research ethical dilemma examples

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Published on October 18, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on May 9, 2024.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from people.

The goals of human research often include understanding real-life phenomena, studying effective treatments, investigating behaviors, and improving lives in other ways. What you decide to research and how you conduct that research involve key ethical considerations.

These considerations work to

• protect the rights of research participants
• enhance research validity
• maintain scientific or academic integrity

Table of contents

Why do research ethics matter, getting ethical approval for your study, types of ethical issues, voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, potential for harm, results communication, examples of ethical failures, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research ethics.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe for research subjects.

You’ll balance pursuing important research objectives with using ethical research methods and procedures. It’s always necessary to prevent permanent or excessive harm to participants, whether inadvertent or not.

Defying research ethics will also lower the credibility of your research because it’s hard for others to trust your data if your methods are morally questionable.

Even if a research idea is valuable to society, it doesn’t justify violating the human rights or dignity of your study participants.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Before you start any study involving data collection with people, you’ll submit your research proposal to an institutional review board (IRB) .

An IRB is a committee that checks whether your research aims and research design are ethically acceptable and follow your institution’s code of conduct. They check that your research materials and procedures are up to code.

If successful, you’ll receive IRB approval, and you can begin collecting data according to the approved procedures. If you want to make any changes to your procedures or materials, you’ll need to submit a modification application to the IRB for approval.

If unsuccessful, you may be asked to re-submit with modifications or your research proposal may receive a rejection. To get IRB approval, it’s important to explicitly note how you’ll tackle each of the ethical issues that may arise in your study.

There are several ethical issues you should always pay attention to in your research design, and these issues can overlap with each other.

You’ll usually outline ways you’ll deal with each issue in your research proposal if you plan to collect data from participants.

Voluntary participation means that all research subjects are free to choose to participate without any pressure or coercion.

All participants are able to withdraw from, or leave, the study at any point without feeling an obligation to continue. Your participants don’t need to provide a reason for leaving the study.

It’s important to make it clear to participants that there are no negative consequences or repercussions to their refusal to participate. After all, they’re taking the time to help you in the research process , so you should respect their decisions without trying to change their minds.

Voluntary participation is an ethical principle protected by international law and many scientific codes of conduct.

Take special care to ensure there’s no pressure on participants when you’re working with vulnerable groups of people who may find it hard to stop the study even when they want to.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

Informed consent refers to a situation in which all potential participants receive and understand all the information they need to decide whether they want to participate. This includes information about the study’s benefits, risks, funding, and institutional approval.

You make sure to provide all potential participants with all the relevant information about

• what the study is about
• the risks and benefits of taking part
• how long the study will take
• your supervisor’s contact information and the institution’s approval number

Usually, you’ll provide participants with a text for them to read and ask them if they have any questions. If they agree to participate, they can sign or initial the consent form. Note that this may not be sufficient for informed consent when you work with particularly vulnerable groups of people.

If you’re collecting data from people with low literacy, make sure to verbally explain the consent form to them before they agree to participate.

For participants with very limited English proficiency, you should always translate the study materials or work with an interpreter so they have all the information in their first language.

In research with children, you’ll often need informed permission for their participation from their parents or guardians. Although children cannot give informed consent, it’s best to also ask for their assent (agreement) to participate, depending on their age and maturity level.

Anonymity means that you don’t know who the participants are and you can’t link any individual participant to their data.

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information—for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, and videos.

In many cases, it may be impossible to truly anonymize data collection . For example, data collected in person or by phone cannot be considered fully anonymous because some personal identifiers (demographic information or phone numbers) are impossible to hide.

You’ll also need to collect some identifying information if you give your participants the option to withdraw their data at a later stage.

Data pseudonymization is an alternative method where you replace identifying information about participants with pseudonymous, or fake, identifiers. The data can still be linked to participants but it’s harder to do so because you separate personal information from the study data.

Confidentiality means that you know who the participants are, but you remove all identifying information from your report.

All participants have a right to privacy, so you should protect their personal data for as long as you store or use it. Even when you can’t collect data anonymously, you should secure confidentiality whenever you can.

Some research designs aren’t conducive to confidentiality, but it’s important to make all attempts and inform participants of the risks involved.

As a researcher, you have to consider all possible sources of harm to participants. Harm can come in many different forms.

• Psychological harm: Sensitive questions or tasks may trigger negative emotions such as shame or anxiety.
• Social harm: Participation can involve social risks, public embarrassment, or stigma.
• Physical harm: Pain or injury can result from the study procedures.
• Legal harm: Reporting sensitive data could lead to legal risks or a breach of privacy.

It’s best to consider every possible source of harm in your study as well as concrete ways to mitigate them. Involve your supervisor to discuss steps for harm reduction.

Make sure to disclose all possible risks of harm to participants before the study to get informed consent. If there is a risk of harm, prepare to provide participants with resources or counseling or medical services if needed.

Some of these questions may bring up negative emotions, so you inform participants about the sensitive nature of the survey and assure them that their responses will be confidential.

The way you communicate your research results can sometimes involve ethical issues. Good science communication is honest, reliable, and credible. It’s best to make your results as transparent as possible.

Take steps to actively avoid plagiarism and research misconduct wherever possible.

Plagiarism means submitting others’ works as your own. Although it can be unintentional, copying someone else’s work without proper credit amounts to stealing. It’s an ethical problem in research communication because you may benefit by harming other researchers.

Self-plagiarism is when you republish or re-submit parts of your own papers or reports without properly citing your original work.

This is problematic because you may benefit from presenting your ideas as new and original even though they’ve already been published elsewhere in the past. You may also be infringing on your previous publisher’s copyright, violating an ethical code, or wasting time and resources by doing so.

In extreme cases of self-plagiarism, entire datasets or papers are sometimes duplicated. These are major ethical violations because they can skew research findings if taken as original data.

You notice that two published studies have similar characteristics even though they are from different years. Their sample sizes, locations, treatments, and results are highly similar, and the studies share one author in common.

Research misconduct

Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data, manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of academic fraud.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement about data analyses.

