the final research report where a discussion of findings and limitations

How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples.

• How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

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The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

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Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal?

A research paper conclusion is not just a summary of your study, but a synthesis of the key findings that ties the research together and places it in a broader context. A research paper conclusion should be concise, typically around one paragraph in length. However, some complex topics may require a longer conclusion to ensure the reader is left with a clear understanding of the study’s significance. Paperpal, an AI writing assistant trusted by over 800,000 academics globally, can help you write a well-structured conclusion for your research paper. 

• Sign Up or Log In: Create a new Paperpal account or login with your details.  
• Navigate to Features : Once logged in, head over to the features’ side navigation pane. Click on Templates and you’ll find a suite of generative AI features to help you write better, faster.  
• Generate an outline: Under Templates, select ‘Outlines’. Choose ‘Research article’ as your document type.  
• Select your section: Since you’re focusing on the conclusion, select this section when prompted.  
• Choose your field of study: Identifying your field of study allows Paperpal to provide more targeted suggestions, ensuring the relevance of your conclusion to your specific area of research. 
• Provide a brief description of your study: Enter details about your research topic and findings. This information helps Paperpal generate a tailored outline that aligns with your paper’s content. 
• Generate the conclusion outline: After entering all necessary details, click on ‘generate’. Paperpal will then create a structured outline for your conclusion, to help you start writing and build upon the outline.  
• Write your conclusion: Use the generated outline to build your conclusion. The outline serves as a guide, ensuring you cover all critical aspects of a strong conclusion, from summarizing key findings to highlighting the research’s implications. 
• Refine and enhance: Paperpal’s ‘Make Academic’ feature can be particularly useful in the final stages. Select any paragraph of your conclusion and use this feature to elevate the academic tone, ensuring your writing is aligned to the academic journal standards. 

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The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

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Chapter 11: Presenting Your Research

Writing a Research Report in American Psychological Association (APA) Style

Learning Objectives

• Identify the major sections of an APA-style research report and the basic contents of each section.
• Plan and write an effective APA-style research report.

In this section, we look at how to write an APA-style empirical research report , an article that presents the results of one or more new studies. Recall that the standard sections of an empirical research report provide a kind of outline. Here we consider each of these sections in detail, including what information it contains, how that information is formatted and organized, and tips for writing each section. At the end of this section is a sample APA-style research report that illustrates many of these principles.

Sections of a Research Report

Title page and abstract.

An APA-style research report begins with a  title page . The title is centred in the upper half of the page, with each important word capitalized. The title should clearly and concisely (in about 12 words or fewer) communicate the primary variables and research questions. This sometimes requires a main title followed by a subtitle that elaborates on the main title, in which case the main title and subtitle are separated by a colon. Here are some titles from recent issues of professional journals published by the American Psychological Association.

• Sex Differences in Coping Styles and Implications for Depressed Mood
• Effects of Aging and Divided Attention on Memory for Items and Their Contexts
• Computer-Assisted Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Child Anxiety: Results of a Randomized Clinical Trial
• Virtual Driving and Risk Taking: Do Racing Games Increase Risk-Taking Cognitions, Affect, and Behaviour?

Below the title are the authors’ names and, on the next line, their institutional affiliation—the university or other institution where the authors worked when they conducted the research. As we have already seen, the authors are listed in an order that reflects their contribution to the research. When multiple authors have made equal contributions to the research, they often list their names alphabetically or in a randomly determined order.

In some areas of psychology, the titles of many empirical research reports are informal in a way that is perhaps best described as “cute.” They usually take the form of a play on words or a well-known expression that relates to the topic under study. Here are some examples from recent issues of the Journal Psychological Science .

• “Smells Like Clean Spirit: Nonconscious Effects of Scent on Cognition and Behavior”
• “Time Crawls: The Temporal Resolution of Infants’ Visual Attention”
• “Scent of a Woman: Men’s Testosterone Responses to Olfactory Ovulation Cues”
• “Apocalypse Soon?: Dire Messages Reduce Belief in Global Warming by Contradicting Just-World Beliefs”
• “Serial vs. Parallel Processing: Sometimes They Look Like Tweedledum and Tweedledee but They Can (and Should) Be Distinguished”
• “How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Words: The Social Effects of Expressive Writing”

Individual researchers differ quite a bit in their preference for such titles. Some use them regularly, while others never use them. What might be some of the pros and cons of using cute article titles?

For articles that are being submitted for publication, the title page also includes an author note that lists the authors’ full institutional affiliations, any acknowledgments the authors wish to make to agencies that funded the research or to colleagues who commented on it, and contact information for the authors. For student papers that are not being submitted for publication—including theses—author notes are generally not necessary.

The  abstract  is a summary of the study. It is the second page of the manuscript and is headed with the word  Abstract . The first line is not indented. The abstract presents the research question, a summary of the method, the basic results, and the most important conclusions. Because the abstract is usually limited to about 200 words, it can be a challenge to write a good one.

Introduction

The  introduction  begins on the third page of the manuscript. The heading at the top of this page is the full title of the manuscript, with each important word capitalized as on the title page. The introduction includes three distinct subsections, although these are typically not identified by separate headings. The opening introduces the research question and explains why it is interesting, the literature review discusses relevant previous research, and the closing restates the research question and comments on the method used to answer it.

The Opening

The  opening , which is usually a paragraph or two in length, introduces the research question and explains why it is interesting. To capture the reader’s attention, researcher Daryl Bem recommends starting with general observations about the topic under study, expressed in ordinary language (not technical jargon)—observations that are about people and their behaviour (not about researchers or their research; Bem, 2003 [1] ). Concrete examples are often very useful here. According to Bem, this would be a poor way to begin a research report:

Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance received a great deal of attention during the latter part of the 20th century (p. 191)

The following would be much better:

The individual who holds two beliefs that are inconsistent with one another may feel uncomfortable. For example, the person who knows that he or she enjoys smoking but believes it to be unhealthy may experience discomfort arising from the inconsistency or disharmony between these two thoughts or cognitions. This feeling of discomfort was called cognitive dissonance by social psychologist Leon Festinger (1957), who suggested that individuals will be motivated to remove this dissonance in whatever way they can (p. 191).

After capturing the reader’s attention, the opening should go on to introduce the research question and explain why it is interesting. Will the answer fill a gap in the literature? Will it provide a test of an important theory? Does it have practical implications? Giving readers a clear sense of what the research is about and why they should care about it will motivate them to continue reading the literature review—and will help them make sense of it.

Breaking the Rules

Researcher Larry Jacoby reported several studies showing that a word that people see or hear repeatedly can seem more familiar even when they do not recall the repetitions—and that this tendency is especially pronounced among older adults. He opened his article with the following humourous anecdote:

A friend whose mother is suffering symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) tells the story of taking her mother to visit a nursing home, preliminary to her mother’s moving there. During an orientation meeting at the nursing home, the rules and regulations were explained, one of which regarded the dining room. The dining room was described as similar to a fine restaurant except that tipping was not required. The absence of tipping was a central theme in the orientation lecture, mentioned frequently to emphasize the quality of care along with the advantages of having paid in advance. At the end of the meeting, the friend’s mother was asked whether she had any questions. She replied that she only had one question: “Should I tip?” (Jacoby, 1999, p. 3)

Although both humour and personal anecdotes are generally discouraged in APA-style writing, this example is a highly effective way to start because it both engages the reader and provides an excellent real-world example of the topic under study.

The Literature Review

Immediately after the opening comes the  literature review , which describes relevant previous research on the topic and can be anywhere from several paragraphs to several pages in length. However, the literature review is not simply a list of past studies. Instead, it constitutes a kind of argument for why the research question is worth addressing. By the end of the literature review, readers should be convinced that the research question makes sense and that the present study is a logical next step in the ongoing research process.

Like any effective argument, the literature review must have some kind of structure. For example, it might begin by describing a phenomenon in a general way along with several studies that demonstrate it, then describing two or more competing theories of the phenomenon, and finally presenting a hypothesis to test one or more of the theories. Or it might describe one phenomenon, then describe another phenomenon that seems inconsistent with the first one, then propose a theory that resolves the inconsistency, and finally present a hypothesis to test that theory. In applied research, it might describe a phenomenon or theory, then describe how that phenomenon or theory applies to some important real-world situation, and finally suggest a way to test whether it does, in fact, apply to that situation.

Looking at the literature review in this way emphasizes a few things. First, it is extremely important to start with an outline of the main points that you want to make, organized in the order that you want to make them. The basic structure of your argument, then, should be apparent from the outline itself. Second, it is important to emphasize the structure of your argument in your writing. One way to do this is to begin the literature review by summarizing your argument even before you begin to make it. “In this article, I will describe two apparently contradictory phenomena, present a new theory that has the potential to resolve the apparent contradiction, and finally present a novel hypothesis to test the theory.” Another way is to open each paragraph with a sentence that summarizes the main point of the paragraph and links it to the preceding points. These opening sentences provide the “transitions” that many beginning researchers have difficulty with. Instead of beginning a paragraph by launching into a description of a previous study, such as “Williams (2004) found that…,” it is better to start by indicating something about why you are describing this particular study. Here are some simple examples:

Another example of this phenomenon comes from the work of Williams (2004).

Williams (2004) offers one explanation of this phenomenon.

An alternative perspective has been provided by Williams (2004).

We used a method based on the one used by Williams (2004).

Finally, remember that your goal is to construct an argument for why your research question is interesting and worth addressing—not necessarily why your favourite answer to it is correct. In other words, your literature review must be balanced. If you want to emphasize the generality of a phenomenon, then of course you should discuss various studies that have demonstrated it. However, if there are other studies that have failed to demonstrate it, you should discuss them too. Or if you are proposing a new theory, then of course you should discuss findings that are consistent with that theory. However, if there are other findings that are inconsistent with it, again, you should discuss them too. It is acceptable to argue that the  balance  of the research supports the existence of a phenomenon or is consistent with a theory (and that is usually the best that researchers in psychology can hope for), but it is not acceptable to  ignore contradictory evidence. Besides, a large part of what makes a research question interesting is uncertainty about its answer.

The Closing

The  closing  of the introduction—typically the final paragraph or two—usually includes two important elements. The first is a clear statement of the main research question or hypothesis. This statement tends to be more formal and precise than in the opening and is often expressed in terms of operational definitions of the key variables. The second is a brief overview of the method and some comment on its appropriateness. Here, for example, is how Darley and Latané (1968) [2] concluded the introduction to their classic article on the bystander effect:

These considerations lead to the hypothesis that the more bystanders to an emergency, the less likely, or the more slowly, any one bystander will intervene to provide aid. To test this proposition it would be necessary to create a situation in which a realistic “emergency” could plausibly occur. Each subject should also be blocked from communicating with others to prevent his getting information about their behaviour during the emergency. Finally, the experimental situation should allow for the assessment of the speed and frequency of the subjects’ reaction to the emergency. The experiment reported below attempted to fulfill these conditions. (p. 378)

Thus the introduction leads smoothly into the next major section of the article—the method section.

The  method section  is where you describe how you conducted your study. An important principle for writing a method section is that it should be clear and detailed enough that other researchers could replicate the study by following your “recipe.” This means that it must describe all the important elements of the study—basic demographic characteristics of the participants, how they were recruited, whether they were randomly assigned, how the variables were manipulated or measured, how counterbalancing was accomplished, and so on. At the same time, it should avoid irrelevant details such as the fact that the study was conducted in Classroom 37B of the Industrial Technology Building or that the questionnaire was double-sided and completed using pencils.

The method section begins immediately after the introduction ends with the heading “Method” (not “Methods”) centred on the page. Immediately after this is the subheading “Participants,” left justified and in italics. The participants subsection indicates how many participants there were, the number of women and men, some indication of their age, other demographics that may be relevant to the study, and how they were recruited, including any incentives given for participation.

After the participants section, the structure can vary a bit. Figure 11.1 shows three common approaches. In the first, the participants section is followed by a design and procedure subsection, which describes the rest of the method. This works well for methods that are relatively simple and can be described adequately in a few paragraphs. In the second approach, the participants section is followed by separate design and procedure subsections. This works well when both the design and the procedure are relatively complicated and each requires multiple paragraphs.

What is the difference between design and procedure? The design of a study is its overall structure. What were the independent and dependent variables? Was the independent variable manipulated, and if so, was it manipulated between or within subjects? How were the variables operationally defined? The procedure is how the study was carried out. It often works well to describe the procedure in terms of what the participants did rather than what the researchers did. For example, the participants gave their informed consent, read a set of instructions, completed a block of four practice trials, completed a block of 20 test trials, completed two questionnaires, and were debriefed and excused.

In the third basic way to organize a method section, the participants subsection is followed by a materials subsection before the design and procedure subsections. This works well when there are complicated materials to describe. This might mean multiple questionnaires, written vignettes that participants read and respond to, perceptual stimuli, and so on. The heading of this subsection can be modified to reflect its content. Instead of “Materials,” it can be “Questionnaires,” “Stimuli,” and so on.

The  results section  is where you present the main results of the study, including the results of the statistical analyses. Although it does not include the raw data—individual participants’ responses or scores—researchers should save their raw data and make them available to other researchers who request them. Several journals now encourage the open sharing of raw data online.

Although there are no standard subsections, it is still important for the results section to be logically organized. Typically it begins with certain preliminary issues. One is whether any participants or responses were excluded from the analyses and why. The rationale for excluding data should be described clearly so that other researchers can decide whether it is appropriate. A second preliminary issue is how multiple responses were combined to produce the primary variables in the analyses. For example, if participants rated the attractiveness of 20 stimulus people, you might have to explain that you began by computing the mean attractiveness rating for each participant. Or if they recalled as many items as they could from study list of 20 words, did you count the number correctly recalled, compute the percentage correctly recalled, or perhaps compute the number correct minus the number incorrect? A third preliminary issue is the reliability of the measures. This is where you would present test-retest correlations, Cronbach’s α, or other statistics to show that the measures are consistent across time and across items. A final preliminary issue is whether the manipulation was successful. This is where you would report the results of any manipulation checks.

The results section should then tackle the primary research questions, one at a time. Again, there should be a clear organization. One approach would be to answer the most general questions and then proceed to answer more specific ones. Another would be to answer the main question first and then to answer secondary ones. Regardless, Bem (2003) [3] suggests the following basic structure for discussing each new result:

• Remind the reader of the research question.
• Give the answer to the research question in words.
• Present the relevant statistics.
• Qualify the answer if necessary.
• Summarize the result.

Notice that only Step 3 necessarily involves numbers. The rest of the steps involve presenting the research question and the answer to it in words. In fact, the basic results should be clear even to a reader who skips over the numbers.

The  discussion  is the last major section of the research report. Discussions usually consist of some combination of the following elements:

• Summary of the research
• Theoretical implications
• Practical implications
• Limitations
• Suggestions for future research

The discussion typically begins with a summary of the study that provides a clear answer to the research question. In a short report with a single study, this might require no more than a sentence. In a longer report with multiple studies, it might require a paragraph or even two. The summary is often followed by a discussion of the theoretical implications of the research. Do the results provide support for any existing theories? If not, how  can  they be explained? Although you do not have to provide a definitive explanation or detailed theory for your results, you at least need to outline one or more possible explanations. In applied research—and often in basic research—there is also some discussion of the practical implications of the research. How can the results be used, and by whom, to accomplish some real-world goal?

The theoretical and practical implications are often followed by a discussion of the study’s limitations. Perhaps there are problems with its internal or external validity. Perhaps the manipulation was not very effective or the measures not very reliable. Perhaps there is some evidence that participants did not fully understand their task or that they were suspicious of the intent of the researchers. Now is the time to discuss these issues and how they might have affected the results. But do not overdo it. All studies have limitations, and most readers will understand that a different sample or different measures might have produced different results. Unless there is good reason to think they  would have, however, there is no reason to mention these routine issues. Instead, pick two or three limitations that seem like they could have influenced the results, explain how they could have influenced the results, and suggest ways to deal with them.

