essay questions on a tale of two cities

• A Tale of Two Cities

Charles Dickens

• Literature Notes
• Essay Questions
• A Tale of Two Cities at a Glance
• Book Summary
• About A Tale of Two Cities
• Character List
• Summary and Analysis
• Book 1: Chapter 1
• Book 1: Chapter 2
• Book 1: Chapter 3
• Book 1: Chapter 4
• Book 1: Chapter 5
• Book 1: Chapter 6
• Book 2: Chapter 1
• Book 2: Chapter 2
• Book 2: Chapter 3
• Book 2: Chapter 4
• Book 2: Chapter 5
• Book 2: Chapter 6
• Book 2: Chapter 7
• Book 2: Chapter 8
• Book 2: Chapter 9
• Book 2: Chapter 10
• Book 2: Chapter 11
• Book 2: Chapter 12
• Book 2: Chapter 13
• Book 2: Chapter 14
• Book 2: Chapter 15
• Book 2: Chapter 16
• Book 2: Chapter 17
• Book 2: Chapter 18
• Book 2: Chapter 19
• Book 2: Chapter 20
• Book 2: Chapter 21
• Book 2: Chapter 22
• Book 2: Chapter 23
• Book 2: Chapter 24
• Book 3: Chapter 1
• Book 3: Chapter 2
• Book 3: Chapter 3
• Book 3: Chapter 4
• Book 3: Chapter 5
• Book 3: Chapter 6
• Book 3: Chapter 7
• Book 3: Chapter 8
• Book 3: Chapter 9
• Book 3: Chapter 10
• Book 3: Chapter 11
• Book 3: Chapter 12
• Book 3: Chapter 13
• Book 3: Chapter 14
• Book 3: Chapter 15
• Character Analysis
• Doctor Alexandre Manette
• Lucie Manette, later Darnay
• Charles Darnay
• Sydney Carton
• Therese Defarge
• Ernest Defarge
• Jerry Cruncher
• Character Map
• Charles Dickens Biography
• Critical Essays
• Women as the Central Characters
• The French Revolution
• Famous Quotes
• Film Versions
• Full Glossary
• Practice Projects
• Cite this Literature Note

Study Help Essay Questions

1. Explain the first paragraph of the novel. What does Dickens mean by "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times"?

2. Discuss the resurrection theme in A Tale of Two Cities . Which characters are "recalled to life"? How?

3. Describe how Dickens depicts crowds and mobs throughout the novel. What does Dickens seem to be saying about large groups of people?

4. A major criticism of A Tale of Two Cities is that Dickens does not fully develop his characters. Do you agree with this assessment? Explain why or why not.

5. Discuss the use of light and shadow imagery throughout the novel.

6. Dickens represents women as being "natural"or "unnatural"in A Tale of Two Cities . What characteristics does he idealize in women? What characteristics does he view as abnormal? Do you agree or disagree with his perspective? Why?

7. Dickens is known for his humor, but A Tale of Two Cities is noticeably somber. Do any comic passages and characters exist in the novel? If so, what are they? Why are they humorous?

8. Discuss Dickens' views of the French Revolution. Does he believe it was inevitable or preventable? What are his attitudes toward the French royalty and aristocrats? Toward the peasants and revolutionaries?

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A Tale of Two Cities is a famous work of Victorian literature by Charles Dickens. The novel tells the story of the years leading up to the French Revolution. The book painted social parallels between the plight of the French peasantry with the lives of Dicken's contemporary London readers. Here are a few questions you can use for study groups or for your next book club meeting.

• What is important about the title?
• What are the conflicts in A Tale of Two Cities ? What types of conflict (physical, moral, intellectual, or emotional) did you notice in this novel?
• How does Charles Dickens reveal character in A Tale of Two Cities ?
• What are some themes in the story? How do they relate to the plot and characters?
• What are some symbols in A Tale of Two Cities ? How do they relate to the plot and characters?
• Are the characters consistent in their actions? Which of the characters are fully developed? How? Why?
• Do you find the characters likable? Are the characters people you would want to meet?
• Is war a character in the novel? Why or why not? How do violence and death affect (and shape) the characters? What point was Dickens making with his portrayals of violence? Could he have made the same points without using violence? 
• What economic points do you think the author was attempting to make? Do you agree with his portrayal of the plight of the poor? 
• Does the novel end the way you expected? How? Why?
• What did you think of the opening lines? What do you think they mean? Why have they become so famous? How does this opening prepare the reader for the rest of the novel?
• What is the central/primary purpose of the story? Is the purpose important or meaningful?
• What did you think of Dickens' portrayal of France and its culture? Did it seem realistic? What is a sympathetic portrayal?
• How does Dickens portray the Revolutionaries? Is he sympathetic to their plight? Does he agree with their actions? Why or why not? 
•  How essential is the setting to the story? Could the story have taken place anywhere else? Why do you think the author chose to set the novel in France?
• Do you think Dickens was trying to make a political point with this novel? If so, how successful was he at making his point? Do you think social justice was important to the author?
• What is the role of women in the text? How are mothers represented? What about single/independent women?
• What elements of this novel appear to diverge from the earlier works of Charles Dickens?
• Would you recommend this novel to a friend?
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A Tale of Two Cities

118 pages • 3 hours read

A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Book 1, Chapters 1-3

Book 1, Chapters 4-6

Book 2, Chapters 1-3

Book 2, Chapters 4-6

Book 2, Chapters 7-9

Book 2, Chapters 10-13

Book 2, Chapters 14-16

Book 2, Chapters 17-20

Book 2, Chapters 21-24

Book 3, Chapters 1-5

Book 3, Chapters 6-9

Book 3, Chapters 10-12

Book 3, Chapters 13-15

Character Analysis

Symbols & Motifs

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

Discussion Questions

Discuss the significance of the title in terms of its themes, style , etc.

Sydney Carton is a lawyer, and several scenes in the novel take place in courtrooms. What role does the law or justice play in the novel, and how does it interact with the maticideas about redemption?

Several characters in A Tale of Two Cities seem to function largely as comic relief—Miss Pross, Jerry Cruncher , etc. Choose one of these humorous characters and explain how they contribute to the novel’s broader meaning.

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• A Tale of Two Cities

Background of the Novel

Historical context.

The last two decades of the 18 th century is marked as a turning point in the history of Europe. The French Revolution that began in 1789 changed the political landscape of Europe. With the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, the citizens of France destroyed the centuries-old institutions of feudalism and absolute monarchy. The poor economic policies of the king and the discontent of the citizens with the French monarchy gave rise to the upheaval. King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were executed.

Though the French Revolution could not achieve its ultimate goal and turn into a chaotic bloodbath, it played an important role in influencing the modern nation by portraying the inherent power of will of the common people.

The French Revolution, just like the American Revolution, was started to inculcate political liberty and rational thought among the masses. The ideals that the Enlightenment period of the 18 th century inculcated in the people were soon compromised when the Revolution of French citizens turned into “terror.” Moreover, the French Revolution was not restricted to France.

It also cast a sharp and long shadow on nineteenth-century industrialized Britain. With the advent of industrialization, Britain was divided into two classes: the rich and the poor. The Elite classes started fearing the oppressed class to start the Revolution and rebel against the monarchy; however, political compromises and wake-up calls by literary figures like Dickens attempt to stop the crisis in England.

Literary Context

The genre of historical fiction is founded by Sir Walter Scott. In order to display the historical war-time, Scott created the fictionalized characters in his novels. One of his famous novels on war-time history is Waverly.

Just like the distinct narrative voice of Dickens, Scott narrator also off and on explains, preaches, expounds, and makes jokes. The Middlemarch by George Eliot contains multiple plots and has realistic psychological details, therefore evolving the genre of historical fiction.