Research misconduct is a serious ethical issue because it can undermine academic integrity and institutional credibility. It leads to a waste of funding and resources that could have been used for alternative research.

Later investigations revealed that they fabricated and manipulated their data to show a nonexistent link between vaccines and autism. Wakefield also neglected to disclose important conflicts of interest, and his medical license was taken away.

This fraudulent work sparked vaccine hesitancy among parents and caregivers. The rate of MMR vaccinations in children fell sharply, and measles outbreaks became more common due to a lack of herd immunity.

Research scandals with ethical failures are littered throughout history, but some took place not that long ago.

Some scientists in positions of power have historically mistreated or even abused research participants to investigate research problems at any cost. These participants were prisoners, under their care, or otherwise trusted them to treat them with dignity.

To demonstrate the importance of research ethics, we’ll briefly review two research studies that violated human rights in modern history.

These experiments were inhumane and resulted in trauma, permanent disabilities, or death in many cases.

After some Nazi doctors were put on trial for their crimes, the Nuremberg Code of research ethics for human experimentation was developed in 1947 to establish a new standard for human experimentation in medical research.

In reality, the actual goal was to study the effects of the disease when left untreated, and the researchers never informed participants about their diagnoses or the research aims.

Although participants experienced severe health problems, including blindness and other complications, the researchers only pretended to provide medical care.

When treatment became possible in 1943, 11 years after the study began, none of the participants were offered it, despite their health conditions and high risk of death.

Ethical failures like these resulted in severe harm to participants, wasted resources, and lower trust in science and scientists. This is why all research institutions have strict ethical guidelines for performing research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias
• Social desirability bias

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.

Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from others .

These considerations protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity , and maintain scientific integrity.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe.

Anonymity means you don’t know who the participants are, while confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. Both are important ethical considerations .

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information—for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, or videos.

You can keep data confidential by using aggregate information in your research report, so that you only refer to groups of participants rather than individuals.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement but a serious ethical failure.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2024, May 09). Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 8, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/research-ethics/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, data collection | definition, methods & examples, what is self-plagiarism | definition & how to avoid it, how to avoid plagiarism | tips on citing sources, what is your plagiarism score.

5 Common Ethical Dilemmas in User Research

April 23, 2023 2023-04-23

• Email article
• Share on LinkedIn
• Share on Twitter

Just because user research is applied research, doesn’t mean research ethics isn’t important or necessary! This article covers 5 common ethical dilemmas that can crop up in user-research studies and the best practices around them.

In This Article:

Balancing honest disclosure with study goals, concealment, sensitive research topics causing distress to participants, studying vulnerable groups who cannot consent to participation, participants revealing sensitive personal information, compromising confidentiality due to small participant pool.

In ethical research with human participants, informed consent is crucial as it underpins the principle of respect for persons : the right for everyone to have autonomy over their own decisions. Informed consent means that participants are told about all aspects of the study so they can make an informed decision on whether to take part. We collect evidence of informed consent through a consent form .

However, in some studies, disclosing in advance the goals of the study or the organization conducting the study could jeopardize the validity of the research, as participants may not act naturally or might inadvertently change their behavior. Concealment and deception are tactics to mitigate this effect. Both present ethical challenges.

Concealment refers to the situation where some important information about the study (which would usually be in the consent form) is withheld from research participants during the consent-gathering process.

Concealment is common in health research. To know whether a new drug can effectively treat a disease, clinical researchers recruit people with the disease and randomly assign them to one of two groups: those who try the new drug and those who don’t. After the study is over, the researchers compare the outcomes of the two groups to learn whether the drug is effective and safe. In studies like these, participants are unaware of which group they have been assigned to, but they know they’ll be randomly assigned to one of the two groups. The group that doesn’t receive the new drug receives an identical sugar pill (a placebo). Concealment is used to control for the powerful psychological effects (known as placebo and nocebo effects) that participants can experience when they think they are receiving treatment.

Deception occurs when research participants are misled about the purpose of the research or about the organization sponsoring the research study during the consent-gathering process.

Deception is often used to avoid revealing the true motive of the study or who conducts the study.  For example, perhaps a company wants to do competitive testing on its own product and of a competitor product. When recruiting participants and conducting the study, researchers may tell participants that they work for an independent company to prevent biasing participants towards the company’s design.  (In this situation, you can replace deception with concealment by hiring an independent UX-research company to do competitive testing for you; for the study to be sound, however, this company will need to conceal who is funding the research to avoid influencing participants’ behavior.)

Although both concealment and deception can be ethically tricky, deception is more problematic , since false information was provided to participants during consent gathering. Studies that utilize deception or concealment require a debrief, where the researcher provides the correct information after the session or study has concluded. During the debrief, researchers give the participant the option to withdraw (i.e., remove their data from the study) after learning the correct information.

UX studies rarely need to use concealment or deception . They should be reserved only for situations where the study could not be performed without one of these tactics and participants won’t be harmed by them. If you use deception or concealment in your study, provide participants with the correct information after the session is over and respect their wish to withdraw from the study.

Sometimes we develop products and services to support people who might experience hard life situations, including:

• A life-altering medical condition
• Loss of a loved one
• Domestic or sexual abuse
• A serious addiction

Speaking to people about these experiences can be upsetting and can cause participants to relive trauma. However, not researching with target users can result in products and services that are poorly designed, don’t meet people’s needs, and, worse, could cause harm.

One principle of research ethics is to do no harm . To avoid harming participants, research sessions should be appropriately designed to ensure that:

• Participants are aware of the nature of the topic.
• Researchers broach sensitive topics without causing harm.
• Researchers are prepared for how to react should participants become upset.

If your study involves a sensitive topic, you should consider:

• Seeking guidance from a subject-matter expert (such as a counselor or an employee of a related charity) on how to broach the topic
• Ensuring that you clearly inform participants of what will and won’t be discussed in the recruitment material, in the consent form, and at the beginning of the session
• Giving participants the option to withdraw or not answer certain questions if they feel uncomfortable
• Preparing leaflets with contact information for free resources, counselors, or support services in the participant’s local community

Some participants are vulnerable because they can be coerced into participating in studies or could be harmed by participating in research. Extra safeguards need to be put in place to ensure that informed consent is possible, and any risks are minimized. Examples of vulnerable participants include:

• People who can’t consent (e.g., children, people with dementia, people with an intellectual disability, people with low literacy)
• People who might experience discrimination or reputational damage if they were to be identified in research

When participants can’t give informed consent, a legal representative or authorized adult should be asked to provide informed consent in addition to the participant’s agreement (assent) to participate.