Most discussions end with some suggestions for future research. If the study did not satisfactorily answer the original research question, what will it take to do so? What  new  research questions has the study raised? This part of the discussion, however, is not just a list of new questions. It is a discussion of two or three of the most important unresolved issues. This means identifying and clarifying each question, suggesting some alternative answers, and even suggesting ways they could be studied.

Finally, some researchers are quite good at ending their articles with a sweeping or thought-provoking conclusion. Darley and Latané (1968) [4] , for example, ended their article on the bystander effect by discussing the idea that whether people help others may depend more on the situation than on their personalities. Their final sentence is, “If people understand the situational forces that can make them hesitate to intervene, they may better overcome them” (p. 383). However, this kind of ending can be difficult to pull off. It can sound overreaching or just banal and end up detracting from the overall impact of the article. It is often better simply to end when you have made your final point (although you should avoid ending on a limitation).

The references section begins on a new page with the heading “References” centred at the top of the page. All references cited in the text are then listed in the format presented earlier. They are listed alphabetically by the last name of the first author. If two sources have the same first author, they are listed alphabetically by the last name of the second author. If all the authors are the same, then they are listed chronologically by the year of publication. Everything in the reference list is double-spaced both within and between references.

Appendices, Tables, and Figures

Appendices, tables, and figures come after the references. An  appendix  is appropriate for supplemental material that would interrupt the flow of the research report if it were presented within any of the major sections. An appendix could be used to present lists of stimulus words, questionnaire items, detailed descriptions of special equipment or unusual statistical analyses, or references to the studies that are included in a meta-analysis. Each appendix begins on a new page. If there is only one, the heading is “Appendix,” centred at the top of the page. If there is more than one, the headings are “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on, and they appear in the order they were first mentioned in the text of the report.

After any appendices come tables and then figures. Tables and figures are both used to present results. Figures can also be used to illustrate theories (e.g., in the form of a flowchart), display stimuli, outline procedures, and present many other kinds of information. Each table and figure appears on its own page. Tables are numbered in the order that they are first mentioned in the text (“Table 1,” “Table 2,” and so on). Figures are numbered the same way (“Figure 1,” “Figure 2,” and so on). A brief explanatory title, with the important words capitalized, appears above each table. Each figure is given a brief explanatory caption, where (aside from proper nouns or names) only the first word of each sentence is capitalized. More details on preparing APA-style tables and figures are presented later in the book.

Sample APA-Style Research Report

Figures 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, and 11.5 show some sample pages from an APA-style empirical research report originally written by undergraduate student Tomoe Suyama at California State University, Fresno. The main purpose of these figures is to illustrate the basic organization and formatting of an APA-style empirical research report, although many high-level and low-level style conventions can be seen here too.

Key Takeaways

• An APA-style empirical research report consists of several standard sections. The main ones are the abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, and references.
• The introduction consists of an opening that presents the research question, a literature review that describes previous research on the topic, and a closing that restates the research question and comments on the method. The literature review constitutes an argument for why the current study is worth doing.
• The method section describes the method in enough detail that another researcher could replicate the study. At a minimum, it consists of a participants subsection and a design and procedure subsection.
• The results section describes the results in an organized fashion. Each primary result is presented in terms of statistical results but also explained in words.
• The discussion typically summarizes the study, discusses theoretical and practical implications and limitations of the study, and offers suggestions for further research.
• Practice: Look through an issue of a general interest professional journal (e.g.,  Psychological Science ). Read the opening of the first five articles and rate the effectiveness of each one from 1 ( very ineffective ) to 5 ( very effective ). Write a sentence or two explaining each rating.
• Practice: Find a recent article in a professional journal and identify where the opening, literature review, and closing of the introduction begin and end.
• Practice: Find a recent article in a professional journal and highlight in a different colour each of the following elements in the discussion: summary, theoretical implications, practical implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research.

Long Descriptions

Figure 11.1 long description: Table showing three ways of organizing an APA-style method section.

In the simple method, there are two subheadings: “Participants” (which might begin “The participants were…”) and “Design and procedure” (which might begin “There were three conditions…”).

In the typical method, there are three subheadings: “Participants” (“The participants were…”), “Design” (“There were three conditions…”), and “Procedure” (“Participants viewed each stimulus on the computer screen…”).

In the complex method, there are four subheadings: “Participants” (“The participants were…”), “Materials” (“The stimuli were…”), “Design” (“There were three conditions…”), and “Procedure” (“Participants viewed each stimulus on the computer screen…”). [Return to Figure 11.1]

• Bem, D. J. (2003). Writing the empirical journal article. In J. M. Darley, M. P. Zanna, & H. R. Roediger III (Eds.),  The compleat academic: A practical guide for the beginning social scientist  (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ↵
• Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4 , 377–383. ↵

A type of research article which describes one or more new empirical studies conducted by the authors.

The page at the beginning of an APA-style research report containing the title of the article, the authors’ names, and their institutional affiliation.

A summary of a research study.

The third page of a manuscript containing the research question, the literature review, and comments about how to answer the research question.

An introduction to the research question and explanation for why this question is interesting.

A description of relevant previous research on the topic being discusses and an argument for why the research is worth addressing.

The end of the introduction, where the research question is reiterated and the method is commented upon.

The section of a research report where the method used to conduct the study is described.

The main results of the study, including the results from statistical analyses, are presented in a research article.

Section of a research report that summarizes the study's results and interprets them by referring back to the study's theoretical background.

Part of a research report which contains supplemental material.

Research Methods in Psychology - 2nd Canadian Edition Copyright © 2015 by Paul C. Price, Rajiv Jhangiani, & I-Chant A. Chiang is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing a Research Paper Conclusion | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on October 30, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on April 13, 2023.

• Restate the problem statement addressed in the paper
• Summarize your overall arguments or findings
• Suggest the key takeaways from your paper

The content of the conclusion varies depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument through engagement with sources .

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Table of contents

Step 1: restate the problem, step 2: sum up the paper, step 3: discuss the implications, research paper conclusion examples, frequently asked questions about research paper conclusions.

The first task of your conclusion is to remind the reader of your research problem . You will have discussed this problem in depth throughout the body, but now the point is to zoom back out from the details to the bigger picture.

While you are restating a problem you’ve already introduced, you should avoid phrasing it identically to how it appeared in the introduction . Ideally, you’ll find a novel way to circle back to the problem from the more detailed ideas discussed in the body.

For example, an argumentative paper advocating new measures to reduce the environmental impact of agriculture might restate its problem as follows:

Meanwhile, an empirical paper studying the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues might present its problem like this:

“In conclusion …”

Avoid starting your conclusion with phrases like “In conclusion” or “To conclude,” as this can come across as too obvious and make your writing seem unsophisticated. The content and placement of your conclusion should make its function clear without the need for additional signposting.

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Having zoomed back in on the problem, it’s time to summarize how the body of the paper went about addressing it, and what conclusions this approach led to.

Depending on the nature of your research paper, this might mean restating your thesis and arguments, or summarizing your overall findings.

Argumentative paper: Restate your thesis and arguments

In an argumentative paper, you will have presented a thesis statement in your introduction, expressing the overall claim your paper argues for. In the conclusion, you should restate the thesis and show how it has been developed through the body of the paper.

Briefly summarize the key arguments made in the body, showing how each of them contributes to proving your thesis. You may also mention any counterarguments you addressed, emphasizing why your thesis holds up against them, particularly if your argument is a controversial one.

Don’t go into the details of your evidence or present new ideas; focus on outlining in broad strokes the argument you have made.

Empirical paper: Summarize your findings

In an empirical paper, this is the time to summarize your key findings. Don’t go into great detail here (you will have presented your in-depth results and discussion already), but do clearly express the answers to the research questions you investigated.

Describe your main findings, even if they weren’t necessarily the ones you expected or hoped for, and explain the overall conclusion they led you to.

Having summed up your key arguments or findings, the conclusion ends by considering the broader implications of your research. This means expressing the key takeaways, practical or theoretical, from your paper—often in the form of a call for action or suggestions for future research.

Argumentative paper: Strong closing statement

An argumentative paper generally ends with a strong closing statement. In the case of a practical argument, make a call for action: What actions do you think should be taken by the people or organizations concerned in response to your argument?

If your topic is more theoretical and unsuitable for a call for action, your closing statement should express the significance of your argument—for example, in proposing a new understanding of a topic or laying the groundwork for future research.

Empirical paper: Future research directions

In a more empirical paper, you can close by either making recommendations for practice (for example, in clinical or policy papers), or suggesting directions for future research.

Whatever the scope of your own research, there will always be room for further investigation of related topics, and you’ll often discover new questions and problems during the research process .

Finish your paper on a forward-looking note by suggesting how you or other researchers might build on this topic in the future and address any limitations of the current paper.

Full examples of research paper conclusions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

While the role of cattle in climate change is by now common knowledge, countries like the Netherlands continually fail to confront this issue with the urgency it deserves. The evidence is clear: To create a truly futureproof agricultural sector, Dutch farmers must be incentivized to transition from livestock farming to sustainable vegetable farming. As well as dramatically lowering emissions, plant-based agriculture, if approached in the right way, can produce more food with less land, providing opportunities for nature regeneration areas that will themselves contribute to climate targets. Although this approach would have economic ramifications, from a long-term perspective, it would represent a significant step towards a more sustainable and resilient national economy. Transitioning to sustainable vegetable farming will make the Netherlands greener and healthier, setting an example for other European governments. Farmers, policymakers, and consumers must focus on the future, not just on their own short-term interests, and work to implement this transition now.

As social media becomes increasingly central to young people’s everyday lives, it is important to understand how different platforms affect their developing self-conception. By testing the effect of daily Instagram use among teenage girls, this study established that highly visual social media does indeed have a significant effect on body image concerns, with a strong correlation between the amount of time spent on the platform and participants’ self-reported dissatisfaction with their appearance. However, the strength of this effect was moderated by pre-test self-esteem ratings: Participants with higher self-esteem were less likely to experience an increase in body image concerns after using Instagram. This suggests that, while Instagram does impact body image, it is also important to consider the wider social and psychological context in which this usage occurs: Teenagers who are already predisposed to self-esteem issues may be at greater risk of experiencing negative effects. Future research into Instagram and other highly visual social media should focus on establishing a clearer picture of how self-esteem and related constructs influence young people’s experiences of these platforms. Furthermore, while this experiment measured Instagram usage in terms of time spent on the platform, observational studies are required to gain more insight into different patterns of usage—to investigate, for instance, whether active posting is associated with different effects than passive consumption of social media content.

If you’re unsure about the conclusion, it can be helpful to ask a friend or fellow student to read your conclusion and summarize the main takeaways.

• Do they understand from your conclusion what your research was about?
• Are they able to summarize the implications of your findings?
• Can they answer your research question based on your conclusion?

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The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:

• A restatement of the research problem
• A summary of your key arguments and/or findings
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

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General Research Paper Guidelines: Discussion

Discussion section.

The overall purpose of a research paper’s discussion section is to evaluate and interpret results, while explaining both the implications and limitations of your findings. Per APA (2020) guidelines, this section requires you to “examine, interpret, and qualify the results and draw inferences and conclusions from them” (p. 89). Discussion sections also require you to detail any new insights, think through areas for future research, highlight the work that still needs to be done to further your topic, and provide a clear conclusion to your research paper. In a good discussion section, you should do the following:

• Clearly connect the discussion of your results to your introduction, including your central argument, thesis, or problem statement.
• Provide readers with a critical thinking through of your results, answering the “so what?” question about each of your findings. In other words, why is this finding important?
• Detail how your research findings might address critical gaps or problems in your field
• Compare your results to similar studies’ findings
• Provide the possibility of alternative interpretations, as your goal as a researcher is to “discover” and “examine” and not to “prove” or “disprove.” Instead of trying to fit your results into your hypothesis, critically engage with alternative interpretations to your results.

For more specific details on your Discussion section, be sure to review Sections 3.8 (pp. 89-90) and 3.16 (pp. 103-104) of your 7 th edition APA manual

*Box content adapted from:

University of Southern California (n.d.). Organizing your social sciences research paper: 8 the discussion . https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/discussion

Limitations

Limitations of generalizability or utility of findings, often over which the researcher has no control, should be detailed in your Discussion section. Including limitations for your reader allows you to demonstrate you have thought critically about your given topic, understood relevant literature addressing your topic, and chosen the methodology most appropriate for your research. It also allows you an opportunity to suggest avenues for future research on your topic. An effective limitations section will include the following:

• Detail (a) sources of potential bias, (b) possible imprecision of measures, (c) other limitations or weaknesses of the study, including any methodological or researcher limitations.
• Sample size: In quantitative research, if a sample size is too small, it is more difficult to generalize results.
• Lack of available/reliable data : In some cases, data might not be available or reliable, which will ultimately affect the overall scope of your research. Use this as an opportunity to explain areas for future study.
• Lack of prior research on your study topic: In some cases, you might find that there is very little or no similar research on your study topic, which hinders the credibility and scope of your own research. If this is the case, use this limitation as an opportunity to call for future research. However, make sure you have done a thorough search of the available literature before making this claim.
• Flaws in measurement of data: Hindsight is 20/20, and you might realize after you have completed your research that the data tool you used actually limited the scope or results of your study in some way. Again, acknowledge the weakness and use it as an opportunity to highlight areas for future study.
• Limits of self-reported data: In your research, you are assuming that any participants will be honest and forthcoming with responses or information they provide to you. Simply acknowledging this assumption as a possible limitation is important in your research.
• Access: Most research requires that you have access to people, documents, organizations, etc.. However, for various reasons, access is sometimes limited or denied altogether. If this is the case, you will want to acknowledge access as a limitation to your research.
• Time: Choosing a research focus that is narrow enough in scope to finish in a given time period is important. If such limitations of time prevent you from certain forms of research, access, or study designs, acknowledging this time restraint is important. Acknowledging such limitations is important, as they can point other researchers to areas that require future study.
• Potential Bias: All researchers have some biases, so when reading and revising your draft, pay special attention to the possibilities for bias in your own work. Such bias could be in the form you organized people, places, participants, or events. They might also exist in the method you selected or the interpretation of your results. Acknowledging such bias is an important part of the research process.
• Language Fluency: On occasion, researchers or research participants might have language fluency issues, which could potentially hinder results or how effectively you interpret results. If this is an issue in your research, make sure to acknowledge it in your limitations section.

University of Southern California (n.d.). Organizing your social sciences research paper: Limitations of the study . https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/limitations

In many research papers, the conclusion, like the limitations section, is folded into the larger discussion section. If you are unsure whether to include the conclusion as part of your discussion or as a separate section, be sure to defer to the assignment instructions or ask your instructor.

The conclusion is important, as it is specifically designed to highlight your research’s larger importance outside of the specific results of your study. Your conclusion section allows you to reiterate the main findings of your study, highlight their importance, and point out areas for future research. Based on the scope of your paper, your conclusion could be anywhere from one to three paragraphs long. An effective conclusion section should include the following:

• Describe the possibilities for continued research on your topic, including what might be improved, adapted, or added to ensure useful and informed future research.
• Provide a detailed account of the importance of your findings
• Reiterate why your problem is important, detail how your interpretation of results impacts the subfield of study, and what larger issues both within and outside of your field might be affected from such results

University of Southern California (n.d.). Organizing your social sciences research paper: 9. the conclusion . https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/conclusion

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How To Write The Conclusion Chapter

A Simple Explainer With Examples + Free Template

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | September 2021

So, you’ve wrapped up your results and discussion chapters, and you’re finally on the home stretch – the conclusion chapter . In this post, we’ll discuss everything you need to know to craft a high-quality conclusion chapter for your dissertation or thesis project.

Overview: The Conclusion Chapter

• What the thesis/dissertation conclusion chapter is
• What to include in your conclusion
• How to structure and write up your conclusion
• A few tips  to help you ace the chapter
• FREE conclusion template

What is the conclusion chapter?