The novelists like Dickens, Scott, and Eliot used the genre of historical fiction to talk about the problems that were prevailing in their societies. They would use the events of the past to reveal the present to revolve around the crisis. The novels of these novelists discuss how individuals are created and shaped by political history and vice versa.

A Tale of Two Cities Summary

The novel opens in the year 1775 with Mr. Jarvis Lorry traveling on a mission to Dover to meet Lucie Manette. Mr. Jarvis Lorry is the employer of Tellson’s Bank in England. On his way to Dover, Mr. Lorry happens to meet a man who gives him a mysterious message, and Mr. Lorry replies with the message, “Recalled to life.” At Dover, in a restaurant, Mr. Lorry meets Lucie Manette and reveals that her father, Dr. Alexandre Manette, is alive, whom she thought had been long dead. 

For 18 years, Dr. Manette had been clandestinely imprisoned in France. However, Monsieur Defarge, the old and former servant of Dr. Manette, has smuggled him out of prison and hid him in the upper story of the store. In Paris, Defarge now owns a wine shop, which is the center of the rebellious activities that result in the French Revolution. In the meantime, Madame Defarge, wife of Monsieur Defarge, enlists the name of the enemies of the Revolution by knitting. When Lucie and Mr. Lorry arrive to receive Dr. Manette, they find him in a dark corner, spontaneously making shoes. He has been left insane by prison. They receive him lovingly and return to London. 

During their return to London, Lucie and Dr. Manette met Charles Darnay, the French aristocrat. He does not withstand the policies of his family against the working class and leaves France to go to England.

The story jumps to the year 1780. Charles Darnay is standing trial in London for spying. Lucie and Dr. Manette also attend the trial. Mr. Stryver is a defense lawyer of Charles Darnay. However, his associate Sidney Carton, a drunk and bored-looking man, win the case. Carton ruins the credibility of the witness by pointing out his resemblance to Darnay.

The wealthy aristocrats of France ignore the misery of poor people who are dying due to hunger and are staggering in luxury. The carriage of Marquis St. Evremonde, a wealthy aristocrat, irresponsibly runs over a child and kills him. 

When he reaches his castle, he meets Charles Evremonde, his nephew, who has returned from England. Charles Evremonde is actually Charles Darner. In the meeting with his uncle, he abandons his association with his family. When Marquis is sleeping in his luxurious room that night, he is murdered.

Charles Darnay, Sydney Carton, and Stryver being impressed with Lucie, frequently pay their visit to Dr. Manette and Lucie. When Mr. Stryver decides to ask Lucie for marriage, he is warned by Mr. Lorry that his proposal will not be likely to be accepted by Dr. Manette and Lucie. Similarly, Carton admires Lucie for how she proved to be a person who changed his life by making him believe that he still has scraps of goodness hidden inside him, despite the ruined past he has. 

Charles Darnay asks Dr. Manette’s permission to marry his daughter Lucie. Moreover, he wants to tell him his real name; however, Dr. Manette refuses to know until the day of the wedding. After the wedding, he is upset and feeling alone when his daughter and son in law go for honeymoon, Dr. Manette setbacks into his madness and starts making shoes. Mr. Lorry comforts him to recover, and the other day he was all fine and wants Mr. Lorry not to tell Lucie about the episode when she returns. Lucie and Charles Darnay give birth to a daughter. 

The story again jumps to the year 1789. To destroy the monarchy, Defarge leads the rebellious peasants in Bastille. He investigates the old cell of Dr. Manette and discovers a letter written by Dr. Manette in a chimney. They later use this letter against him. The French Revolution was at its peak, and the new state has been declared. However, the citizens are growing extremely fierce and capture the aristocrats and kill them by execution. Charles Darnay goes to Paris when he receives a letter from his servant, Gabelle, asking for his help. However, Darnay is taken into prison. 

To rescue Darnay, Lucie and Dr. Manette go to Paris and join Mr. Lorry, who has been there on a Bank Business. The 18 years of imprisonment make Dr. Manette a local hero. With his influence, he gets a trial for Charles Darnay; however, it takes a year. Lucie walks near the prison every day in the hope that Charles Darnay may see her. With evidence of Dr. Manette, Charles Darnay is freed. However, on that very night, he is again imprisoned by the charges carried by Madame Defarge and Monsieur Defarge.

Jerry Cruncher and Miss Pross have also come to help Dr. Manette and Lucie Manette. On the streets of Paris, they encounter Solomon Pros, the brother of Miss Pross. Jerry recognizes him as John Barsad, who was a witness of the allegation against Charles Darnay in the trial in England. Carton also appears and forces Barsad to cooperate with him in helping Charles Darnay or else he will reveal him as a spy.

At the second trial of Charles Darnay, Madame Defarge shows the court a letter written by Dr. Manette that she previously found in a chimney. In the letter, Dr. Manette wrote how the father and uncle of Charles Darnay – Evremonde’s brothers – abused a peasant girl and to protect themselves imprisoned Dr. Manette. Darnay is sent back to prison with the sentence to death. Dr. Manette loses his consciousness, thinking that his letter has caused the death of Charles. Moreover, Sidney Carton overhears the conversation of Madame Defarge, who has resolved to eliminate the line of Evremonde by killing Lucie and her daughter. At that spot, she also revealed to be the sister of a peasant girl and boy whom Evremonde abused and killed. 

Carton makes a plan with Mr. Lorry to immediately arrange a carriage for everyone to escape for England and handover his identity paper to him. With the help of Barsad, Carton goes into the prison where Charles is imprisoned. He drugs him and switches his clothes with him. Thinking that Sidney has lost his consciousness due to overdrinking, Barsad takes Charles, disguised as Sidney Carton, to the carriage arranged by Mr. Lorry. Mr. Lorry, Dr. Manette, Lucie, her daughter, and Charles Darnay leave for England. They do not know that Sidney has replaced himself with Charles Darnay. 

Soon after their departure, Madame Defarge shows up at the apartment of Dr. Manette to kill Lucie. However, before she could get in and know that Lucie has fled to England, Miss Pross stops her at the gate. The two start arguments and Madame Defarge takes out her pistol to threaten Miss Pross but shoots herself. The sound of a gun deafens Miss Pross.

While moving to the place of execution, in place of Darnay, Carton holds the hand of a young lady who has been accused of wrongly. He dies, realizing that the sacrifice he has made for Lucie is the greatest thing he has done in his life ever.

A Tale of Two Cities Characters Analysis

Sydney carton.

Sidney Carton is the most vigorous character in the novel A Tale of Two Cities. At the beginning of the novel, he appears to be a drunk and lazy lawyer who aggregates a little concentration in his life. For him, his existence is nothing but supreme waste and claim that he does not care for anything or anyone. However, the readers realize that there is a deep feeling inside Sidney Carton that he wants to articulate it but is unable to do. 

Though, in his conversation with Charles Darnay, who has been recently proved guiltless, comments about Lucie. However, his tone was sardonic and bitter and let down his growing interest and developing feelings for Lucie. Ultimately, he gathers courage and confesses his feelings for Lucie to her. Unknowing that Lucie and Darnay are soon going to marry, he proposes his love for Lucie and also claims that he is not worthy of her. This event changes the life of Sidney Carton and makes the basis for the sacrifice that Sidney makes for Lucie at the end of the novel.  

Madame Defarge

Holding an act of ruthless revenge, Madame Defarge symbolizes the turmoil of the French Revolution. In the initial chapter of the novel, the readers find her sitting in the chair of the wine shop, knitting quietly.  Nevertheless, her outward inactiveness contradicts her persistent desire for revenge. Along with her knitting the clothes, she also knits the names of her revolutionary enemies in her “mental register.” 

