI to strategy formulation process ( Figure 1 ), including all the fundamental aspects to be considered in the strategic planning process to ensure that strategic objectives are developed within a realistic perspective, considering both the external and internal competitive environment.

Describing the current competitive environment and predicting its future ( Porter, 1980 ).

Identifying and compensating for exposed weaknesses – encompassing the internal analysis of Barney (1991) .

Challenging the strategy underlying assumptions – considering patterns influenced by external circumstances and the emergent strategy idea of Mintzberg and Waters (1985) .

Using intelligence to implement and adjust strategy to the changing competitive environment – creating contingency plans as suggested by Armstrong (1982) for the alternative strategies’ generation.

Monitoring the strategy viability, determining when the strategy is no longer sustainable, i.e. assisting the controlling stage – learning from what went wrong as proposed by Lorange (1980) .

Most fundamentally, CI is a multidisciplinary practice that can deeply contribute to the various stages of the company’s strategic formulation process and, thus, in its capacity to gain competitive advantage ( Herring, 1992 ).

Despite the increased awareness over the strategic relevance of CI and few early valuable extant contributions ( Herring, 1992 ; Bose, 2008 ), the state-of-the-art research yet partially fails to capture the positioning of CI in the overall strategy of companies ( Arrigo, 2016 ; Calof et al. , 2017 ) and within the strategy formulation process ( Badr et al. , 2006 ). Finally, the urgency and relevance toward linking and shedding light on CI and the strategic formulation process becomes an even more urgent issue in a networked and digital economy ( Iansiti and Euchner, 2018 ).

3. Methodology

3.1 research design.

Given the early stage of development of research linking CI and strategy formulation process, adopting a qualitative approach in our study was deemed to be necessary ( Gartner and Birley, 2002 ). In particular, we choose a multiple case methodology for three main reasons. First, multiple case studies as empirical inquiries are suitable to “investigate a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used” ( Yin, 1984 , p. 23). Second, a case study allowed to better tackle the objective of this study, which is to deepen the current knowledge about an ill-defined problem, aiming to improve its understanding, suggest hypotheses and questions or develop a theory ( Mattar, 1996 ; Meredith, 1998 ). Third, a multiple case study allows to contrast and compare alternative manifestations of the phenomenon under scrutiny within the theoretical sample, thus highlighting similarities, differences, common patterns or polar cases ( Meredith, 1998 ; Eisenhardt and Graebner, 2007 ).

To address our research objectives, we performed a multiple case study on four firms that adopted CI through the deployment of a dedicated business unit and have the four companies were selected through purposive sampling, which allows the researchers to select information-rich cases displaying tight connections with the research objectives ( Bernard, 2002 ; Patton, 2002 ), to ensure informants are proficient and well-informed with the phenomenon of interest ( Cresswell and Plano Clark, 2011 ; Etikan et al. , 2016 ). Our rationale for selecting the cases was that they formally adopted CI practices. In line with the tenets of Maximum Variations Sampling ( Etikan et al. , 2016 ), we attempted to reach sample heterogeneity to study our subject from different angles, to achieve greater understanding as follows, therefore, our cases displayed differences in industry, size and distance to headquarted.

The selected cases are private companies located in Brazil, operating in three different industries, namely, banking, healthcare and commerce marketing. Specifically, three cases refer to market leaders – in terms of profit per year – in their respective industry of reference. A fourth case refers to a newcomer in the baking industry. Moreover, the cases selected differ in headquarters locations (Brazilian and non-Brazilian) to shed light on the implications of operating with local and global headquarters. This choice was made to increase the understanding of the implications of operating in different business environments and to gain insight from the heterogeneity at various degrees; moreover, this choice makes for findings that are more nuanced and lets contrasting evidences and polar conditions emerge. The unit of analysis of all the four cases was the CI business unit, often identified with different labels such as marketing intelligence (MI), customer relationship management (CRM), business intelligence (BI). To ensure anonymity and encourage candor, company and informant names will not be disclosed throughout the paper.

3.2 Data collection

Data were collected both from primary information sources – in the form of face-to-face semi-structured interviews – and other secondary sources (e.g. company websites, reports, press-news). This choice was made to increase the consistency and reliability of the multiple case study and the quality of the data. Multiple data collection methods indeed ensure data triangulation and provide stronger substantiation of the main constructs and results ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ).

As primary data, a total of 28 interviews were conducted between September 2018 and March 2019. The interviews comprise six semi-structured interviews for each company involving top executives, CI Business Unit Directors and CI Analysts, so to capture different perceptions at diverse levels of seniority and to have a more complete understanding of the internal dynamics, spanning from operational to strategic. Moreover, four additional follow-up interviews (i.e. one for each company) were conducted to seek clarification on specific findings emerged in the previous interviews.

The semi-structured interviews were divided into distinct sections. The first section related to the understanding of the perception of the competitive environment, the effort it required and the adopted strategy to compete (i.e. “How does the company compete in the market?” “Which kind of data do you analyze to pursue this strategy?”); the second part explored the organization of the CI practices inside the firm (i.e. “Do you use any CI practices?” “How do you execute CI practices?”) and, ultimately, the authors investigated to what extent CI is used in strategy formulation (i.e. “To what extent do you use CI in your Strategy formulation?”).

3.3 Data analysis

industry information that helped to describe the competitive panorama;

generic strategy and positioning of the company;

organization and structure of the CI practices; and

contribution of CI to the company’s strategy definition.

This process helped to acquire rich familiarity with each case and, in turn, accelerated the cross-case comparison ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ).The comparison between the cases was, indeed, executed so to describe patterns, highlight the relevant aspects discovered through the research process and address the original research objectives. Specifically, we selected the dimensions stemming from the within-case analysis and then looked for similarities and differences between the different cases through a longitudinal analysis.

3.4 Case description

3.4.1 case a..

The analyzed company is a private center operating in the healthcare segment of diagnostic intelligence and imaging (e.g. magnetic resonance, computed tomography, ultrasound, x-rays), which also offers an additional clinical analysis service (e.g. blood count, cholesterol, triglycerides). It is one of the largest players in its sector, scaling organically and by acquiring regional clinics; today it has a strong reach throughout Brazil, because of its multiple service centers and more than 5,000 employees. It merits analysis because of its pioneering in process optimization and innovation in the complex Brazilian healthcare market. The industry is affected by two specific factors, namely, the increasing technology sophistication that requires high investments, a larger elderly population and the increased longevity of the Brazilian people. Specifically, in Brazil, just 25% of the population of 208.000 million has access to health insurance. This simple piece of data, together with the documented poor public health system highlights the country’s huge deficit in providing medical care for its people. For this reason, over the past few years, the healthcare sector has seen the entrance of many new competitors offering a quasi-universal access to the public health system, but with the quality and timeliness of the private health market.

3.4.2 Case B.

The firm is a commerce marketing company that offers online retailers the ability to serve personalized advertisements to potential consumers who have previously expressed interest in acquiring one of their products advertised on a publisher website (often a third-party advertiser). In this research paper, the Brazilian subsidiary of the global company is analyzed. The company has been analyzed because of the fast-changing competitive environment in which it operates and because of the crucial importance of real-time data for running their core business. As in all industries driven by disruptive technologies, this sector changes rapidly and is severely influenced by the constant changes of the whole advertising market (e.g. by the evolution in the publisher sector). Moreover, this sector moves concurrently with the rapid variations in customer behavior, which have recently included the transition toward mobile activity , the increased involvement on social media with a relative jump in purchases directly from the social platforms, the concurrent use of multiple devices or the more recent issue of ad blocking .

3.4.3 Case C.

This case refers to one of the major private Brazilian banks, a financial institution generating more than US$5bn of profit and with more than 90 million employees – a leader in its market and one of the largest companies in the world. The company has been chosen because of the peculiarity of the Brazilian banking sector, which is highly concentrated and relatively stable, as following described.

Three private-sector leaders and three public ones – Banco do Brasil, Caixa Económica Federal and BNDES – account for 82% of banking assets and 86% of loans. This just partially explains the high profitability and high interest rates of the Brazilian banks. The leaders of the sector justify the spreads with the high risk of default and the limitation of some regulations such as a ban on overdraft. Yet, the sector remains a peculiar case. More, the interviews revealed that the main players are aware of this status. The competitive landscape is described as polarized and dominated by the mentioned major banks.

According to the interviewed bank, the more recent Fintech trends using digital technology and lean structures are marginally relevant, even strong players like the Brazilian Nubank (startup offering 100% digital credit accounts) just affect small clients of the biggest banks, while many other startups have been effortlessly acquired.