If you are recruiting vulnerable participants, conduct a simple risk assessment to identify risks and create a plan to mitigate them and seek support from a subject-matter expert.

Sometimes in user-research studies participants accidentally reveal sensitive personal information (like names, bank accounts, or credit-card information) and this information is captured in session recordings. Several years ago, during an in-person research session in the Middle East, a participant revealed he was homosexual, which was illegal in his country. Thankfully, only a colleague and I were in the session. We immediately stopped the recording and deleted it, realizing that the participant could be harmed if this information got into the wrong hands.

As UX researchers, our first duty is of care towards our participants: even though we might feel that the session is extremely valuable for our study goals, when information like this is captured on recordings or in our data-collection process, we must ensure that it is swiftly and securely removed, even though we might feel that it compromises the study goals or our ability to persuade stakeholders.

Research is said to be confidential when researchers take steps to ensure that other people inside and outside of their organization are not able to identify participants in the reporting of the research.

While in most user-research studies we can remove references to participants’ personal information (such as their names) to achieve confidentiality, sometimes participants will be identified regardless. For example, if you are performing user research with internal employees from a small team and or if, perhaps, stakeholders helped you to recruit participants for a study, even “anonymous” quotes could be attributed to a person due to the context. In these situations, let participants know that they could be identified before the research occurs. Don’t promise confidentiality if you can’t assure it. Participants should be allowed to withdraw from the study at any point. Consider not inviting stakeholders to the research session and doublechecking with the participant before you begin the recording that they are comfortable with the conditions of the research.

User research, like any other research with humans, can present many ethical dilemmas and challenges. We must design our research studies so that we safeguard our participants’ best interests and do no harm.

Related Courses

Analytics and user experience.

Study your users’ real-life behaviors and make data-informed design decisions

Measuring UX and ROI

Use metrics from quantitative research to demonstrate value

Personas: Turn User Data Into User-Centered Design

Create, maintain, and utilize personas throughout the UX design process

Related Topics

• Research Methods Research Methods

Learn More:

MVP: Why It Isn't Always Release 1

Sara Paul · 4 min

What Is a SWOT Analysis?

Therese Fessenden · 5 min

What Is User Research?

Caleb Sponheim · 3 min

Related Articles:

Ethical Maturity in User Research

Maria Rosala · 7 min

The Vortex: Why Users Feel Trapped in Their Devices

Kate Moran and Kim Flaherty · 12 min

Card Sorting: Pushing Users Beyond Terminology Matches

Samhita Tankala and Jakob Nielsen · 5 min

6 Tips for Better Participant Engagement in Diary Studies

Maria Rosala · 6 min

Obtaining Consent for User Research

Therese Fessenden · 8 min

Recruiting High-Income Participants: Challenges and Tips

Kate Moran · 4 min

Ethical Dilemmas in Scientific Research and Professional Integrity

Welcome to the Georgia CTSA webpage on ethical dilemmas in scientific research and professional integrity. This page presents case scenarios involving responsible conduct in research. Each case is followed by a brief, expert opinion that suggests strategies for resolution.*

View a sample case followed by an expert opinion

We especially hope that these cases can provide useful teaching materials for college or university faculty who present lectures or courses on responsible conduct in research. The cases and expert opinions on this page are intended for instructional use and are copyrighted by Emory University.

Readers interested in submitting a dilemma of their own for possible review, comment, and posting to the website can send their dilemma to Dr. John Banja . The dilemma must relate to research ethics. Submission of a dilemma does not guarantee a review for an expert opinion or posting to the website.

• Georgia CTSA & Winship Cancer Institute Offer Collaborative Research Ethics Consultation Service
• Emory Center for Ethics
• Georgia Tech Ethics, Technology, and Human Interaction Center (ETHICx)
• Morehouse School of Medicine Ethics and Compliance

Spotlight on Ethics

AI, Radiology, and Ethics: A Podcast Series

“ AI, Radiology and Ethics ” is a podcast series featuring internationally recognized thought leaders commenting on the application of artificial intelligence to the imaging sciences. This series is hosted by Dr. John Banja.  Examples of featured podcast topics include:

• How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Medical Malpractice Experience in Radiology?
• Bias, Fairness, and Generalizability
• Bias: Confronting the Problem

We Wonder Podcast

• Medical Ethics and AI with John Banja

Ethical Dilemmas

Allocating credit.

• Who Gets the Credit? (PDF)
• But That Was My Idea! (PDF)
• Replacing a First Author on a Second Submission (PDF)
• The Tyrannical Principal Investigator (PDF)
• The Overly Nice Advisor (PDF)
• When the Authors Can't Write English (PDF)
• A Conscientious Objection (PDF)
• Unnecessary Animal Use (PDF)
• A Mess of Authors (PDF)
• Author, Author! (PDF)
• But I Don't Want To Be An Author (PDF)
• Deciding First Authorship (PDF)
• I Can't Say No (PDF)
• I Rub Your Back (PDF)
• On First Authorship (PDF)
• Read This, But Don't Tell Anybody (PDF)
• When the Author Can't Write English (PDF)

Confidentiality

• Breach of Confidentiality (PDF)
• Breach of Confidentiality: A Tissue Donor Identified (PDF)

Conflict of Interest

• Uncertainties and Conflicting Interest in Lung Transplantation (PDF)
• When the LAR is also the Investigator (PDF)
• When an Investigator Recruits Himself for a Study (PDF)

Data Interpretation and Management

• Data Torturing (PDF)
• Praying Over the Experiment (PDF)
• Let's Not Mention That in the Report (PDF)
• Which Assay to Believe? (PDF)
• He Took His Notebook (PDF)
• Image Manipulation (PDF)
• Patience is a Virtue (PDF)
• An Instance of Data Manipulation (PDF)

