essay about water pollution in sri lanka

• Corpus ID: 250085536

Impacts of water pollution in Sri Lanka

• Keshani Y.H.N
• Published 2022
• Environmental Science

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Complexities of water pollution: a review of surface water contamination in sri lanka, 20 references, water pollution: sources, effects, control and management, environmental pollution and its challenges in sri lanka.

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Water and wastewater related issues in Sri Lanka.

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Spatiotemporal assessment of water pollution for beira lake, sri lanka.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study area, 2.2. sampling process.

• In situ surface water quality monitoring
• Ex situ surface water quality analysis

2.3. Data Analysis

2.4. index analysis, 2.4.1. water pollution index, 2.4.2. trophic state index, 2.4.3. heavy metal pollution index (hpi), 2.5. modeling of sdd using qaa.

• Estimation of IOPs

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of water quality, 3.1.1. key parameters of cod, sd, do, ph, ec, and tds.

• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

3.1.2. Spatiotemporal Variation in Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulphate, Chloride, and Fluoride

• TN, NH 3 -N, and NO 3 − -N
• TP, Sulphate, and Chloride

3.1.3. Spatiotemporal Variation of Heavy Metals

• Mercury (Hg)
• Chromium (Cr)

3.2. Water Quality Assessment Based on Index Analysis

3.2.1. water pollution index (wpi), 3.2.2. trophic state index (tsi), 3.2.3. heavy metal pollution index (hpi).

• Principle Component Analysis between Indices

3.3. Water Quality Comparison in 2016 and 2023, Based on Remote Sensing Data

3.3.1. changes in water transparency, 3.3.2. changes in trophic state, 3.3.3. accuracy assessment, 3.4. recommendation for water quality improvement of beira lake, 3.4.1. comparison of water quality with different urban lakes in sri lanka, 3.4.2. key challenges of restoring beira lake, 3.4.3. recommendations for improving the water quality of beira lake, 4. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Prasad, S.; Wei, Y.; Chaminda, T.; Ritigala, T.; Yu, L.; Jinadasa, K.B.S.N.; Wasana, H.M.S.; Indika, S.; Yapabandara, I.; Hu, D.; et al. Spatiotemporal Assessment of Water Pollution for Beira Lake, Sri Lanka. Water 2024 , 16 , 1616. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111616

Prasad S, Wei Y, Chaminda T, Ritigala T, Yu L, Jinadasa KBSN, Wasana HMS, Indika S, Yapabandara I, Hu D, et al. Spatiotemporal Assessment of Water Pollution for Beira Lake, Sri Lanka. Water . 2024; 16(11):1616. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111616

Prasad, Sangeeth, Yuansong Wei, Tushara Chaminda, Tharindu Ritigala, Lijun Yu, K. B. S. N. Jinadasa, H. M. S. Wasana, Suresh Indika, Isuru Yapabandara, Dazhou Hu, and et al. 2024. "Spatiotemporal Assessment of Water Pollution for Beira Lake, Sri Lanka" Water 16, no. 11: 1616. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111616

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Coastal Pollution in Sri Lanka: Perspectives on the Current Status, Policy Implementation, and Institutional Mechanism

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• D. P. C. Laknath 15 ,
• I. G. I. K. Kumara 15 &
• T. U. S. Manamperi 15  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering ((LNCE,volume 362))

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Coastal Pollution in Sri Lanka was assessed from the perspective of the current status of water quality, policy implementation, and legal/institutional mechanisms. Identification of the status of coastal water pollution is one of the main objectives of this study. Further, the evaluation of the effectiveness of past management policies, strategies, and actions proposed through Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs) and making effective policy recommendations related to coastal water pollution are the other focus areas of this study. The assessment was carried out by analysing the secondary data obtained from different agencies and sources. Thus, the causes and sources of coastal pollution and the current status of coastal pollution in Sri Lanka were assessed. After reviewing the current legal and institutional mechanism, and mitigation measures of coastal pollution, proposals to make effective policies related to coastal water pollution were recommended. Moreover, based on the availability of water quality data, Coastal Zoning for designated uses was preliminary developed for Sri Lanka through this study.

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Acknowledgements

The Department of Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management (DCC & CRM) is gratefully acknowledged by the authors for their various support.

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D. P. C. Laknath, I. G. I. K. Kumara & T. U. S. Manamperi

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Ranjith Dissanayake

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Priyan Mendis

Department of Civil Engineering, The Open University of Sri Lanka, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka

Kolita Weerasekera

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Galle, Sri Lanka

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Shiromal Fernando

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Laknath, D.P.C., Kumara, I.G.I.K., Manamperi, T.U.S. (2023). Coastal Pollution in Sri Lanka: Perspectives on the Current Status, Policy Implementation, and Institutional Mechanism. In: Dissanayake, R., et al. ICSBE 2022. ICSBE 2022. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 362. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3471-3_52

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INTRODUCTION

Materials and methods, conclusions, acknowledgements, data availability statement, conflict of interest, evaluation of water quality in the upper and lower catchments of the kelani river basin, sri lanka.

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Chandima Narangoda , Deeptha Amarathunga , Chandima Deepani Dangalle; Evaluation of water quality in the upper and lower catchments of the Kelani River Basin, Sri Lanka. Water Practice and Technology 1 March 2023; 18 (3): 716–737. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2023.034

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Kelani River is the principal consumable water source for 80% of the population in the Colombo district and an important ecosystem complex for the freshwater fish biota of Sri Lanka. However, it is the most polluted river in the country. The present study was conducted to determine the water quality parameters and pollution of the upper and lower catchments of the river and select the most suitable parameters for predicting the pollution of each catchment. Thirteen locations of each catchment were selected for the study, and 14 water quality parameters were recorded by standard techniques. Measurements were compared with the standard values permissible for drinking purposes and aquatic life and subjected to principal component analysis. The study revealed that the most polluted catchment of the Kelani River was the lower catchment, and the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and water pH were selected as the most suitable parameters to predict the pollution levels of the lower catchment. The nitrate concentration and COD were selected as the most suitable water quality parameters to predict the pollution of the upper catchment. The present study indicates an accelerating trend in water pollution of the Kelani River when compared with studies conducted two decades ago.

The two catchments of the Kelani River were investigated for water quality and pollution.

The lower catchment of the Kelani River was more polluted.

COD and pH of the water are suitable to predict the water quality of the lower catchment.

COD and nitrates are suitable to predict the water quality of the upper catchment.

The study indicates an accelerating trend in water pollution of the Kelani River.