3.4.4 Case D.

The chosen Brazilian digital bank offers financial services to both individuals and businesses. It is born recently with a particular focus on agribusiness and it grew under a digitally oriented mission. The bank operates in the same previously described competitive environment dominated by the biggest private and public banks. However, according to its positioning, the company identifies its direct competitors as the small and medium financial institutions and as the FinTech startups that offer digital financial services and credit accounts without setup fees and with lower interest rates such as the mentioned Nubank . For this reason, the environment, that is perceived as stable by the interviewed incumbent, appears highly dynamic, fast-changing and characterized by disruptive digital technologies by this newer financial institution.

4.1 Within-case findings

In this section, we will first discuss each case separately with the relative within-case findings. Following, the cross-case analysis will provide the groundwork for the formulation of original propositions, contributing to both the theoretical and practical grounds.

In Case A , the Strategic Planning area has two staff members dedicated full time to what they call MI. Only one year and half earlier there was only a single employee dedicated to MI part-time. During one of the interviews, the company declared that they realized that creating a solid network with suppliers and customers is fundamental in the dynamic competitive environment they operate. Taking from the very words of the Chief Marketing Officer:

[…] having an innovative product and keep continuously innovating may not be sufficient, we need to build a trusted network, and consider issues of our suppliers and customers just as our main ones.

Indeed, the analysts operating in the MI unit monitor the trends of the market, explore new ways to grow and explore needs and issues of their network of suppliers as well as customers. They interface mainly with the strategic planning and with the commercial business unit, analyzing both external and internal data. However, as the MI Director stressed the importance of exposing employees working on CI to information from all possible sources (“my analysts have to be ready to capture any kind of information from whatever source and they are doing it actually”).

Regarding the external environment, their focus is on macroeconomic aspects such as inflation estimation or demographic trends and on industry specific issues such as spotting growing insurance companies, projecting the health insurance beneficiaries by the end of the year, developing benchmarking analysis and monitoring their competitors’ performance with data available on public platforms. Thus, the MI analysts support managers to identify opportunities and threats in the market, providing detailed “big pictures” of the sector environment. On the other hand, the internal analysis copes with the tactical questions of the Commercial team that monitors pricing issues and controls competitors’ price strategies.

At the operational level, the daily activities are traced. There is a comprehensive broadcast of the real time operational data, which are displayed in the common work area on digital dashboards. All these activities are finally tracked, integrated and coordinated though all kinds of IT tool available we have to avoid repeating them among the various other business units.

The company has worked, as its origins to develop an integrated infrastructure driven by just four information systems, namely, Enterprise Resource Planning, CRM, a software for imaging used by the technicians and a call center platform. As matter of fact, this system simplified the complexity of running a dispersed business across the country by avoiding adaptation costs and redundant operating costs.

The firm shows a strong analytical and data driven culture, developed in a systematized infrastructure, which supports decisions at each strategic level. This turns out to be a strong differential for the company’s strategy and competitiveness.

In Case B , the data analytics (DA) unit, made of two full-time analysts, is under the direction of the operations department; yet, their main interface is the commercial area. As stressed by the DA Director, IT tools are central in their activity: “clearly, our operations may be efficient or not mainly depending on how good we are with using IT tools”. The DA unit routine consists of collecting and analyzing the internal data of their retailers’ consumers, i.e. the user data constitutes the main data asset of the company and the unique driver to make decisions at this level. This data may be transactions, events, generated sale volume or the related margin due to the retargeting company service. This data is mainly used to develop reports to help the Commercial team to set the margin goals of the next quarter. Moreover, this unit satisfies occasional on demand clients’ requests for customized market analysis, such us studying the behaviors of their retailers’ consumers.

The DA unit works on projects executing more comprehensive and massive market analysis such as evaluating the trends of Black Friday , specifically requested by the Marketing area. As a matter of fact, the analyzed user data are under the company’s ownership and directly available on the client’s platform, therefore, the interviewed did not express difficulties related to data acquisition. The main problems are considered urgent and unexpected requests , according to the manager of the unit and technical aspects of the BI tools for the analyst.

According to an analyst of the DA unit, web and social networks are leading them to gather large amounts of data and, thus, CI practices and activities necessarily increase to cope with continuous change characterizing their business (“our business is really characterized by continuous change, the web and digital technologies are both the problem and the solution to the caos of our industry”).

As declared by the interviewees, the function copes mainly with supporting the tactical decisions of the commercial team, focusing on short and middle term issues. The unit assists in the launch of new products and/or functionalities, forecasting sales and profitability but also monitors the product/functionality performance while it is on the market; ultimately, they offer support in the enhancement of the customer relationship. Therefore, the unit contributes to the tactical strategy formulation at the local level by providing intelligence and suggestions to the commercial area’s senior managers, but primarily focuses on strategy implementation and monitoring by providing feedback about the strategy performance in the market.

Ultimately, the manager highlights that there is essentially no dialogue with headquarters, which dictates the strategic objectives with a total top-down approach, leaving the company often vulnerable to existing local competitors’ moves and new entrants.

In Case C , the analyzed BI unit, made of three analysts (one full-time and two part-time), uses a vast amount of data, mainly coming from the bank clients, who are a highly the most valuable data asset for the institution. Activities and practices managed by the BI unit are increasing, according to the Director because of the dynamism of the market: “our clients change much faster their habits and expectations then in the past. They look at the customer experience they have also from other ‘somehow’ distant business such as amazon delivery service and they expect same also in our contest. As results, we need to enlarge the external environment we analyzed compared to the past and more activities and practices are needed.” The Director also highlighted the relevance of IT tools to better operate their function. However, other sources of data have been mentioned by the interviewed such as those from external consulting companies, from the market and from public records and from the Central Bank. Using this data, the analysts develop monthly reports about production follow-ups (e.g. balances, cash flows), managers’ performance, new account openings and financial results of agencies. The gaps are mainly evaluated in relation to the planned budget for the year (e.g. opened accounts below expectations, costs above expectations). Moreover, they identify their various clients’ profiles and monitor the loss of clients to their competitors, thereby investigating the cause and supporting the Commercial area to define the competition strategy to defeat.

According to the interviewed, 60% to 70% of the analysts’ time is dedicated to the production of the reports accompanying the bank products and the clients, while the rest of the time they satisfy on demand requests through a more project-based approach. In this regard, according to a BI analyst interviewed, “producing properly our report requires a great sense of responsibility and proactivity, you can just wait information coming, we need to be open to all kinds of external input”.

The focus is at the tactical level as follows: around 80% of the requests and their relative outputs, have impacts in the short-medium run. According to the interviewed, in just 5% of the cases they look for new long-term opportunities. There are specific areas responsible for more strategic issues (including areas of economic forecasting, for example), but the interviewed informants did not know how their area relate to this type of activity. Their activities are wholly uncoordinated and, as a consequence, many times they experience overlapping efforts. Furthermore, this area’s contribution is substantially at the implementation and controlling levels of the strategic formulation process. The monitored data are used as an early warning system to assess success or failure of the segment strategy and the analysts provide feedback about the executed strategy and enable any adjustments to be made. This perspective is confirmed by the fact that the main activities are developing monthly reports to accompany the products and providing suggestions to improve the bank’s services.

In the last Case D , the analyzed CRM unit, made of two part-time employees, focuses on acquiring new clients through social networks and partnerships with other firms that own personal data; including as well, a part related to the retention of these clients offering customized products and services for each of them. As most of the newcomer companies, also C-level some time take part to CRM activities. The CRM unit collects and uses users’ data to increase their pool of clients and to better serve them. According to the interviewed manager of the area, all of the other departments draw on this area’s knowledge to align their strategy with reality, and therefore, make informed, fact-based decisions. They declare themselves as very proactive in client acquisition campaigns. In 50% of the cases, they are able to spot new opportunities and make suggestions for the other departments, in the other cases they are demanded to execute analysis, also related to likely financial regulatory issues before launching new products that they make available on the market.

According to the CRM Director, the unit supports the executives who come up with ideas,” providing intelligence, which help the top managers to better understand the client, the competitive environment and the financial regulatory environment. The Chief Executive Officer, in regard to this matter stated that the CRM Director and their team had supported him “in pivoting the business model and helped to completely change the market positioning.” In this regard, CRM analysts also seem to be aware of the relevance of their role and the need to be exposed to information, namely, “our job is relevant to the company, we know it and we need to be proactive, just like journalist to be in the right place in right moment and collect intelligence.” The objectives are defined at the top level, but they are based on the analyzes provided by the CRM department. Every decision is based on data , the interviewee declared. However, the CRM department does not participate in the strategy definition directly nor actively; they mainly support decision-making via on-demand requests. According to the Founder and CEO – as they are a newcomer banking company – our competitive environment is turbulent and needs a constant and strategic monitoring. To this regard, the CEO underlines the need to be an open company, not only in looking for external collaborations but also in terms of overall attitude to welcome all possible external inputs to make sure we do not loose our closeness to customer needs.