Data Representation

• Deleting Data Points (PDF)
• Mum's the Word (PDF)

Drug Trials

• Ethical Conduction of an International Pediatric Trial (PDF)
• Expediting Approval (PDF)

Genetics Research

• Should Incidental Findings be Returned? (PDF)

Healthcare Inequities

• Concierge Medicine: Ethically Concerning or a Better Care Model? (PDF)

Informed Consent

• First Poke, Then Hope (PDF)
• The Right to Participate in Research (PDF)
• Making it Harder to Say No (PDF)
• Can a Patient Edit their Consent Form before Signing? (PDF)

Intellectual Property

• The Nutty Professor (PDF)
• Would You Do a Post-Doc with this Guy? (PDF)
• Research Misconduct at the High School Level (PDF)
• Who Gets the Credit?
• An Instance of Fraud (PDF)
• Patience is a Virtue
• When the TA Suspects Cheating (PDF)
• A Letter of "Non-Recommendation" (PDF)
• Does the Punishment Fit the Crime? (PDF)
• Handling a Case of Cheating (PDF)
• Playing By the Rules: Multiple Abstract Submissions (PDF)
• We're Not Recruiting Enough Participants! (PDF)
• Sabotage (PDF)

Participant Recruitment

• Should We Interview Bereaved Parents? (PDF)
• When the Legally Authorized Representative is also the Investigator (PDF)
• Should Uninsured Patients be Offered Clinical Trials? (PDF)
• Enrolling One's Own Children in Your Research (PDF)

Protocol Deviation

• Two Protocol Deviations (PDF)

Reproducibility

• Ethics Podcasts in Research

*The cases and expert opinions on this website are intended for instructional use and are copyrighted by Emory University. THEY MAY BE REPRODUCED AND FURTHER DISTRIBUTED FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES, SO LONG AS THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS ARE FULFILLED: (1) APPROPRIATE ATTRIBUTION IS INCLUDED; (2) THE MATERIALS ARE NOT MODIFIED; (3) THE MATERIALS ARE USED ONLY FOR ACADEMIC AND EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES; AND (4) NO FEE OR OTHER CHARGE IS IMPOSED TO OBTAIN ACCESS TO THE MATERIALS. ALL OTHER RIGHTS, INCLUDING THE RIGHT TO USE THE MATERIALS FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSES, IS EXPRESSLY RESERVED BY EMORY UNIVERSITY. EMORY UNIVERSITY HOPES THAT THE MATERIALS ON THIS PAGE WILL BE HELPFUL, BUT PLEASE NOTE THAT THE MATERIALS ARE PROVIDED ON AN "AS IS" BASIS, AND ALL WARRANTIES ARE SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMED.

• Open access
• Published: 29 September 2021

Defining ethical challenge(s) in healthcare research: a rapid review

• Guy Schofield   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9055-292X 1 , 3 ,
• Mariana Dittborn   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2903-6480 2 ,
• Lucy Ellen Selman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5747-2699 3 &
• Richard Huxtable   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5802-1870 1  

BMC Medical Ethics volume  22 , Article number:  135 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

21k Accesses

17 Citations

11 Altmetric

Metrics details

Despite its ubiquity in academic research, the phrase ‘ethical challenge(s)’ appears to lack an agreed definition. A lack of a definition risks introducing confusion or avoidable bias. Conceptual clarity is a key component of research, both theoretical and empirical. Using a rapid review methodology, we sought to review definitions of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ and closely related terms as used in current healthcare research literature.

Rapid review to identify peer-reviewed reports examining ‘ethical challenge(s)’ in any context, extracting data on definitions of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ in use, and synonymous use of closely related terms in the general manuscript text. Data were analysed using content analysis. Four databases (MEDLINE, Philosopher’s Index, EMBASE, CINAHL) were searched from April 2016 to April 2021.

393 records were screened, with 72 studies eligible and included: 53 empirical studies, 17 structured reviews and 2 review protocols. 12/72 (17%) contained an explicit definition of ‘ethical challenge(s), two of which were shared, resulting in 11 unique definitions. Within these 11 definitions, four approaches were identified: definition through concepts; reference to moral conflict, moral uncertainty or difficult choices; definition by participants; and challenges linked to emotional or moral distress. Each definition contained one or more of these approaches, but none contained all four. 68/72 (94%) included studies used terms closely related to synonymously refer to ‘ethical challenge(s)’ within their manuscript text, with 32 different terms identified and between one and eight different terms mentioned per study.

Conclusions

Only 12/72 studies contained an explicit definition of ‘ethical challenge(s)’, with significant variety in scope and complexity. This variation risks confusion and biasing data analysis and results, reducing confidence in research findings. Further work on establishing acceptable definitional content is needed to inform future bioethics research.

Peer Review reports

Methodological rigour within research is a cornerstone in the production of high-quality findings and recommendations. Across the range of empirical methodologies, a broad collection of protocol development tools, methodology guidelines, and reporting guidelines have been developed and evidence of their use is increasingly required by journals [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Within both empirical bioethics and descriptive ethics, there has been an accompanying increase in the acknowledgment of the importance of methodological rigour in the empirical elements, including within the recent consensus statement on quality standards in empirical bioethics research by Ives et al. [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Aligned with this aim for rigour, definitional clarity of key terms used within a research project is a component of research quality [ 10 , 11 ]. Improving the quality of empirical bioethics is also itself an ethical imperative [ 9 ].

We recently conducted a systematic review examining ‘ethical challenges’ as reported by specialist palliative care practitioners [ 12 ]. Our review, alongside our initial scoping search findings and reading of the literature, suggested that, although many authors use the term ‘ethical challenge(s)’ in empirical ethics research, there appeared to be no commonly described or accepted definition. Furthermore, papers retrieved rarely defined ‘ethical challenge(s)’ explicitly , which has also been noted by other researchers examining other topic areas [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Our review further suggested that authors frequently use terms closely related to ‘ethical challenge(s)’—such as ‘moral dilemmas’ or ‘ethical issues’—interchangeably with ‘ethical challenge(s)’ throughout manuscripts, rather than staying with the original term. Research shows that non-philosophers may understand these related terms in heterogeneous ways which may additionally affect understanding of texts across different readerships [ 16 , 17 ].