Graphical Abstract

Water resources are the main economic background of a country. In recent years, the amount of renewable water resources in the world has decreased with increasing human population and water demand, climate change, deforestation, urbanization, and pollution ( Gebeyehu et al. 2018 ). Pollution in aquatic environments has become a severe worldwide problem during the past few decades, and no country has succeeded in turning the trend of increasing and accelerating water pollution into a leveling out or decrease ( Dybern 1974 ). Numerous aquatic environments in both developed and developing countries are polluted caused by either development or lack of development. In developing countries due to lack of hygienic facilities, river basins and canals are the only latrines available for the poorer part of the population, and most household wastes and waste from industries are also discharged into the water ( Dybern 1974 ). According to Sikder et al. (2013) , the rivers in developing countries are considered to be more affected with respect to dissolved metal, organic matter and fecal pollution.

Sri Lanka has 103 rivers of which 29 rivers flow directly to the sea while the rest connect to either a major river, salt marsh, lagoon, or lake ( Katupotha & Gamage 2020 ). Many are at a low level of exploitation, except a few that are heavily regulated for domestic and irrigational water supply, and hydropower generation ( Eriyagama et al. 2015 ). The heavily exploited rivers that flow through densely populated and intensively urbanized cities are subjected to severe pollution as can be identified in the Mahaweli River ( Abeygunawardane et al. 2011 ; Bandara et al. 2011 ; Wickramasinghe et al. 2018 ), the Gin Ganga ( Kumar et al. 2019 ), Walawe River ( Ileperuma 2000 ), and Malwathu Oya ( Zoysa & Weerasinghe 2016 ). However, the Kelani River has been identified as the most polluted river in Sri Lanka ( Ileperuma 2000 ; Abeysinghe & Samarakoon 2017 ; Kumar et al. 2019 ).

The Kelani River is the fourth-longest river (144 km) in Sri Lanka ( Kumar et al. 2019 ) and the second largest river in volume of discharge ( Chandimala & Zubair 2007 ). The river originates in the central hills at Kirigalpotha mountain range, 2,420 m above sea level and discharges to the sea 144 km downstream at Colombo ( Chandimala & Zubair 2007 ), passing four administrative districts (Nuwara Eliya, Kegalle, Gampaha, Colombo) and three provinces (Central, Sabaragamuwa, Western) in the country ( Fayas et al. 2019 ). The upper catchment is mountainous and primarily covered with thick vegetation, including tea, rubber, grass and forest ( Kumar et al. 2019 ), while the lower catchment is urbanized ( Kumar et al. 2019 ) and has plain features ( De Silva et al. 2012 ) consisting of rubber and rice cultivations ( Chandimala & Zubair 2007 ). The Kelani River is severely polluted by natural phenomena such as saltwater intrusion ( Ranmadugala et al. 2007 ), flood inundation due to heavy rainfalls ( De Silva et al. 2012 ) and soil erosion ( Fayas et al. 2019 ), and a multitude of anthropogenic activities occurring alongside the river. Many industries such as rubber industries, textile industries, breweries, oil refineries, fertilizer industries, plywood industries and leather tanning factories located along the riverbank, discharge industrial waste into the river, and household wastes are dumped directly via garbage dumping sites close to the river ( Ileperuma 2000 ). The prevalence of Escherichia coli in many locations of the river suggests fecal pollution of the river, especially due to growing populations and poor living standards ( Kumar et al. 2019 ). Furthermore, hydropower reservoirs and mini-hydropower plants have modified the water chemistry, especially the conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), and alkalinity ( Surasinghe et al. 2020 ).

One of the major implications of such geogenic and anthropogenic contamination is groundwater pollution, and recent research has revealed that the groundwater resources of the entire Kelani River Basin are contaminated and raw water consumption is unsafe. The Water Quality Index (WQI) assessment for the groundwater of the Kelani River Basin has ranked the water as ‘poor’ for drinking purposes ( Mahagamage et al. 2016 ), and the entire basin is known to be contaminated with total coliform bacteria ( Mahagamage et al. 2020 ). Most of the groundwater sources are contaminated with human pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp., and Salmonella spp. contaminations are high in groundwater during the dry season than in the wet season ( Mahagamage et al. 2020 ). Furthermore, according to Liyanage et al. (2021) , the groundwater sources of the entire lower part of the Kelani River Basin are contaminated with antibiotics and not suitable for drinking purposes.

However, the Kelani River is the principal consumable water source for 80% (over 6 million) of the human population of the Colombo district ( Surasinghe et al. 2020 ). Furthermore, it is an important ecosystem complex for the freshwater fish biota of Sri Lanka and accounts for a total of 60 fish species of which 30 are endemic ( Surasinghe et al. 2020 ). Therefore, it is important that the water quality parameters of the river be monitored regularly and effectively using accurate pollution predictability features of importance.

Certain water quality parameters and heavy metal concentrations of the Kelani River water have been documented by Ileperuma 2000 ; Mahagamage & Manage 2014 ; Abeysinghe & Samarakoon 2017 ; Kuruppuarachchi & Pathiratne 2020 ; Thotagamuwa & Weerasinghe 2021 .

However, a methodical study assessing the water quality parameters targeting the lower and upper catchments separately has not been conducted. Furthermore, the vector features/parameters that can predict the pollution of the catchments more effectively have not been extracted. Therefore, the present study was conducted to assess the pollution of the lower and upper catchments of the Kelani River and extract the important water quality features that predict the pollution of each catchment. The results of the study will be important for establishing proper water quality management strategic plans and maintaining safe drinking water, which is a significant problem in Sri Lanka and other countries of the Eastern hemisphere which are going through rapid economic development ( Li et al. 2021 ).

The study further intends to compare the pollution of the catchments with previous recordings and evaluate whether the trend of pollution in the river basin has accelerated, leveled out or decreased over the past few years.

Selection of locations

Selected sampling locations of the upper and lower catchments of the Kelani River Basin (adapted from Edussuriya & Pathirage 2016 ). L01: Mattakkuliya, L02: Thotalanga, L03: Wellampitiya Bridge, L04: Kolonnawa, L05: Ambathale Bridge, L06: Biyagama, L07: Kaduwela, L08: Nawagamuwa, L09: Panagoda, L10: Padukka, L11: Hanwella Bridge, L12: Wak Oya, L13: Thummodara, U01: Lahupana Ella, U02: Kotiyakumbura, U03: Bulathkohupitiya, U04: Parussalla, U05: Wee Oya, U06: Panakoora, U07: Alagal Oya, U08: Kithulgala, U09: Kalugala Bridge, U10: Koththallena, U11: Nallathanniya, U12: Goverawela B Division, U13: Bagawanthalawa.

Collection of water samples and measurement of water quality parameters

Statistical analysis.