Summing up what emerged from the interviews, CI alternatives do not focus just on the tactical level, even if client acquisition is a great part of their daily activities. They have a strategic road map ever more aligned with the different data needs at the various strategic levels and they also developed a study to understand the gaps and data requirements for each area. In Table 1 , the main characteristics of each case have been summarized. Following, the cross-case analysis and the critical findings are presented and discussed.

5. Discussion

5.1 discussion of cross-case findings: a unified framework for competitive intelligence.

A cross-case comparison was performed to complement the within-case analysis and underline the main similarities and differences between the four cases in search for any patterns followed by the companies under investigation in their CI activities. Following Eisenhardt (1989) and in line with our research objectives, the cross-case analysis was conducted to capture the actual involvement and efforts of companies (operating in different settings) in CI activities and practices and, most fundamentally their relationship with the strategy formulation process.

Specifically, the cross-case analysis allowed to formulate and support a set of propositions based on the insights emerged from our empirical analysis and discussed considering previous relevant literature.

The evermore global, networked and turbulent competitive environment requires the development of CI practices.

Findings suggest that the heterogeneous nature of our sample is reflected also in the way they actually use CI in a strategy formulation process. While there is agreement about the strategic relevance of CI in a dynamic and turbulent world, CI units seem to focus on customer value analysis, understanding their own clients’ needs in specific markets and/or segments, leaving less attention in considering the whole and longer term “picture” (i.e. strategy) – as witnessed by statements such as “support the commercial department;” “our focus is on improving customer offer and acquiring new customers,” “we support promotion campaigns.” Companies seem to leverage on CI practices more for tactical and operational issues – as witnessed by statements such as, namely, “we have medium-term focus;” “just less than 5% of the time I deal with strategic issues,” “I focus on everyday problems.” This is consistent with Calof et al. (2017) , whose study revealed that just 12% of CI projects looked forward more than five years.

CI can have a role at every step of the Strategic Formulation Process (from setting strategic objectives to strategy monitoring) and at the various strategic levels – strategic, tactical and operational.

The higher the turbulence and uncertainty perceived by companies, the more strategic will be the use of CI.

Findings revealed that there are no common standardized processes nor procedures to execute CI practices, yet the main activities of collection, analysis and dissemination have been detected in all the cases under investigation.

No matter the level of sophistication of the CI practices, these include, planning, data collection, analysis and dissemination.

The cross-case analysis also showed a pattern, that is common to all companies, embodied by the strong importance of the IT infrastructure as an enabler for the collection, analysis and dissemination phases of the CI process, confirming to what has been discussed by Bose (2008 , p. 525):

[…] software technology can help the CI professionals with managing various CI projects – especially with collecting and filtering through information, analysis, continuous monitoring of database sources, and rapid distribution of CI results with the use of graphical tools.

Individual and organizational contextual factors influence how CI practices are executed.

To summarize, findings provide the bases for theorizing about how CI practices are executed. More importantly, in line with our main research objective, we shad light over the relationship between CI and the strategy formulation process. According to Badr et al. (2006) , although there is an extensive body of literature on strategic analysis and strategy formulation, the literature lacks a suitable framework that can provide the basis for integrating CI into the strategic formulation process and all its phases. Our research and related findings help to cope with such missing in literature. Our work shows, indeed, how CI may play a role at every stage of the strategy formulation process, as presented in the following unified framework, in Figure 2 .

6. Conclusions

This study provides contributions to the strategic management field, by shedding light on the role of CI in a company’s strategy. More specifically, we direct researchers and managers attention on the relationship between CI and the strategy formulation process, through an extensive literature review and a multiple case study.

This study is not free of limitations. First, the small sample size could limit the generalization and relevance of our findings; and second, the observer bias typical of qualitative studies, which could lead to the loss of valuable information and insight and is dependent on several factors – for example, the informants’ poor understanding of the researchers’ questions and their inaccurate recollection of events. However, concerning these limitations, we started from the assumption that an under-investigated relationship as CI and the strategy formulation process necessarily needed a deep investigation that would be best performed through qualitative investigation of a small sample of representative cases selected through purposive sampling. Moreover, our reliance on a well-established method, which we applied throughout the data collection and analysis stages, has possibly helped to enhance the soundness of our qualitative exploration into how CI and the strategy formulation process unfold. In light of these considerations, future studies should try to replicate our research in different – and possibly broader – theoretical or even statistical samples.

Despite its limitations, this study contributes to both theory and practice in multiple ways. First, we contribute to the CI debate by exploring its relationship with the overall strategy of a company, as few studies had done before ( Badr et al. , 2006 ; Arrigo, 2016 ; Calof et al. , 2017 ). In this regard, we also propose a unified framework that connects CI and the strategy formulation process of a company, still missing in previous research in strategy ( Badr et al. , 2006 ). Second, we were able to highlight the increasing relevance that CI practices will gain for companies in a networked and digital world ( Subramaniam et al. , 2019 ). This point provides a relevant addition to the extant scholarly debate, considering the limitation of current literature in considering CI in connection with recent developments within a much wider competitive arena ( Iansiti and Euchner, 2018 ). Third, our findings also confirm and support previous and valuable studies arguing that no major changes regard the CI actual process known as “intelligence cycle” ( Nasri, 2011 ), while no common standard, formal structures and procedures emerge ( Calof et al. , 2017 ). Furthermore, we have evidence of the facilitating or inhibiting role played by organizational and individual contextual factors over the effectiveness of CI practices ( Correia and Wilson, 2001 ; Prescott, 2001 ; Garcia-Alsina et al. , 2013 ). Finally, we believe that the contributions and related findings emerged in this study, as well as the framework provided, may be relevant for practice – as, for instance, in guiding top managers while setting up a dedicated CI function, defining its role, its practices and the dedicated staff across the whole strategy formulation process.

Strategy formulation process – based on Armstrong (1982)

A unified framework for CI and strategic formulation process

Summary of the case studies. Author ’ s elaboration

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Acknowledgements

The authors like to thank the Editors and anonymous Reviewers, who helped significantly enhancing the study’s contributions as a result of the revision process. Any errors remain our own.

Corresponding author

About the authors.

Angelo Cavallo, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Politecnico di Milano, Italy. His main research areas include strategic management and entrepreneurship. He has been mainly involved in analyzing business models of digital startups and modeling dynamic and complex systems such as the entrepreneurial ecosystem. He is author of journal articles (appearing in outlets such as Journal of Business Research, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, the International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal ), book chapters and conference proceedings.

Silvia Sanasi is a PhD Candidate in strategic management, innovation and entrepreneurship at the School of Management of Politecnico di Milano, where she also collaborates as a researcher in the Hi-Tech Startups and Startup Intelligence Observatories. Her research interests encompass experimentation in business model design, innovation, validation and scaling, as well as the strategic implications of innovation management and digital platforms.

Antonio Ghezzi, PhD is an Associate Professor of Strategy and Entrepreneurship at the Department of Management, Economics and Industrial Engineering – Politecnico di Milano. His main research field is Strategy, Entrepreneurship and Digital Transformation, with a focus on startups’ business model design, innovation and validation. He is author of more than 100 refereed journal articles (appearing in outlets such as , International Journal of Management Reviews, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Journal of Business Research and R&D Management ), books, book chapters and conference proceedings.

Andrea Rangone is Full Professor of Strategy and Marketing and Digital Business Innovation at Politecnico di Milano. He is co-founder of Osservatori Digital Innovation, a leading Research Center on business impact of digital technologies at Politecnico di Milano and several digital startups. His main research areas include Digital Transformation and Strategic Management. He authored more than 100 national and international publications published in leading international journals such as Small Business Economics, Journal of Product and Innovation Management, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Technological Forecasting and Social Change.

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Artificial Intelligence in HCI: 5th International Conference, AI-HCI 2024, Held as Part of the 26th HCI International Conference, HCII 2024, Washington, DC, USA, June 29–July 4, 2024, Proceedings, Part II

Trust is essential for successful human-machine interaction. It is particularly important for conversational artificial intelligence (AI) systems in the service sector of the online world. This paper focuses on trust-building factors in conversational AI systems and explores strategies to strengthen trust. First, an overview of trust, AI, conversational AI systems, and related literature is provided before discussing related literature on the concept of trust and factors influencing user trust in human-computer interactions. Through a structured literature review, a concept matrix of several trust factors from the existing literature is presented. The findings highlight trust-building factors such as controllability, adaptability, transparency, intelligence, intimacy, empathy, engagement, anthropomorphism, security, brand perception, organizational trust, risk perception, personality traits, and expertise. Each factor has its importance and limitations in building user trust. For example, transparency enables a better understanding of users, but complex AI systems cannot be fully transparent, which leads to mistrust. Best practices from different domains highlight context-specific approaches that are essential for building trust in conversational AI systems. In addition, best practices, such as keeping control over the decision-making process and careful handling of sensitive data, were offered. The study highlights the importance of user trust in functionality, reliability, and security for the successful development and deployment of this technologies. Understanding user concerns and overcoming these barriers will lead the way for further development and innovation in this area.