The conclusion chapter is typically the final major chapter of a dissertation or thesis. As such, it serves as a concluding summary of your research findings and wraps up the document. While some publications such as journal articles and research reports combine the discussion and conclusion sections, these are typically separate chapters in a dissertation or thesis. As always, be sure to check what your university’s structural preference is before you start writing up these chapters.

So, what’s the difference between the discussion and the conclusion chapter?

Well, the two chapters are quite similar , as they both discuss the key findings of the study. However, the conclusion chapter is typically more general and high-level in nature. In your discussion chapter, you’ll typically discuss the intricate details of your study, but in your conclusion chapter, you’ll take a   broader perspective, reporting on the main research outcomes and how these addressed your research aim (or aims) .

A core function of the conclusion chapter is to synthesise all major points covered in your study and to tell the reader what they should take away from your work. Basically, you need to tell them what you found , why it’s valuable , how it can be applied , and what further research can be done.

Whatever you do, don’t just copy and paste what you’ve written in your discussion chapter! The conclusion chapter should not be a simple rehash of the discussion chapter. While the two chapters are similar, they have distinctly different functions.  

What should I include in the conclusion chapter?

To understand what needs to go into your conclusion chapter, it’s useful to understand what the chapter needs to achieve. In general, a good dissertation conclusion chapter should achieve the following:

• Summarise the key findings of the study
• Explicitly answer the research question(s) and address the research aims
• Inform the reader of the study’s main contributions
• Discuss any limitations or weaknesses of the study
• Present recommendations for future research

Therefore, your conclusion chapter needs to cover these core components. Importantly, you need to be careful not to include any new findings or data points. Your conclusion chapter should be based purely on data and analysis findings that you’ve already presented in the earlier chapters. If there’s a new point you want to introduce, you’ll need to go back to your results and discussion chapters to weave the foundation in there.

In many cases, readers will jump from the introduction chapter directly to the conclusions chapter to get a quick overview of the study’s purpose and key findings. Therefore, when you write up your conclusion chapter, it’s useful to assume that the reader hasn’t consumed the inner chapters of your dissertation or thesis. In other words, craft your conclusion chapter such that there’s a strong connection and smooth flow between the introduction and conclusion chapters, even though they’re on opposite ends of your document.

Need a helping hand?

How to write the conclusion chapter

Now that you have a clearer view of what the conclusion chapter is about, let’s break down the structure of this chapter so that you can get writing. Keep in mind that this is merely a typical structure – it’s not set in stone or universal. Some universities will prefer that you cover some of these points in the discussion chapter , or that you cover the points at different levels in different chapters.

Step 1: Craft a brief introduction section

As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, the conclusions chapter needs to start with a brief introduction. In this introductory section, you’ll want to tell the reader what they can expect to find in the chapter, and in what order . Here’s an example of what this might look like:

This chapter will conclude the study by summarising the key research findings in relation to the research aims and questions and discussing the value and contribution thereof. It will also review the limitations of the study and propose opportunities for future research.

Importantly, the objective here is just to give the reader a taste of what’s to come (a roadmap of sorts), not a summary of the chapter. So, keep it short and sweet – a paragraph or two should be ample.

Step 2: Discuss the overall findings in relation to the research aims

The next step in writing your conclusions chapter is to discuss the overall findings of your study , as they relate to the research aims and research questions . You would have likely covered similar ground in the discussion chapter, so it’s important to zoom out a little bit here and focus on the broader findings – specifically, how these help address the research aims .

In practical terms, it’s useful to start this section by reminding your reader of your research aims and research questions, so that the findings are well contextualised. In this section, phrases such as, “This study aimed to…” and “the results indicate that…” will likely come in handy. For example, you could say something like the following:

This study aimed to investigate the feeding habits of the naked mole-rat. The results indicate that naked mole rats feed on underground roots and tubers. Further findings show that these creatures eat only a part of the plant, leaving essential parts to ensure long-term food stability.

Be careful not to make overly bold claims here. Avoid claims such as “this study proves that” or “the findings disprove existing the existing theory”. It’s seldom the case that a single study can prove or disprove something. Typically, this is achieved by a broader body of research, not a single study – especially not a dissertation or thesis which will inherently have significant  limitations . We’ll discuss those limitations a little later.

Step 3: Discuss how your study contributes to the field

Next, you’ll need to discuss how your research has contributed to the field – both in terms of theory and practice . This involves talking about what you achieved in your study, highlighting why this is important and valuable, and how it can be used or applied.

In this section you’ll want to:

• Mention any research outputs created as a result of your study (e.g., articles, publications, etc.)
• Inform the reader on just how your research solves your research problem , and why that matters
• Reflect on gaps in the existing research and discuss how your study contributes towards addressing these gaps
• Discuss your study in relation to relevant theories . For example, does it confirm these theories or constructively challenge them?
• Discuss how your research findings can be applied in the real world . For example, what specific actions can practitioners take, based on your findings?

Be careful to strike a careful balance between being firm but humble in your arguments here. It’s unlikely that your one study will fundamentally change paradigms or shake up the discipline, so making claims to this effect will be frowned upon . At the same time though, you need to present your arguments with confidence, firmly asserting the contribution your research has made, however small that contribution may be. Simply put, you need to keep it balanced .

Step 4: Reflect on the limitations of your study

Now that you’ve pumped your research up, the next step is to critically reflect on the limitations and potential shortcomings of your study. You may have already covered this in the discussion chapter, depending on your university’s structural preferences, so be careful not to repeat yourself unnecessarily.

There are many potential limitations that can apply to any given study. Some common ones include:

• Sampling issues that reduce the generalisability of the findings (e.g., non-probability sampling )
• Insufficient sample size (e.g., not getting enough survey responses ) or limited data access
• Low-resolution data collection or analysis techniques
• Researcher bias or lack of experience
• Lack of access to research equipment
• Time constraints that limit the methodology (e.g. cross-sectional vs longitudinal time horizon)
• Budget constraints that limit various aspects of the study

Discussing the limitations of your research may feel self-defeating (no one wants to highlight their weaknesses, right), but it’s a critical component of high-quality research. It’s important to appreciate that all studies have limitations (even well-funded studies by expert researchers) – therefore acknowledging these limitations adds credibility to your research by showing that you understand the limitations of your research design .

That being said, keep an eye on your wording and make sure that you don’t undermine your research . It’s important to strike a balance between recognising the limitations, but also highlighting the value of your research despite those limitations. Show the reader that you understand the limitations, that these were justified given your constraints, and that you know how they can be improved upon – this will get you marks.

Next, you’ll need to make recommendations for future studies. This will largely be built on the limitations you just discussed. For example, if one of your study’s weaknesses was related to a specific data collection or analysis method, you can make a recommendation that future researchers undertake similar research using a more sophisticated method.

Another potential source of future research recommendations is any data points or analysis findings that were interesting or surprising , but not directly related to your study’s research aims and research questions. So, if you observed anything that “stood out” in your analysis, but you didn’t explore it in your discussion (due to a lack of relevance to your research aims), you can earmark that for further exploration in this section.

Essentially, this section is an opportunity to outline how other researchers can build on your study to take the research further and help develop the body of knowledge. So, think carefully about the new questions that your study has raised, and clearly outline these for future researchers to pick up on.

Step 6: Wrap up with a closing summary

Tips for a top-notch conclusion chapter

Now that we’ve covered the what , why and how of the conclusion chapter, here are some quick tips and suggestions to help you craft a rock-solid conclusion.

• Don’t ramble . The conclusion chapter usually consumes 5-7% of the total word count (although this will vary between universities), so you need to be concise. Edit this chapter thoroughly with a focus on brevity and clarity.
• Be very careful about the claims you make in terms of your study’s contribution. Nothing will make the marker’s eyes roll back faster than exaggerated or unfounded claims. Be humble but firm in your claim-making.
• Use clear and simple language that can be easily understood by an intelligent layman. Remember that not every reader will be an expert in your field, so it’s important to make your writing accessible. Bear in mind that no one knows your research better than you do, so it’s important to spell things out clearly for readers.

Hopefully, this post has given you some direction and confidence to take on the conclusion chapter of your dissertation or thesis with confidence. If you’re still feeling a little shaky and need a helping hand, consider booking a free initial consultation with a friendly Grad Coach to discuss how we can help you with hands-on, private coaching.

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17 Comments

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 7. The Results
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
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The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise. Use non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper that follows].

Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Brett, Paul. "A Genre Analysis of the Results Section of Sociology Articles." English for Specific Speakers 13 (1994): 47-59; Go to English for Specific Purposes on ScienceDirect;Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; "Reporting Findings." In Making Sense of Social Research Malcolm Williams, editor. (London;: SAGE Publications, 2003) pp. 188-207.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Organization and Approach

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results . Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach.

• Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings . This approach can be used to highlight important findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is appropriate to highlight this finding in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
• Present a result and then explain it, before presenting the next result then explaining it, and so on, then end with an overall synopsis . This is the preferred approach if you have multiple results of equal significance. It is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it is helpful to provide a brief conclusion that ties each of the findings together and provides a narrative bridge to the discussion section of the your paper.

NOTE:   Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following:

• Introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study . This is useful in re-orientating the reader's focus back to the research problem after having read a review of the literature and your explanation of the methods used for gathering and analyzing information.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings, if appropriate . Rather than relying entirely on descriptive text, consider how your findings can be presented visually. This is a helpful way of condensing a lot of data into one place that can then be referred to in the text. Consider referring to appendices if there is a lot of non-textual elements.
• A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation . Not all results that emerge from the methodology used to gather information may be related to answering the " So What? " question. Do not confuse observations with interpretations; observations in this context refers to highlighting important findings you discovered through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported . However, focus on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem. It is not uncommon to have unanticipated results that are not relevant to answering the research question. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge tangential findings and, in fact, can be referred to as areas for further research in the conclusion of your paper. However, spending time in the results section describing tangential findings clutters your overall results section and distracts the reader.
• A short paragraph that concludes the results section by synthesizing the key findings of the study . Highlight the most important findings you want readers to remember as they transition into the discussion section. This is particularly important if, for example, there are many results to report, the findings are complicated or unanticipated, or they are impactful or actionable in some way [i.e., able to be pursued in a feasible way applied to practice].

NOTE:   Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.

III.  Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

• Discussing or interpreting your results . Save this for the discussion section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to the work of Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
• Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Writing up research is rarely a linear process. Always revise your introduction as needed.
• Ignoring negative results . A negative result generally refers to a finding that does not support the underlying assumptions of your study. Do not ignore them. Document these findings and then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, can give you an opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be hesitant to highlight them.
• Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
• Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater than other variables..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...." Subjective modifiers should be explained in the discussion section of the paper [i.e., why did one variable appear greater? Or, how does the finding demonstrate a promising trend?].
• Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you want to highlight a particular finding, it is appropriate to do so in the results section. However, you should emphasize its significance in relation to addressing the research problem in the discussion section. Do not repeat it in your results section because you can do that in the conclusion of your paper.
• Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or a figure a table. If you are not sure, go here .

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers. Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit ; Ng, K. H. and W. C. Peh. "Writing the Results." Singapore Medical Journal 49 (2008): 967-968; Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results. Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

Driscoll, Dana Lynn and Aleksandra Kasztalska. Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

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Marketing Research: Planning, Process, Practice

Student resources, multiple choice quizzes.

Try these quizzes to test your understanding.

1. Research analysis is the last critical step in the research process.

2. The final research report where a discussion of findings and limitations is presented is the easiest part for a researcher.

3. Two different researchers may be presented with the same data analysis results and discuss them differently, uncovering alternative insights linked to the research question, each using a different lens.

4. A reliable research is essentially valid, but a valid research is not necessarily reliable.

5. A valid research refers to the degree to which it accurately measures what it intends to measure.

6. Keeping an envisioned original contribution to knowledge in mind, the research report in appearance and content should highlights the outcomes and link back to objectives.

7. A good conclusion chapter should (please select ALL answers that apply) ______.

• have a structure that brings back what the research set out to do
• discuss the researcher’s own assumptions and ideas about the topic under study
• makes logical links between the various parts of the arguments starting from the hypotheses

Answer: A & C 

8. Research implications presented in a study must be either theoretical only or practical only.

9. Good researchers should aim for a perfect research, with no limitations or restrictions.

10. Examples of research limitations include (please select the answer that DOESN’T apply) ______.

• access to the population of interest
• the study’s coverage of possible contributory factors
• the researcher’s poor analysis skills
• the sampling technique used

11. A good structure outlining an effective research report starts with the ‘Analysis and Results’ section.

12. A good research study can just focus on its key outcomes without highlighting areas for future research.

13. If some of the research questions were not answered or some research objectives could not be achieved, then the final report must explain and reflect on the reasons why this is the case.

14. The importance of being critically reflective in presenting the future research section is that it allows for the advent of new arenas of thought that you or other researchers can develop on.

15. A weak future research section and weak discussion of the research limitations does not make the study fragile/lacking rigour and depth.

16. Once a research specifies a study’s limitations, this discredits all research efforts exerted in it.

17. Reporting research is about presenting the research journey through clear and evidence-based arguments of design, process and outcomes, not just describing it.

18. It is not important to present in every research report the ethical considerations that were anticipated or have ascended in the study.

19. Verbal and visual presentations of research aid in the dissemination of its outcomes and value, and allow for its strengths to be revealed.

20. In oral presentations, the audience expects you as a researcher to present your work in full detail even if they will ask further questions in the follow-up discussion.

How to Write Limitations of the Study (with examples)

This blog emphasizes the importance of recognizing and effectively writing about limitations in research. It discusses the types of limitations, their significance, and provides guidelines for writing about them, highlighting their role in advancing scholarly research.

Updated on August 24, 2023

No matter how well thought out, every research endeavor encounters challenges. There is simply no way to predict all possible variances throughout the process.

These uncharted boundaries and abrupt constraints are known as limitations in research . Identifying and acknowledging limitations is crucial for conducting rigorous studies. Limitations provide context and shed light on gaps in the prevailing inquiry and literature.

This article explores the importance of recognizing limitations and discusses how to write them effectively. By interpreting limitations in research and considering prevalent examples, we aim to reframe the perception from shameful mistakes to respectable revelations.

What are limitations in research?

In the clearest terms, research limitations are the practical or theoretical shortcomings of a study that are often outside of the researcher’s control . While these weaknesses limit the generalizability of a study’s conclusions, they also present a foundation for future research.

Sometimes limitations arise from tangible circumstances like time and funding constraints, or equipment and participant availability. Other times the rationale is more obscure and buried within the research design. Common types of limitations and their ramifications include:

• Theoretical: limits the scope, depth, or applicability of a study.
• Methodological: limits the quality, quantity, or diversity of the data.
• Empirical: limits the representativeness, validity, or reliability of the data.
• Analytical: limits the accuracy, completeness, or significance of the findings.
• Ethical: limits the access, consent, or confidentiality of the data.

Regardless of how, when, or why they arise, limitations are a natural part of the research process and should never be ignored . Like all other aspects, they are vital in their own purpose.

Why is identifying limitations important?

Whether to seek acceptance or avoid struggle, humans often instinctively hide flaws and mistakes. Merging this thought process into research by attempting to hide limitations, however, is a bad idea. It has the potential to negate the validity of outcomes and damage the reputation of scholars.

By identifying and addressing limitations throughout a project, researchers strengthen their arguments and curtail the chance of peer censure based on overlooked mistakes. Pointing out these flaws shows an understanding of variable limits and a scrupulous research process.

Showing awareness of and taking responsibility for a project’s boundaries and challenges validates the integrity and transparency of a researcher. It further demonstrates the researchers understand the applicable literature and have thoroughly evaluated their chosen research methods.

Presenting limitations also benefits the readers by providing context for research findings. It guides them to interpret the project’s conclusions only within the scope of very specific conditions. By allowing for an appropriate generalization of the findings that is accurately confined by research boundaries and is not too broad, limitations boost a study’s credibility .