The real wildness of Madame Defarge is shown when Revolution breaks with the full force. The way terror and chaos destroy Paris, Madame Defarge turns on Lucy and invades both the physical and psychological space of Lucie. At first, she enlists the name of Lucie and her memory into the register of people who are meant to die in the Revolution. She then breaks into Lucie’s apartment to see Lucie mourning the death of her husband, Charles Darnay and then kills her. 

Dickens points out that the ruthlessness and hatefulness of Madame Defarge are not inherent but is the result of suffering, oppression, and tragedy she faced at the hand of Evremondes. Though Lucie and Charles Darnay have not done any harm to her, they both are related to Evremondes: Darnay by blood and Lucie by marriage. But still, Dickens does not approve the retributive policies of justice of Madame Defarge, and therefore the readers do not feel any sympathy for her. 

The oppression of aristocrats has mage Madame Defarge, an oppressor; likewise, the victims of the oppression of Madame Defarge will turn out oppressors as well. Madame Defarge dies with the shot of her own gun. Through this, Dickens symbolizes that the revengeful attitude that Madame Defarge embodies turns out to be self-damning.

Charles Darnay (a.k.a. Charles Evrémonde)

After renouncing his connection with the Evremondes, Charles Darnay abandons his family and position as the French aristocrat and goes to England. Though Darnay supports the revolutionary ideal of human liberty, he is not a radical revolutionary like French masses. He symbolizes the middle position between the mistreatment practiced by the aristocracy and the lethal anger displayed by the revolutionaries. 

Charles Darnay displays a heroic character of obligation and justice when trying to help the oppressed peasants and endangers his own life by helping Gabelle. But Charles also deceives himself by thinking that he can change the power and make the Revolution a positive change in France. Moreover, Charles is not able to see the potential of Sidney Carton and is guided by his wife, Lucie, to believe in the potential of Sidney Carton. Darnay is the representative of virtuous but imperfect humanity.

Lucie Manette

She is the daughter of Dr. Alexandre Manette and wife of Charles’ Darnay. She resurrects or restores her father back to life after eighteen years of imprisonment. She has the qualities of devotion, innocence, and enduring love. In the novel, she is the main figure which symbolizes goodness and laces a “golden thread” that binds together an essential group of people against the cruel forces of politics and history. She also displays religious faith. She believes in Sydney Carton when no one else believes in him. It is her kindness that inspires Sidney for his utmost deed of sacrifice.

Dr. Alexandre Manette

He is an accomplished physician who lived in France and has been imprisoned for 18 years in Bastille. The unjustified imprisonment makes him lose his mind. He embodies a horrible psychological shock of oppression from subjugation. Lucie’s love “resurrects” or restores him to his life. Manette also represents the idea that suffering can also turn into a strength. When he goes back to Paris to rescue his son in law, he gains the authoritative position in the French Revolution.  To return Charles Darnay’s favor of resurrection, Manette saved him in the trial. But his old letters again lead to Charles’ execution. He ultimately becomes a tragic figure and falls into madness. The life of Manette shows that individuals are always entrapped in the strong forces of history.

Monsieur Defarge

He is the former servant of Dr. Mannete and smuggles him from the prison. He owns a wine shop that he uses to organize the revolutionaries of the French Revolution. Monsieur Defarge, like his wife Madame Defarge, is aggressively dedicated to dethroning dictatorship and retaliating discrimination. However, he does not support his wife’s planning to kill Lucie Manette. Due to this characteristic of mercy, Defarge becomes a symbol of the French Revolution that failed. The revolution lost its vision and turned into terror and chaos. 

Jarvis Lorry

With the development of the plot of the novel, the character of Jarvis Lorry changes from a purely pragmatic and minding-one’s-own-business to an intense and loyal person who devotes his life to protect the family of Dr. Manette and thus become a member of Manette’s family. When Mr. Lorry first meets with Lucie, he asserts that “I had no feelings and that all relationships I hold with my fellow-creatures are mere business relations.” 

Indeed, Mr. Lorry is a dedicated and hardworking employee who, on behalf of the bank, risks his life by making a dangerous journey to France. He explains his decision by saying that “if I were not prepared to submit to a few inconveniences for the sake of Tellson’s, after all these years, who ought to be?” however, his actions strongly contradict his words. He time and again claims that he is only concerned with his business; he shows great love and affection to the Manette’s family. It is Lorry who helps Dr. Manette when he lapses into madness after Lucie’s marriage. 

He explains the episode to Dr. Manette by saying that he is narrating the case of a hypothetical patient. The end of the life or Mr. Lorry is described in the vision of Sidney Carton as “the good old man, so long their friend, in ten years’ time, enriching them with all he has, and passing tranquility to his reward.” The character of Mr. Lorry symbolizes the life of someone who lives conferring on the integrity and principles of both personal and professional life. 

Jerry Cruncher

He is a worker of Tellson’s Bank. He is a short-tempered, gruff, illiterate, and uneducated person. He has the second source of his earnings by doing a job of a “Resurrection-Man.” He digs up the graves and sells the dead bodies to a scientist for experiments.

She is Lucie’s maid who raised her. She is a tough, gruff, and loyal servant. As she is a symbol of loyalty and order, she is a foil to Madame Defarge – the one who is an epitome of chaos and disorder.

Marquis Evrémonde

He is the French aristocrat and the uncle of Charles Darnay. He is the embodiment of inhumanity and supports the brutal caste system. He displays no sign of humanity in the novel and wants all peasants of the world to terminate.

Mr. Stryver

He is a determined lawyer. He wants to climb the social ladder by marrying Lucie Manette. He is a proud, bombastic, and foolish person.

John Barsad or Roger Cly

 John Barsad and Roger Cly are the same person but switch their roles according to the need of the situation. In England and France both, he swears to be loyal to the state, and all his actions are inspired by patriotism. He spies for the British under the name Roger Cly, while in Paris is named as John Barsad. He claims to a person of a high reputation. However, he is involved in crafty planning.

He is the servant of Evremondes and is charged with the allegation of keeping the estate of Evremondes after the death of Marquis Evremonde. The revolutionaries imprisoned him, and he wrote a letter to Charles Darnay for him. This letter makes Darnay visit France and save him.

Themes in A Tale of Two Cities

Resurrection and transformation.

The novel A Tale of Two Cities By Charles Dickens illustrates the possibility of transformation and resurrection. Charles Dickens, in the novel, declares that resurrection and transformation are possible on a personal level, as well as social level. The death/sacrifice of Sidney Carton not only restores the peaceful life of Charles Darnay but also of Lucie Manette and Dr. Manette and Sidney Carton himself. Carton rises to the status of heroism by providing himself with execution. He becomes a Christ-like figure who restores and rescues the lives of others by his death. Even he gives meaning and value to his life. Moreover, at the end of the novel, the narrative suggests that the life of Sidney Carton – like Christ’s life – will be resurrected as Sidney Carton gains immortality in the hearts of people whom he died for.

Moreover, the novel also asserts that the destruction of the old Monarchy of France is a way to the new and beautiful Paris that Carton envisions during execution. Though Carton spends most of his life in idleness and sloth, his final deed shows the human potential for better change. Though most of the novel describes the cruelness of aristocrats and outrageous peasants both, it also delivers the belief that this violence will pave the way for a better society.

The theme of resurrection Dr. Manette is also called forth by Mr. Lorry, who sends a secret message saying that “recalled to Life.” According to this, the 18 years long imprisonment of Dr. Manette is considered as death. The love of Lucie restores Dr. Manette’s life and supports the notion of rebirth.   