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted for the water quality parameters of the upper and lower catchments separately using SPSS version 25 statistical software. MANOVA was selected for the analysis rather than ANOVA as the ecological variables used in the study were not independent. Variables that are not independent have potential interactions, and the use of ANOVA will inflate the error of the test. MANOVA will not inflate error and will be more appropriate for testing the ecological variables ( Parsad & Bhar 1987 ). MANOVA was used to determine whether multiple levels of variables on their own or in combination have an effect on the dependent variable. For these four multivariate measures: Wilks’ lambda, Pillai's trace, Hotelling-Lawley trace, and Roy's largest root were calculated to examine the variance in the data. In order to determine whether the locations selected in the study differ according to the considered water quality parameters, the significance values ( p < 0.05) were considered ( Mertler & Reinhart 2016 ). Based on the statistical significance of MANOVA multivariate measures, principal component analysis (PCA) or Factor Analysis was carried out to select the most important water quality variables that will specify the context of the locations. PCA was used as it reduces the dimensionality of the data set when it has a large proportion of interdependent variables while preserving the variability as much as possible ( Jolliffe & Cadima 2016 ; Kalaivani et al. 2020 ). PCA was conducted for the locations of the upper and lower catchments separately, and eigenvalues (i.e., coefficients attached to eigenvectors) were calculated for the 14 water quality parameters. A scree plot was constructed between water quality parameter ( x -axis) and eigenvalue ( y -axis). Factors producing an eigenvalue of more than one were selected using the scree plot and extracted for further analysis. A rotated factor analysis was conducted to determine the correlated water quality parameters that contribute to each extracted factor. A factor analysis examines all the pairwise relationships between individual variables and seeks to extract latent factors from the measured variables. A rotated factor analysis clarifies and simplifies the results of a factor analysis and is easier to interpret ( Osborne 2015 ).

Water quality in the Kelani River Basin

Water temperature.

Variations of the following physical parameters of water in the lower and upper catchments of the Kelani River Basin: (a) water temperature, (b) turbidity, (c) total suspended solids, and (d) electrical conductivity.

According to the Central Environmental Authority, 5–50 NTU levels of turbidity are permissible for inland waters of the country. In the present study, all locations of the upper catchment were within the permissible levels, having the highest value recorded for U2, Kotiyakumbura (25.23 NTU) ( Figure 2(b) ). U2 also had the highest level of TSS (0.048 mg/l) indicating the association between turbidity and TSS and their effect on water clarity ( Figure 2(c) ). Turbidity levels were high in the lower catchment when compared to the upper catchment locations, with a significantly high value at L11, Hanwella Bridge (85.40 NTU) which exceeded the recommended turbidity value ( Figure 2(b) ).

Total suspended solids

Many locations of the lower catchment, including L1 Mattakkuliya, L4 Kolonnawa, L11 Hanwella Bridge, and L12 Wak Oya, had TSS values exceeding the permissible levels, with L5 Ambathale Bridge, the water intake point for purification, having a significantly high value of 45.8 mg/l ( Figure 2(c) ).

Electrical conductivity

Variations of the following chemical parameters of water in the lower and upper catchments of the Kelani River Basin: (a) pH, (b) alkalinity, (c) total hardness, (d) nitrate nitrogen, (e) nitrite nitrogen, (f) ammoniacal nitrogen, (g) phosphate, (h) dissolved oxygen, (i) biological oxygen demand, and (j) chemical oxygen demand.

When considering the pH values recorded for the upper catchment of the Kelani River Basin, all the values were within the prescribed limit (6.5–8.5) published by the Central Environmental Authority ( CEA 1992 ), though U4, U9, U10, and U11 locations had values in the upper margin of the above range and U12 had a value in the lower margin ( Figure 3(a) ). Location U9, Kalugala Palama, which had the highest pH value (8.37), also had the highest value for alkalinity (62.8 mg/l) ( Figure 3(b) ). Waters with high pH and alkalinity indicate adverse effects if used for irrigational purposes. Location U12, Goverawella, with a low pH value was a residential area where many tea estates were present ( Figure 1 ). When considering the lower catchment, the highest pH value was recorded in L7, Kaduwela (8.43), which was near the highest range of the acceptable value and the lowest pH value was recorded in L1, Mattakkuliya (5.33), which was lower to the lowest margin of the above range ( Figure 3(a) ).

Alkalinity and TH

The waters at L4, Kolonnawa, had high alkalinity (38.10 mg/l) when compared with the other locations of the lower catchment ( Figure 3(b) ). In the present study, the alkalinity of the locations of both upper and lower catchments of the river was within the permissible levels. Locations with high alkalinity displayed high TH and vice versa: U9 with the highest alkalinity (62.80 mg/l) had the highest TH (30.34 mg/l); U11 with the lowest alkalinity (6.27 mg/l) had a very low TH (3.69 mg/l); L4 with the highest alkalinity (38.1 mg/l) had the highest TH (87.4 mg/l); L13 with the lowest alkalinity (8.67 mg/l) had the lowest TH (15.17 mg/l) ( Figures 3(b) and 3(c) ). However, in the upper catchment locations (U9 and U11), TH was lower than the alkalinity values while in the lower catchment locations (L4 and L13), TH was higher than the alkalinity values ( Figures 3(b) and 3(c) ).

Forms of nitrogen (nitrates, nitrites, ammonia) and phosphates

Nitrates, nitrites, ammonia and phosphates are essential plant nutrients, which in excess can cause significant water quality problems. Excess amounts of these nutrients may accelerate eutrophication, increasing plant growth and change in plant types that will subsequently lead to low levels of DO.

Fluctuations of dissolved oxygen with nutrients in locations of the lower catchment of the Kelani River Basin.

Dissolved oxygen

DO content of the majority of the selected locations was above the proposed water quality standards for fish and aquatic life given by the CEA in which DO should be higher than 4 mg/l with a mean value of 6 mg/l. However, L4, Kolonnawa of the lower catchment had a DO of 3.65 mg/l, which is lower than the recommended level for aquatic life ( Figure 3h ). When considering the upper catchment, the DO content of all the locations exceeded the standard values and was suitable for fish and aquatic life ( Figure 3h ).

Biological oxygen demand

Low BOD content is an indicator of good quality water and high BOD values present polluted water ( Ileperuma 2000 ). BOD levels of the upper catchment of the river were within the tolerance limits for fish and other aquatic life. However, in the lower catchment, a high BOD value of 5.6 mg/l was recorded for L3, Wellampitiya, an industrial area with an oil refinery ( Figures 1 and 3(i) ). L9, Panagoda, an agricultural area with paddy and rubber, had the lowest BOD value, which was 1.20 mg/l ( Figures 1 and 3(i) ). For the upper catchment, highest and lowest values were recorded as 3.77 mg/l for U12, Goverawella and 1.63 mg/l for U2, Kotiyakumbura, respectively ( Figure 3(i) ).