Limitations are true assets to the research process. They highlight opportunities for future research. When researchers identify the limitations of their particular approach to a study question, they enable precise transferability and improve chances for reproducibility. 

Simply stating a project’s limitations is not adequate for spurring further research, though. To spark the interest of other researchers, these acknowledgements must come with thorough explanations regarding how the limitations affected the current study and how they can potentially be overcome with amended methods.

How to write limitations

Typically, the information about a study’s limitations is situated either at the beginning of the discussion section to provide context for readers or at the conclusion of the discussion section to acknowledge the need for further research. However, it varies depending upon the target journal or publication guidelines. 

Don’t hide your limitations

It is also important to not bury a limitation in the body of the paper unless it has a unique connection to a topic in that section. If so, it needs to be reiterated with the other limitations or at the conclusion of the discussion section. Wherever it is included in the manuscript, ensure that the limitations section is prominently positioned and clearly introduced.

While maintaining transparency by disclosing limitations means taking a comprehensive approach, it is not necessary to discuss everything that could have potentially gone wrong during the research study. If there is no commitment to investigation in the introduction, it is unnecessary to consider the issue a limitation to the research. Wholly consider the term ‘limitations’ and ask, “Did it significantly change or limit the possible outcomes?” Then, qualify the occurrence as either a limitation to include in the current manuscript or as an idea to note for other projects. 

Writing limitations

Once the limitations are concretely identified and it is decided where they will be included in the paper, researchers are ready for the writing task. Including only what is pertinent, keeping explanations detailed but concise, and employing the following guidelines is key for crafting valuable limitations:

1) Identify and describe the limitations : Clearly introduce the limitation by classifying its form and specifying its origin. For example:

• An unintentional bias encountered during data collection
• An intentional use of unplanned post-hoc data analysis

2) Explain the implications : Describe how the limitation potentially influences the study’s findings and how the validity and generalizability are subsequently impacted. Provide examples and evidence to support claims of the limitations’ effects without making excuses or exaggerating their impact. Overall, be transparent and objective in presenting the limitations, without undermining the significance of the research. 

3) Provide alternative approaches for future studies : Offer specific suggestions for potential improvements or avenues for further investigation. Demonstrate a proactive approach by encouraging future research that addresses the identified gaps and, therefore, expands the knowledge base.

Whether presenting limitations as an individual section within the manuscript or as a subtopic in the discussion area, authors should use clear headings and straightforward language to facilitate readability. There is no need to complicate limitations with jargon, computations, or complex datasets.

Examples of common limitations

Limitations are generally grouped into two categories , methodology and research process .

Methodology limitations

Methodology may include limitations due to:

• Sample size
• Lack of available or reliable data
• Lack of prior research studies on the topic
• Measure used to collect the data
• Self-reported data

The researcher is addressing how the large sample size requires a reassessment of the measures used to collect and analyze the data.

Research process limitations

Limitations during the research process may arise from:

• Access to information
• Longitudinal effects
• Cultural and other biases
• Language fluency
• Time constraints

The author is pointing out that the model’s estimates are based on potentially biased observational studies.

Final thoughts

Successfully proving theories and touting great achievements are only two very narrow goals of scholarly research. The true passion and greatest efforts of researchers comes more in the form of confronting assumptions and exploring the obscure.

In many ways, recognizing and sharing the limitations of a research study both allows for and encourages this type of discovery that continuously pushes research forward. By using limitations to provide a transparent account of the project's boundaries and to contextualize the findings, researchers pave the way for even more robust and impactful research in the future.

Charla Viera, MS

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MSc Research Methods 1 ODL Course Information

12 structure of the discussion and identifying limitations.

In this research skills chapter, we tackle the final major section of a quantitative research report: The Discussion section. In the first part of the chapter, we break down the structure of the Discussion section . In the second part, we spend extra time on identifying limitations as this is an area that a little more experience to recognise how much we can learn from a given study.

12.1 Structure of the discussion

The discussion summarises your findings and puts them in context compared to previous studies that influenced you. Relating back to the hypothetico-deductive model, the discussion focuses on the final part of the cycle: as you move from your conclusions to considering how they fit in with previous research.

There are four key components to the discussion:

Brief summary of your findings

Relate your findings to previous findings and theory

Consideration of any limitations, generalisability, and future directions

The discussion is the bottom of the hourglass shape of a report, starting narrow to summarise your findings and becoming broader as you get closer to the end. These components do not typically have sub-headings to present as specific sub-sections, but you might see some articles include sub-headings for limitations, future research directions, and the conclusion. Providing your topic sentences are clear enough, they are not essential. You would not need sub-headings for the summary and previous research to compare though, these are just components to ensure you cover.

12.1.1 Brief summary of main findings

The first paragraph or so of the discussion summarises your findings without all the statistics you presented in the results. You might mention the key effect size(s), but this is not a repetition of the results section. The idea is to summarise your findings in plain English and link back to your research question and hypothesis (if applicable) so its clear to the reader what you conclude.

12.1.2 Relate your findings to previous findings and theory

The longest component in the discussion, this is where you put your findings in context to previous studies and theory. You will reuse many of the references from the introduction as these are the studies that influenced you, so they are going to be the most relevant. However, you can still bring in new references if there is a relevant study you found in the meantime, or you found something you did not expect, so you had to identify additional evidence.

The key consideration here is you are explaining to the reader how your work builds on what we already knew. Were your findings consistent with past studies, were they inconsistent? Did you find a smaller or larger effect size than previous studies?

Discussions are quite speculative as you are providing explanations for your findings, but knowledge/research and evaluation skills are still important. It is crucial to cite evidence in support of your ideas and bring in relevant theory to provide a framework for your explanations wherever possible.

12.1.3 Consideration of any limitations, generalisability, and future directions

After putting your findings in context, you explain to the reader what your study could and could not tell you. Limitations are about highlighting weaknesses in your study and manage expectations, rather than overselling your results.

It takes time to develop a sense of what a valid limitation is as its easy to make it sound like your study was useless. No study is perfect but likewise no study can cover everything. You do not need to list everything that was missing or include what you consider personal limitations like data analysis is not your strength.

We spend additional time on this below to develop a better sense of identifying and evaluating limitations, but for now, the key thing is identifying a feature of your study's method that you consider a weakness for what you can conclude. For example, you think your measure is useful but maybe you think it might not generalise to real life behaviour. So, you would outline your limitation, support your reasoning with evidence, and link to future research on what you would do in future to address the limitation.

12.1.4 Conclusion

The final part of your discussion and report is a brief conclusion. This is typically a paragraph or two to remind the reader of your take home message. Consider it an executive summary of what your research question was and what you found in your study. Its the final thing the reader will see, so recap all the key points you want them to remember.

12.2 Identifying limitations

A key component of the discussion is outlining limitations which are features of your study that may threaten the validity of your findings or how these features affect how much confidence you have in your findings/conclusions. It is not about tearing your study apart or the reader will just think "why did you bother in the first place", but if you can own your limitations, it shows you have carefully considered what conclusions you can and cannot make, rather than overselling your findings.

It takes time and experience to build an understanding of what limitations affect a given area of study or methods, so we wanted to spend extra time on identifying limitations.

When you design your own study in the future, you should consider limitations from the design phase. Once you have conducted the study, there is nothing you can do about them. However, no individual study provides the definitive answer to a research question. You must make decisions and often you must make compromises when designing a study. So, try and avoid as many limitations as you can in the design phase, and for the limitations you cannot avoid, make sure you can justify why you accepted the limitation.

12.2.1 The four validities

Limitations typically focus on your methods as they are elements you no longer have any control over. Clarke and colleagues have released some excellent articles on limitations in psychology articles and reinforce the idea of the four validities. These are not exhaustive and there are some limitations which cannot be classified this way, but we think it is a good way to develop an appreciation of what limitations are and provide inspiration for what features you might identify as limitations.

We covered validity all the way back in semester 1 on research design. Validity relates to the truth of an inference ( Clarke et al., 2023a ), meaning how confident you can be in the conclusions you made from a given finding. The four validities relate to different elements that affect that confidence:

External validity - how generalisable you think a finding is.

Construct validity - how well a measure or manipulation represents a given psychological construct.

Internal validity - whether there is evidence of a causal relationship between your variables.

Statistical conclusion validity - whether your statistical approach can provide valid inferential statistics.

Before we outline the kind of features that you could question as a limitation, Clarke et al. (2023b) provide guidance on how to approach identifying limitations:

Focus on your most important limitations - avoid the temptation to list every limitation you can think of. It is not about undermining your study or distracting the reader, but highlighting one or two in detail and do them justice.

Be specific - avoid generic limitations that could be applied to almost any study. It is important to contextualise the limitation you identified and explain how it affects what you can conclude from your specific study.

Explain, don't excuse - You do not need to spin your limitations as a strength (think of a job interview where someone says "I'm too much of a perfectionist"), the critical reader is interested in how you can explain the implications of your limitations for the conclusions you make.

If you have time, we recommend reading the article from Clarke et al. (2023b) in full as they provide advice on better practice in outlining limitations, but for this chapter, we will summarise their key categories for inspiration.

12.2.1.1 External validity

Selection bias - Did you use a representative sample of your target population in your study? Does your sample not include traditionally underrepresented or understudied populations?

Limited generalisability across cultures - Can you apply the findings from the cultural context of your study to another cultural context?

Situation effects - Would you expect the findings to be consistent across new contexts or time periods?

Low realism - Could your sample setting and choice of measure generalise from your study to your target setting and construct?

Theoretical generalisability - Does the theory behind your study apply universally to all humans or would it only apply locally to a specific population?

12.2.1.2 Construct validity

Construct definition errors and ambiguities - Did you clearly define your psychological construct and choose a measure accordingly?

Insufficient validity evidence - Is there sufficient validity evidence for your measures and/or manipulations?

Using measures/manipulations with little or no validation - If you developed a measure/manipulation specifically for your study, is there evidence it is valid and reliable?

Short measures - If a measure is too short, is this a limitation or is there sufficient validation evidence?

Over-reliance on self-reports - If you measure your construct with a self-report method, is this the best way to measure your construct?

12.2.1.3 Internal validity

Observational study - If you did not conduct an experiment or provide specific inferential evidence for a causal relationship, how could your inferences be biased by potential confounding variables?

Reverse causation - If you did not provide specific inferential evidence for a causal relationship, how plausible would each direction of the relationship be?

Unobserved confounding - If you did not provide specific inferential evidence for a causal relationship, what plausible additional confounding variables could there be?

12.2.1.4 Statistical conclusion validity

Exploratory research - Are you making strong conclusions based on unplanned analyses with an unknown false positive error rate?

Underpowered research - Did you use a sufficient number of participants to detect your smallest effect size of interest?

Weak statistical evidence - Do your main conclusions rely on weak statistical evidence, such as a p -value very close to your alpha?

Small effect sizes - What is the practical significance of your effect size estimate?

12.2.2 Summary

Hopefully, dedicating extra space to identifying limitations provides inspiration for what features of your study could affect confidence in your findings. Remember this is not about intentionally undermining your study, but instilling trustworthiness by realistically adding caveats for what you can and cannot conclude in your study. The four validities popularised by the work of Clarke et al. are meant to provide a starting point and help calibrate your understanding of what a legitimate limitation is. If you can identify a limitation applicable to your study that is not covered here, you can still outline it, but it is important you are specific and support your evaluation with evidence wherever possible.

Research Skills

Results, discussion, and conclusion, results/findings.

The Results (or Findings) section follows the Methods and precedes the Discussion section. This is where the authors provide the data collected during their study. That data can sometimes be difficult to understand because it is often quite technical. Do not let this intimidate you; you will discover the significance of the results next.

The Discussion section follows the Results and precedes the Conclusions and Recommendations section. It is here that the authors indicate the significance of their results. They answer the question, “Why did we get the results we did?” This section provides logical explanations for the results from the study. Those explanations are often reached by comparing and contrasting the results to prior studies’ findings, so citations to the studies discussed in the Literature Review generally reappear here. This section also usually discusses the limitations of the study and speculates on what the results say about the problem(s) identified in the research question(s). This section is very important because it is finally moving towards an argument. Since the researchers interpret their results according to theoretical underpinnings in this section, there is more room for difference of opinion. The way the authors interpret their results may be quite different from the way you would interpret them or the way another researcher would interpret them.

Note: Some articles collapse the Discussion and Conclusion sections together under a single heading (usually “Conclusion”). If you don’t see a separate Discussion section, don’t worry.  Instead, look in the nearby sections for the types of information described in the paragraph above.

When you first skim an article, it may be useful to go straight to the Conclusion and see if you can figure out what the thesis is since it is usually in this final section. The research gap identified in the introduction indicates what the researchers wanted to look at; what did they claim, ultimately, when they completed their research? What did it show them—and what are they showing us—about the topic? Did they get the results they expected? Why or why not? The thesis is not a sweeping proclamation; rather, it is likely a very reasonable and conditional claim.

Nearly every research article ends by inviting other scholars to continue the work by saying that more research needs to be done on the matter. However, do not mistake this directive for the thesis; it’s a convention. Often, the authors provide specific details about future possible studies that could or should be conducted in order to make more sense of their own study’s conclusions.

• Parts of An Article. Authored by : Kerry Bowers. Provided by : University of Mississippi. Project : WRIT 250 Committee OER Project. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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Home » Research Findings – Types Examples and Writing Guide

Research Findings – Types Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Findings

Definition:

Research findings refer to the results obtained from a study or investigation conducted through a systematic and scientific approach. These findings are the outcomes of the data analysis, interpretation, and evaluation carried out during the research process.

Types of Research Findings

There are two main types of research findings:

Qualitative Findings

Qualitative research is an exploratory research method used to understand the complexities of human behavior and experiences. Qualitative findings are non-numerical and descriptive data that describe the meaning and interpretation of the data collected. Examples of qualitative findings include quotes from participants, themes that emerge from the data, and descriptions of experiences and phenomena.

Quantitative Findings

Quantitative research is a research method that uses numerical data and statistical analysis to measure and quantify a phenomenon or behavior. Quantitative findings include numerical data such as mean, median, and mode, as well as statistical analyses such as t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis. These findings are often presented in tables, graphs, or charts.

Both qualitative and quantitative findings are important in research and can provide different insights into a research question or problem. Combining both types of findings can provide a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon and improve the validity and reliability of research results.

Parts of Research Findings

Research findings typically consist of several parts, including:

• Introduction: This section provides an overview of the research topic and the purpose of the study.
• Literature Review: This section summarizes previous research studies and findings that are relevant to the current study.
• Methodology : This section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used in the study, including details on the sample, data collection, and data analysis.
• Results : This section presents the findings of the study, including statistical analyses and data visualizations.
• Discussion : This section interprets the results and explains what they mean in relation to the research question(s) and hypotheses. It may also compare and contrast the current findings with previous research studies and explore any implications or limitations of the study.
• Conclusion : This section provides a summary of the key findings and the main conclusions of the study.
• Recommendations: This section suggests areas for further research and potential applications or implications of the study’s findings.

How to Write Research Findings

Writing research findings requires careful planning and attention to detail. Here are some general steps to follow when writing research findings:

• Organize your findings: Before you begin writing, it’s essential to organize your findings logically. Consider creating an outline or a flowchart that outlines the main points you want to make and how they relate to one another.
• Use clear and concise language : When presenting your findings, be sure to use clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms unless they are necessary to convey your meaning.
• Use visual aids : Visual aids such as tables, charts, and graphs can be helpful in presenting your findings. Be sure to label and title your visual aids clearly, and make sure they are easy to read.
• Use headings and subheadings: Using headings and subheadings can help organize your findings and make them easier to read. Make sure your headings and subheadings are clear and descriptive.
• Interpret your findings : When presenting your findings, it’s important to provide some interpretation of what the results mean. This can include discussing how your findings relate to the existing literature, identifying any limitations of your study, and suggesting areas for future research.
• Be precise and accurate : When presenting your findings, be sure to use precise and accurate language. Avoid making generalizations or overstatements and be careful not to misrepresent your data.
• Edit and revise: Once you have written your research findings, be sure to edit and revise them carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, make sure your formatting is consistent, and ensure that your writing is clear and concise.