The Inevitability of Sacrifice

The themes of resurrection are associated with the theme of the necessity of sacrifice. The resurrection reinforces the idea that for the attainment of happiness, sacrifice is necessary. This theme, like the theme of resurrection, is also applicable to both personal and national life. For instance, the French Revolution in France portrays the idea that a democratic and liberal can be established only with a high coast. In order to bring the change, personal loyalties and affection must be sacrificed.

Similarly, when Charles Darnay is arrested for the second time by the revolutionaries, the guard reminds Dr. Manette of the predominance of the interest of the state against the personal interest. A similar lesson is given to Monsieur Defarge by Madame Defarge when he shows his devotion to Dr. Manette. Lastly, the transformation of Carton into a man of moral worth is only possible when he sacrifices his old self. He not only rescues his friend but also guarantees his rebirth by choosing to die.

The Propensity to Fierceness and Tyranny in Revolutionaries

The novel, A Tale of Two Cities, illustrates the Dickens’ uncertain approach to the French Revolution. Though he supports the causes that give rise to the French Revolution, he highlights the wickedness of the revolutionaries as well. Dickens profoundly understands the dilemma of the French peasantry and stresses on their necessity for freedom. 

The chapters in the novel that deals with the oppression of Marquis Evremonde effectively show an image of malicious upper classes that blatantly abuses and subjugates the poor class. Though Dickens denounces this subjugation, he also denounces the strategies of the poor classes to gain liberation against it. The peasants do not affect the Revolution truly by fighting against the barbarism with barbarism. Instead, they only give rise to the chaos they suffered themselves. 

While depicting the mobs, in the novel, Dickens makes a standpoint and proves it. The scene in which the revolutionaries sharpen their weapons and dance at the execution of the aristocrat is marked as morbid. The apt view of Dickens is illustrated in the last chapter in which he says that “Sow the same seed of rapacious license and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same fruit according to its kind.” The revolutionaries are turning from oppressed to oppressors. Indeed, the French Revolution is a symbol of resurrection and transformation, and he also highlights the violent act stating it to be opposing it causes.

The French Revolution is caused by class conflict and social unrest in France. The ruling class and the monarchs have done nothing but spent their lives in luxury and wealth. A Tale of Two Cities sarcastically spoofs the affectations of the aristocrats by showing how four servants are busy serving a cup of chocolate to their master. 

The narrator says, “Deep would have been the blot upon his escutcheon if his chocolate had been ignobly waited on by only three men.” The French aristocrats are not only lazy and spoiled, but they are also brutal and do not regard the lives of poor peasants. After killing a child under his carriage, Monseigneur heatless tells the poor peasant that he “would ride over any of you very willingly, and exterminates you from the earth.” Moral complexity is added to the novel as Dickens does show not only the brutality and oppression of the upper class but also shows the violence of the lower class.

The theme of justice presents in the novel through the institutions that are responsible for serving justice and as well as through the individuals who want to attain justice outside the courtroom. In the novel, the imprisonments and the trials represent justice. Though the legal systems are designed to provide justice to the masses, the prisons and courts, most of the time, punish the innocent people. As the legal system failed to provide justice, the individual seeks it outside it. When Gaspard’s son is killed, he realizes that the legal system will never give him justice against the strong and powerful aristocrat, thus killing Marquis in his bed. Similarly, Madame Defarge has been scheming against the Evremonde’s family for years because she knows that the legal system cannot stand against the wealth and power of Evremondes.

Oppression and Revolution

The novel A Tale of Two Cities is based on the French Revolution that started in France in 1789. In the novel, Charles Dickens shows how the oppression of the rulers of France nourished wrath in the masses that ultimately resulted in the rebellion. This process is depicted through the character of Marquis, Evremonde, his treatment with the common people. He killed a child and was not ashamed of it.

Though the reasons for common people to revolt against the brutal aristocrats are justifiable, and the ideals of equality, liberty, and fraternity of the French Revolution were highly praised, Dickens seems to be more pessimistic about it.  He shows that the revolutionaries fight against oppression and violence with further oppression and violence. This symbolizes that no matter who is in power, whether common people or the aristocrats will fall prey to the pull to use complete power and suppress others. In short, Dickens illustrates that the way oppression causes Revolution, Revolution, also cases oppression. The cycle can only be broken when mercy and justice are practiced.

Secrecy and Surveillance

In the novel, A Tale of Two Cities, every character seems to have a secret. The forgotten history of Dr. Manette is detailed in his hidden letter; the secret profession of Jerry Cruncher; the attitude of Mr. Lorry regarding his profession; the past of Charles Darnay; the underground activities of Madame Defarge and Monsieur Defarge. 

The prevailing political instability at the counter results in this secrecy. In Book One, Chapter Three, the narrator points out that “A wonderful fact to reflect upon, that every human creature is constituted to be that profound secret and mystery to every other. A solemn consideration, when I enter a great city by night, that every one of those darkly clustered houses encloses its own secret; that every room in every one of them encloses its own secret; that every beating heart in the hundreds of thousands of breasts there, is, in some of its imaginings, a secret to the heart nearest it.”

The French aristocrats and the commoner both have spies to find out what their enemies are up to.  Both sides inflict harsh punishments once they suspect anyone is spying on them. In such circumstances, no one trusts anyone and suspects everyone. To survive, they all feel the necessity to keep secrets.

Fate and History

Lucie Manette and Madame Defarge identify with the Fates – the mythological goddesses who actually control the “threads.” Lucie is titled as the “golden thread,” whereas Madame Defarge is seen as constantly knitting in the novel. The novel A Tale of Two Cities is concerned with the theme of human destiny due to the presence of these two “Fate” characters. The novel deals with how history shapes the fate of the individual. In the novel, Dr. Manette and Charles Darnay try to change their destinies. Charles makes his way to England and tries to escape the cruel history of his family; however, circumstances made him go to France and face the consequences of his family’s past. Similarly, Dr. Manette uses his connection and influence to rescue Charles Darnay; however, he forgets his own letter that causes his execution. Dickens suggests that forces of history cannot be defeated by political influences but by self-sacrifice.

A Tale of Two Cities Analysis

The novel A Tale of Two Cities is an account of the main conflict between Charles Darnay and Madame Defarge. Charles Darnay wants to break his connection with his family, whereas Madame Defarge wants to hold him responsible for the sins of his family and punish him. The conflict between Madame Defarge and Charles Dafarge embodies the characteristics of the French Revolution. On the one hand, the French Revolution was a response to the injustices done to the peasants’ class over the years; on the other hand, this Revolution causes the death of many innocent people who have not done anything wrong. 

Being in association with the institution of exploitation was enough to execute a person. In the novel, Charles Darnay is sentenced to death because he is the son and nephew of the Evremonde’s brothers. The plot of the story is structured in the past before the action of the story begins. The two Evremonde’s brothers abused a peasant girl and brother and then killed him. To eliminate any witness, they also imprisoned Dr. Manette. At the end of the novel, Madame Defarge turns out to be the sister of the abused girl.  

The readers learn about the causes of Madame Defarge’s action at the end of the novel. However, they have been driving the plot and reflect that how history discloses. The chaotic Revolution does not start all of a sudden; it is the result of the decades’ old exploitation and injustices by power. Likewise, the crimes that were committed years before by the old generation haunted the new generation and held them accountable for it.

Abstract ideas and concepts in a literary text are represented by objects, characters, and figures. Following are the symbols in the novel A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

The wine shop of Madame Defarge and Monsieur Defarge is the center where revolutionary planning is going on secretly. The wine in the novel symbolizes the strong power of the French Revolution.  The revolutionaries, drunk on power, turned from the freedom fighters into the wild beasts on the streets murdering everyone. The deep red color of the wine shows the red color of the blood. When the wine drops from the container, the people rush towards it. It shows how these people are bloodthirsty. Just like the wine everywhere on the streets when the sailor could not transport it to the shop properly, after the Revolution, blood is everywhere. 