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ChatGPT and Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education: Literature Review Powered by Artificial Intelligence

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This study summarizes pertinent, published studies, research papers, articles, and experiments in order to present an analysis of the current state of artificial intelligence, or AI, in higher education. In order to guarantee that only current and relevant data is taken into account and that the research is relevant to both AI and higher education, the study develops a precise set of guidelines along with selection criteria. Publication status, publication date, study language, and field-specific relevance are among the selection criteria. Several AIs are used in the study: ChatGPT is used for brainstorming and keyword research, Consensus AI is used to identify relevant papers based on the keywords, and ChatPDF is used to extract data from the studies. This study summarizes and highlights key findings on various applications of AI in higher education, such as personalized education, adaptive learning platforms, and intelligent learning assistants, together with intelligent assessment and feedback. Additionally, it delves into topics that are closely related to academic research and publishing, like automated manuscript writing and summarization, data analysis, data interpretation, and data visualization.

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Čep, A., Bernik, A. (2024). ChatGPT and Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education: Literature Review Powered by Artificial Intelligence. In: Arai, K. (eds) Intelligent Computing. SAI 2024. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol 1018. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-62269-4_17

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Mpho L. Maluleka Graduate School of Business and Leadership, College of Law and Management Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa Bibi Z. Chummun Graduate School of Business and Leadership, College of Law and Management Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa Maluleka, M.L. & Chummun, B.Z., 2023, ‘Competitive intelligence and strategy implementation: Critical examination of present literature review’, 25(1), a1610. 06 Sept. 2022; 29 May 2023; 07 Sept. 2023 © 2023. The Author(s). Licensee: AOSIS. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Competitive intelligence (CI) involves recognising that intelligence is the basis of firms engaging in strategic activities in a competitive marketplace. Numerous studies have demonstrated the benefits of CI in strategic planning processes, but the impact of CI on strategy execution has received less academic attention. This study aims to critically examine the current state of the CI and the strategy implementation literature. It also identifies gaps and limitations in the existing literature. This study employed systematic literature with the selection criterion to identify 33 publications published between 2008 and 2022. Thematic content analysis provided a range of analytic options. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, and Google Scholar databases were used to locate peer-reviewed journal articles. The publications were grouped by journal names, year of publication, and article count. The study found that CI played a vital role in developing company strategies and practices. Our study also showed that a plethora of peer-reviewed academic articles on CI were published in developed countries such as North America and Europe. Only a few CI-related studies have been published in developing countries. Most authors have not examined how CI leads to strategy implementation, even though CI research has gained traction internationally over the years. Competitive intelligence was not found to have a relationship with implementing, evaluating, and monitoring strategies pointing out gaps in the literature and suggesting future research. This study examines the current state of the literature on CI and strategy implementation, and identifies gaps in the existing literature. Furthermore, the study contributes to academic knowledge by emphasising the significance of a well-defined and structured CI process in achieving strategy implementation outcomes. competition; competitive intelligence; CI; information; strategy; SI. With markets ever becoming more turbulent and uncertain, advances in big data and digital technologies have increased the abundance of information to exploit, make strategic decisions, and survive in a competitive business environment (Trabucchi & Buganza ). This is why gathering intelligence from big data requires a competitive intelligence (CI) system that creates knowledge and value for organisations to make strategic decisions and implement those strategies on time to sustain a competitive advantage. Thus, making strategic and tactical decisions requires the use of CI. Gilad ( ) described how CI helps organisations adapt to changing market conditions and gather intelligent information. In contrast, strategy ties together the external environment of an organisation with its internal dynamics. However, in the field of strategy, most research has failed to recognise that the strategy’s implementation stage is crucial. Instead, most research focused on earlier stages of the strategic management process, such as analysis and formulation (Okumus & Roper :21). The purpose of CI is to forecast market trends and innovate with the help of strategic information (Foley & Guillemette ). Therefore, CI adds more value for organisations since it outperforms business development, market research, and strategic planning (Tahmasebifard & Wright ). Competitive intelligence is used to formulate and implement corporate strategy and support sales and operations in product development and risk management (McGonagle :57). Competitive intelligence is a strategic tool for organisations, and it is typically viewed from multiple perspectives, such as process, context, and dimensions (Amiri et al. ; Salguero et al. ). Therefore, this study examines CI literature from the perspectives of Strategic Intelligence (SI) and strategy implementation, which are more relevant to organisations. Academic articles have demonstrated that CI is critical for collecting and disseminating information formulating business strategies, and quantifying or qualifying strategic choices (Amiri et al. ; Bartes ; Calof & Wright ; Maritz & Du Toit ; Sewdass & Du Toit ). Although the existing literature provides insights about CI drivers and their role in strategic management processes, little is known about whether CI activities’ outcomes collectively impact strategy implementation. There is a research gap in the subject field, and more research is needed in the area. In this context, broadening the CI literature and its practical outcomes for strategy implementation is beneficial. This led to the authors investigating the overarching research questions: To answer the study’s research questions, the authors conducted a systematic literature review. The purpose of this study is to identify and critically evaluate gaps and limitations in the existing CI and strategy implementation literature. In addition, the paper provides recommendations for future research that will enhance the authors’ understanding of CI’s relationship with strategy implementation. This article begins by reviewing mainstream literature on CI and strategy implementation. Following this, the authors explain their methodological choices in the systematic literature review. Finally, the authors conclude their study with an assessment of limitations and recommendations for future research. This study employed a systematic literature review. Given the scope of published work on the issue, the authors accomplished this objective by adhering to systematic planning, meticulous execution, and comprehensive dissemination of the synthesised findings as outlined by Tranfield, Denyer and Smart ( ). Furthermore, this method is appropriate because it ensures validity by providing a comprehensive view of existing knowledge through step-by-step protocols (Denyer & Tranfield ). The current study’s authors determined that a systematic literature review was the most appropriate research strategy for the above reasons. The authors developed exclusion and inclusion criteria based on topic coverage, year of publication, search words, and article type. The researchers selected multiple reliable sources of scientific information to achieve more favourable study coverage. Due to the restricted access to the databases, the authors searched Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, and Google Scholar for relevant texts. They retrieved peer-reviewed journal articles that included ‘CI and strategy implementation’ or ‘strategic intelligence (SI) and strategy execution’ in their titles, abstracts, subjects, or keywords. In addition, the authors only counted articles found in multiple databases once. Their criteria excluded articles that were not directly related to CI, SI and strategy implementation, and they only considered articles published in academic journals. The original study pool consisted of 800 publications. The authors examined the abstracts of the publications to find publications that investigated organisational elements that influenced CI, SI, and strategy implementation. After applying the selection criterion, the authors identified 33 out of 800 relevant publications published in academic journals between 2008 and 2022. In addition, publications were categorised under journal names, titles, publication year, and article count. To assure the quality and dependability of the data, each co-author examined each article independently and codified data into their database. Thematic content analysis was appropriate for examining this study’s qualitative data. Data content and data interpretation were then used to create thematic codes. This section summarises and reviews the current evidence on the studied topic. The authors drew general conclusions and discussed relevant concepts below. With the rise of CI activities in recent years, most organisations now invest in capabilities and procedures to obtain and monitor CI and have become members of CI associations (Calof, Arcos & Sewdass ). Alnoukari and Hanano ( :9) define CI as an ‘analytical process that collects, selects and interprets competitor information about their capabilities, performance and position in the market to develop a competitive strategy for organisations’. Furthermore, CI is an ethical and legal method used to acquire and analyse information about rivals in their business to achieve strategic results for organisations (SCIP 2016 cited in Calof et al. :2). Thus, most CI definitions focus on its objectives and processes (Calof, Richards & Smith ). Competitive intelligence refers to collecting information about competitors and the competitive environment to improve performance (Wright, Eid & Fleischer ). Competitive intelligence is a business tool that assists with the organisation’s decision-making process (Ezenwa, Stella & Agu ). The CI process allows companies to anticipate changes that could affect their business. This process involves defining, gathering, analysing, and distributing intelligence to assist with business decisions (Bose ). In addition, the common stages of the CI process include focus and planning, collection, analysis, communication, process and structure, organisational awareness, and culture (Dishman & Calof ; Saayman et al. ). The foundation of CI is