Chemical oxygen demand

In the upper catchment, the highest COD value was received for U6, Panakoora, which was 25.33 mg/l and lowest for the location U12, Goverawella which was 7.67 mg/l. Both locations were tea estates, and location U12 was associated with a forested area ( Figures 1 and 3(j) ). Within the lower catchment, the highest COD value was recorded for L4 which was 81.10 mg/l and the lowest COD value was recorded for the L8 location with a value of 14.27 mg/l. The COD levels of the lower catchment were higher than in the upper catchment, and the majority of locations had values that exceeded the maximum tolerance limits ( Figure 3(j) ).

The results given above showed that the water in all locations of the lower catchment with the exception of L8, Nawagamuwa was not within the permissible levels for one or more water quality parameter/s. The waters in L1 Mattakkuliya, L4 Kolonnawa, L7 Kaduwela were unsuitable for drinking purposes and aquatic life in a high number of parameters when compared with the other locations of the lower catchment. Kotiyakumbura (U2) of the upper catchment had a high EC while the COD concentrations were high in U4 Parussalla, U6 Panakoora and U8 Kitulgala.

Assessment of water quality in the lower catchment of the Kelani River Basin

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for the lower and upper catchment locations of the Kelani River

Values for the extracted factors against analysis parameters of the lower catchment of the Kelani River

Screeplot of eigenvalues derived from the lower catchment water quality data. The plot clearly shows that six factors are above eigenvalue of 1 and beyond this point the graph levels out.

PCA/factor analysis for water quality parameters of the lower catchment of the Kelani River

Note: Extraction method: principal component analysis and rotation method: varimax with Kaiser normalization.

Factor 1 accounted for 29.29% of the total variance ( Table 2 ) and consisted of the highest positive loadings of EC, turbidity, WT, and the highest negative loadings of DO and BOD ( Table 3 ). This factor can be considered as the water quality indicating factor which describes 29.29% of the total variance. Factor 2 had a high negative loading of alkalinity and high positive loading of TH and the amount of variation described for this factor was 18% of the total variance ( Tables 2 and 3 ). Thus, Factor 2 can be considered as the measurement of the iron concentration of water. Similarly, phosphates, TSS and ammonia belong to Factor 3, and thus, Factor 3 can be considered as the wastewater indicating factor ( Table 3 ). Factors 4, 5, and 6 describe nitrogen pollution, acidity and chemical pollution, respectively ( Table 3 ). Interestingly, Factor 5 alone produces a positive loading of 0.813 for pH that accounts for a contribution of 8.82% from the total variance, and Factor 6 alone produces a positive loading of 0.921 for COD that accounts for a contribution of 8.32% variance from the total variance ( Tables 2 and 3 ). Therefore, it can be decided that the pH and COD, which are represented by Factors 5 and 6, respectively, have a high contribution to the pollution loading in the lower catchment of the river, and these parameters are the most suitable water quality parameters to predict the water quality of the lower catchment.

Assessment of water quality in the upper catchment of the Kelani River Basin

In the upper catchment too, the four multivariate measures in MANOVA yielded different values for each measure indicating that the sample sizes of the current study were small ( Table 1 ). However, all four multivariate measures were statistically significant (Sig. 0.000, p < 0.05), indicating that the 13 locations of the upper catchment were significantly different from each other in terms of the selected water quality parameters ( Table 1 ).

Values for the extracted factors against analysis parameters of the upper catchment of the Kelani River

Screeplot of eigenvalues derived from the upper catchment water quality data. The plot clearly shows that six factors are above the eigenvalue of 1 and beyond this point the graph levels out.

PCA/factor analysis for water quality parameters of the upper catchment of the Kelani River

Factor 1 accounted for 27.67% of the total variance ( Table 4 ) and consisted of the highest positive loadings of EC, turbidity, WT, nitrites and the highest negative loadings of DO ( Table 5 ). The influence of Factor 1 was more or less similar to Factor 1 in the lower catchment. Factor 2 had a high negative loading of TSS, high positive loading of ammonia and moderate positive loading of BOD ( Table 5 ). The amount of variation described in this factor is 18.45% of the total variance and can be considered as a minor level of organic pollution in water. Factor 3 has high positive loadings of alkalinity and TH and the amount of variation described for this factor is 16.74% of the total variance ( Tables 4 and 5 ). Thus, Factor 3 can be considered as the measurement of the iron concentration of water. Factor 4 has the highest positive loadings of nitrates, while Factor 5 has the highest negative loadings of COD ( Table 5 ). Factor 6 accounts for the highest positive loadings of pH and phosphates ( Table 5 ). Interestingly, both Factors 4 and 5 represent single parameters with high variation. Factor 4 represents the nitrate concentration of water that contributes to the 10.15% variation of the data set, while Factor 5 represents the COD of water that contributes to the 9.43% variation of the data set ( Tables 4 and 5 ). Due to representing single parameters that describe a high variation of the total data set, Factors 4 and 5 can be selected to interpret the water quality of the upper catchment. Therefore, it can be decided that the nitrate content and COD have a high contribution to the pollution in the upper catchment of the river and are suitable to predict the water quality of the upper catchment.