Golden Thread and knitting

Lucie Manette and Madame Defarge identify with the Fates – the mythological goddesses who actually control the “threads.” Lucie is titled as the “golden thread,” whereas Madame Defarge is seen as constantly “knitting” in the novel. Lucie tries to connect the people around him and is the source of their bondage, whereas, Madame Defarge plans to separate them by knitting their names in the mental register. The novel A Tale of Two Cities is concerned with the theme of human destiny due to the presence of these two “Fate” characters. The novel deals with how history shapes the fate of the individual.

It is the machine designed to execute the people who are sentenced to death. It is one of the everlasting symbols of the French Revolution. The guillotine in the novel shows how the chaos created by the Revolution is institutionalized. It shows how the life of humans is cheap, and murdering has become so easy and emotionless. The guillotine is the death of the ideals of the French Revolution: equality, fraternity, liberty, or death.

Footsteps and Shoes

Lucie hears the footsteps of all the people coming into the lives of Manette’s family. These footsteps symbolize fate. It shows how the fate of Lucie is connected with people coming into her life. Similarly, in his madness, Dr. Manette is always seen as making shoes. Shoes are the symbol of the inevitable past. 

The Marquis

The character of the Marquis Evrémonde is an archetype of wicked and corrupt social institutions. He exploits the lives of peasants and is completely indifferent to their sufferings. Marquis is a symbol of the brutal aristocrat and cruelty that drives the peasants to revolt against them.

The recurrent images, structures, and literary devices in a literary text are called Motifs.  The emphasis on the idea helps develop the major themes of a work. The following are the motifs in the novel A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens.

The very opening words of the novel suggest that the narrative of the novel is centered on the double. The novel opens with the words: “It was the best of times; it was the worst of times.” Likewise, the plot of the story is based on the “two cities”: London and Paris. Moreover, Dickens also doubled the characters to highlight the main theme of the novel. The two important female characters in the novel act totally opposite to each other. Madame Defarge is an evil character, while Lucie is loving and affectionate. 

Dickens does not compare the two cities or characters by placing them opposite to each other, and he also creates the twins that make the plot of the novel melodramatic. The character of Darnay resembles Sidney Carton in looks. Carton saves the life of Sidney twice by taking advantage of his resemblance to Charles Darney.

Imprisonment

The characters in the novel are struggling against some sort of imprisonment. In the case of Dr. Manette and Charles Darnay, the struggle is evident as they are kept in prison in the jails of Paris. However, the novel also suggests that past memories also serve as the function of prison. Dr. Manette cannot get over his memories of the torturing past he spent in prison. Similarly, Sidney Carton spends much of his life thinking of harsh memories of the past.

Setting of the Novel

The very title of the novel indicates the two settings of the novel. The novel is set in London and Paris. The main action of the novel starts in the year 1775 with Lucie Manette discovering that her father, Dr. Manette is not dead but had been in prison for the last 18 years and ends with the Carton’s sacrifice to the Manette’s family in 1793. The key events of the plot occur in the year 1757 (before the novel begins). This year, Dr. Manette was arrested by the Evremondes. Due to the two settings, Dickens incorporates many storylines occurring at both places simultaneously. All these storylines are brought together in the last part of the novel, where every character of the novel is seen in Paris.

The two settings give a chance to Charles Dickens to compare and contrast the two cities. The novel criticizes both cities differently. London, in particular, and England in general, are portrayed as conservative, old fashioned, and at odds with the times. The narrator voices Dickens by comparing England to a father who “did very often disinherit his sons for suggesting improvements in laws and customs.”

On the other hand, Paris is portrayed as a place of high tension and is on the peak of chaos, for example, and the narrator describes Saint Antoine in the first chapter as “a narrow winding street, full of offense and stench.” It is the place where the violence of the Revolution is at peak. This setting is dominated by the muskets, cannons, and smoke and fire along with the masses that are bloodthirsty.

The style of the novel A Tale of Two Cities is grandiose. The narrator is omniscient who can see both the past and future. The narrator uses his perspective to comment on human nature and foreshadows the upcoming events. The style of the novel also contributes to the outcome of unfolding history. The style also dominates when the narrator describes the prophetic vision of Sidney Carton about the future of Paris.

The novel has a threatening and philosophical tone. All over the novel, the narrator foreshadows the uncountable sufferings this to come. The narrator also employed images that help to create a dark and threatening tone.

Point of View

The point of view of the novel A Tale of Two Cities has a third-person omniscient. The events of the plot are recounted by the all-knowing and all-seeing narrator. The narrator also provides an understanding of the feelings and thoughts of the characters. The point of view helps to provide a thorough perspective on the historical events that occur in different places. It also allows the panoramic view of all the events taking place in the two cities: London and Paris.

The novel A Tale of Two Cities belongs to the genre of historical fiction. Though the novel was published in 1859, the main plot of the novel is set in 1775, the years before the French Revolution. The opening line of the novel gives a sense of the time to the reader:

It was the best of times; it was the worst of times,

it was the age of wisdom; it was the age of foolishness,

it was the epoch of belief; it was the epoch of incredulity…

The plot of historical fiction is set before the time it is actually written. It provides a critical view of the events of the past and helps the readers to think more critically than the facts given by historians.

More From Charles Dickens

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Reading Questions for A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

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A Tale of Two Cities

By charles dickens.

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• Dickens is known for his ability to create exaggerated, overblown characters, whose eccentricities are maximized for narrative effect. Develop an argument about why the exaggeration of that characters’ qualities is significant to the narrative.

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• A Tale of Two Cities: Summary
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Home — Essay Samples — Literature — Books — A Tale of Two Cities

Essays on A Tale of Two Cities

Prompt examples for "a tale of two cities" essays, the theme of resurrection.

Explore the theme of resurrection in "A Tale of Two Cities." How does the concept of resurrection manifest in various characters and situations throughout the novel, and what is its significance?

Character Analysis: Sydney Carton

Analyze the character of Sydney Carton. How does his transformation and ultimate sacrifice contribute to the themes and message of the novel?

The Contrasting Cities of London and Paris

Compare and contrast the cities of London and Paris as depicted in the novel. How do these settings represent different aspects of society and revolution?

The Role of Fate and Coincidence

Discuss the role of fate and coincidence in the lives of the characters. How do chance encounters and twists of fate drive the plot and shape the characters' destinies?

Social Injustice and Class Struggles

Examine the themes of social injustice and class struggles in "A Tale of Two Cities." How do these issues lead to the French Revolution, and what commentary does Dickens offer on society?

The Sacrifice of Darnay and Carton

Discuss the theme of sacrifice in the novel, focusing on the sacrifices made by Charles Darnay and Sydney Carton. What motivates their sacrifices, and what do they achieve?

The Influence of History and Politics

Analyze the historical and political context of the novel. How do real historical events, such as the French Revolution, impact the story and its characters?

The Role of Women in "A Tale of Two Cities"

Examine the portrayal and significance of female characters in the novel, such as Lucie Manette and Madame Defarge. How do they contribute to the themes and conflicts of the story?

Violence and Revenge

Discuss the themes of violence and revenge in the novel. How do these themes drive the actions of characters and influence the outcome of the story?

Dickens's Commentary on Humanity

Explore Charles Dickens's commentary on the nature of humanity and the possibility of redemption as presented in "A Tale of Two Cities."