Without a clear definition of an ethical challenge, each researcher must use individual judgement to ascertain whether they have identified an instance of one within their dataset. This potentially generates an unnecessary source of bias, particularly if multiple researchers are involved in data collection, extraction, or analysis. This risks generating misleading ethical analyses, evaluations, or recommendations. Additionally, and more broadly, if primary studies do not define the term, then work based on these—such as systematic reviews of individual studies or those undertaking secondary data analysis—may unknowingly compare different phenomena without a mechanism for mitigating the effects this introduces.

In the hope of prompting a debate on this topic, we therefore undertook a rapid review, which aimed to explore existing definitions of “ethical challenge(s)” and the use of other closely related terms within recent empirical healthcare ethics literature.

We conducted a rapid review examining the usage of the term ‘ethical challenge(s)’ over the last 5 years in published research articles, in order to identify and summarise if, and how, the term was defined. As a secondary aim, we examined authors’ uses of closely related alternative terms within the included article texts separate to their use within any explicit definitions that may be present.

Rapid reviews use abridged systematic review methodology to understand the evidence base on a particular topic in a time and resource efficient manner [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Comparative reviews of topics in which both a rapid review and a systematic review had been undertaken demonstrated that the overall conclusions were similar, although rapid reviews were less likely to contain social and economic data, and systematic reviews contained more detailed recommendations [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 23 , 24 ]. The Cochrane Rapid Review Methods Group has recently released interim methodological guidelines for undertaking rapid reviews [ 6 ], advising authors to describe where their protocol deviates from a systematic review and detail any biases that these deviations may introduce [ 18 , 19 , 21 ]. We have followed the Cochrane recommended methodology [ 6 ]. A rapid review reporting guideline is currently under development [ 25 ] and this review is therefore reported based on the PRISMA 2020 statement for systematic reviews, with justifications provided where our approach deviated [ 26 ].

Prospective review protocol registration on the PROSPERO database is the current gold standard, but, at the time of writing, PROSPERO does not accept records for rapid reviews [ 27 ]. The protocol was therefore not published in advance.

Eligibility criteria

The inclusion and exclusion criteria are summarised in Table 1 . We used Strech et al.’s Methodology, Issues, Participants (MIP) structure for our eligibility criteria, which is recommended for systematic reviews in ‘empirical bioethics’ [ 28 ]. The criteria reflect three assumptions. First, that the inclusion of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ in the title would increase the likelihood that this was the authors’ preferred term for the concept under investigation, and therefore increase the probability of a definition being provided. Second, that studies aiming to describe empirical data and identify ethical challenges in real-world contexts are most likely to contain a definition to guide researchers in identifying these challenges as they collect and analyse data. Third, that structured reviews of studies of ethical challenges are likely to include a definition to allow researchers to reliably recognise an ethical challenge in retrieved records. We used a 5-year timeframe as a date restriction. This reflected a balance between adequately covering recent use of the term and time and resource restrictions of the rapid review.

Information sources

The search strategy was as follows:

‘ethical challenge’.ti OR ‘ethical challenges’.ti.

We searched Medline (Ovid interface), Philosopher’s Index (OVID interface), EMBASE (OVID interface), and CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, EBSCO interface) for studies indexed over a five-year period between April 2016 and April 2021. These resources cover the breadth of healthcare research. Including Philosopher’s Index increased coverage of the bioethics literature. We did not search the grey literature [ 6 ]. The search strategy was tested by successfully retrieving three sentinel studies known to the research team.

Study selection

Retrieved studies were imported into Endnote X9.2 [ 29 ]. Records unavailable through institutional subscriptions were requested from corresponding authors. If unavailable 14 days after the request, the record was excluded. A random sample of 20% of records were dual screened at the title/abstract level by GS/MD. After discussion, the remainder were screened by GS. At full-text screening, a further 20% were dual screened by GS/MD and, again after discussion, the remaining studies were screened by GS.

Data extraction and analysis

Data extraction was undertaken using a pre-piloted form, with the first 5 records dually extracted by GS and MD. Data from the remaining included studies was then extracted by GS, with correctness and completeness checked by MD. We collected data on date of publication, authors, journal, country (for primary studies), methodology, definition of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ (present (yes/no)) and (where offered) the definition provided, and any closely related terms used, with counts of all terms used in each article. For closely related terms, data was extracted from the authors’ text, but not from direct quotations from qualitative research. Where definitions of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ were offered and/or related terms were identified, these were categorised and counted following the principles of summative content analysis [ 30 ]. Summative content analysis combines both the quantitative counting of specific content or words/terms with latent content analysis to identify and categorise their meanings. We identified keywords (‘ethical challenge(s)’ and closely related terms) deployed by the authors of the included papers, both prior to and during data analysis, and analysed the retrieved definitions. This approach allowed for exploration of both the content of definitions and development of insights into the use of related terms.

Risk of bias assessment

The focus of the rapid review was the definition of the term ‘ethical challenge(s)’ within retrieved records. We therefore did not undertake quality assessment for the included studies and reviews.

831 records were retrieved, reduced to 393 after de-duplication. 238 records were excluded after reviewing the title and/or abstract. 157 records were identified for full text screening, with 3 unavailable [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. 82 records were excluded at full text stage and 72 records were included for analysis. See Fig.  1 for the PRISMA flowchart.