The quality of water in rivers is of considerable importance for the reason that they sustain various uses and processes that supports a healthy ecosystem. Riverine water quality can vary between different rivers or within and between the catchments of the same river. Spatial variability of water quality within an individual river has been attributed to the influence of landscape characteristics, climate, atmospheric deposition and topography, which are reflected in the physical and chemical features of the water ( Lintern et al. 2018 ). With this factuality in mind, the present study was conducted to record the water quality parameters of the upper and lower catchments of the Kelani River Basin and reveal the most important parameters determining the pollution of each catchment. According to the present findings, most of the water quality parameters of the upper catchment of the river were within the standards for inland waters and were suitable for drinking purposes and aquatic life. However, most parameters of the lower catchment were not within the recommended limits permissible for aquatic life and were more polluted than the upper catchment with respect to many of the water quality parameters investigated. This finding has also been disclosed by Ileperuma (2000) , who reported a regular increase in ammonia, nitrates and BOD from the origin of the river to the point of discharge into the sea and more recently by Ruvinda & Pathiratne (2020) , who revealed that the physicochemical characters of the river confirm an increasing trend of pollution toward the lower reach. Kuruppuarachchi & Pathiratne (2020) also report that the lower catchment of the Kelani River is highly contaminated with toxic materials discharged by leading export processing industries located near the river bank. However, many other studies regarding the Kelani River provide different opinions on the pollution and deterioration of the two river basins and suggest various causes for the outcome. According to Mahagamage et al. (2016) , the groundwater of the entire river is not suitable for drinking purposes and most of the physical, chemical and biological parameters of the water are not within the drinking water quality standards. As reported by the study, pollution is more severe in locations of the lower catchment due to increased residential and industrialized areas, and irrigational activities. Nevertheless, the upper catchment surrounded by tea estates is known to contaminate the associated groundwater aquifers with fertilizers and pesticides mixed with rainwater. Later on, Mahagamage et al. (2020) revealed that the entire Kelani River Basin is contaminated by total coliform and E. coli bacteria and confirmed that the groundwater in many locations is positive for Salmonella spp. that cause gastrointestinal diseases. Kumar et al. (2020) stated that the E. coli strains isolated from the waters of Kelani River are resistant to antibiotics such as tetracycline and sulfamethoxazole and are an emerging environmental concern owing to their potential threat to human health. Very recently, Liyanage et al. (2021) revealed that the surface and groundwater of the entire lower part of the Kelani River Basin were contaminated with total coliform and fecal coliform bacteria and that penicillin and tetracycline group antibiotics are detected at the river mouth. The present study is also in accordance with most of these previous findings and affirms that the entire Kelani River is polluted. However, the present study confirms that the lower river basin is more polluted than the upper basin and elucidates the most adequate water quality parameters that denote the pollution of each river basin.

Water quality assessment in the lower catchment

The PCA performed for the water quality parameters of the lower catchment showed that the pH of water and COD were the most appropriate physicochemical features for determining the water quality status of the catchment. The pH or hydrogen ion concentration of water can be considered as a most suitable indicator of water quality as it influences the majority of chemical reactions that takes place in aquatic medium and determines the structure of aquatic biological communities ( Amić & Tadić 2018 ). Furthermore, the pH of natural water is closely associated with its temperature, solids in solution, and its carbondioxide tension, and a change in these parameters causes a definite and predictable change in pH of the water ( Powers 1930 ). High pH is known to be less common in a water body than low pH, and pH values less than 6.0 or 6.5 are responsible for a number of biological effects in aquatic organisms, reduction in species numbers and replacement of acid-sensitive species with acid tolerant species ( Dirisu et al. 2016 ). Accordingly, the pH value has been estimated for the Kelani River in many previous evaluations, and locations with unpermissible levels have been recorded. These recordings show that downstream locations have more unsuitable levels of pH when compared with upstream locations ( Mahagamage et al. 2016 ; Abeysinghe & Samarakoon 2017 ; Liyanage et al. 2021 ), a finding that was also revealed in our study. However, when considering the specific locations with high and low levels of pH, certain conflicting observations were encountered between previous studies and the current investigation. In a previous study, Mahagamage et al. (2016) recorded high pH values for Aliwaththa, Mattakkuliya (7.89) while the present study found the lowest value at Mattakkuliya (5.33). Furthermore, Liyanage et al. (2021) recorded the lowest pH from Kaduwela sampling location (5.72), which in the present study yielded the highest pH (8.43). However, Abeysinghe & Samarakoon (2017) revealed the highest pH values for Kaduwela (6.68) with regard to other downstream locations. Regardless of these differences in the present and previous studies, it is somehow evident that most of the downstream locations have a lower pH that is unsuitable for aquatic life. Furthermore, this lower pH has been associated with the abundance and composition of freshwater fish species of the lower catchment, and a strongly positive correlation has been revealed between water pH and frequency of Pethia reval . According to the study, P. reval has been described as a pH-tolerant species, and the possibility of using the fish species as an indicator of downstream water quality has been assessed ( Narangoda et al. 2021 , 2022 ). The association of pH in this analysis signifies the importance of the feature in determining water quality and supports the appropriateness of using pH as a determinant for water quality of the lower catchment.

The COD was also selected as an appropriate measure for determining the quality of water in the lower catchment. The COD indicates the organic matter content in water and is a measurement of the oxygen required for microorganisms to carry out biological decomposition of organic matter ( Abba & Elkiran 2017 ; Baharvand & Daneshvar 2019 ). Higher levels denote higher oxidation of organic compounds, which will eventually reduce the DO levels of water leading to anaerobic conditions that will be harmful to aquatic life ( Abba & Elkiran 2017 ). This was clearly seen in the current study, where location L4 (Kolonnawa) expressed the highest COD (81.1 mg/l) and the lowest DO (3.65 mg/l) content. High COD levels at location L4 are quite apparent as Kolonnawa is known to be affected by solid waste disposal by illegal human settlements ( Ranasinghe et al. 2016 ). In addition to location L4, most of the locations of the lower catchment had high COD levels which ranged from 14.27 to 81.10 mg/l, which is exceptionally high when considering the accepted level of 15.0 mg/l. This reveals that organic pollution is currently significantly high in the lower catchment, a fact that is also obvious when considering the COD levels of the Kelani River, which has been recorded several years ago. In the year 2000, Ileperuma recorded a COD level ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 mg/l for downstream locations and attributed the high levels in certain locations to garbage dumping and discharging of organic dye wastes by textile factories located downstream of the river. However, these COD levels were well below the maximum permissible levels, and the water was acceptable for drinking purposes and aquatic life. In 2016, levels ranging from 1.33 to 307.28 mg/l were recorded for the entire river, and the study reported more high values for the upper catchment locations ( Mahagamage et al. 2016 ). However, by 2020, significantly high COD levels were again recorded from downstream locations such as 20–250 mg/l by Kuruppuarachchi & Pathiratne (2020) , and 20–208 mg/l by Ruvinda & Pathiratne (2020) . Eventhough the present study yielded a much lower value for COD (14.27–81.10 mg/l), it is evident that the waters of the lower catchment of the river contain a fairly high amount of organic waste. Therefore, the selection of COD to predict the quality of water in the lower catchment is reasonable and acceptable. Furthermore, when comparing with the BOD that also measures the organic pollution in water, COD measurements can be made in a few hours while BOD measurements usually take 5 days. The COD value is usually higher than the BOD because some organic materials in the water that are resistant to microbial oxidation and hence not involved in BOD could be easily chemically oxidized ( Aniyikaiye et al. 2019 ).