that businesses gain strategic and sustainable competitive advantage. In this sense, the process of CI refers to creating information that will provide a competitive advantage to the company. The necessary information is first determined, and essential planning is made during the CI process (Kula & Naktiyok ). Competitive intelligence improves decisions by gaining knowledge from competitors and the industry (Bulley, Baku & Allan ). Organisations can gain actionable intelligence from CI by monitoring their competitors. One of the most critical factors in steering CI effectively and ultimately incorporating such valuable knowledge into CI strategies is to leverage and unleash the power of big data tools and techniques (Ranjan & Foropon ). Hence, strategy development is associated with CI literature as a framework for information collecting and processing (Dishman & Calof ). Competitive intelligence facilitates strategic planning in an organisation and comprehends the following process: defining, gathering, analysing, and dispersing information for decision-making (Du Plessis & Gulwa ; Gauzelin & Bentz ). Therefore, CI is a business tool used in strategic management that is gaining popularity for firms to obtain a sustainable competitive advantage (Salguero et al. ). Competitive intelligence is a strategic tool that allows organisations to analyse intelligent data methodically (Amiri et al. ). It helps decision-makers formulate strategies and make precise choices (Mohsin, Halim & Ahmad ). It also provides business leaders with forward-looking insight into their current strategic choices and options to promptly adapt to changing business environments (Arrigo ). Therefore, CI is crucial in developing a company’s strategy (Gauzelin & Bentz ). As a result, it is possible to infer that CI is an essential part of strategic management and marketing since it acts as the first link in a chain of perceptions and behaviours that allows a business to adapt to its environment (Nasri ). Competitive intelligence assists the strategic planning process by collecting essential information from the competitive environment to secure organisations’ long-term and short-term viability (Badr, Wright & Pickton ; Pellissier & Kruger ). Thus, CI plays a crucial role in strategy implementation by revealing valuable information about the company’s position and the competitive environment. Competitive intelligence enables organisations to differentiate themselves from competitors, identify new market opportunities, and mitigate risks. To support strategy creation, execution, and assessment, organisations must have a knowledge management (KM) function integrated with CI (Asghari et al. ). The concept of SI is relatively new in strategic management. This system assists in monitoring and exploiting the environmental variables surrounding the organisation (Alhamadi ). Strategic intelligence helps companies remain competitive in the market (Blandina, Stephine & Samuel ). Strategic intelligence involves gathering data, processing, and analysing strategic information. Large organisations use it for strategic planning and decision-making (Alhamadi ). Furthermore, SI provides organisations with analytical skills that facilitate the solving of complex problems and making better decisions (Levine, Bernard & Nagel ). Strategic intelligence system focuses on strategic information, resources, partnerships and consulting. Furthermore, it examines and analyses the operating environment of the organisation to make informed decision (Nofal & Yusof ). Strategic intelligence, therefore, develops and executes the corporate strategy of an organisation in response to the intelligence needs of strategic decision-makers (Uzoamaka et al. ). Moreover, SI provides decision-makers with knowledge that allows them to make informed decisions by scanning the organisations’ environment, analysing the information, forecasting, and planning changes in the future (Abuzaid 2017). Tahmasebifard and Wright ( ) found that CI dimensions such as market, competitor, technological and SI impact an organisation’s performance and sustainability. Similarly, Odiachi, Kuye and Sulaimon ( ) showed that, individually, CI, product intelligence, and SI had a significant relationship with organisational sustainability. Therefore, SI complements business intelligence (BI), CI, and KM (Alhamadi ; Blandina et al. ). Additionally, SI contributes to innovation and technological advances in collaboration with artificial intelligence (AI), BI, CI, and KM. The collected information is then analysed and synthesised into actionable insights to inform strategic planning and decision-making. In a highly complex business environment, organisations tend to work strategically with strategic management and entrepreneurial processes to embrace the winds of change (Höglund, Holmgren Caicedo & Mårtensson ). Consequently, these organisations require strategic information to assist their operational decision-making processes resulting in analytical insights and intelligence being critical components of strategy design and communication (Arcos ). So, the value of an organisation’s capacity to analyse and evaluate changes in its environment depends on its ability to implement strategy (Campos, Rubio & Quintero :1). Hence, modern organisations have invested significantly and allocated enough resources and time to strategy formulation to outperform their competitors; and while strategic planning is used to monitor strategies, in some cases, its implementation may be affected by its efficacy. The formulation component of strategy has eclipsed its scholarly appeal, even if it occupies a critical area between strategic planning and performance results (Aladag et al. ). Effective strategy implementation requires employees’ coordinated and appropriate organisational activities (Olson, Slater & Hult ). In addition, good organisational features and personnel behaviours support the strategy’s superior results (Olson et al. :47). Thus, it augments organisational performance and creates a competitive advantage when effectively executing the strategy. However, the existing strategy implementation research has mainly concentrated on a broad range of management behaviours impacting strategy implementation effectiveness (Tawse & Tabesh :22). For example, Barrick et al. ( :118) proposed that implementation is concerned with senior management’s commitment to ‘specify and pursue strategic objectives and adopt clearly defined metrics to assess success dynamically’. Other studies have presented a complete picture of strategy execution as a strategic choice or decision (Anchor & Aldehayyat ); some have also stated that implementation strategies such as communicating, accepting, and carrying out strategic plans need to be considered (Chummun & Singh ). As can be seen, strategy implementation has been defined in a variety of ways (Amoo, Hiddlestone–Mumford, Ruzibuka & Akwei ). In line with Lee and Puranam ( ), the authors describe strategy implementation as the organisational process by which strategies are executed to ensure alignment with business objectives. This study focuses on the strategic implementation process, distinct from the strategic planning and decision-making processes. In this manner, it is presumed that strategy execution follows strategy development. Its efficacy is determined by closely aligned outcomes with intended strategic plans. The usage of CI in an organisation may serve a variety of reasons, including improving its competitiveness in the commercial market. Still, it is an intrinsic part of strategic planning (Campos et al. ). Competitive intelligence is effectively transferred throughout the organisation due to its effectiveness in implementing its strategy more efficiently than its competitors (Gilad ). In this way, CI can stimulate dialogue with decision-makers and encourage strategic thinking (Gilad ). In addition, CI allows for rational planning in strategy formulation. Therefore, strategies and practices can be integrated to accelerate strategic alignment, ensuring that the organisation’s priorities are appropriate to its external environment (Walter et al. ). This means that when both strategy implementation and CI are integrated, there is a tendency for the organisation to have a competitive advantage. The authors employed systematic literature reviews because they offer several advantages, such as adopting a repeatable and transparent procedure that reduces biases and mistakes (Tranfield et al. ). Furthermore, the authors identified the present status of the literature and any prospective gaps. Several scholars and practitioners have recently focused on CI because of its importance in moulding an organisation’s strategic decision-making (Rapp, Agnihotri & Baker ) and performance (Mohsin et al. ). For example, Ali and Anwar ( ) investigated the role of CI in determining market performance at small and medium businesses in Iraq’s Kurdistan region by employing CI dimensions inclusive of third-party strategy using a hierarchal multiple regression and the Sobel test. This study’s high-level assessment of respondents showed that CI diagnosis and explanation of results impacted marketing strategy decisions in Erbil’s five-star small and medium firms. Furthermore, this study’s findings revealed a positive and significant mediating function for CI between extensiveness network and business performance. Jenster and Søilen ( ) studied the relationship between strategic planning and company performance. This study presented a model that integrates CI with the synergies between different strategies and successful performance. This study showed that CI plays a vital part in strategic planning. Also, Jenster and Søilen ( ) found that explicit strategies produced CI, leading to successful performance. Yet again, they pointed out that a chosen strategy explicitly or implicitly defines CI activities for the organisation. Essentially, these activities will determine the organisation’s success and performance. Alnoukari and Hanano ( ) also investigated the integration of BI with corporate strategic management. In this study, they posited that the integration of BI and CI could be used to formulate corporate strategies and policies. In contrast, they opined that BI technology was used effectively to attain organisational results and performance. Furthermore, they maintained that this integration supported decision-makers in implementing corporate strategies, adapting quickly to environmental changes, and gaining a competitive advantage. Also, Uzoamaka et al. ( ) investigated CI and organisational performance in selected deposit money banks in the South East of Nigeria. The results showed that CI had a significant favourable influence on quality service delivery. Furthermore, they recommended that banks establish CI departments that frequently assist them in gathering relevant and timely information about competitors and customers to formulate strategies and make effective decisions. While researchers have offered several theories and approaches for effective planning, they have paid less attention to the link between CI and strategy execution. For instance, Cavallo et al. ( ) examined how CI relates to the strategy formulation process of firms. The authors presented detailed empirical data on the linkage and use of CI techniques at each level of the strategy creation process. Furthermore, their study found that CI approaches are extensively exploited for tactical goals despite their strategic relevance and widespread application. Concurring with this finding, Badr et al. ( ) contended that the focus on the tactical use