PRISMA flow diagram of record identification

Record characteristics

Of the 72 included records, 53 were empirical studies [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 ], 10 non-systematic reviews [ 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 ], 7 systematic reviews [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 ], 1 systematic review protocol [ 101 ], and 1 non-systematic review protocol [ 102 ]. Of the 53 empirical studies, 42 (79%) were qualitative studies [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 47 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 69 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 ], 6 (12%) used a mixed methods approach [ 45 , 46 , 53 , 59 , 61 , 68 ], and 5 (10%) were quantitative [ 37 , 49 , 70 , 78 , 82 ]. 7/56 empirical studies, all qualitative interview studies, recruited participants internationally with no specific location stated [ 40 , 54 , 55 , 58 , 60 , 63 , 73 ]. Of the remaining studies, all but one were single-country studies: Botswana [ 75 ], Canada [ 41 , 65 ], China [ 57 ], Denmark [ 39 , 43 ], Dominican Republic [ 44 ], Germany [ 51 , 84 ], India [ 61 ], Iran [ 38 , 46 , 49 , 68 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 78 , 82 , 98 ], Italy [ 45 ], Mexico [ 87 ], the Netherlands [ 76 ], New Zealand [ 47 ], Norway [ 42 , 52 , 56 , 64 , 80 , 81 , 83 ], Saudi Arabia [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 ], Tanzania [ 69 , 74 ], Uganda [ 67 ], UK [ 86 ], and USA [ 50 , 53 , 59 , 62 , 66 , 77 , 79 , 85 , 85 ]. The remaining study was undertaken in both Sierra Leone and the UK [ 48 ]. See Table 2 for a summary.

12/72 (17%) of retrieved studies offered an explicit definition for ‘ethical challenge(s)’ [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 48 , 50 , 56 , 57 , 66 , 69 , 81 , 98 , 101 ]. Definitions were more likely to be found in more recent publications, with 4/12 included studies published in 2016–2018 [ 14 , 48 , 56 , 81 ], and 8/12 published in 2019–2021 [ 12 , 13 , 50 , 57 , 66 , 69 , 98 , 101 ]. The included study locations were evenly distributed, matching the overall pattern of retrieved studies, with studies from high- [ 48 , 50 , 56 , 66 , 81 ], middle- [ 57 , 98 ], and low-income settings [ 48 , 69 ]. The identified studies included eight qualitative studies [ 48 , 50 , 56 , 57 , 66 , 69 , 81 , 98 ], 3 systematic reviews [ 12 , 13 , 14 ], and 1 systematic review protocol [ 101 ]. Two of these records were the systematic review protocol and the report from our group, which accordingly contained the same definition [ 12 , 101 ], leaving 11 unique definitions. Definitions of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ identified in included studies are provided in Table 3 . Additionally, 68/72 (94%) reports used closely related terms synonymously in place of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ throughout their manuscript text, with between 1 and 8 different terms used within each report, and 32 different terms were identified. This occurred in both those reports that contained a definition and those that did not. See Table 4 for terms and frequencies.

Those records that offered explicit definitions used four approaches: (1) definition through concepts [ 12 , 57 , 66 ]; (2) reference to moral conflict, moral uncertainty or difficult choices [ 13 , 14 , 48 , 57 , 69 , 98 ]; (3) definition by study participants [ 12 , 48 , 50 , 56 ]; or (4) challenges as linked to their ability to generate emotional or moral distress within healthcare practitioners [ 14 , 14 , 66 , 81 ]. Each definition was associated with one or more of the identified elements, although none covered all four approaches. We describe these approaches below.

Approach 1: definition through concepts

This approach involves primarily defining ‘ethical challenge(s)’ in terms of related concepts. All three definitions using this approach defined ‘ethical challenge(s)’ as a summative collection of related concepts, including ‘ethical dilemmas’, ‘moral dilemmas’, ‘moral challenges’, ‘ethical issues’, and ‘ethical conflicts’ [ 12 , 57 , 66 ], for example:

‘The expression “ethical challenges” mainly refers to ethical dilemmas and ethical conflicts as well as other scenarios where difficult choices have to be made’ [ 57 ] p34

Only one went on to define the other concepts they utilised, ‘ethical dilemmas’ and ‘ethical conflicts’:

‘Ethical dilemmas are described as situations that cannot be solved; decisions made between two options may be morally plausible but are equally problematic due to the circumstances. Ethical conflicts, on the contrary, arise when one is aware of the necessity of proper actions but he or she may have trouble exercising these actions because of certain internal or external factors.’ [ 57 ] p34

Approach 2: moral conflict, moral uncertainty or difficult choices

This approach anchors an ethical challenge to the requirement for an agent to make a (difficult) choice in a situation where moral principles conflict, or there is moral uncertainty as to the ‘right’ way forward.

‘In this context, ethical challenge refers to the situation whereby every alternative is morally wrong and still one has to make a choice’ [ 69 ] p676 ‘An ethical challenge occurs when one does not know how to behave and act in the best way…’ [ 14 ] p93

Approach 3: definition by study participants

Four of the definitions involved research participants themselves defining something as an ‘ethical challenge’ [ 12 , 48 , 50 , 56 ], with three studies explicitly stating that participants would lead this definitional work [ 48 , 50 , 56 ]. Draper & Jenkins offer a starting definition, adopted from Schwartz et al. [ 103 ] with which to prime participants, while Forbes and Phillips [ 50 ] and Jakobsen and Sørlie [ 56 ] left the definition fully with their participants (Table 3 ). Finally, Schofield et al. proposed a very broad definition (Table 3 ), alongside the specific statement that either participants or researchers could nominate something as an ‘ethical challenge’ [ 12 ].

Approach 4: emotional or moral distress

This final approach was to tie ethical challenges to situations where participants feel ‘discomfort’, emotional distress or more specifically moral distress or moral residue [ 14 , 66 , 81 ]. Larkin et al. are clear that this distress must be tied to moral causes, but Hem et al. and Storaker et al. also refer more broadly to ‘discomfort’ [ 14 ] and ‘emotional stress’ [ 81 ] respectively. For example:

‘In this article, ethical challenges refer to values that entail emotional and moral stress in healthcare personnel.’ [ 81 ] p557

To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first rapid review to examine the use of the term ‘ethical challenge(s)’ in empirical healthcare research literature. Notably, only 12/72 (17%) of included studies published in the last 5 years contained a definition for ‘ethical challenge(s)’, despite this being the focus of the research being reported. The definitions identified were found in qualitative studies and systematic reviews and were evenly distributed geographically across high-, middle- and low-income settings. Definitions contained one or more of the identified approaches, although none contained elements from all four. Taken together, these findings suggest that a clear definition of ‘ethical challenge(s)’, and consistent use thereof, is currently lacking.