Research Findings Example

Following is a Research Findings Example sample for students:

Title: The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health

Sample : 500 participants, both men and women, between the ages of 18-45.

Methodology : Participants were divided into two groups. The first group engaged in 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise five times a week for eight weeks. The second group did not exercise during the study period. Participants in both groups completed a questionnaire that assessed their mental health before and after the study period.

Findings : The group that engaged in regular exercise reported a significant improvement in mental health compared to the control group. Specifically, they reported lower levels of anxiety and depression, improved mood, and increased self-esteem.

Conclusion : Regular exercise can have a positive impact on mental health and may be an effective intervention for individuals experiencing symptoms of anxiety or depression.

Applications of Research Findings

Research findings can be applied in various fields to improve processes, products, services, and outcomes. Here are some examples:

• Healthcare : Research findings in medicine and healthcare can be applied to improve patient outcomes, reduce morbidity and mortality rates, and develop new treatments for various diseases.
• Education : Research findings in education can be used to develop effective teaching methods, improve learning outcomes, and design new educational programs.
• Technology : Research findings in technology can be applied to develop new products, improve existing products, and enhance user experiences.
• Business : Research findings in business can be applied to develop new strategies, improve operations, and increase profitability.
• Public Policy: Research findings can be used to inform public policy decisions on issues such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development.
• Social Sciences: Research findings in social sciences can be used to improve understanding of human behavior and social phenomena, inform public policy decisions, and develop interventions to address social issues.
• Agriculture: Research findings in agriculture can be applied to improve crop yields, develop new farming techniques, and enhance food security.
• Sports : Research findings in sports can be applied to improve athlete performance, reduce injuries, and develop new training programs.

When to use Research Findings

Research findings can be used in a variety of situations, depending on the context and the purpose. Here are some examples of when research findings may be useful:

• Decision-making : Research findings can be used to inform decisions in various fields, such as business, education, healthcare, and public policy. For example, a business may use market research findings to make decisions about new product development or marketing strategies.
• Problem-solving : Research findings can be used to solve problems or challenges in various fields, such as healthcare, engineering, and social sciences. For example, medical researchers may use findings from clinical trials to develop new treatments for diseases.
• Policy development : Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies in various fields, such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development. For example, policymakers may use research findings to develop policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Program evaluation: Research findings can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions in various fields, such as education, healthcare, and social services. For example, educational researchers may use findings from evaluations of educational programs to improve teaching and learning outcomes.
• Innovation: Research findings can be used to inspire or guide innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering. For example, engineers may use research findings on materials science to develop new and innovative products.

Purpose of Research Findings

The purpose of research findings is to contribute to the knowledge and understanding of a particular topic or issue. Research findings are the result of a systematic and rigorous investigation of a research question or hypothesis, using appropriate research methods and techniques.

The main purposes of research findings are:

• To generate new knowledge : Research findings contribute to the body of knowledge on a particular topic, by adding new information, insights, and understanding to the existing knowledge base.
• To test hypotheses or theories : Research findings can be used to test hypotheses or theories that have been proposed in a particular field or discipline. This helps to determine the validity and reliability of the hypotheses or theories, and to refine or develop new ones.
• To inform practice: Research findings can be used to inform practice in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and business. By identifying best practices and evidence-based interventions, research findings can help practitioners to make informed decisions and improve outcomes.
• To identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular topic, which can then be addressed by further research.
• To contribute to policy development: Research findings can be used to inform policy development in various fields, such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development. By providing evidence-based recommendations, research findings can help policymakers to develop effective policies that address societal challenges.

Characteristics of Research Findings

Research findings have several key characteristics that distinguish them from other types of information or knowledge. Here are some of the main characteristics of research findings:

• Objective : Research findings are based on a systematic and rigorous investigation of a research question or hypothesis, using appropriate research methods and techniques. As such, they are generally considered to be more objective and reliable than other types of information.
• Empirical : Research findings are based on empirical evidence, which means that they are derived from observations or measurements of the real world. This gives them a high degree of credibility and validity.
• Generalizable : Research findings are often intended to be generalizable to a larger population or context beyond the specific study. This means that the findings can be applied to other situations or populations with similar characteristics.
• Transparent : Research findings are typically reported in a transparent manner, with a clear description of the research methods and data analysis techniques used. This allows others to assess the credibility and reliability of the findings.
• Peer-reviewed: Research findings are often subject to a rigorous peer-review process, in which experts in the field review the research methods, data analysis, and conclusions of the study. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Reproducible : Research findings are often designed to be reproducible, meaning that other researchers can replicate the study using the same methods and obtain similar results. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.

Advantages of Research Findings

Research findings have many advantages, which make them valuable sources of knowledge and information. Here are some of the main advantages of research findings:

• Evidence-based: Research findings are based on empirical evidence, which means that they are grounded in data and observations from the real world. This makes them a reliable and credible source of information.
• Inform decision-making: Research findings can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and business. By identifying best practices and evidence-based interventions, research findings can help practitioners and policymakers to make informed decisions and improve outcomes.
• Identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular topic, which can then be addressed by further research. This contributes to the ongoing development of knowledge in various fields.
• Improve outcomes : Research findings can be used to develop and implement evidence-based practices and interventions, which have been shown to improve outcomes in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and social services.
• Foster innovation: Research findings can inspire or guide innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering. By providing new information and understanding of a particular topic, research findings can stimulate new ideas and approaches to problem-solving.
• Enhance credibility: Research findings are generally considered to be more credible and reliable than other types of information, as they are based on rigorous research methods and are subject to peer-review processes.

Limitations of Research Findings

While research findings have many advantages, they also have some limitations. Here are some of the main limitations of research findings:

• Limited scope: Research findings are typically based on a particular study or set of studies, which may have a limited scope or focus. This means that they may not be applicable to other contexts or populations.
• Potential for bias : Research findings can be influenced by various sources of bias, such as researcher bias, selection bias, or measurement bias. This can affect the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Ethical considerations: Research findings can raise ethical considerations, particularly in studies involving human subjects. Researchers must ensure that their studies are conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, with appropriate measures to protect the welfare and privacy of participants.
• Time and resource constraints : Research studies can be time-consuming and require significant resources, which can limit the number and scope of studies that are conducted. This can lead to gaps in knowledge or a lack of research on certain topics.
• Complexity: Some research findings can be complex and difficult to interpret, particularly in fields such as science or medicine. This can make it challenging for practitioners and policymakers to apply the findings to their work.
• Lack of generalizability : While research findings are intended to be generalizable to larger populations or contexts, there may be factors that limit their generalizability. For example, cultural or environmental factors may influence how a particular intervention or treatment works in different populations or contexts.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: Limitations of the Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology that impacted or influenced the application or interpretation of the results of your study. They are the constraints on generalizability and utility of findings that are the result of the ways in which you chose to design the study and/or the method used to establish internal and external validity.

Importance of...

Always acknowledge a study's limitations. It is far better for you to identify and acknowledge your study’s limitations than to have them pointed out by your professor and be graded down because you appear to have ignored them.

Keep in mind that acknowledgement of a study's limitations is an opportunity to make suggestions for further research. If you do connect your study's limitations to suggestions for further research, be sure to explain the ways in which these unanswered questions may become more focused because of your study.

Acknowledgement of a study's limitations also provides you with an opportunity to demonstrate to your professor that you have thought critically about the research problem, understood the relevant literature published about it, and correctly assessed the methods chosen for studying the problem. A key objective of the research process is not only discovering new knowledge but also to confront assumptions and explore what we don't know.

Claiming limitiations is a subjective process because you must evaluate the impact of those limitations . Don't just list key weaknesses and the magnitude of a study's limitations. To do so diminishes the validity of your research because it leaves the reader wondering whether, or in what ways, limitation(s) in your study may have impacted the findings and conclusions. Limitations require a critical, overall appraisal and interpretation of their impact. You should answer the question: do these problems with errors, methods, validity, etc. eventually matter and, if so, to what extent?

Structure: How to Structure the Research Limitations Section of Your Dissertation . Dissertations and Theses: An Online Textbook. Laerd.com.

Descriptions of Possible Limitations

All studies have limitations . However, it is important that you restrict your discussion to limitations related to the research problem under investigation. For example, if a meta-analysis of existing literature is not a stated purpose of your research, it should not be discussed as a limitation. Do not apologize for not addressing issues that you did not promise to investigate in your paper.

Here are examples of limitations you may need to describe and to discuss how they possibly impacted your findings. Descriptions of limitations should be stated in the past tense.

Possible Methodological Limitations

• Sample size -- the number of the units of analysis you use in your study is dictated by the type of research problem you are investigating. Note that, if your sample size is too small, it will be difficult to find significant relationships from the data, as statistical tests normally require a larger sample size to ensure a representative distribution of the population and to be considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred.
• Lack of available and/or reliable data -- a lack of data or of reliable data will likely require you to limit the scope of your analysis, the size of your sample, or it can be a significant obstacle in finding a trend and a meaningful relationship. You need to not only describe these limitations but to offer reasons why you believe data is missing or is unreliable. However, don’t just throw up your hands in frustration; use this as an opportunity to describe the need for future research.
• Lack of prior research studies on the topic -- citing prior research studies forms the basis of your literature review and helps lay a foundation for understanding the research problem you are investigating. Depending on the currency or scope of your research topic, there may be little, if any, prior research on your topic. Before assuming this to be true, consult with a librarian! In cases when a librarian has confirmed that there is a lack of prior research, you may be required to develop an entirely new research typology [for example, using an exploratory rather than an explanatory research design]. Note that this limitation can serve as an important opportunity to describe the need for further research.
• Measure used to collect the data -- sometimes it is the case that, after completing your interpretation of the findings, you discover that the way in which you gathered data inhibited your ability to conduct a thorough analysis of the results. For example, you regret not including a specific question in a survey that, in retrospect, could have helped address a particular issue that emerged later in the study. Acknowledge the deficiency by stating a need in future research to revise the specific method for gathering data.
• Self-reported data -- whether you are relying on pre-existing self-reported data or you are conducting a qualitative research study and gathering the data yourself, self-reported data is limited by the fact that it rarely can be independently verified. In other words, you have to take what people say, whether in interviews, focus groups, or on questionnaires, at face value. However, self-reported data contain several potential sources of bias that should be noted as limitations: (1) selective memory (remembering or not remembering experiences or events that occurred at some point in the past); (2) telescoping [recalling events that occurred at one time as if they occurred at another time]; (3) attribution [the act of attributing positive events and outcomes to one's own agency but attributing negative events and outcomes to external forces]; and, (4) exaggeration [the act of representing outcomes or embellishing events as more significant than is actually suggested from other data].

Possible Limitations of the Researcher

• Access -- if your study depends on having access to people, organizations, or documents and, for whatever reason, access is denied or otherwise limited, the reasons for this need to be described.
• Longitudinal effects -- unlike your professor, who can literally devote years [even a lifetime] to studying a single research problem, the time available to investigate a research problem and to measure change or stability within a sample is constrained by the due date of your assignment. Be sure to choose a topic that does not require an excessive amount of time to complete the literature review, apply the methodology, and gather and interpret the results. If you're unsure, talk to your professor.
• Cultural and other type of bias -- we all have biases, whether we are conscience of them or not. Bias is when a person, place, or thing is viewed or shown in a consistently inaccurate way. It is usually negative, though one can have a positive bias as well. When proof-reading your paper, be especially critical in reviewing how you have stated a problem, selected the data to be studied, what may have been omitted, the manner in which you have ordered events, people, or places and how you have chosen to represent a person, place, or thing, to name a phenomenon, or to use possible words with a positive or negative connotation. Note that if you detect bias in prior research, it must be acknowledged and you should explain what measures were taken to avoid perpetuating bias.
• Fluency in a language -- if your research focuses on measuring the perceived value of after-school tutoring among Mexican-American ESL [English as a Second Language] students, for example, and you are not fluent in Spanish, you are limited in being able to read and interpret Spanish language research studies on the topic. This deficiency should be acknowledged.

Brutus, Stéphane et al. Self-Reported Limitations and Future Directions in Scholarly Reports: Analysis and Recommendations. Journal of Management 39 (January 2013): 48-75; Senunyeme, Emmanuel K. Business Research Methods . Powerpoint Presentation. Regent University of Science and Technology.

Structure and Writing Style

Information about the limitations of your study are generally placed either at the beginning of the discussion section of your paper so the reader knows and understands the limitations before reading the rest of your analysis of the findings, or, the limitations are outlined at the conclusion of the discussion section as an acknowledgement of the need for further study. Statements about a study's limitations should not be buried in the body [middle] of the discussion section unless a limitation is specific to something covered in that part of the paper. If this is the case, though, the limitation should be reiterated at the conclusion of the section.

If you determine that your study is seriously flawed due to important limitations , such as, an inability to acquire critical data, consider reframing it as a pilot study intended to lay the groundwork for a more complete research study in the future. Be sure, though, to specifically explain the ways that these flaws can be successfully overcome in later studies.

But, do not use this as an excuse for not developing a thorough research paper! Review the tab in this guide for developing a research topic . If serious limitations exist, it generally indicates a likelihood that your research problem is too narrowly defined or that the issue or event under study  is too recent and, thus, very little research has been written about it. If serious limitations do emerge, consult with your professor about possible ways to overcome them or how to reframe your study.

When discussing the limitations of your research, be sure to:

• Describe each limitation in detailed but concise terms;
• Explain why each limitation exists;
• Provide the reasons why each limitation could not be overcome using the method(s) chosen to gather the data [cite to other studies that had similar problems when possible];
• Assess the impact of each limitation in relation to  the overall findings and conclusions of your study; and,
• If appropriate, describe how these limitations could point to the need for further research.

Remember that the method you chose may be the source of a significant limitation that has emerged during your interpretation of the results [for example, you didn't ask a particular question in a survey that you later wish you had]. If this is the case, don't panic. Acknowledge it, and explain how applying a different or more robust methodology might address the research problem more effectively in any future study. A underlying goal of scholarly research is not only to prove what works, but to demonstrate what doesn't work or what needs further clarification.

Brutus, Stéphane et al. Self-Reported Limitations and Future Directions in Scholarly Reports: Analysis and Recommendations. Journal of Management 39 (January 2013): 48-75; Ioannidis, John P.A. Limitations are not Properly Acknowledged in the Scientific Literature. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 60 (2007): 324-329; Pasek, Josh. Writing the Empirical Social Science Research Paper: A Guide for the Perplexed . January 24, 2012. Academia.edu; Structure: How to Structure the Research Limitations Section of Your Dissertation . Dissertations and Theses: An Online Textbook. Laerd.com; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Writing Tip

Don't Inflate the Importance of Your Findings! After all the hard work and long hours devoted to writing your research paper, it is easy to get carried away with attributing unwarranted importance to what you’ve done. We all want our academic work to be viewed as excellent and worthy of a good grade, but it is important that you understand and openly acknowledge the limitiations of your study. Inflating of the importance of your study's findings in an attempt hide its flaws is a big turn off to your readers. A measure of humility goes a long way!

Another Writing Tip

Negative Results are Not a Limitation!

Negative evidence refers to findings that unexpectedly challenge rather than support your hypothesis. If you didn't get the results you anticipated, it may mean your hypothesis was incorrect and needs to be reformulated, or, perhaps you have stumbled onto something unexpected that warrants further study. Moreover, the absence of an effect may be very telling in many situations, particularly in experimental research designs. In any case, your results may be of importance to others even though they did not support your hypothesis. Do not fall into the trap of thinking that results contrary to what you expected is a limitation to your study. If you carried out the research well, they are simply your results and only require additional interpretation.