Water quality assessment in the upper catchment

The upper catchment or headstream is the source of the river and is located the farthest distance from the river's end. Depending on the river structure between mainstreams and branches, the elevation of the upper catchment can differ, but in most cases is of high altitude. Therefore, water pollution indices for rivers in many countries are known to have more serious pollution toward the river downstream. Upstream pollution is known to affect downstream health in Indonesia mainly through upstream bathing, trashing, transportation, irrigation and industry ( Garg et al. 2018 ). Furthermore, flood events in high mountain catchments, and land clearance and cropping on hillslopes can deteriorate the downstream water by movements and erosion of suspended sediment loads ( Woodward & Foster 1997 ). These factors combined with increased urbanization and industrialization associated with downstream locations have in most cases contributed to lower catchments with increased pollution, as was the case for the Kelani River in the present investigation. However, assessing the water quality of the upper catchment of a river is of exceptional importance, as headwater resources of many rivers are widely used for drinking water supply and cropland irrigation, and if contaminated poses a serious risk to public health ( Zhao et al. 2020 ). The present study showed that the nitrate content of water and COD were the most appropriate features for determining the water quality status of the upper catchment of the Kelani River.

The determination of nitrate levels in surface waters is an integral part of basic water quality assessment because its concentration is generally an indicator of the nutrient status and the degree of organic pollution of the water body. Regular monitoring of nitrates in drinking water is recommended because of the potential health risks associated with its elevated levels, especially for infants who are <6 months old and animals. The major source of accumulated nitrates in water bodies are nitrate-based fertilizers or inadequately treated or untreated sewage ( Maghanga et al. 2013 ). Since the 1950s, the use of nitrogen fertilizers has increased by several folds ( Ward 2009 ), and nitrate has been one of the dominant forms of increased nitrogen loading since the 1970s ( Xue et al. 2016 ). Human exposure is mainly via ingestion of contaminated drinking water, and many health effects including cancers, diabetes, thyroid conditions and adverse reproductive outcomes have been associated with ingesting nitrate-contaminated drinking water. Nitrogen fertilizers are used widely on a large number of crops to increase productivity and are the most commonly used fertilizers in tea plantations. Nitrates within the fertilizers are very mobile and loosely bound in the soil and hence are easily leached via surface runoff into rivers passing through the tea plantations ( Maghanga et al. 2013 ).

The upper catchment of the Kelani River consists of rural and estate communities that engage in tea, rubber and paddy cultivation. The upper catchment is rich in several other crops as well, and application of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides is practiced ( Mahagamage & Manage 2018 ). Nitrogen concentrations are high in fertilizers, especially those which are applied to tea cultivations, and studies have recorded various pesticides containing nitrogen from the upper catchment of the Kelani River ( Mahagamage & Manage 2018 ). High levels of ammonia exceeding the maximum tolerance limits have been recorded for the tributaries of the Maussakelle reservoir of the upper catchment ( Nandasena et al. 2019 ), and ammonia is known to be readily converted to nitrates by microorganisms conducting ammonia oxidation ( Barth et al. 2020 ). Nitrates are also present in domestic sewage and urban garbage ( Xue et al. 2016 ) and thus can accumulate in waters via improper domestic waste management practices. Therefore, it is highly possible that the nitrate concentration in water can be used to predict the quality of water in the upper catchment of the Kelani River.

Furthermore, the study reveals that the COD concentration can be used to predict the quality of water in the upper catchment as in the lower catchment. COD levels of the upper catchment are comparatively low when compared with that of the lower catchment. However, high values have been recorded in the present study (7.67–25.33 mg/l) when compared with the most recent study by Ruvinda & Pathiratne (2020) for the upper catchment of the Kelani River (1–8 mg/l).

The water quality parameters were determined for the upper and lower catchments of the Kelani River Basin, and the pollution of the river was assessed. The lower catchment of the river was more polluted than the upper catchment with respect to many water quality parameters such as pH (low), DO (low), turbidity (high), TSS (high), BOD (high), nitrite concentration (high), ammonia concentration (high), phosphate concentration (high) and COD (high). The lower catchment of the river at locations near Mattakkuliya, Kolonnawa and Kaduwela was highly polluted with respect to many water quality parameters, and most features were not within the permissible levels. However, the COD was significantly high in all locations of the lower catchment with the exception of two locations, and the pH value was low for most. Therefore, COD and pH values were selected statistically as the most suitable water quality parameters for assessing the pollution of the lower catchment. The upper catchment of the Kelani River was less polluted than the lower catchment, and two water quality parameters, COD and nitrate concentration, were statistically considered as suitable for determining its pollution status. The pollution of the upper catchment of the river is mainly attributed to nitrogen-containing fertilizers applied to tea cultivations while the pollution of the lower catchment is attributed to domestic and industrial sewage. This pollution of the Kelani River is a critical problem when considering the importance of the river to the human population, aquatic life and other biological communities. Therefore, the country has currently taken steps to maintain suitable water quality within the river by improving septic systems and sewage disposal methods, building awareness on the impact of pollution of Kelani River on the environment via workshops and training programs, monitoring and issuing licenses to industries along the banks of Kelani River by the Ministry of Environment, and strengthening the monitoring of the river by increasing the number of sampling sites and automation of the monitoring process.

The research was funded by the National Aquatic Resources Research & Development Agency (NARA), Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development, Sri Lanka. We are also grateful to the Environmental Studies Division, NARA for providing research facilities and support in fieldwork.

Project funding was provided by the National Aquatic Resources Research & Development Agency (NARA), Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development, Sri Lanka.

Data cannot be made publicly available; readers should contact the corresponding author for details.

The authors declare there is no conflict.

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Introduction, section snippets, references (54), cited by (9).