Duality of Jerry Cruncher

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A Tale of Two Cities: Resurrection Theme

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A Tale of Two Cities: Sacrificial Way of Characters

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A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens: The Impact of Close Relationships on People

Analysis of sydney carton’s character in a tale of two cities by charles dickens, dickens’ use of foreshadowing in a tale of two cities, charles dickens’ use of fate as portrayed in his book, a tale of two cities, the popularity of the theme of death in the literature of the 17th-19th centuries, overcoming all odds in a tale of two cities, how charles dicken makes england a mirror of france in a tale of two cities, the theme of pollution of power in a tale of two cities, love and hatred in a tale of two cities, justice and sacrifice in charles dickens’ a tale of two cities, a tale of two cities: history of prisons.

Charles Dickens

Historical Novel

• Book the First (November 1775): Jerry Cruncher, Jarvis Lorry, Lucie Manette, Monsieur Defarge, Madame Defarge, Jacques One, Two, and Three, Dr Alexandre Manette
• Book the Second (Five years later): Mrs Cruncher, Young Jerry Cruncher, Charles Darnay, John Barsad, Roger Cly, Mr Stryver, Sydney Carton, Miss Pross, "Monseigneur", Marquis St. Evrémonde, Gaspard, The Mender of Roads, Théophile Gabelle
• Book the Third (Autumn 1792): The Vengeance, The Seamstress

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The Incredibles: a Tale of a Superhero Family

This essay about “A Raisin in the Sun” by Lorraine Hansberry explores the intricate dynamics of hope, resilience, and identity within the Younger family. Through vivid characters and poignant storytelling, it navigates the struggles of the family amidst poverty and discrimination in mid-20th century Chicago. Themes of the pursuit of the American Dream, the clash between aspirations and realities, and the quest for self-discovery are examined, offering timeless reflections on the human condition. As the characters confront societal pressures and internal conflicts, the narrative prompts readers to reflect on the enduring power of hope and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.

How it works

In the vast expanse of literary exploration, few works shine as brightly as Lorraine Hansberry’s “A Raisin in the Sun.” This timeless narrative weaves a tapestry of human experience, offering a glimpse into the hopes, dreams, and struggles of the Younger family. Yet, beyond its surface, the play delves deep into the labyrinth of human desires and the intricate interplay between aspiration and reality.

At its core, “A Raisin in the Sun” is a symphony of longing and resilience. The Younger family, ensnared by the chains of poverty and discrimination, yearns for a life beyond the confines of their small Chicago apartment.

Lena Younger, the steadfast matriarch, clings to the dream of homeownership as a beacon of hope in a world rife with uncertainty. Her unwavering determination reflects not just a desire for material comfort, but a testament to the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.

Beneath Lena’s stoic exterior lies a whirlwind of conflicting desires and unspoken fears. Walter Lee, her son, grapples with the weight of societal expectations and the burden of providing for his family. His dreams of financial success are tempered by the harsh realities of systemic oppression, forcing him to confront the limitations of his own ambition. Through Walter Lee’s journey, we are confronted with the harsh realities of race and class, and the delicate balance between individual aspiration and collective responsibility.

Moreover, “A Raisin in the Sun” offers a poignant exploration of identity and heritage in the face of adversity. Beneatha, the fiercely independent daughter, seeks to carve out her own path amidst a world that seeks to erase her individuality. Her quest for self-discovery takes her on a journey of cultural exploration and personal growth, challenging the boundaries of tradition and expectation. Through Beneatha’s eyes, we witness the resilience of the human spirit in the face of prejudice and oppression.

As we journey deeper into the heart of Hansberry’s narrative, we are confronted with uncomfortable truths and profound revelations about the human condition. “A Raisin in the Sun” transcends the confines of its time and place, offering a timeless reflection on the universal themes of hope, resilience, and the pursuit of happiness. Through its rich tapestry of characters and its evocative imagery, the play invites us to confront our own hopes, fears, and aspirations, and to question the very essence of what it means to be human.

In conclusion, “A Raisin in the Sun” stands as a testament to the enduring power of storytelling and the resilience of the human spirit. Through its vivid characters, compelling narrative, and timeless themes, Lorraine Hansberry’s masterpiece continues to captivate audiences and provoke thought-provoking discussions about race, identity, and the pursuit of the American Dream. As we navigate the complexities of our own lives, the lessons of the Younger family’s journey serve as a poignant reminder of the indomitable human spirit and the enduring power of hope in the face of adversity.

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Essay: A Tale of Two Megalopolises

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A Tale of Two Megalopolises

What new cities in Saudi Arabia and Egypt tell us about their autocrats.

• Middle East and North Africa

Two extraordinary cities are being built in the Middle East. In Egypt, the first residents have started moving into a new administrative capital that has been underway for nearly a decade. The as-yet-unnamed city boasts monumental buildings, including the region’s largest Coptic church , the country’s largest mosque , and giant ministries inspired by Egypt’s pre-Islamic architecture.

Saudi Arabia, meanwhile, has staked its bets on a much less conventional city. It’s unclear whether the futuristic megastructure in the desert, called The Line , will ever be built, but it has already gained a firm place in the global imagination: For some, it’s a truly grand ambition to remake a nation; for others, it’s a megalomanic effort seeking to distract from the reality of a brutal autocracy.

The two cities reveal very different strategies of how autocracies attempt to shore up legitimacy in the 21st century. Egyptian President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi, an old-style despot-cum-technocrat, promises modernization, the same way many bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes did in the 20th century. By contrast, Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman not only promotes a kind of sci-fi fantasy but cleverly appeals to cosmopolitan, even countercultural, sensibilities as he seeks to rebrand his regime at home and abroad.

Sisi’s government has proved far more repressive than the Mubarak regime it replaced after the interlude of the Arab Spring. Beyond “order,” its claim to legitimacy has been modernization and material benefits. It is building a range of new cities , such as New El-Alamein on the Mediterranean coast, in an apparent effort to attract wealthy tourists. The official justification for the unnamed new capital—which will cost an estimated $59 billion in a country with already dangerous levels of national debt—is to relieve Cairo, one of the world’s most polluted and congested cities. But it also appears to have a political purpose: Like Naypyidaw, the capital created by the military in Myanmar, it is located safely away from unruly urban masses.

The new city, built 30 miles east of Cairo, is hardly aesthetically distinctive. It is spread out in the desert, with skyscrapers, malls, and enormous so-called compounds—effectively, gated communities—all separated by large spaces. (Despite the lack of greenery and difficulties with water access, many of these communities have names such as “Palm Hills” and “Botanica.”) The city also contains a central business district built by Chinese engineers. If anything, Egypt has made some timid efforts to emulate Dubai by constructing what on paper are superlatives, including the world’s tallest flagpole, which may or may not attract foreigners.

Sisi’s approach is textbook technocracy, implemented by a military bent on grabbing ever larger shares of the economy. The military’s budget is shrouded in secrecy; its enterprises, from cement to foodstuffs, according to outside observers, remain unaudited and untaxed . Recruits can provide cheap labor, and the presence of army officers in so many different areas of economic life means the state can detect discontent early. This entire model, which has been described as a military with a state attached to it , would have been recognizable to observers in the second half of the 20th century.

Workers share a meal as they rest underneath a billboard advertising a construction development in Egypt’s new administrative capital on March 7, 2021. Ahmed Hasan/AFP via Getty Images

Yet while bureaucratic authoritarianism is not dead, it is hardly a major trend. The world is moving away from openly repressive regimes, such as Sisi’s, that are unashamed of notoriety for human rights violations—what social scientists Sergei Guriev and Daniel Treisman call “fear dictatorships.” In their place, we are seeing more “ spin dictatorships ,” or autocracies that skillfully manipulate public opinion at home and abroad to appear open and modern. To be sure, they keep repression in reserve: As Russian President Vladimir Putin has demonstrated, an autocrat who wants to be recognized as a democratic leader by the West can drop all pretense and decide to shut down any remaining oppositional media and lock up critics. Still, Guriev and Treisman have shown empirically that today’s authoritarians overall use less violence; it’s been a shift from terror to public relations.