Yet Another Writing Tip

A Note about Sample Size Limitations in Qualitative Research

Sample sizes are typically smaller in qualitative research because, as the study goes on, acquiring more data does not necessarily lead to more information. This is because one occurrence of a piece of data, or a code, is all that is necessary to ensure that it becomes part of the analysis framework. However, it remains true that sample sizes that are too small cannot adequately support claims of having achieved valid conclusions and sample sizes that are too large do not permit the deep, naturalistic, and inductive analysis that defines qualitative inquiry. Determining adequate sample size in qualitative research is ultimately a matter of judgment and experience in evaluating the quality of the information collected against the uses to which it will be applied and the particular research method and purposeful sampling strategy employed. If the sample size is found to be a limitation, it may reflect your judgement about the methodological technique chosen [e.g., single life history study versus focus group interviews] rather than the number of respondents used.

Huberman, A. Michael and Matthew B. Miles. Data Management and Analysis Methods. In Handbook of Qualitative Research. Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 428-444.

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Application of the behaviour-centred design to understand facilitators and deterrents of hand hygiene among healthcare providers: findings from a formative phase of a cluster randomised trial in the Kampala Metropolitan area

• Open access
• Published: 05 September 2024
• Volume 24 , article number  1031 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Tonny Ssekamatte 1 ,
• Richard K. Mugambe 1 ,
• John Bosco Isunju 1 ,
• Rhoda K. Wanyenze 1 ,
• Aisha Nalugya 1 ,
• Christine Adyedo 2 ,
• Solomon T. Wafula 1 ,
• Esther Buregyeya 1 ,
• Rebecca Nuwematsiko 1 ,
• Joann Bateman 3 ,
• Julie Balen 3 ,
• Lynnette Lusenaka 4 ,
• Habib Yakubu 5 &
• Christine L. Moe 5  

Hand hygiene is known to reduce healthcare-associated infections. However, it remains suboptimal among healthcare providers. In this study, we used the Behaviour-centered Design approach to explore the facilitators and deterrents to hand hygiene among healthcare providers in the Kampala Metropolitan area, Uganda.

We conducted a formative qualitative study as part of a cluster randomised trial in 19 healthcare facilities (HCFs). The study used 19 semi-structured and 18 key informant interviews to collect data on hand hygiene status and facilitators and deterrents of hand hygiene. Research assistants transcribed verbatim and used a thematic framework aided by Nvivo 14.0. to undertake analysis. We used thick descriptions and illustrative quotes to enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of our findings.

About 47.4% of the HCFs had sufficient hand hygiene infrastructure, and 57.9% did not report total compliance with hand hygiene during patient care. The physical facilitator for hand hygiene was the presence of constant reminders such as nudges, while the biological included the frequency of patient contact and the nature of clinical work. The only biological deterrent was the heavy workload in HCFs. The executive brain facilitators included knowledge of workplace health risks, infection prevention and control (IPC) guidelines, and a positive attitude. A negative attitude was the executive brain deterrent to hand hygiene. Recognition, rewards, and fear of infections were the only motivated brain facilitators. Behavioural setting facilitators included proximity to functional hand hygiene infrastructure, the existence of active IPC committees, good leadership, and the availability of a budget for hand hygiene supplies. Behavioural setting deterrents included the non-functionality and non-proximity to hand hygiene infrastructure and inadequate supplies.

Conclusions

The study revealed low compliance with hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care and inadequacy of hand hygiene infrastructure. The deterrents to hand hygiene included a heavy workload, negative attitude, inadequate supplies, non-functionality, and long distance to hand washing stations. Facilitators included constant reminders, fear of infections, frequency of patient contact and nature of clinical work, positive attitude, knowledge of IPC guidelines, recognition and reward, good leadership, availability of budgets for hand hygiene supplies, availability and proximity to hand hygiene supplies and infrastructure and active IPC committees.

Trial registration

ISRCTN Registry with number ISRCTN98148144. The trial was registered on 23/11/2020.

Explore related subjects

• Medical Ethics

Ensuring universal and equitable access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services is one of the 17 interlinked global goals designed to be “A blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all by 2030” [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. However, access to WASH services in healthcare facilities (HCFs) remains a challenge worldwide [ 5 ]. Globally, a quarter of HCFs lack basic water services, which means 712 million people have no access to water when they use HCFs, 10% lack sanitation services, and 30% do not have hand hygiene facilities at points of care [ 5 , 6 ]. Half of the HCFs in low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs) lack basic water services, 60% do not have sanitation services, and only 30% have basic healthcare waste management services. Data on hand hygiene at points of care are still lacking in many LMICs (WHO and UNICEF, 2020). Uganda is no exception to the global WASH in the HCFs crisis. Our recent study indicated that less than half, 41.6%, of the HCFs in the Kampala Metropolitan area (KMA) had fully functional hand hygiene facilities (HHF) in patient care areas,10% did not have hand hygiene supplies, and only 56.6% had functional HHF with soap and water within five meters of the toilet block [ 7 ]. A similar deficit has been reported in HCFs in western Uganda [ 8 , 9 ].

Hand hygiene, if practised at the right time, using the correct technique, with either alcohol-based hand rub or soap, water, and disposable/clean towels, can prevent healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. The transmission of pathogenic microorganisms in healthcare settings primarily occurs through contaminated healthcare providers’ (HCPs) hands [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ] and affects mothers and neonates the most [ 18 , 19 ]. About 50 to 70% of HAIs are linked to non-compliance with hand hygiene during critical patient care [ 12 , 20 ]. Pathogens can stay on the HCPs’ hands for 2–60 min [ 21 ]. The actual burden remains unknown [ 22 ]; however, available evidence indicates that an estimated 7% of patients in HICs and 10% of those in LMICs acquire at least one HAI [ 21 ], which leads to death in about 10% of the patients [ 21 ]. Furthermore, HAIs are associated with prolonged hospital stays, long-term disability, increased antimicrobial resistance, and catastrophic healthcare expenditures [ 21 , 22 ].

To improve compliance with hand hygiene during patient care, the WHO developed and provided technical guidance to streamline how, when, and what products should be used for hand hygiene [ 11 ]. The WHO requires that alcohol-based hand rub products contain at least 60% alcohol to be effective. It discourages chlorinated water of a concentration of 0.05% for routine hand hygiene due to its skin and other toxic effects [ 11 , 23 ]. Nevertheless, chlorine solutions are still routinely used for hand hygiene in some healthcare settings, especially during disease outbreaks [ 24 , 25 ]. The recommended duration of hand hygiene with alcohol-based hand rub is 20–30 s and 40–60 s for water and soap [ 11 ]. Hand hygiene should be practised in healthcare settings every time a healthcare provider conducts a clean/aseptic procedure, before and after touching a patient or the patient’s surroundings, and after exposure to body fluids [ 11 , 26 ]. The significance of adhering to hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care is also elaborated in Uganda’s infection prevention and control (IPC) guidelines (2015) [ 27 ] and the draft national guidelines for WASH in HCFs [ 28 ]. Despite the guidance provided by the WHO and the Ugandan Ministry of Health, there is limited evidence of the facilitators and deterrents of hand hygiene among healthcare providers. This study used the Behaviour-Centered Design (BCD) to explore the facilitators and deterrents to hand hygiene compliance among HCPs in the KMA, Uganda [ 29 ].

Novelty and the theoretical basis of the behaviour-centered design

The BCD is viewed as a future foundation for an applied science of behaviour change [ 29 ]. It blends reinforcement learning (learning through trial and error), the theory of change approach, behavioural determinants, and a practical process of designing, evaluating, and sustaining behaviour change [ 29 , 30 ]. The BCD theory of change postulates that interventions create a cascade of effects via the environment setting, which causes changes in the target audience’s brain and body, impacting the desired behaviour [ 29 , 30 ]. The theory of change in BCD guides programmers in making explicit claims about the cause-effect relationships during the design of the interventions [ 29 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. The implementation of the BCD follows five steps, i.e., (1) Assess - where the intervention designers gather evidence about the target behaviours; (2) Bolster/Build - which involves formative research to explore hypotheses about the likely drivers of change; (3) Create -where the creative team designs and tests the intervention package, (4) Delivery of the intervention via a set of planned activities, and (5) Evaluate stage where program designers assess the coherence of interventions with the program theory of change. Some studies in high-income countries have applied the BCD approach to improve hand hygiene practices, although the results have yet to be published [ 29 ]. Nonetheless, there is evidence of the impact of BCD interventions on WASH [ 35 ]. Figure  1 illustrates the BCD process model [ 31 ].

The behaviour centered design approach [ 31 ]

This formative study aimed to inform the design of interventions of a cluster randomised trial whose objective was to establish the impact of mobile phone WASH text messages and environmental cues on hand hygiene practice among healthcare providers. The primary outcome for the cluster randomised trial was the proportion of utilised hand hygiene opportunities, while the secondary was the E. coli concentration levels in 100mls of hand rinsates from HCWs, an indicator of recent faecal contamination of hands [ 32 ]. Mugambe, Mselle [ 32 ] have already published the detailed trial protocol. At the time of design of the formative study, healthcare providers working in the maternity and children’s wards, in both the control and intervention arm, were to be exposed to a constant supply of soap and alcohol-based hand rub at all points of care, and innovatively designed hand hygiene facilities. In addition to the interventions common to both arms, healthcare providers in the intervention arm will be exposed to environmental cues and mHealth messages [ 32 ]. Healthcare providers appointed as full-time staff with at least six months’ work experience in a healthcare setting who provide informed written consent will be eligible to participate.

Materials and methods

Design of the formative study, context, setting, and population.

A formative descriptive study was conducted in HCFs in the KMA between October and November 2020. The study was conducted when the number of COVID-19 cases presenting with severe and acute disease in Uganda, especially in the KMA, increased [ 36 ]. The KMA comprises Kampala City and the neighbouring districts of Wakiso and Mukono. According to the Ministry of Health (MOH), the KMA has a total of 2,160 HCFs (1,458 in Kampala, 589 in Wakiso, and 113 in Mukono district) [ 37 ]. The description of the levels of healthcare facilities in Uganda is reported in our earlier publications on WASH and IPC in HCFs [ 38 , 39 ]. Briefly, HC IIIs provide preventive, promotive, outpatient curative, maternity, inpatient health services and laboratory services and have a catchment population of 20,000. In addition to services provided by HC IIIs, HC IVs provide inpatient, emergency surgery, blood transfusion, and laboratory services, with a catchment population of 100,000 [ 40 ]. The current study was conducted among healthcare providers, officials from the district public health department, and staff of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) serving the KMA population.

Sample size, sampling, and data collection techniques

During the formative phase, we selected 19 public and private-not-for-profit (PNFP) HCFs at levels III and IV since these have a core mandate to deliver Maternal, Newborn, and Child Health services to a group of people (mothers and children) who were at the most significant risk of getting HAIs. We conducted a total of 18 key informant face-to-face interviews. Key informants were purposively selected based on their knowledge, position, and experience on WASH/IPC in HCFs. They included managers of HC IIIs and IVs, IPC focal persons or nurses, administrators, Environmental Health Officers, officials from the MOH, district Public health teams, and NGOs. Operationally, we considered them HCPs because they were involved in delivering healthcare services [ 41 ]. The research assistants interviewed key informants until they reached the theoretical saturation level [ 42 , 43 , 44 ], where they obtained no new information. Before the interviews, research assistants made appointments with the participants by phone or physically visiting their workplaces. Research assistants conducted all key informant interviews in English, using a KI interview guide. The interview guide contained guiding questions on the deterrents and facilitators to hand hygiene during critical moments among healthcare providers in the KMA.

Research assistants conducted a total of 19 semi-structured interviews with healthcare providers from HC IIIs and IVs, including clinical officers, midwives, theatre assistants, nurses, and nursing assistants, to gather data on the deterrents to hand hygiene, motives for hand hygiene, social norms related to hand hygiene, behavioural settings, and touchpoints. They included only healthcare facility managers in the semi-structured interviews assessing hand hygiene infrastructure. Given the limited representation of PNFP HCFs, they subjected healthcare managers to key informant and semi-structured interviews in these settings. All the interviews were conducted at the workplaces of the respective participants.

Assessment of the status of hand hygiene infrastructure and behaviour

We used a semi-structured questionnaire to assess the status of hand hygiene infrastructure, supplies, and behaviours among healthcare providers. The questionnaire included questions on whether healthcare providers were motivated to practice hand hygiene, the presence of leaders to foster compliance to hand hygiene, availability and utilisation of hand hygiene supplies and infrastructure, the presence of an IPC committee, and the rating for hand hygiene at the HCF. We operationally defined a healthcare facility as having sufficient hand hygiene infrastructure if it had water, soap, or ABHR at all points of care at the time of the study. The research team developed the semi-structured questionnaire after reviewing the literature and guidelines on WASH in HCFs [ 38 , 39 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. A semi-structured interview is an exploratory data collection method often used to generate qualitative and quantitative data [ 48 , 49 ]. A semi-structured interview guide allows the researcher to delve into detailed topical trajectories as the conversation unfolds [ 48 , 49 ]. Therefore, the quantitative results presented in this study result from the structured questions in the semi-structured interview guide. The assessment was conducted by research assistants, utilising a combination of observations and self-reports. The qualitative component of the study elicited information on compliance with hand hygiene, knowledge of IPC-related policy guidelines and standards, and facilitators and deterrents to hand hygiene.

Data management and analysis

Interviews, each lasting 30 minutes to an hour, were transcribed verbatim by two experienced research assistants (RAs). We used the thematic content analysis approach aided by NVIVO 14.0 Software [ 50 , 51 ] to identify and describe implicit and explicit ideas within the data. Before the analysis, the research team developed a codebook that included the parent node, child node, and the definitions. Afterwards, two researchers coded the same transcript to establish intercoder reliability (ICR). The child nodes of the executive brain and motivated brain determinants were considered for the ICR test, yielding a 95% agreement. During the subsequent analysis, we followed the thematic analysis approach suggested by Naeem, Ozuem [ 52 ]. This specifically included (1) familiarisation with the data and the selection of relevant quotations, (2) selection of keywords, (3) coding, (4) theme development, and (5) conceptualisation through interpretation of keywords, codes, and themes. Two research team members independently coded the transcripts and later agreed on the themes, subthemes, and illustrative quotes. The initial coding process involved the categorisation of excerpts from the transcripts into the broad themes of facilitators and deterrents. Afterwards, two researchers undertook thematic coding, guided by the BCD components, to uncover underlying meanings of words and sentence structure, relations, and concepts related to hand hygiene practice. Data analysis and interpretation involved data triangulation from the semi-structured interviews with findings from key-informant interviews. The reporting of findings adheres to the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) checklist, a 32-item guideline designed for interviews and focus groups [ 53 ].

Quality control measures

We recruited RAs with vast experience in qualitative research methodologies and WASH/IPC in HCFs. The RAs underwent a day’s training on the study protocol and ethical issues surrounding the study, such as obtaining informed written consent. Before data collection, the research team piloted/pretested the data collection tools at Kisenyi Health Centre (HC) IV in Kampala district. Pretesting allowed the research assistants to familiarise themselves with the tools and correct any discovered errors. Kisenyi HC IV was purposively selected as a pretest site because it shares characteristics similar to those of healthcare facilities in our study area. Supervisors thoroughly monitored the RAs to ensure they followed the study protocol and addressed ethical issues during interviews. Digital audio recordings captured all respondents’ views. Besides, note-takers took handwritten field notes during the interviews using forms prepared to document a wide range of information. The team leader stored backup copies of recordings of qualitative interviews on a password-protected hard drive. The participants provided feedback on the results during a validation meeting.

Background characteristics of the study participants

The study included 19 semi-structured and 18 key informant interviews. None of the participants declined to participate. The majority, 40.5% (15/37) of the respondents were clinical officers, 43.2% (16/37) had between 35 and 44 years of age, 43.2% (16/37) had between 11 and 20 years of experience in the delivery of healthcare services (Table  1 ).