Regional Studies in Marine Science

Pollution levels in sri lanka’s west-south coastal waters: making progress toward a cleaner environment, site selection and data collection, water quality analysis, results and discussion, credit authorship contribution statement, declaration of competing interest, acknowledgment, plastics in surface water of southern coastal belt of sri lanka (northern indian ocean): distribution and characterization by ftir, mar. pollut. bull., coastal area management: biodiversity and ecological sustainability in sri lankan perspective, modified, optimized method of determination of tributyltin (tbt) contamination in coastal water, sediment and biota in sri lanka, spatial analysis of geophysical and environmental factors characterize distinct coral reef habitats around sri lanka; implications for management, ocean coastal manage., first nationwide investigation and environmental risk assessment of 72 pharmaceuticals and personal care products from sri lankan surface waterways, sci. total environ., contamination by persistent organochlorines and butyltin compounds in the west coast of sri lanka, composition and abundance of marine debris stranded on the beaches of sri lanka: results from the first island-wide survey, baseline survey of sediments and marine organisms in liaohe estuary: heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides, effects of petrochemical contamination on caged marine mussels using a multi-biomarker approach: histological changes, neurotoxicity and hypoxic stress, mar. environ. res., microplastics from effluents of sewage treatment works and stormwater discharging into the victoria harbor, hong kong, nature-based tourism development in coastal wetlands of sri lanka: an importance–performance analysis at maduganga mangrove estuary, j. outdoor recreat. tourism, seasonal variations of phytoplankton community in relation to environmental factors in an oligotrophic area of the european atlantic coast (southeastern bay of biscay), region. stud. mar. sci., seasonal, spatial variation, and pollution sources of heavy metals in the sediment of the saigon river, vietnam, environ. pollut., microbiological water quality and sources of contamination along the coast of the department of atlántico (caribbean sea of colombia). preliminary results, analysis of causes and effects of coastal erosion and environmental degradation in southern coastal belt of sri lanka special reference to unawatuna coastal area, procedia eng., plastic pollution in the marine environment, usage of seaweed polysaccharides as nutraceuticals, modeling of thermal pollution in coastal area and its economical and environmental assessment, int. j. environ. sci. technol., furthering the implementation of the small-scale fisheries guidelines: strengthening fisheries cooperatives in sri lanka, standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, de playas en latinoamérica: revisión de los principales parámetros y metodologías utilizadas, investig. ambient., reviewing effluent and estuarine water quality in view of introducing effluent standards for coastal aquaculture in sri lanka, j. environ. profession. sri lanka, harmful diatoms and dinoflagellates in the indian ocean: a study from southern coast of sri lanka, ukrainian journal of ecology, persistence of tbt and copper in excess on leisure boat hulls around the baltic sea, environ. sci. pollut. res., immunomodulatory activity of the marine sponge, haliclona (soestella) sp.(haplosclerida: chalinidae), from sri lanka in wistar albino rats: immunosuppression and th1-skewed cytokine response, j. immunol. res., evaluating seasonal variation in macronutrient levels and their impact on water quality in urban coastal waters: a case study in nutrient management along the north colombo coast of sri lanka, aromatase (cyp19) gene as a biomarker for detection of naphthalene and phenanthrene in colombo to mirissa coastal water in sri lanka, occurrence of marine nonindigenous (nis) species: current status, management approaches and challenges in sri lanka, impact of the mv x-press pearl ship disaster on the coastal environment from negambo to benthota in sri lanka.

Hence, this catastrophic event has significantly contaminated the coastal belt with oil and grease compared to earlier studies. Oil and grease constituents can have devastating physical effects, such as coating animals and plants in oil and suffocating them due to oxygen depletion; becoming toxic and forming toxic products; destroying future and existing food supplies, breeding animals, and habitats; generating rancid odors; fouling shorelines, clogging water treatment plants, and forming effects that linger in the environment for many years; and being toxic and forming toxic products (Liyanage and Manage, 2016; USEPA, 2021; Manage et al., 2022). According to the findings, there is an increase in heavy metal pollution compared to the previously reported concentrations (Perera et al., 2022).

Water Scarcity - A Concealed Phenomenon in Sri Lanka: A Mini Review

Anthropogenic nitrogen pollution threats and challenges to the health of south asian coral reefs.

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Conserving and Protecting Sri Lanka’s Threatened Marine Resources

on 06/08/2022

Photo courtesy of the The Sri Lankan Scientist

Today is World Oceans Day

The oceans around Sri Lanka are a vital resource for food security, trade and shipping, coastal livelihoods, tourism, coastal protection and national security. Its coastal and marine resources and biological diversity, as well as the coastal and marine environment, provide a range of critical ecosystem services that benefit the people, sustaining livelihoods, as well as playing a vital role in economic development and strengthening protection from natural disasters, according to the Environment Ministry’s National Environment Action Plan (NEAP).

Sri Lanka’s coastal zone is under threat from increasing population pressure and unmanaged human activities that cause coastal water pollution because of sewage and solid waste; industrial effluents; pollution by tourists; the sectors of power, fisheries and aquaculture; oil spills; heavy metals and plastics. In addition, there is coastal erosion, sedimentation and siltation because sand and coral mining, coastal structures, upland irrigation schemes, deforestation and dams; habitat destruction, resource depletion and loss of biodiversity because of over harvesting, selective harvesting and use of harmful harvesting techniques. These threats are exacerbated by global warming leading to climate change and sea level rise, impacting on coastal ecosystem health, livelihoods (fisheries, aquaculture, and tourism) and the increased frequency and severity of natural hazards such as storm surges and storm waves, the plan said.

The coastal zone is governed by the Coast Conservation Act No 57 of 1981. The coastal region that influences the coastal marine environment comprises the coastal boundaries and extends about 50 km inland from the coast, which is approximately 23% of the total land area of the country accommodating over 33% of the population.

Coastal and marine fisheries, tourism, industry and maritime transport (ports and shipping) are some major economic activities associated with the coastal and marine environment. Among all economic activities, fisheries and tourism are the most dependent on the natural resources of the coast. Together, these two sectors generate 10% of Sri Lanka’s foreign exchange earnings and account for 6.7% of employment.

The coastal region is also the hub of industrial production in the country and houses approximately 62% of all industrial units mostly in the districts of Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara, Galle, Matara and Puttalam. There are five major seaports located in Colombo, Galle, Trincomalee, Kankasanthurai and Hambantota. Close to 4,000 vessels berthed at these ports in 2019 and sea traffic is increasing continuously, the plan said.

The NEAP has listed nine strategies are to be adopted to protect and conserve marine resources:

• Conserve, manage and sustainably use coastal and marine ecosystems
• Conserve marine mammals and other threatened species
• Conserve, sustainably develop and manage coastal and marine resources
• Administer and manage affected areas along the coast
• Control coastal and marine pollution
• Control sand mining and manage extraction of other mineral resources to enhance beach stability, habitat and biodiversity conservation
• Adapt to climate change and natural hazard impacts on coastal features, infrastructure, coastal communities and livelihoods
• Carry out research and development to support the conservation and sustainable use of coastal and marine resources
• Strengthen policy, legal and institutional framework for coastal and marine resource conservation and sustainable use

Groundviews asked marine naturalist Dr. Malik Fernando about the problems facing Sri Lanka’s marine resources and how to deal with them.

What are the biggest current threats to country’s maritime resources?

The biggest threats to beaches and the coastal zone – the strip of land from sea level up to the start of typical terrestrial vegetation:

• Non-enforcement of existing building restrictions.
• Ill conceived, ill planned so-called “development” activities. A recent example was the attempt to widen the beach at Mount Lavinia by reclaiming with dredged sand. All the sand went back into the sea after destroying the seaweeds, oysters and other molluscs that had been inhabiting the rocks for years. A few years ago at Unawatuna there was an attempt to increase the beach area in front of one hotel that backfired by affecting many other hotels adversely and prompting the authorities to remove the barrier they had placed.