Mohammed bin Salman, The Line’s prime promoter , seems to know that he desperately needs better PR. Internationally, his name remains associated with that of Jamal Khashoggi, the journalist and dissident who was killed and dismembered in the Saudi Consulate in Istanbul in 2018. To change Saudi Arabia’s image, Mohammed bin Salman has gone beyond conventional promises of top-down modernization. His economic reform plan, “Vision 2030,” comprises projects from luxury tourism to investments in green energy and sports. These changes require getting Saudis to acquire new skills—which is one reason the regime is importing Western labor to build up a film industry , for instance—and bringing more young men into the workforce. The point is not just nation-branding but also nation-building, with megaprojects supposed to inspire local pride.

An image shows the location of The Line project during an expo in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, on Nov. 15, 2022. Eliot Blondet/abacapress.com via Reuters

The most astonishing of these projects is The Line, a linear city that’s expected to be 106 miles long, with parallel skyscrapers 1,640 feet high and 656 feet across. It is part of a $500 billion plan to develop “Neom,” a new region in the country’s northwest. Unlike conventional, sprawling cities, The Line is being promoted as environmentally friendly: Its long corridor, with mirrors facing the desert, will supposedly have minimal impact on the surrounding environment; there will be no cars—and in fact, no carbon emissions at all—but instead an underground high-speed train running beneath the entire city.

According to a Saudi exhibition in Venice’s Abbazia di San Gregorio in 2023, The Line will offer a “ubiquitous public realm,” presumably as part of what Mohammed bin Salman touts as “enhanced human livability.” The high-tech show, titled “ Zero Gravity Urbanism ,” featured famous architects’ proposals for the megastructure, from David Adjaye to Coop Himmelb(l)au, the Austrian firm that designed the European Central Bank in Frankfurt.

The idea of a linear city is not new. The Spanish highway engineer Arturo Soria y Mata pioneered the concept in the 1880s when he envisioned a city, built along a tramway, that would shorten commuting times and maximize health and well-being. Early in the 20th century, the visionary U.S. city planner Edgar Chambless followed with a linear design to span the entire United States; linear city proposals were also prominent in the Soviet Union; and, as late as the mid-1960s, leading U.S. architects Peter Eisenman and Michael Graves drew up a linear city that would connect Boston and Washington.

None of these projects really came to fruition. To be sure, the promises were appealing: efficient transportation and the possibility of easily extending a city without it expanding in unplanned ways. But precisely to prevent sprawl, linear cities have been premised on exceptional levels of control: The people who want to live in them are supposed to get in line and stay in line.

The Line does not just promise the realization, at last, of a linear city. It also picks up ideas developed by the experimental architectural groups Archigram and Superstudio in the 1960s. Both were known for their avant-garde designs, such as the former’s “Walking City,” a structure on giant metal legs that could move freely around the Earth, and the latter’s “Continuous Monument,” a linear structure in the desert and other landscapes that eerily prefigures The Line.

Yet Archigram and Superstudio did not draw blueprints to be picked up by investors or autocrats interested in what the urban theorist Mike Davis once called , apropos Dubai, “imagineered urbanism.” Rather, their intentions were decidedly subversive. The collectives were critical of consumer capitalism; “Continuous Monument,” for instance, questioned a total urbanization of the globe bound to destroy nature. “If design is merely an inducement to consume, then we must reject design; if architecture is merely the codifying of the bourgeois models of ownership and society, then we must reject architecture,” Adolfo Natalini, Superstudio’s co-founder, said in 1971. Superstudio positioned itself as anti-design and anti-architecture in the name of anti-consumerism and anti-capitalism.

Even so, there are surprising continuities between the countercultural movements of the 1960s and The Line. One of the architects involved in Neom is Peter Cook, a British founder of Archigram. Lavishly produced coffee table books on The Line available at the Venice exhibition claimed that the city’s inspiration was none other than punk: Through aggressive anti-establishment sounds and gestures, punk signified the maximum disruption of music; The Line’s creators, by getting rid of something as fundamental as the street, think they are maximally disrupting the traditional understanding of the city. The books indicated that residents of The Line would mostly be creative types from abroad. The Line, one book claimed, seeks to attract “free thinkers” to its “carefree open urban space.”

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Visitors explore models of The Line project during an expo in Riyadh on Nov. 15, 2022. Balkis Press/abacapress.com via Reuters

It is not clear how much work has really been done on The Line—never mind whether the project will be realized as planned or remain what the journalist Graeme Wood has called an “ urbanist cargo cult .” Just like a venture capitalist, Mohammed bin Salman seems to bet on different spectacular creations; some might pan out, some not. In April, reports spread that the megastructure might not be so mega anymore or at least not anytime soon. Rather than aiming for 1.5 million inhabitants by 2030, the goal is now 300,000, and The Line’s length has been reduced to a mile and a half.

The project is not without its critics, and there remain serious questions about its feasibility. As of now, no train exists that can travel as fast as what the PR materials about The Line suggest. It’s unclear how the city’s architects will ensure fire safety and how ambulances would get around without streets. Furthermore, studies indicate that a circular city would be better for the environment . Little thought seems to have been spared for birds that could fly into the gigantic mirror walls, wildlife that could no longer cross the desert, or the people who already live there: Up to 20,000 of the area’s current inhabitants, members of the Huwaitat tribe , could be displaced. Human rights groups have said the regime has severely punished critics of the project, and one activist from the tribe has been shot dead .

Still, a regime run by a fundamentalist royal family is appropriating avant-garde ideas to rebrand itself—not just as “modern” but as distinctly hip and free. In this sense, it is comparable to the artistic experiments of the very early Soviet Union, before Joseph Stalin opted for a conventional approach to art and architecture. Of course, the art and music industries have never had a problem appropriating cultural products meant to subvert them. But just as capitalism makes no concessions when it comes to profit, so autocrats make no concessions when it comes to control. The coffee table books featured not only hipsters but also uniformed staff whose attire looked as if it had been inspired by representatives of the Empire in Star Wars.

As the architecture critic Christopher Hawthorne recently put it , “utopian architecture, as distinct from other varieties, happens twice: the first time as critique, second as control.” The Line, after all, will be “ run by AI ” as the world’s first “ cognitive city .” Nobody has explained what this means, though full-scale surveillance seems inevitable.

It would be a mistake to dismiss everything that is happening in Saudi Arabia as PR or to assume that all that is PR is necessarily effective; even articles that associate Mohammed bin Salman with “ cyberpunk ” or “ cool Arabia ” contain the name Khashoggi. The real lesson is that new-style autocracies need narratives and spin. The more fantastical the project, the more potential for enticing stories. Other rulers will get the point, and they will talk—and maybe even one day build—accordingly.

Jan-Werner Müller is a professor of politics at Princeton University. His most recent book is Democracy Rules .

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An Unprecedented Trial Opens With Two Visions of Trump

The prosecution’s opening statement sketched a seamy scheme meant to further the election of Donald J. Trump. His lawyer said the government’s case is merely “34 pieces of paper.”

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By Jonah E. Bromwich and Ben Protess

Manhattan prosecutors delivered a raw recounting of Donald J. Trump’s seamy past on Monday as they debuted their case against him to jurors, the nation and the world, reducing the former president to a co-conspirator in a plot to cover up three sex scandals that threatened his 2016 election win.

Their opening statement was a pivotal moment in the first prosecution of an American president, a sweeping synopsis of the case against Mr. Trump, who watched from the defense table, occasionally shaking his head. Moments later, Mr. Trump’s lawyer delivered his own opening, beginning with the simple claim that “President Trump is innocent,” then noting that he is once again the presumptive Republican nominee and concluding with an exhortation for jurors to “use your common sense.”