The four approaches indicate the diverse approaches to understanding ‘ethical challenge(s)’. Approaches 1 and 2 explore the concept from opposite viewpoints, with approach 1 looking from the conceptual perspective, through terms such as ‘dilemmas’ and ‘conflict’, and approach 2 from a participant perspective, specifically in those situations in which someone is trying to make a decision in circumstances where the preferred option is not possible or when they perceive there to be clash in values they feel are important. Within the concept-led definitions (approach 1), the use of a plurality of terms highlights a potential risk of bias, as different readers may interpret these differently. For example, some terms, such as ‘moral dilemma’, have relatively well understood specific meanings for some readers, particularly those with philosophical training [ 104 , 105 , 106 ]. The presence in the literature of specific and multiple meanings for some related terms highlights the importance of empirical studies providing a definition of these additional terms alongside their primary definition for ‘ethical challenge(s)’. This is more likely to be relevant where an a priori definition is used, but may be relevant to any prompting text for studies using a participant-led process, as in the study by Draper and Jenkins [ 48 ]. This clarity is important for both readers and future researchers who may undertake a secondary analysis of the data.

Approach 3 involves facilitating participants to nominate something as an ethical challenge [ 12 , 48 , 50 , 56 ]. This speaks to an important question about who, in a research context, is permitted to define or describe the object of interest, in this case ‘ethical challenge(s)’. Restricting the identification of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ to researchers alone may introduce bias by excluding input from those without bioethical ‘expertise’, but with important lived experience of the context under investigation. There is evidence that although clinicians can be sensitive to major ethical dilemmas, they can be less sensitive to small everyday ethical elements in clinical practice, and that ethical awareness varies between individuals [ 107 , 108 ]. Additionally, there is evidence in healthcare ethics research that patients and carers identify ethical challenges in situations that healthcare workers do not [ 109 ]. Therefore, relying entirely on a particular stakeholders’ perspectives (such as clinicians’) may risk missing important ethical challenges present in a scenario (assuming, of course, that we can settle what counts as an ‘ethical challenge(s)’).

In Approach 4, ethical challenges were linked to situations in which participants felt discomfort [ 14 ], emotional stress [ 81 ], moral distress or moral residue [ 66 ]. These concepts are themselves defined in quite varied ways (see, for example, definitions of ‘moral distress’ in a systematic review by Morley et al. [ 110 ]), potentially leading to additional conceptual confusion. Identifying triggers for moral distress is important, as high levels of moral distress are known to have negative impacts on work environments and lead to increased levels of compassion fatigue, increased staff turnover rates and poorer patient outcomes [ 110 , 111 , 112 ]. However, it is also possible that the requirement that, to be identified as an ethical challenge, the situation must invoke stress or distress might result in the under-identification of ethical challenges. We anticipate that many practitioners will daily manage multiple low-level ethical challenges, many of which will not generate moral distress or leave a moral residue. As such, the presence of moral distress may not be sufficient or even necessary in order to label a moral event an ‘ethical challenge’. However, the relationship between ‘ethical challenge(s)’ and moral distress is complex, and some might argue that the latter has an important relationship to the former. For example, moral distress, as conceived by Jameton and others [ 110 , 113 , 114 ], is linked to the after-effects of having to handle ethical challenge(s), so some researchers might view the generation of moral distress as relevant to identifying ethical challenges.

Although our review revealed these four approaches, the wider literature indicates there may be alternative approaches available. For example, other potential approaches would define ethical challenges as events that interact with moral principles, such as autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence or justice, as proposed by Beauchamp and Childress [ 115 ], or as events in which those principles clash, for example as used by Klingler et al. in their research focusing on ethical issues in health surveillance [ 116 ]. However, these approaches were not seen amongst our included papers.

Returning to our included papers, the high rates of use of closely related terms within included manuscript texts may add to difficulties in understanding the exact object of interest if these terms are being used as synonyms for ‘ethical challenge(s)’. This may be particularly the case if terms used include those such as ‘moral dilemma’, which (as shown above) will have specific meanings for some readers. Interchangeable, undefined usage of these terms by study authors within study texts risks further exacerbating the problems caused by a lack of definitional clarity.

Strengths and limitations

This rapid review is the first systematic attempt to describe the definitions of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ available within the recent published literature.

There are, however, five limitations to note. First, the review only includes results from the past 5 years, which inevitably means that older publications, which may have contained further definitions of ‘ethical challenge(s)’, were excluded. The focus on the previous 5 years does, however, allow for an assessment of the term’s use(s) within a reasonable period of time and was felt to be appropriate given the aims and resources available to this project.

Second, our three assumptions listed in the methodology section may have excluded some records that contained a relevant definition. However, these assumptions, and the resulting focus on two search terms, allowed for a balance between retrieved record numbers and team resources.

Third, the four databases searched were chosen for their focus on the healthcare ethics literature; we may therefore may have missed relevant usage in other fields or disciplines. Similarly, we did not search the grey literature, which might have excluded relevant research.

Fourth, for resource reasons, the assessment as to whether a related term was being used interchangeably in the text was undertaken by a single researcher (GS). This subjective assessment risks miscalculating both the number of interchangeable terms identified and the frequency counts.

Finally, we did not review the theoretical literature for conceptual definitions of ‘ethical challenge(s)’, hence the definitions we identified might not match completely conceptual understandings of the term. However, our review shows how the term is currently being used in the research literature. Indeed, if there are strong conceptual definitions within the theoretical literature, then it is clear that they are currently not reaching the researchers whose work was identified by our review.

This review is the first, to our knowledge, to identify and describe definitions (and uses) of the widely-utilised concept of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ within healthcare research. Only 17% (12/72) of retrieved papers presented an explicit definition of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ before beginning to investigate this concept in context. The definitions found contained one or more of four identified approaches, with significant cross-reference to related terms and concepts which themselves have variation in their accepted meanings. We recommend that researchers define the phenomenon of interest—in this case, ‘ethical challenge(s)’—to help ensure clarity. This should either be a priori, or, if using an approach that includes participant participation in the generation of the definition, reporting their final working definition a posteriori. The choice of definition should be justified, including the decision as to whether to include participants in this process. Additionally, if a definition references other conceptual terms, then consideration should be given to defining these as well.