of CI highlighted that few companies were taking a longer-term strategic perspective of CI – suggesting that tactical activities were more easily identifiable, reported frequently, and easier to measure. Calof and Wright ( ) studied the origins of CI from practitioner, academic and interdisciplinary perspectives. This study’s findings suggested that CI supported corporate, or business strategy decision-making as applied to sales, business development, plus research and development. Also, it demonstrated that CI impacted a wide variety of decision-making domains and is an essential component in the development of company strategy. While Dishman and Calof ( ) explored CI as a complex business construct and a precedent for marketing strategy formulation, this study reported on the CI practice of technology-led companies and how CI was used to develop their marketing strategies. Furthermore, this study revealed that while CI was excellent in information acquisition, it lacked procedure and analysis. However, CI is the foundation for strategic decision-making (Dishman & Calof ). Tulungen et al. ( ) employed a CI approach to formulating a strategy for developing e-tourism by utilising information technology. This study concluded that CI could provide a post-coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) e-tourism development strategy by meticulously mapping the strengths and weaknesses and identifying opportunities and threats. Furthermore, Tulungen et al. ( ) posited that a strategy could be developed through campaigns, content, community, cooperation, and competitiveness in the post-COVID-19 timeframe. In contrast, Shapira ( ) investigated the limited influence of CI over corporate strategy in Israel. The study found that management did not see CI as a key component of strategic corporate decisions; so, they avoided implementing it or used only to support operational decisions. In line with the Strategic Direction’s ( ) study, CI was widely adopted at an operational level but was not utilised adequately in the strategic approach by the organisations studied. This study’s research results highlighted that the outcomes of CI were mostly applicable in operational management but unsuitable for strategic management. Yet, in his other research study, Bartes ( ) found that CI was linked to strategic management and seen as a system application discipline in an environment dominated by disruptive innovation. This result indicated that CI monitors and stimulates internal performance for organisations to attain competitive advantage and innovation (Pellissier & Kruger ). Similarly, Atkinson et al. ( ) examined the impact of CI on organisational agility through strategic flexibility and corporate innovation. In this research, CI was discovered to indirectly impact organisational agility through strategic flexibility, which served as a moderating variable. Also, this study concluded that although CI promoted corporate innovation, organisational innovation had no meaningful effect on organisational agility. Ching and Zabid ( ) investigated the acquisition and strategic use of CI in 123 listed companies on the Bursa Malaysia Securities Exchange. In this study, the respondents rated strategic decision-making activities related to expanding business operations and developing products as necessary, among other items under investigation. Also, their results portrayed that managers only used CI for strategic decision-making about sources of information obtained from customers, competitors, newspapers and periodicals, intranet and extranet, and industry and trade associations. This result correlates with Ali and Anwar’s ( ) study, which found that small and medium business managers were eager and devoted time to gathering information from various sources. In addition, Ching and Zabid ( ) concluded that these findings suggested that managers did not see the Internet as a reliable source. They relied mainly on conventional sources such as consumers and rivals in making strategic decisions. Köseoglu, Ross and Okumus ( ) also showed that managers only used CI for planned activities instead of strategic resolutions. Furthermore, Köseoglu et al. ( ) found no connection between strategic planning and competitive position in CI activities. Congruently, Köseoglu et al. ( ) indicated that all levels of management were unfamiliar with CI and failed to deploy it broadly and strategically. Thus, most managers focused on tactics to gather competitor intelligence instead of strategy-related matters. In addition, Köseoglu, Yick and Okumus ( ) discovered that although top executives acquire data and information for general management or strategic planning, departments generally focus on those most relevant to their speciality to establish an operational and tactical strategy. In contrast, Kula and Naktiyok ( ) examined the effect of strategic thinking skills of executives on CI in high competition intense industries. This study found that the strategic thinking skills of research participants and executives working in both sectors had a favourable and substantial influence on their CI. Additionally, Ezenwa et al. ( ) investigated the effect of CI on competitive advantage in Innoson Technical and Industry situated in the Nigerian state of Enugu. The study concluded that CI was vital for strategic planning and competitive advantage. Ezenwa et al. ( ) recommended that manufacturing firms invest in CI processes, facilities, and activities by innovating their product, services, and competitive dispositions. Therefore, organisations should equip employees with the knowledge, skill, and technical know-how to handle intelligence products to implement CI activities and processes successfully. Other studies developed and investigated models for the CI and strategy relationship. Notably, Du Plessis and Gulwa ( ) developed a two-point CI strategy framework intended as a planning tool for CI professionals. The research showed executives to be highly dependent on CI’s help with strategy development, decision-making, sustainable advantage and boosting organisational performance. Similarly, Nasri ( ) developed a conceptual model of the strategic benefits of a CI process. The research findings suggested that organisations preferred to focus on creating CI procedures. This method has the potential to give the business a long-term competitive edge. Furthermore, his study recommended that empirical research be undertaken to discover how the CI processes affect the quality of intelligence information and encourage the expansion of strategic benefits in a firm. Equally, Campos et al. ( ) developed a CI model in an environment where strategic planning was not common and structural conditions were adverse in the Mexican surety bond industry. The results of this study proved that CI must be custom-made to meet the activities of organisations to overcome barriers created by the environment. Based on this study’s outcome, Campos et al. ( ) presented a CI model that integrated the organisation’s strategic and operative phases. This model simplifies CI processes to aid business strategy. Shujahat et al. ( ) investigated a strategic management model focussing on KM and CI. The results revealed synergic and separate uses of knowledge, and CI resulted in effective decisions leading to competitive advantage. However, Maritz and Du Toit’s ( ) findings concluded that, while CI was significant for integrating practice and strategy, study results revealed that when CI is associated with the disciplines of KM and marketing, it does not overlap with strategy. Furthermore, Maritz and Du Toit ( ) explored the location of CI inside strategy as a practice from the strategy process perspective. This study confirmed that strategy and CI were inextricably linked. Competitive intelligence was more than just an activity or sequence of actions inside the more extensive strategic management process, but rather a critical strategic practice. In addition, Maritz and Du Toit’s ( ) research indicated that CI was essential for integrating all strategic practices, denoting the existence of causal relationships at the centre of CI and strategy. Foley and Guillemette ( ) explored the taxonomy of BI strategies in organisations. Their results showed the coexistence of BI, corporate BI, predictive intelligence, and CI. In addition, Foley and Guillemette ( ) posited that a CI strategy arms organisations with insights from their external environments. Research by Lackman and Lanasa ( ) showed that competitive intelligence systems (CIS) had four modules that assisted each of the four fundamental strategic market planning processes, such as company goal setting and forecasting, to improve the accuracy of the industry. In doing so, CI studies strategic information to assist organisations in anticipating trends and market innovation. Consistent with this view, Bartes ( ), Calof et al. ( ), Hagiu and Tanascovici ( ) opined that CI aids strategic planning and it provides solutions for potential challenges and opportunities that exist in the external environment. Therefore, foresight and CI focus on the organisation’s external environment to provide the tools that illustrate the direction in which markets drift (Calof et al. ). Some studies have linked CI with SI; in this instance, Pellissier and Kruger ( ) studied SI as a strategic management tool in the South African long-term insurance industry. This study indicated that SI enhances decision-making and plays a vital role in strategic management. In addition, the authors observed that SI provided leadership with relevant information leading to attaining competitive advantage and innovation. Their findings indicated that SI was predominately utilised strategically within the organisation, contributing to decision-making. Furthermore, their findings suggested that using CI provides organisational leaders with the advantages of contemporary emerging technology in their business sector. As a result, SI adds value and involves managers in the strategy formulation process. It helps management make fact-based decisions to clarify plans and create successful strategic choices (Pellissier & Kruger ). Also, Pellissier and Kruger ( ) concluded from the research findings that SI was created by the combined influence of BI, CI, and KM. These synergies enable organisations to integrate their information and intellectual resources into an SI system that disseminates intelligence data for strategic planning and decision-making. Similarly, Esmaeili ( ) investigated the effect of SI on decision-making and strategic planning using the intelligence system in organisations in Khorram-Abad City. This study’s research showed that SI had a positive and meaningful effect on strategic decision-making and planning in organisations that use intelligent systems. This study also identified successful aspects of SI, such as human resource intelligence, organisational procedures, technical, informational, and financial resources, and competition and customer intelligence. Also, Agha, Atwa and Kiwan ( ) evaluated the impact of SI and its dimensions on a firm’s performance and the mediating role of strategic flexibility and its dimensions on such an impact in firms in the biotechnology industry. Their study concluded that SI had a strong positive influence on company performance, a positive effect on strategic flexibility, and a positive impact on firm performance in strategic flexibility as a mediator variable. Congruently, Uzoamaka et al. ( ) concentrated on the influence of SI intelligence on business success in selected commercial banks in South-East Nigeria. This study found a significant positive association between SI and corporate performance. This result illustrates how excellent SI by businesses contributes to company success. Furthermore, this study concluded that banks must be adaptable enough to changes in the external business environment. Al-Zu’bi ( ) examined the aspects of SI and its role in achieving organisational agility. This study showed that all the SI dimensions impacted achieving organisational agility. Also, the study showed a more significant influence on dimensional creativity. Furthermore, Al-Zu’bi ( ) endorsed a need for managers to know how to evaluate and identify organisational agility to attain the organisation’s strategic goals. This study correlates with Alnoukari and Hanano ( ), who pointed out that integrating BI and corporate strategic management directly affected modern and flexible organisations. The result implies that dynamic and current organisations may effectively use market position and strategy changes. Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of KwaZulu-Natal Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (HSSREC). (No. HSSREC/00000221/2019.). In this section, the authors present the characteristics of collected articles to provide a comprehensive overview of CI and SI literature in relation to strategy implementation. The authors present thematic codes illustrating journal names, publication years, number of articles and countries. presents the number of published articles.  Number of published articles. As can be seen, the Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis ( n = 3), International Journal of Hospitality Management ( n = 3), and Journal of Intelligence Studies in Business ( n = 3) were found to contain the most CI and strategic planning articles ( n = 9). The European Journal of Marketing has the most important publications ( n = 2), whereas the rest of the journals only had n = 1 publications. The authors also evaluated the number of published CI and SI articles for the same period. Figure 1 depicts the rising quantity of publications, notably after 2008. In addition, it illustrates how academic interest has remained low in 2011, 2012, and 2019. Number of journal titles related to competitive intelligence and strategic intelligence by year. In the study, the authors discovered that the number of CI-published publications increased in 2014 ( n = 4), 2017 ( n = 4), and 2021 ( n = 5) ( Figure 1 ). In contrast, SI-related articles concurrently, grew only in 2014 ( n = 2) with the least number of articles published in 2011( n = 1), 2016 ( n = 1), 2017 ( n = 1). Other noteworthy years in terms of frequency of occurrence for CI related publications include 2013 ( n = 3), 2008 ( n = 2), 2016 ( n = 2), 2018 ( n = 2) and 2020 ( n = 2), with the fewest articles produced in 2011 ( n = 1), 2012 ( n = 1) and 2019 ( n = 1). However, because this study was completed in the first quarter of 2022, the article counts for the current year cannot be generalised. Moreover, the authors found no CI or SI studies published in 2009, 2010, or 2015. Therefore, it is not surprising that there has been an increase in CI-related papers compared to SI within the same period. These findings validate that CI disciplines have a long and illustrious academic and practitioner history, with academic literature citations beginning in the 1950s and firm practices documented in the 15th and 16th centuries (Juhari & Stephens 2006 ). Congruently, it was reported that organisations that engaged in high CI activities showed 36% higher levels of quality in strategic planning (Jaworski & Wee 1993 ). Hence, research in CI remains attractive as a development field, as seen by the number of prolific publications published between 2008 and 2022 compared to SI publications. Thirdly, the principal authors of chosen papers and the countries in which their host institutions are situated were evaluated. Figure 2 depicts the number of articles published by each country. Number of articles by countries. As seen in Figure 2 , the most prolific CI-related article writers were from Canada ( n = 3), the Czech Republic ( n = 3), the Netherlands ( n = 3), and the United Kingdom ( n = 3) – in all these countries published the most publications ( n = 12). They were followed by Nigerian writers ( n = 2) and South African writers ( n = 2). In addition, many of the results concerning CI-related articles were consistent with general trends across the countries investigated. Notably, compared to other nations, Jordanian writers ( n = 2) produced the most SI-related articles, followed by Iranian writers ( n = 1). These findings confirm that, despite the growing interest in applying CI to strategic planning, authors from developed markets such as North America and Europe have concluded a wide range of peer-reviewed academic articles on existing research. In contrast, a few studies have been completed in the context of developing countries – suggesting that few from South Africa consider this subject field (Du Toit 2015 :18). This viewpoint supports Maune’s ( 2014 ) conclusions that CI was still in its infancy in South Africa 20 years after it was introduced. However, South Africa has written more CI-related publications compared to the other countries studied. As a result, it is not unexpected that CI has little effect on business strategy. Consistent with this view, Shapira ( 2021 ) found that CI was occasionally used as a foundation for decision-making, but it was rarely integrated into the strategy. Finally, the authors analysed the research outcomes of the articles under consideration to identify any gaps. Also, they examined the authors’ findings and conclusions about the relationship between CI, SI, and strategic planning. Figure 3 illustrates the number of articles by research outcome. Related articles by research outcome. As the researchers analysed the relationships between CI, SI, and strategic planning focused journals, they discovered that CI research increased in most studies. These studies emphasised the vital role of CI in formulating and developing company strategies and its practical application to strategic planning (Bartes 2014 ; Calof & Wright 2008 ; Cavallo et al. 2020 ; Dishman & Calof 2008 ; Du Plessis & Gulwa 2016 ; Maritz & Du Toit 2018 ; Tulungen et al. 2021 ). Other research has found that integrating CI with strategy can assist with strategic decisions, organisational performance, and competitive advantage (Ali & Anwar 2021 ; Campos et al. 2014 ; Ezenwa et al. 2018 ). Yet, the most typical applications of CI are creating and implementing company strategy (McGonagle 2016 ). In contrast, the results of SI were related mainly to strategic decision-making and organisational performance (Agha et al. 2014 ; Pellissier & Kruger 2011 ; Uzoamaka et al. 2017b ). As a result, the authors found no empirical data relating both CI and SI with strategy implementation, evaluation, and monitoring in the systematic literature review they examined. This points to a research gap in the literature, indicating a need for more study. Conclusions and limitations The most common application of CI is developing and implementing a company’s strategy and using it to aid more expedient decisions. This study included a thorough literature assessment of CI and strategic implementation in various countries by selecting and analysing 33 peer-reviewed journal articles published between 2008 and 2022. Despite years of developing research in CI and strategic planning, a literature analysis demonstrated significant gaps in nations’ CI and strategy implementation publications. Furthermore, among the articles examined, the researchers discovered that CI played a critical role in the formulation and development of firm strategies, and its application contrasted with Jaworski and Wee ( 1993 ), according to which organisations engaged in high levels of CI activities had 36% higher levels of quality in strategic planning. This study examined the current state and trends in the CI and strategy implementation literature. The articles were categorised based on their theoretical viewpoints, research subjects, and countries. The article identified gaps in the literature and suggested possible areas for future research. The study has limitations that should be highlighted. To begin, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, and Google Scholar were used to search for papers related to CI, SI, and strategic planning. The sample may have overlooked articles in other publications with databases in different fields. Furthermore, the research was limited to peer-reviewed academic journals, and book chapters or conference proceedings were not included in the search. Nonetheless, the articles chosen addressed a wide range of research-related concerns. Although search terms for CI, SI, and strategic planning were varied, important publications with different keywords might have been overlooked. Finally, future studies recommended based on literature analysis, limiting their scope for innovation. The method used, however, is deemed appropriate because trustworthiness processes were ensured by following transparent stages. In addition, the authors emphasise that while content analysis is versatile, allowing for a wide range of analytic possibilities, it only describes what is present and may not reveal the underlying causes and consequences of the research pattern. This viewpoint is congruent with Maritz and Du Toit ( 2018 ), who reported that thematic content analysis showed minimal interpretive value. So, future research could benefit from triangulation using different methodologies. In conclusion, despite growing awareness of CI and its benefits over the years, most authors have not examined how CI contributes to strategy execution. The authors analysed 33 articles and identified gaps in the literature concerning the relationship between CI and strategy implementation. The study’s findings provided valuable insights and served as a foundation for practitioners and academics in the fields of CI and strategy implementation to explore future research in this area. This study also advances academic knowledge by emphasising the importance of a structured and well-defined CI process and its integration into strategic planning. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the University of KwaZulu-Natal for support, without which this research would not have been possible. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article. Authors’ contributions M.L.M. wrote the first draft of the manuscript after researching CI and strategic planning literature. Both authors performed thematic content analysis, crystallised results and conclusions. B.Z.C. led and supervised this project. Funding information This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. Data availability The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and/or its supplementary materials. 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South African Journal of Information Management    |    ISSN: 2078-1865 (PRINT)    |    ISSN: 1560-683X (ONLINE) ISSN: 1560-683X Information Author Services Initiatives You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader. All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess . Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. 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Introduction To examine the most advanced methods/technologies for flood forecasting in the context of FEWSs, To provide an overview of the chronological evolution of flood forecasting in the context of FEWSs between 1993–2023, To provide an overview of flood forecasting models for data-scarce regions to help in model selection for FEWSs in such areas. 