The jury of 12 New Yorkers who will weigh Mr. Trump’s legal fate before millions of voters decide his political future also heard brief testimony from the prosecution’s leadoff witness, David Pecker, a former tabloid publisher who was close with Mr. Trump. Mr. Pecker, who ran The National Enquirer, testified that his supermarket tabloids practiced “checkbook journalism.” In this case, prosecutors say, he bought and buried stories that could have imperiled Mr. Trump’s 2016 campaign.

The flurry of activity on the landmark trial’s first formal day captivated jurors, many of whom jotted notes as they followed along.

And it sent nervous energy through a Lower Manhattan courthouse as bomb-sniffing dogs, the U.S. Secret Service and the police patrolled the dingy building. The spectacle was a vivid reminder of the proceeding’s unprecedented nature: A courthouse accustomed to cycling through trials of murderers, fraudsters and felons of all types now had its first former president.

On Monday, the trial ended early and with little fanfare, to accommodate the Passover holiday and a juror’s emergency dental appointment.

But it began in striking fashion, with the judge, Juan M. Merchan, determining what prosecutors could ask of Mr. Trump should he take the witness stand in his own defense. In a victory for the prosecution, the judge ruled that they could question him about three civil trials he lost over the last year — including a fraud case in which a different judge found him liable for conspiring to inflate his net worth, and penalized him hundreds of millions of dollars.

Matthew Colangelo , a senior aide to the Manhattan district attorney, Alvin L. Bragg, then seized on what he called a conspiracy in the criminal case. Over the course of a 45-minute opening, as Mr. Bragg watched from the front row, Mr. Colangelo calmly walked the jury through the prosecution’s argument that Mr. Trump orchestrated the plot to corrupt the 2016 election.

The scheme, he explained, involved hush-money deals with three people who had salacious stories to sell: a porn star, a Playboy model and a doorman at one of Mr. Trump’s buildings.

Mr. Trump, who faces up to four years in prison, directed allies to buy those people’s silence to protect his candidacy, Mr. Colangelo explained. Mr. Pecker took care of the model and the doorman, while Michael D. Cohen, Mr. Trump’s former fixer who is set to be the prosecution’s star witness, paid off the porn star.

After taking the White House, Mr. Colangelo added, Mr. Trump agreed to “cook the books” to cover up Mr. Cohen’s $130,000 payment to the porn star, Stormy Daniels. When Mr. Trump reimbursed Mr. Cohen, Mr. Colangelo said, Mr. Trump and his company falsified internal records, disguising the repayments as routine legal expenses.

Mr. Trump faces 34 felony counts of falsifying business records, one for each false check, ledger and invoice.

The former president lied “over and over and over” again, Mr. Colangelo emphatically said, casting him as a conniving criminal.

But Mr. Trump’s lawyer Todd Blanche sought to undercut the prosecution’s lofty rhetoric with a more innocuous distillation of the case, calling it a “business records violation” that wasn’t.

Instead, he said, it was “just 34 pieces of paper.”

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Mr. Blanche placed blame on Mr. Cohen, who had hashed out the reimbursement plan with Mr. Trump’s company and pleaded guilty to federal charges for his role. Mr. Blanche contended that “President Trump had nothing to do with the invoice.”

Previewing what is likely to be a recurring motif, Mr. Blanche took aim at Mr. Cohen’s credibility, noting that he “is a criminal” and arguing that he is a scorned former employee who will stop at nothing to put Mr. Trump in prison.

“I submit to you that he cannot be trusted,” Mr. Blanche said, adding, “He’s obsessed with President Trump even to this day.”

Mr. Colangelo insisted, however, that much of Mr. Cohen’s testimony would be corroborated, including by Mr. Pecker and “an extensive paper trail.”

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The opening statements offered dueling interpretations of a case that has transfixed much of the political and legal worlds. Mr. Bragg, in essence, has put Mr. Trump’s 2016 campaign on trial during the heart of the 2024 election.

A year ago, Mr. Bragg was the first prosecutor to indict Mr. Trump. Three other indictments followed in three other cities, on charges that he plotted to overturn his 2020 election loss and mishandled classified records once he was no longer president. But with those cases delayed, Mr. Bragg’s trial may be the only one that Mr. Trump will face before Election Day.

In Monday’s opening statement, Mr. Colangelo unspooled a scathing account of events surrounding Mr. Trump’s insurgent run for the White House.

It began in summer 2015, soon after Mr. Trump announced his candidacy, with a meeting among Mr. Trump, Mr. Pecker and Mr. Cohen. They met at the candidate’s Midtown Manhattan headquarters, where they hatched what the prosecutor called “the Trump Tower conspiracy.”

The plan was to watch out for any damaging stories about Mr. Trump — and then hide them from voters.

Such stories arose swiftly. Soon, Mr. Pecker bought the silence of the doorman, whose story about Mr. Trump fathering a child out of wedlock turned out to be false.

Then came the Playboy model, Karen McDougal, who said she had an affair with Mr. Trump while he was married. The National Enquirer again stepped in, buying the rights to her story and then never publishing it, a practice known in the tabloid business as “catch and kill.”

The third and most legally problematic deal — the $130,000 payoff to Ms. Daniels — took shape in the campaign’s waning weeks.

Ms. Daniels threatened to go public with her decade-old story of sex with Mr. Trump just as his campaign was reeling from the release of the “Access Hollywood” recording, in which Mr. Trump boasts about grabbing women’s genitals.

“The campaign went into immediate damage control mode to blunt the impact of the tape,” Mr. Colangelo said, and that included keeping Ms. Daniels quiet. “Another story about sexual infidelity, especially with a porn star, on the heels of the ‘Access Hollywood’ tape, could have been devastating to his campaign.”

Once Mr. Trump was elected and had to repay Mr. Cohen, he and his company falsified the records to cover it up, Mr. Colangelo said.

“He wanted to conceal his and others’ criminal conduct,” Mr. Colangelo told the jury, arguing that the falsification “shows just how important it was to him to hide the true nature of Cohen’s illegal payment to Ms. Daniels and the overall election conspiracy.”

Mr. Blanche, for his part, disputed that any accusations amounted to election interference. “I have a spoiler alert: There’s nothing wrong with trying to influence an election,” he said. “It’s called democracy. They put something sinister on this idea as if it were a crime. You’ll learn it’s not.”

Mr. Trump is not formally charged with election interference, but the accusation underpins the case.

In New York, falsifying business records is a felony if a defendant did so to conceal another crime. And in this case, Mr. Trump is accused of violating a state law by engaging in “conspiracy to promote or prevent election.” The case could rest upon that assertion.

The judge has allowed prosecutors to discuss the two other hush-money deals, which they will use to bolster the idea that the plot was meant to elect Mr. Trump, not just to protect him and his family from humiliation.

“It was election fraud, pure and simple,” Mr. Colangelo declared.

Kate Christobek , Jesse McKinley and Maggie Haberman contributed reporting.

Jonah E. Bromwich covers criminal justice in New York, with a focus on the Manhattan district attorney’s office and state criminal courts in Manhattan. More about Jonah E. Bromwich

Ben Protess is an investigative reporter at The Times, writing about public corruption. He has been covering the various criminal investigations into former President Trump and his allies. More about Ben Protess

Our Coverage of the Trump Hush-Money Trial

News and Analysis

At Donald Trump's hush-money trial, the former president demands praise and concedes no faults, robbing his lawyers of time-honored defense tactics .

Trump has spent decades spewing thousands and thousands of words, sometimes contradicting himself. That tendency is now working against him in this case .

The testimony of David Pecker , the first witness called in the trial and the former publisher of The National Enquirer, offered a window into the golden era of tabloids .

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