Status of hand hygiene

The study assessed hand hygiene infrastructure and practice in 19 HCFs. About 73.6% (14/19) of the HCFs were at the level of health centre III, 68.4% (13/19) were public, and more than half, 57.9% (11/19), were urban. Less than half, 47.4% (9/19) of the HCFs had sufficient hand hygiene infrastructure. Forty-two per cent (8/19) of the healthcare providers mentioned that their colleagues sufficiently complied with hand hygiene, 68.4% (13/19) knew the roles of the IPC committee, and more than half, 57.9% (11/19) mentioned that there was no compliance to hand hygiene during all the critical moments at their facility (Table  2 ).

Facilitators and deterrents to hand hygiene among healthcare providers

The facilitators and deterrents of hand hygiene have been classified based on the sub-components of the BCD model components (Environment, Brains, Body, Behavioural setting, and external context) (Fig.  2 ).

Facilitators and deterrents to hand hygiene among healthcare providers in the Kampala Metropolitan Region, Uganda

Facilitators of hand hygiene among healthcare providers (Fig.  3 )

Facilitators and deterrents of hand hygiene among healthcare providers in the greater Kampala metropolitan region, Uganda

Physical environment determinants

Constant reminders such as mobile text messages, nudges, and posters.

Healthcare providers, mainly those in public HCFs, mentioned that the presence of nudges and information, education, and communication (IEC) materials such as posters acted as reminders and thus facilitated them to practice hand hygiene, especially hand washing, during critical moments of patient care. Implementing partners such as the Uganda Virus Research Institute gave healthcare providers posters reminding them to practice hand hygiene during critical moments. Mobile text messages sent through the mTrac (a mobile phone-based health information system strengthening tool) platform also reminded healthcare providers and village health team members to practice hand hygiene, fostering compliance during critical moments.

“ Yes , environmental cues are everywhere in the healthcare facility. These continuously remind us to adhere to hand washing during critical moments of patient care. The handwashing posters at the healthcare facility , especially in the wards , also teach and remind us how and when to wash hands during patient care since learning is a continuous process. The person in charge also encourages us to wash hands and monitors us regularly.” (Enrolled midwife).

“Through the mTrac platform , we receive messages from the district. These messages are sent to all healthcare providers registered on the platform , including VHTs (Village Health Teams). Since most health providers are registered , we receive reminders on hand hygiene through the platform. Secondly , the other way we have been receiving reminders is through training.” (Enrolled nurse).

Social environment determinants

Existence of ipc committees/ active focal persons.

Almost all the HCFs (16/19) had a committee or a focal person in charge of infection prevention and control. The IPC committee or focal persons were involved in routine monitoring and provision of feedback on hand hygiene, display of reminders on hand hygiene, conducting routine continuous medical education (CME), and ensuring the availability of hand hygiene supplies at all points of care.

“The IPC committee reminds us and encourages us always to clean our hands. Each day , the focal person or any other committee member moves around to check and monitor hand hygiene in the different departments. In addition , they conduct CMEs (Continuous Medical Education) at least every month and carry out weekly supervision. They also make duty plans for cleaners and ensure water and soap are available at hand washing stations. ” (Senior Clinical Officer).

“ The IPC (infection prevention and control) committee does monthly assessments in each department. For example , when we go to the theatre , we have to assess whether the equipment is thoroughly cleaned , well-dusted and well-sterilised , then score. We score and give them feedback at the end of the day. Also , before we start our other duties , we move around to ensure that waste is properly segregated and hand hygiene is adhered to. We have to ensure that supplies like water and soap are in place. That is what we always do daily. ” (IPC committee member/theatre assistant).

In 14/19, the IPC committee had someone in charge of enforcing infection prevention and control including hand hygiene and availing hand hygiene supplies to the different departments. The IPC committee provided support supervision, during which they reminded the different staff to practice hand hygiene during critical moments.

“We have an IPC (infection prevention and control) committee that sits regularly , and someone has been appointed for hand hygiene. This person makes sure that there are enough supplies for washing hands. We have enough hand washing facilities available for everyone to use. Also , we have a water tank donated by Water Aid for rainwater harvesting in addition to a national water connection. We have sinks in every room and sanitation stations in every corner. The IPC focal person reminds the clients to wash their hands “(Healthcare facility in charge).

We have a committee on IPC , and we identified someone responsible for enforcing infection prevention and control in each department. Everyone is encouraged to wash their hands!” (Healthcare facility in charge).

Good leadership in the healthcare facility

The study revealed that good leadership by the healthcare facility in-charges and administration portrayed through ensuring a constant and reliable supply of hand hygiene infrastructure and supplies motivated healthcare providers to adhere to hand hygiene during all critical moments.

“The administration has provided IPC (infection prevention and control) infrastructure , for example , every clinical room has soap and water. We are encouraged to wash hands after a procedure or even before touching a client.” (Key informant).

Biological environment determinants

Frequency of patient contact and nature of clinical work.

Healthcare providers who were frequently involved in the physical examination of patients practised hand hygiene more than their counterparts who did not physically examine patients. Healthcare providers working in the maternity ward, theatre, and laboratory were more likely to practice hand hygiene than their counterparts at the outpatient department (OPD), pharmacy, and other prescription or dispensing stations.

“The fact that my duties in the maternity ward require much examining and constant touching of the patients motivates me to wash my hands. I wash my hands more frequently because we often do not wear gloves , especially during antenatal , and the patients always sweat.” (Enrolled midwife).

”Yes , for example , maternity and lab healthcare providers may practice hand hygiene more than people at OPD (outpatient department) or pharmacy , where touching the patient is not necessary.” ( Assistant Nursing Officer).

Executive brain determinants

Knowledge of health risks associated with the work environment.

Healthcare providers became knowledgeable of the health risks their work environment posed, and the benefits of hand hygiene through the continuous training provided by the district health office, partner organisations, healthcare facility in-charges, and IPC committees. These built their capacity on hand hygiene, disinfection, waste management, and donning and doffing personal protective equipment. Some respondents mentioned that one of the aims of these trainings was to make sure that healthcare staff adhered to hand hygiene during all the critical moments of patient care.

“ We had training on how to wash hands , which solutions to use for hand hygiene , and dilution and mixing of these solutions. So , the training was conducted mainly to make sure that people (healthcare providers) adhere to hand washing during all the critical moments , and also to learn how to mix the chlorine solutions” (Clinical Officer).

“These days , AMREF (The African Medical and Research Foundation) has come up to teach us the 7 steps of hand hygiene. We used to wash our hands normally but when we were taught about the 7 steps , it became a part of us” (Clinical officer).

Knowledge of infection prevention and control guidelines, policies, and standards

Knowledge of some IPC guidelines, policies, and standards among healthcare providers facilitated hand hygiene in the healthcare facility. Although no guidelines were seen in the majority of the HCFs, most respondents were aware of some of the guidelines, such as the hand hygiene technique, critical moments of hand hygiene in a healthcare setting, and how to mix chlorine for purposes of disinfection. Respondents pointed out that these guidelines reminded them of the benefits of hand hygiene and the dangers of hand hygiene non-compliance. The IPC committees enforced these guidelines at the respective HCFs.

“We have Continuous Medical Education sessions where we integrate Infection Prevention and Control. We also have infection prevention and control committee members who enforce these guidelines in the different departments.” (Healthcare facility in charge).

“The guidelines usually remind us of the importance of hand washing and the danger of cross-infection in the facility. They remind us of having the IPC (Infection Prevention and Control) committee that should be functional with meetings that discuss issues of IPC.” (Healthcare facility in charge).

Knowledge of hand hygiene was derived from training which was conducted by the Ministry of Health and partners like the Infectious Diseases Institute (IDI), GIZ, AMREF, and UNICEF.

“AMREF and GIZ have sensitised us about the steps of hand hygiene. We used to wash our hands normally but when we were taught the steps , it became a part of us.” (Clinical officer).

“IDI trained us on the five critical moments of hand hygiene in a healthcare setting. The Ministry of Health has also provided us with brochures talking about hand hygiene.” (Enrolled midwife).

While knowledge of some aspects of the guidelines facilitated hand hygiene, it was evident that the knowledge of the policies, guidelines, and standards was sub-optimal. For example, some respondents confused the five moments of hand hygiene with the hand hygiene technique.

There is a policy with the five steps of hand hygiene , the policy of washing hands during all critical moments , the policy of washing hands at the entry and exit of the health facility , and the policy of washing hands after handling medical waste . (Healthcare facility in charge).

While healthcare providers had knowledge of which aspects of hand hygiene were covered in the infection prevention and control guidelines, others, particularly those in private-profit HCFs, were not.

“ I have not heard about the national policy , guidelines , or standards on hand hygiene and I have not heard of regulations about hand hygiene. What I can say is that in the medical setting , we use hand hygiene to control infections.” (KI-PNFP).

A positive healthcare provider’s attitude towards hand hygiene

A few respondents reported a positive healthcare worker attitude as a facilitator of hand hygiene during critical moments.

“ The attitude of health providers is key. I have been involved in training health providers here and they are positive about hand hygiene. They do practice it not because I am around but do it in good faith .” (Enrolled midwife).

Motivated brain determinants

Recognition and reward of compliant healthcare providers.

Some healthcare providers pointed out that recognising best-performing departments and staff enhanced hand hygiene compliance during the critical moments of patient care. Respondents mentioned that departments viewed as non-compliant during recognitions were motivated to improve their hand hygiene behaviour to be proclaimed best performers.

“Of course , when you’re viewed as a non-compliant department , you get the urge to improve. There is no penalty , however , the next time , you would also want to be recognised as the best performer in hand hygiene. So , they (management) majorly do recognitions to motivate compliant departments and healthcare providers.” (Enrolled nurse).

Fear of healthcare-associated infections

The fear of contracting healthcare-associated infections such as COVID-19 motivated healthcare providers in this study to practice hand hygiene at all possible opportunities. Respondents mentioned that working in a risky environment that is prone to infections instills fear among them, hence they comply to protect themselves and their families.

“Before COVID-19 , hand hygiene was not taken seriously now it is. It is practiced continuously with soap and water or sanitisers due to the fear of contracting the infection. So yes , being that we are in an environment prone to infections , we have to practice hand hygiene to protect ourselves and our families.” (Assistant Nursing Officer, Wakiso district).

Besides the fear of contracting healthcare-associated infections such as COVID-19, some HCWs were knowledgeable of the health risks their work environment posed, and the role hand hygiene played in controlling and reducing the risk of acquiring infections. They acknowledged that they are exposed to both visible and non-visible dirt, hence the need to practice hand washing.

“We know that we are supposed to practice hand washing since this is not a safe or clean environment. We are exposed to visible and non-visible dirt daily , so we must wash our hands. During the COVID-19 pandemic , we know that we can prevent further infections through hand washing.” (Clinical Officer).

Behavioural setting - props and infrastructural determinants

Availability of functional hand hygiene infrastructure and supplies.

Healthcare providers in 17/19 of the HCFs mentioned that the provision and availability of hand hygiene infrastructure and supplies such as soap, water, sinks, jerry cans, and alcohol-based hand rub/sanitiser at every point of care and working station facilitated adherence to hand hygiene during critical moments. Hand hygiene supplies were often provided by the Ministry of Health and partners such as UNICEF, AMREF, and Water Aid Uganda. Some healthcare providers also mentioned that the management of their HCFs often ensured continuous supply and availability of hand hygiene supplies which eases hand hygiene compliance during critical moments. Availability of hand hygiene supplies was more common in private not-for-profit HCFs compared to public HCFs.

“ First of all , hand hygiene supplies are always available. For instance , after using the toilet , you will be looking at the sink so you can’t pass by it without washing your hands. In case you are going to touch a patient the sanitiser or alcohol-based hand rub will be there. If you are done attending to a patient , you wash your hands because the sinks are available.” (Enrolled Nurse).

“ They (management) provide us with the supplies we need to practice hand hygiene such as soap and water. Water is always available at the sink. This eases the process of hand washing during the critical moments.” (Enrolled midwife PNFP).

The role of healthcare providers and other support staff was also evident in ensuring the functionality of hand hygiene infrastructure, safety, and availability of hand hygiene supplies. The functionality of hand hygiene infrastructure was facilitated by regular notification of healthcare facility management (i.e., to the in-charge or IPC focal person) about breakdowns, and immediate replacement of non-functional parts such as taps and sinks. Healthcare providers and other support staff collaboratively worked together to ensure that hand washing stations at all points of care had water and soap. The cleaning staff also ensured the safety of the hand hygiene stations through regular cleaning, which in the end attracted healthcare providers.

“We work as a team , in that if the water can does not have water , you cannot just look on. As an individual , you have to ensure that there is water in the handwashing facility. If your colleagues are busy , then you take the initiative to refill the hand washing facility. The support staff as well as fellow clinical staff often ensure that there is a constant supply of soap. In case it’s exhausted , one can just cut a piece and make a replacement. It’s not an individual but team effort.” (Enrolled nurse).

Besides the availability of hand hygiene supplies and infrastructure, the strict enforcement of hand hygiene before entry and during other critical moments among healthcare providers further reinforced the practice.

“ We have made it mandatory for healthcare providers to wash their hands at the gate and put on a face mask , which safeguards us and the clients. When a healthcare provider enters the gate , he/she must wear a face mask , undergo temperature screening , and wash hands using soap and water. In addition , if one is a health worker , he/she must put on gloves and properly segregate medical wastes.” (In-charge, Public HC IV).

Proximity to hand hygiene infrastructure and supplies

The majority of the healthcare providers, particularly those working in public HCFs, pointed out that hand hygiene during critical moments was possible due to the proximity to equipment and supplies such as soap and sinks, water, and jerry cans. Respondents mentioned that having these supplies close to their working stations and points of care motivated them to practice hand hygiene. They further highlighted that the flexibility of movable hand washing cans also eases hand washing.

“They are motivated because of the proximity and availability of hand washing materials like sanitisers , soap , and water. They are too close because every department has a hand washing facility with soap and water. For example , there’s a station both in and out of the laboratories , at OPD , clerking room , theatre , and also in the maternity. Even in this room , there is a provision of an in-built sink that you can see with flowing water and soap.” (Clinical Officer).

”We have stations at each critical point of care in the ward for example the antenatal , examination , delivery room , postnatal room , and also at the entrances. Of course , the movable hand washing stations have also improved hand hygiene among health providers because you can place them wherever you want or wherever you’re seated. In case you want it closer , you can just pull it.“ (Enrolled midwife).

External context

Availability of a budget for hand hygiene supplies.

It was pointed out that having a budget for infection prevention and control facilitated hand hygiene compliance. The availability of a budget facilitated procurement and, thus the availability of hand hygiene supplies at the HCF.

“We have a budget that supports procuring hand hygiene supplies such as soap and sanitisers. It is a sufficient budget and as an in charge , I make sure that hand hygiene supplies and equipment are provided on time.” (Manager , Hospital).

Deterrents to hand hygiene compliance among healthcare providers (Fig. 3)

Biological environment deterrents, heavy workload.

The heavy workload was cited by healthcare providers as one of the deterrents to compliance with hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care, particularly among those working in health centre IIIs. Healthcare providers in HC IIIs pointed out that staff shortages left those on duty exhausted after performing their roles, and consequently, they neglected hand washing.

“Due to the nature of health centre IIIs , there is one nurse and a mid-wife who performs all the duties. So as the day goes by , they become tired and might neglect hand washing.” (Enrolled midwife, HC III).

“They just forget to wash hands. At times , they tell you that they were so busy to an extent that they didn’t find time to practice hand hygiene during the critical moments. ” (Healthcare facility in charge, private not-for-profit HC III).

Executive brain deterrents

Negative healthcare provider attitude towards hand hygiene.

A negative attitude towards hand hygiene coupled with unfavourable beliefs and perceptions hindered hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care. Some healthcare providers in both public and private not-for-profit HCFs believed that hand washing wasn’t necessary when they did not get into contact with a patient’s body and for procedures performed while wearing gloves, whereas others believed that gloves offered adequate protection and eliminated the need to perform hand hygiene after patient care. Respondents reported that this is common in the Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) clinic.