2. Materials and Methods The generation of the main keywords to be used in database search, Choosing the relevant databases, as well as structuring the querying process, Screening and sorting the relevant quality documents for analysis and, Processing the results into understandable information for reporting. 4. 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Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals 369 IMAGES (PDF) Competitive Intelligence: An Exploratory Literature Review of Its Competitive intelligence literature review Competitive Intelligence Literature Review & Referencing: BPP Business (PDF) Competitive Intelligence Research: An Academic Literature Review (PDF) A review of existing literature on competitive intelligence and (PDF) Competitive intelligence and strategy implementation: Critical VIDEO Conducting Literature Review By Using AI Tools Why Literature Review Literature review in research Geopolitical rivalry and the global competition in AI AI tools training for PhD students to become more productive and write better papers Literature Review Trick1 COMMENTS The Use of Theories in Competitive Intelligence: a Systematic This paper attempts to lay a foundation of. relevant theory from previously pub lished literature on competitive intelligence by mapping. these theories against the six identifi ed competitive ... Competitive intelligence: An exploratory literature review of its Abstract. This article is a qualitative-exploratory literature review. The primary concern of the author is to explore the positioning of the competitive intelligence function within organisations ... Competitive intelligence: A unified view and modular definition This literature review supported the development of a list of terms—authorized descriptors—that were used to create a controlled vocabulary of semantically and generically related terms that cover the specific knowledge domain of CI. ... glossary of Vernon Prior entitled "The Language of Competitive Intelligence," published in a four ... (Pdf) Competitive Intelligence: an Exploratory Literature Review of Its 2. Literature review 2.1 The competitive intelligence process The CI process or cycle is usually divided by CI professionals into five basic phases, each linked to others by a feedback loop (McGonagle and Vella, 2012). These phases, making up what CI professionals call the CI cycle, are: - Establishing the CI needs. PDF The Use of Theories in Competitive Intelligence: a Systematic a Systematic Literature Review Tumelo Maungwa* South Africa University of Pretoria [email protected] Paul Laughton South Africa ... that the competitive intelligence literature has exhaustively discussed both the competitive intelligence cycles and definitions (Bose 2008; Gundersen 2019; Rangone 2021; Ranjan & Foropon 2021; Wu ... The Use of Theories in Competitive Intelligence: a Systematic The field of competitive intelligence is growing as organisations are looking to increase their competitive advantage in a global society. As this field grows, so does the research and academic literature on this practice. While theory that specifically focuses on competitive intelligence may be limited, theories from other popular and related fields such as management and psychology have been ... Competitive intelligence: An exploratory literature review of its This article is a qualitative-exploratory literature review. The primary concern of the author is to explore the positioning of the competitive intelligence function within organisations so as to establish the best positioning. To ensure reliability of the literary exploration, only peer-reviewed journal articles were used. The findings of this article will make it possible to generalise about ... Competitive Intelligence: A review of the literature According to the literature, the concept of "Competitive Intelligence" has deep historical roots in the military. Some scholars consider Sun Tzu's book "The Art of War" as the earliest reference to CI. Since CI is a relatively new academic study field, it is very important to define it the right way. The Use of Theories in Competitive Intelligence: a Systematic This paper attempts to lay a foundation of relevant theory from previously published literature on competitive intelligence by mapping these theories against the six identified competitive intelligences processes, paving the way for further theory development in the field of competitive intelligence. The field of competitive intelligence is growing as organisations are looking to increase ... Competitive Intelligence: An Exploratory Literature Review of Its Structuring the competitive intelligence function within This article is qualitative in nature and a literature organisations review was conducted on some of the identified peer- reviewed and published journal articles on CI and its Companies' efforts to weigh the determining factors positioning or structuring. Competitive Intelligence: A review of the literature Intelligence Purpose: The aim of this article is to analyze the existing literature on competitive intelligence, its evolution and related concepts with a focus on competitive intelligence processing and decision-making. Approach/ Findings: The approach used for this article was a literature review analysis of available online articles. A Review of Existing Literature on Competitive Intelligence and ... Competitive intelligence (CI) involves monitoring competitors and providing organisations with actionable and meaningful intelligence (Ranjan & Foropon, 2021). This paper aims to examine current trends in the CI and insurance literature. A qualitative approach with an exploratory-driven design was used to examine CI-related articles. Competitive intelligence and strategy formulation: connecting the dots 2. Literature review 2.1 Defining competitive intelligence. Companies have virtually the same access to information, but it is the ones that convert such information into actionable intelligence that will end up winning the game . The role of competitive intelligence and its sub-types on achieving Although existing literature provides a proper insight about the drivers of CI activities, its organization, usage and dissemination within firms, researches on the outcomes of CI activities as to whether these practices collectively have any relationship with performance are rare. ... Competitive Intelligence Review, 9, 42-47. doi:10.1002 ... PDF The Literature of Competitive Intelligence COMPETITIVE INTELLIGENCE . RESEARCH. While most of the competitive intelligence literature has been intended for the consumption of busy managers or CI professionals, there have been serious studies of these topics. Empirical research, including some dissertations, has been cited by Choo and Auster (1993) TABLE. 1. ARTICLESRETRIEVED. FROM ... PDF Competitive Intelligence: An Exploratory Literature Review of Its Abstract. This article is a qualitative-exploratory literature review. The primary concern of the author is to explore the positioning of the competitive intelligence function within organisations ... Competitive intelligence and strategy implementation: Critical literature review was the most appropriate research strategy . ... Strategic management model with lens of knowledge management and competitive intelligence: A review approach, Shujahat et ... Big Data Analytics in Building the Competitive Intelligence of In a recent bibliometric review dealing with the main research fields related to intelligence, Lopez-Robles, Otegi-Olaso, Porto Gomez, and Cobo (2019: 36) have found that Competitive Intelligence is the third most frequent thematic area within those mapped, and the authors state that CI "is closely related to other thematic areas such as the ... Factors of Trust Building in Conversational AI Systems: A Literature Review Through a structured literature review, a concept matrix of several trust factors from the existing literature is presented. The findings highlight trust-building factors such as controllability, adaptability, transparency, intelligence, intimacy, empathy, engagement, anthropomorphism, security, brand perception, organizational trust, risk ... Future Horizons: The Potential Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of premature death and disability globally, leading to significant increases in healthcare costs and economic strains. Artificial intelligence (AI) is emerging as a crucial technology in this context, promising to have a significant impact on the management of CVDs. A wide range of methods can be used to develop effective models for medical ... 6741 PDFs Explore the latest full-text research PDFs, articles, conference papers, preprints and more on COMPETITIVE INTELLIGENCE. Find methods information, sources, references or conduct a literature ... AI in fashion: a literature review Artificial Intelligence (AI) has a growing influence in the fashion industry. In this review study, the focal points of research in AI in the context of fashion are showcased. This is achieved by quantifying the amount of research conducted in this area. Various insights, that could be useful for future studies are also provided. For each included study, the particular objective, that AI is ... ChatGPT and Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education: Literature Keywords that ChatGPT generated and purposed were then analyzed and revised by the authors and are as follows: personalized education, adaptive learning platforms, intelligent learning assistants, tutoring systems, intelligent assessment, intelligent feedback, enhanced resource recommendation, literature review, information retrieval, automated ... [PDF] State-of-the-Art Review: The Use of Digital Twins to Support Corpus ID: 270622728; State-of-the-Art Review: The Use of Digital Twins to Support Artificial Intelligence-Guided Predictive Maintenance @inproceedings{Ma2024StateoftheArtRT, title={State-of-the-Art Review: The Use of Digital Twins to Support Artificial Intelligence-Guided Predictive Maintenance}, author={Sizhe Ma and Katherine A. Flanigan and Mario Berg'es}, year={2024}, url={https://api ... Federal Investigations of Artificial Intelligence ... Antitrust regulators distrust the artificial-intelligence market even at its most competitive. (PDF) Innovation and Competitive Intelligence in Business. A This research has carried out a review of the literature on Competitive Intelligence, the main objective of which has been to detect the topics most addressed by researchers in relation to ... Competitive intelligence and strategy implementation: Critical Literature review. This section summarises and reviews the current evidence on the studied topic. The authors drew general conclusions and discussed relevant concepts below. ... M.I., Thurasamy, R. & Ali, J., 2017, 'Strategic management model with lens of knowledge management and competitive intelligence: A review approach', VINE Journal of ... Water The scoping literature review (SLR) was carried out through a standardised procedure known as Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). ... indicating a rapid surge of studies implementing artificial intelligence (AI) techniques coupled with remote sensing (RS) techniques for flood prediction. Competitive intelligence research: An investigation of trends in the The most popular term used in the literature is competitive intelligence, followed by business intelligence and marketing intelligence. ... A systematic literature review found 24 publications ... assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review speech thesis