The biggest threats to commercially important marine animals and plants – importance could be direct or indirect:

• Directly important food animals like fish and crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, prawns) are harmed by overfishing. There are no quotas based on sustainable breeding populations. Destructive fishing methods such as blast fishing, bottom trawling that destroys the habitat, scuba diving spearfishing that targets large, breeding fish and use of illegal fishing gear that is non-selective or destroys the habitat.
• Indirect threats include destruction of mangroves and associated estuarine habitats that are nursery habitats used for breeding by certain species of fish and crustaceans; destruction of seagrass beds, habitat of dugongs – both these habitats are important for carbon sequestration and therefore in controlling global warming; polluting surface run off from adjacent coastlines and even from distant inland sites brought down in river flows; and development activities that impact off shore habitats such as harbours, groynes, piers and land reclamation.

What action should be taken to preserve our maritime resources and how can the public help?

Our maritime resources can be preserved by enforcing the laws that prevail. The public can help by observing those laws. The public can also help by not using the ocean and the waterways that drain into the sea as garbage bins. In a small way, beach users can help by taking their litter back and disposing them in garbage bins rather than dropping stuff on the beach.

Are there enough laws and regulations to safeguard the oceans?

By and large yes, there are plenty of laws, although some need improvement. In my view, one area that needs improvement is to enable speedy completion of the legal processes and to dispense deterrent punishments where that is considered necessary. Our legal process is not designed for speedy dispensation of justice. A particular area of concern is blast fishing – using explosives to kill shoals of fish and any other living creature in the vicinity. A big problem in apprehending perpetrators and then proving their crimes in courts. Also, we fear there is widespread protection by people in authority. Discharging wastewater and even sewage directly into the ocean from hotels and residences by the seaside is a matter of concern. How effective is the control? Lack of political will is often the reason that laws and regulations are improperly implemented.

Does tourism do more harm than good to the country’s oceans?

Tourism per se does not harm the environment, marine or terrestrial, provided it is marketed and promoted with consideration of the environment and its inhabitants. Misplaced avarice – money at any cost – in tourism promotion ventures harms the environment including marine biodiversity. Examples include unlimited access to jeeps and their drivers, adoption of the principle of carrying capacity to restrict vehicle numbers prevented on political grounds and a similar situation regarding whale watching craft. Tourism licensed vessels reportedly follow guidelines, others do not. There is no enforcing or control by any authority. Spearfishing has been banned to preserve reef fish for the diving tourist who would like to see a healthy reef full of fish, as well as large, spectacular deep water fish for the scuba divers. Despite the law, spearfishing is promoted among tourists by people with political protection.

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Water and wastewater related issues in Sri Lanka

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka. [email protected]
• PMID: 12926703

The primary problems concerning water resources in Sri Lanka are the depletion and degradation of the resource caused by various anthropogenic activities. Surface inland waters in urban areas are polluted heavily with domestic sewage and industrial effluents, and in rural areas with agricultural runoff. With regard to ground water in certain areas of the dry zone, there is a high fluoride content and in hard, rocky, alluvial areas, there is a high concentration of iron. In urban over-crowded cities, there is biological contamination of ground water. Over-utilization, particularly through tube wells, is another major problem affecting ground water resources in Sri Lanka. Oil spills, dumping of waste from ships, coral and sand mining, and activities are the main causes of marine pollution in the country. Except for pipe-borne water supply, irrigation and hydropower schemes, in general water resources in Sri Lanka are managed very poorly. Regulations are available to control most water related problems but enforcement of these regulations is lacking. The ultimate result of degradation and depletion of water resources is the increasing health hazards. Water-borne and vector-borne diseases are prevalent, particularly amongst urban low-income communities with poor sanitary facilities and drainage. Despite government initiatives and legislation, very slow progress has been made towards combating water pollution. This paper examines the most significant water and wastewater related issues in Sri Lanka and their controlling mechanisms.

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Impacts of water pollution in Sri Lanka

Man-made pollution and environmental degradation pose a severe challenge to all Sri Lankans. The main water resource problems in Sri Lanka are due to various human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, urbanization, and industrial and commercial activities. Areas in every province where waste is not managed are causing a severe environmental problem due to the unnecessary pollution of its water by various pollutants.

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Environmental Pollution and consequences in Sri Lanka

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Invisible Environmental Pollution - Sinhala

2021, Vidurawa

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Sri Lanka, as a developing country during the last two decades, has faced a lot of environmental changes. These changes have affected the country's economy, agriculture, and society. Primarily the causes of environmental pollution are industrialization, urbanization, population growth, transportation, and deforestation. This is a big issue that affects both developed and developing countries. Furthermore, these issues affect not only humans but also trees, plants, and animals. Sri Lanka confronted many environmental problems, including water pollution, air pollution, solid waste, deforestation, and biodiversity loss. This paper investigates the environmental issues in Sri Lanka and provides insight into the challenges and effects of Environmental Pollution in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka is a tropical island that experiences beautiful environmental conditions and consists of many natural resources. Primarily Sri Lanka includes forests and biodiversity, minerals and water resources. The main objective is to provide a concise and up-to-date insight into the state of the environment and environmental challenges. Sri Lanka has suddenly acquired industrialization as a developing country, leading to increased energy consumption. When energy consumption rises, pollution to the environment also highly increases. At present, there are many environmental issues in Sri Lanka. But the most harmful and increasing problems are water pollution, air pollution and solid waste pollution. So, this article explores the environmental problems and their impacts on the people and animals and minimization of these issues in Sri Lanka.

Environmental pollution is a severe hazardous status in Sri Lanka. It affects the atmosphere, land, and water in various situations due to the intervention of humans and nature. However, with the unlimited use of resources and harmful and unrestricted control of human beings, the effects are rising daily. Therefore, severe challenges are ahead for Sri Lankans due to environmental pollution. As a developing country, Sri Lanka is moving forward in the economy as an industrial sector, which causes to increase in energy consumption. There is a proportional relationship between energy consumption and wastage. If the percentage of energy consumption is high, wastage also rises. Sri Lanka faces many environmental issues, including inland, water, and air pollution. This report will explore those issues and their impacts on humans, animals, and the environment.

Md. Hasib Uddin, 2018

Introduction:-Now a days, environmental pollution is a major cause for concern, not only for us, but also for the whole mankind. In the last century, the rise of this menace assumed so gigantic that it has cast its melancholic shadow on nature itself. The diminishing ozone ionosphere leading to global warming and the unpredictable seasonal variations are some of the adverse effects of worldwide environmental pollution that are threatening to the existence of human beings on this planet.

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Exposure to contaminants, generally called pollution, relates back to olden age when the environment was clean and free from chemicals. Knowledge of human exposure to environmental contaminants is an important component of environmental epidemiology, ...

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