“Sometimes people’s attitudes hinder them from practicing hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care. There are those health providers who have the belief that hand washing isn’t necessary when you perform a procedure while putting on gloves. They think it’s okay and safe because she has protected herself with gloves. Yet , if I touch you and then others , I am transferring infections.” ( Senior Clinical Officer ).

“ So , for the ART (Antiretroviral Therapy) clinic , they (healthcare providers) rarely examine patients. As you have observed , when they are seeing their patients , they only do refills of ARVs , and when they are dispensing their patients , there’s less interaction with the patient’s body. They think it’s safe yet one of the moments for hand washing is after touching the patient’s surroundings. (Clinical officer).

Furthermore, some healthcare providers, most especially those in public and private-not-for profit lower-level HCFs such as HC IIIs, believed that some clients were not infectious, because they did not appear so, hence the reluctance to practice hand hygiene.

“Some (healthcare providers) believe that their clients are not infectious. The appearance of the clients influences the healthcare providers’ tendency to wash hands , while others are just lazy to wash hands.” (Enrolled midwife).

Body-traits, physiology, and senses deterrents

The smell of hand hygiene supplies.

A few (3/19) healthcare providers cited the smell of hand hygiene supplies, particularly chlorine as a hindrance to practicing hand hygiene during all the critical moments of patient care. These healthcare providers mentioned that the sharp pungent smell of chlorine discouraged them from practicing hand washing during the critical moments of patient care. A few healthcare providers also pointed out that the use of chlorine made their skins rough.

“Yes , something like chlorine , it has a pungent smell. The hands also feel rough after use and the smell is sharp. So , such sensitivities sometimes deter health providers from doing hand hygiene.” (Enrolled nurse).

Behavioural setting- props and infrastructural deterrents

Inadequate hand hygiene supplies.

Due to insufficient water, soap, and sanitisers, healthcare providers failed to practice hand hygiene during critical moments. For example, the large number of healthcare providers, including healthcare facility staff, students, and volunteers, made it difficult for each to own sanitisers. Due to the failure to access hand hygiene supplies, some healthcare providers were forced not to practice hand hygiene or wash hands with only water until supplies were available. Water scarcity, especially during the dry season, was also reported as a significant barrier to hand hygiene among public and private not-for-profit HCFs.

“There are times when we have a scarcity of hand hygiene supplies. We get our supplies from NMS (National Medical Stores) periodically. So , when our supplies get used up , there isn’t any other option but to do without them or to improvise by supporting each other to have these materials. As of today , sanitisers are out of stock. You are aware that every health worker needs to have a pocket sanitiser. However , this may not be feasible for everyone because we have students and volunteers , you know! You cannot start buying for everybody. Even if you decide to buy for yourself , it does not help.” (Clinical Officer).

Long-distance to hand washing equipment/ station

The distance to a hand washing station or equipment discouraged some healthcare providers in both private not-for-profit and public HCFs from practicing hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care. Healthcare providers mentioned that hand hygiene stations such as hand washing basins, sinks, and jerry cans were located far away from the users’ workstations, making it inconvenient for them to practice hand hygiene during critical patient care.

“ Hand washing stations are far away from some healthcare providers’ workstations. In some departments , the hand washing facility is several meters away , which can affect hand hygiene during critical moments. They sometimes find it difficult to move from one room to another just to wash their hands. As with my colleagues at that clinic , their handwashing facility is a bit far from theirs. They move from room to room .” (Clinical Officer).

Non-functionality of hand hygiene infrastructure

Non-functional or faulty hand washing stations hindered healthcare providers from performing hand hygiene during critical moments of patient care. Healthcare providers noted that taps usually break down due to misuse on busy immunisation days, discouraging them from adhering to hand washing. Furthermore, they highlighted that hand washing stations are often stolen due to their temporary nature, hindering them from complying with the practice.

“Another thing is that some hand washing stations are faulty or non-functional. Every time we have an immunisation clinic , taps get broken. So , breakdowns sometimes hinder us from practicing hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care. They are also not permanent , as you can see , so they get stolen since the healthcare facility is not fenced.” (Senior Clinical Officer).

This study used the BCD model to explore the facilitators and deterrents to hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care among healthcare providers in the Kampala Metropolitan region, Uganda. The current study revealed that constant reminders such as mobile text messages, nudges, and posters facilitated hand hygiene. Based on the BCD model, constant reminders such as posters, nudges, and mobile text messages in the healthcare environment can create a surprise that may attract and grab the attention of healthcare providers to practice hand hygiene [ 30 ]. Evidence shows that creating a surprise in an environment like a healthcare setting can help stimulate healthcare providers to practice hand hygiene [ 54 , 55 ]. For instance, a study conducted in Italy found that text messages, nudges, and posters serve as stimuli that can enhance learning in a healthcare setting [ 55 ]. Without such stimuli, healthcare providers may not acquire new knowledge. Besides, posters, mobile text messages, and nudges nullify wrong perceptions about hand hygiene, thereby fostering the practice among healthcare providers. Given that the formative stage has revealed this finding, the study team will now implement nudges, posters, and mobile text messages to increase participants’ knowledge of hand hygiene and effectively capture their attention for improved practice.

The fear of healthcare-associated infections, including COVID-19, facilitated hand hygiene among healthcare providers. Biological agents such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi often cause intrinsic disgust, a motive that facilitates disease-avoidance behaviour. Hand hygiene in a healthcare setting is critical for reducing the risk of healthcare provider contamination and infection [ 56 , 57 ]. Therefore, the fear of healthcare-associated infections such as COVID-19 prompts healthcare providers to practice hand hygiene frequently. The failure to practice hand hygiene compromises the safety of healthcare workers and patients and puts the health of the family members and close contacts of the healthcare providers at risk [ 58 , 59 ]. Therefore, the motive to care for and protect (also termed as nurture) one’s kin and patients from healthcare-associated infections may drive hand hygiene, as indicated in a similar study in the United States [ 60 ].

Healthcare providers’ knowledge of IPC guidelines, policies, and standards was crucial in improving hand hygiene during critical moments of patient care. Based on the BCD approach, knowledge of infection prevention and control measures such as hand hygiene and its benefits influences intentions and plans and, eventually, the performance of a given behaviour (which in this case was hand hygiene) [ 29 , 61 ]. Healthcare providers knowledgeable about IPC guidelines, policies, and standards may have been encouraged to practice proper hand hygiene. Uganda’s IPC guidelines emphasise the importance of hand hygiene, detailing the different types, recommended agents, techniques, and their application [ 27 ]. However, it is essential to acknowledge that while knowledge can contribute to behaviour change, as reported in this study and previous studies in South Korea, Western Cape, and Tanzania [ 62 , 63 , 64 ], it alone may not be sufficient to ensure sustained hand hygiene compliance. Several studies, including those conducted in Cambodia, have shown that knowledge alone may have a limited impact on changing hand hygiene practices [ 65 ]. Thus, improving knowledge of IPC guidelines, policies, and standards and addressing other contextual factors will likely contribute to achieving optimal hand hygiene practices in healthcare facilities. Despite the evidence derived from our study and earlier research from South Korea, Western Cape, and Tanzania [ 62 , 63 , 64 ], it was evident that some healthcare providers still lacked adequate knowledge of IPC guidelines, policies, and standards. This gap underscores the need for implementing partners and health authorities to disseminate these guidelines and sensitise healthcare providers about their importance.

Healthcare providers were motivated to practice hand hygiene during critical moments of patient care if they anticipated being rewarded or recognised. The impact of recognition and rewards is not surprising, as people’s actions, including hand hygiene, are often driven by goals. Without a clear goal, individuals may not feel compelled to adopt certain behaviours. Evidence suggests that rewards can effectively encourage desired behaviours such as hand hygiene [ 66 , 67 , 68 ]. Our findings are consistent with studies conducted in high-income countries like Australia, which have reported that recognition and rewards are significant motivators for hand hygiene in healthcare settings [ 69 , 70 ]. However, the fact that healthcare providers in our study are motivated by recognition and rewards suggests that if these incentives are withdrawn or not maintained, compliance with hand hygiene during critical moments could decrease.

Our study revealed that the nature of the behavioural setting was critical in facilitating or hindering hand hygiene among healthcare providers. The presence of active IPC committees/ focal persons, good leadership and a positive healthcare provider attitude were particularly critical for compliance with hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care. Conversely, a negative attitude negatively impacted hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care. IPC committees and focal persons are responsible for supporting adherence to standard precautions influencing healthcare providers’ perceptions and attitudes towards hand hygiene. IPC committees and focal persons influence the normative setting in which hand hygiene is practised [ 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 ]. IPC committees and focal persons influence descriptive, personal, injunctive, and subjective norms. Concerning descriptive norms, IPC committees and focal persons are responsible for influencing the perceptions of healthcare providers so that they embrace hand hygiene in healthcare settings. IPC committees and focal persons are also responsible for influencing personal norms by ensuring that hand hygiene is part of the expected behaviour exhibited by healthcare providers. IPC committees and focal persons make rules and approve IPC measures on behalf of the healthcare staff, which influences the social setting [ 30 ]. Approval of hand hygiene (injunctive norm) as an effective measure of breaking transmission of healthcare-associated infections by the IPC committee and focal persons is likely to have facilitated compliance.

Good leadership and the availability of budgets for hand hygiene supplies are crucial for ensuring hand hygiene during critical moments of patient care. Effective leadership enables healthcare providers to plan and allocate resources specifically for hand hygiene. When resources are favourably allocated to IPC and hand hygiene, essential supplies such as water and soap are likely to be available, thereby promoting hand hygiene during critical moments of patient care. Additionally, strong leadership allows healthcare facilities to plan capacity-building interventions, such as IPC training. Other scholars have also documented the vital role of IPC committees and focal persons in facilitating hand hygiene [ 76 , 77 , 78 ].

Access to hand hygiene infrastructure and supplies facilitated hand hygiene among healthcare providers. Based on the BCD approach, hand hygiene infrastructure such as hand washing facilities and related supplies may be classified as objects that facilitate healthcare providers’ compliance with hand hygiene during critical patient care [ 33 , 66 ]. The availability of hand hygiene facilities in healthcare settings is not enough to facilitate hand hygiene. These facilities and supplies need to be accessible and user-friendly for healthcare providers. As indicated in our study, long distances to and non-functionality of hand hygiene facilities hinder healthcare providers’ intentions to practice hand hygiene during critical moments. Non-availability and long distance to a hand hygiene facility sometimes result in an inconvenience and a waste of a healthcare provider’s time [ 61 , 79 , 80 ], thus increasing non-compliance to hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care. Therefore, our findings highlight the need to ensure the availability and proximity of hand hygiene facilities. Strategically placing hand hygiene facilities or stations would allow healthcare providers to access them and easily perform hand hygiene whenever needed.

The frequency of patient contact and the nature of the clinical work influenced hand hygiene during critical moments of patient care. Healthcare providers working in departments such as maternity and laboratory where there is frequent patient contact were reported to practice hand hygiene during critical moments more often compared to their counterparts working in departments (such as OPD) where there was less patient contact. The close interaction between the healthcare providers and the biological environment may have prompted healthcare providers to practice hand hygiene. Healthcare providers in constant contact with the biological environment often practice hand hygiene due to fear of infection, given their constant exposure to infectious agents such as coronavirus [ 81 , 82 , 83 ]. Conversely, a heavy workload was an essential deterrent to practising hand hygiene during the critical moments of patient care. A heavy workload means healthcare providers must see more patients, leaving less time for hand hygiene during critical moments and between patients. Sometimes, healthcare providers are only motivated by clearing all patients instead of practising hand hygiene. Therefore, having no waiting patients turns out to be a reward that happens at the expense of hand hygiene. This implies that hand hygiene may not provide a tangible benefit as working with patients in a queue, yet it is rewarding and drives behaviour [ 29 , 30 , 66 ]. Our findings are consistent with those of other scholars from Ethiopia and other LMICs [ 58 , 84 , 85 ], which have all indicated the negative impact of workload on hand hygiene.

Our study revealed the smell of hand hygiene supplies as a barrier to hand hygiene during critical moments. Hand hygiene supplies like bleach, which is often made from a chlorine solution, have a pungent and irritating odour. Similarly, the smell produced by alcohol is sometimes unpleasant and irritating [ 86 , 87 ]. Therefore, healthcare providers often avoid practising hand hygiene to avoid unpleasant and irritating smells. In a nutshell, smelly hand hygiene supplies become a disgust that healthcare providers avoid. Aunger and Curtis [ 61 ] and Curtis, Danquah [ 83 ] elaborate disgust as a human behaviour motive. Smell as a hindrance to hand hygiene should, therefore, be considered in WASH in HCFs’ interventions. Availing of hand hygiene supplies such as soap and alcohol-based hand rubs that have a pleasant smell is likely to increase hand hygiene compliance, as reported by [ 88 ].

Strengths and limitations

This qualitative study provides an in-depth understanding of the facilitators and deterrents to hand hygiene, which quantitative studies may not. The study used a relatively large sample size, enabling the researchers to reach theoretical saturation on most themes. It quantifies critical indicators such as healthcare provider knowledge of the roles of the IPC committees, availability of such committees, and hand hygiene infrastructure. Limitations included the use of self-reports yet they are vulnerable to social desirability and recall biases [ 89 ]. The current manuscript’s quantitative results represent only the cohort studied in the qualitative component and should not be generalised to all HCFs in KMA.

Our study revealed that a multitude of facilitators and deterrents influence hand hygiene behaviour during the critical moments of patient care. The facilitators of hand hygiene compliance included constant reminders such as mobile text messages, nudges, and posters, fear of healthcare-associated infections, including COVID-19, frequency of patient contact and nature of clinical work, knowledge of infection prevention and control guidelines, policies and standards, a positive healthcare provider attitude, recognition and reward of hand hygiene compliant healthcare providers, the existence of active IPC Committees/ focal persons, good leadership, availability of a budget for hand hygiene supplies, and proximity to functional hand hygiene infrastructure and supplies. The deterrents to hand hygiene included a heavy workload, negative healthcare provider attitude, smell of hand hygiene supplies, non-proximity to functional hand hygiene infrastructure/station, and inadequate hand hygiene supplies. This study illustrates that the availability of hand hygiene infrastructure alone is insufficient to influence hand hygiene among healthcare providers; instead, these need to be proximal to the users. Besides, hand hygiene is sometimes driven by recognition and rewards, reminders and policies, guidelines and standards.

Data availability

The transcripts analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Behaviour Centered Design

Kampala Metropolitan Area

Healthcare Acquired Infections

Healthcare facility

Health centre

Infection Prevention and Control

Ministry of Health

Private Not for Profit

Research Assistant

United Nations

Water Sanitation and Hygiene

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Acknowledgements

We want to thank the administration of Wakiso and Mukono District Local governments for granting clearance to undertake the study. We remain indebted to the administration of private and public healthcare facilities for allowing their healthcare facilities to participate in the study, as well as the healthcare providers who responded to the study tools. Nansinguza Jacob’s support in designing the illustrations used in this manuscript is highly appreciated. Finally, we thank our diligent team of research assistants and coordinators who made this study a success.

This study was funded by the National Academies of Science (NAS) and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (Award Number AID-OAA-A-11-00012). The study protocol was independently peer-reviewed by the funding body; however, any opinions, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this article are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or NAS.

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RKM, HY and CLM obtained the funding for this study. TS, RKM, HY, and CLM conceptualized the study, participated in data collection, and analysis and drafted the manuscript. JBI, RKW, AN, CA, STW, EB, RN, JB and LL participated in the analysis and drafting of the manuscript. All authors read and approved this manuscript before submission to this journal.

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Ssekamatte, T., Mugambe, R.K., Isunju, J.B. et al. Application of the behaviour-centred design to understand facilitators and deterrents of hand hygiene among healthcare providers: findings from a formative phase of a cluster randomised trial in the Kampala Metropolitan area. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 1031 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11512-z

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