The results of this rapid review suggest that a common conceptual understanding of the term ‘ethical challenge(s)’ is lacking within empirical bioethical research and that there is a need for researchers in this area to consider what conceptual formulations might be most useful. Again, failure to use definitions of crucial research concepts within empirical bioethics research potentially generates confusion and avoidable bias within research outputs, risking misleading ethical analyses, evaluations, and resulting recommendations. We therefore hope this review will help stimulate debate amongst empirical bioethics researchers on possible definitional content for such a commonly used term and prompt further discussion and research. Additionally, given the central role of patient and public partnership and involvement in research, further thought should be given to who should be involved in nominating something as a challenge worthy of study.

Following on from this work, there would be value in conducting an empirical bioethical project combining a full systematic review of definitions of ‘ethical challenge(s)’ (and related terms) integrated with an exploration of the conceptual literature to generate recommendations for approaches towards the content of potential definitions, perhaps related to the identified approaches above. Such a project could also ask authors who currently use the term ‘ethical challenge(s)’ in their research how they conceptualise this. Furthermore, work to better understand the benefits of including study participants in the definition process is also important. Finally, whilst researchers should justify whatever approach they choose to take, there may be merit in examining whether anything is lost if studies lack a robust or agreed definition, or whether doing so affords a flexibility and openness that allows for a broader range of ethical challenges to be identified.

Availability of data and materials

All data is presented in this manuscript.

Critical Appraisal Skills Programme. CASP Qualitative Checklist. 2018. https://casp-uk.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CASP-Qualitative-Checklist.pdf . Accessed 16 Aug 2018.

Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups | The EQUATOR Network. https://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/coreq/ . Accessed 2 Apr 2020.

Standards for reporting qualitative research: a synthesis of recommendations | The EQUATOR Network. https://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/srqr/ . Accessed 2 Apr 2020.

Lewin S, Booth A, Glenton C, Munthe-Kaas H, Rashidian A, Wainwright M, et al. Applying GRADE-CERQual to qualitative evidence synthesis findings: introduction to the series. Implement Sci. 2018;13:2.

Article   Google Scholar  

The EQUATOR Network | Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency of Health Research. https://www.equator-network.org/ . Accessed 2 Apr 2020.

Garritty C, Gartlehner G, Nussbaumer-Streit B, King VJ, Hamel C, Kamel C, et al. Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods Group offers evidence-informed guidance to conduct rapid reviews. J Clin Epidemiol. 2021;130:13–22.

Singh I. Evidence, epistemology and empirical bioethics. In: Cribb A, Ives J, Dunn M, editors. Empirical bioethics: theoretical and practical perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2016. p. 67–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139939829.006 .

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Ives J, Dunn M, Molewijk B, Schildmann J, Bærøe K, Frith L, et al. Standards of practice in empirical bioethics research: towards a consensus. BMC Med Ethics. 2018;19:68.

Mertz M, Inthorn J, Renz G, Rothenberger LG, Salloch S, Schildmann J, et al. Research across the disciplines: a road map for quality criteria in empirical ethics research. BMC Med Ethics. 2014;15:17.

Moher D, Shamseer L, Clarke M, Ghersi D, Liberati A, Petticrew M, et al. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst Rev. 2015;4:1.

Cronin P, Ryan F, Coughlan M. Concept analysis in healthcare research. Int J Ther Rehabil. 2010;17:62–8.

Schofield G, Dittborn M, Huxtable R, Brangan E, Selman LE. Real-world ethics in palliative care: a systematic review of the ethical challenges reported by specialist palliative care practitioners in their clinical practice. Palliat Med. 2021;35:315–34.

Heggestad AKT, Magelssen M, Pedersen R, Gjerberg E. Ethical challenges in home-based care: a systematic literature review. Nurs Ethics. 2020;28:628–44.

Hem MH, Gjerberg E, Husum TL, Pedersen R. Ethical challenges when using coercion in mental healthcare: a systematic literature review. Nurs Ethics. 2018;25:92–110.

Lillemoen L, Pedersen R. Ethical challenges and how to develop ethics support in primary health care. Nurs Ethics. 2013;20:96–108.

Saarni SI, Halila R, Palmu P, Vänskä J. Ethically problematic treatment decisions in different medical specialties. J Med Ethics. 2008;34:262–7.

Self D, Skeel J, Jecker N. A comparison of the moral reasoning of physicians and clinical medical ethicists. Acad Med. 1993;68:852–5.

Ganann R, Ciliska D, Thomas H. Expediting systematic reviews: methods and implications of rapid reviews. Implement Sci IS. 2010;5:56.

Cameron A. Rapid versus full systematic reviews: an inventory of current mathods and practice in health technology assessment. Stepney: Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons; 2007.

Google Scholar  

Tricco AC, Antony J, Zarin W, Strifler L, Ghassemi M, Ivory J, et al. A scoping review of rapid review methods. BMC Med. 2015;13:224.

Haby MM, Chapman E, Clark R, Barreto J, Reveiz L, Lavis JN. What are the best methodologies for rapid reviews of the research evidence for evidence-informed decision making in health policy and practice: a rapid review. Health Res Policy Syst. 2016;14:83.

Gough D, Thomas J, Oliver S. Clarifying differences between review designs and methods. Syst Rev. 2012;1:28.

Watt A, Cameron A, Sturm L, Lathlean T, Babidge W, Blamey S, et al. Rapid reviews versus full systematic reviews: an inventory of current methods and practice in health technology assessment. Int J Technol Assess Health Care. 2008;24:133–9.

Khangura S, Konnyu K, Cushman R, Grimshaw J, Moher D. Evidence summaries: the evolution of a rapid review approach. Syst Rev. 2012;1:10.

Stevens A, Garritty C, Hersi M, Moher D. Developing PRISMA-RR, a reporting guideline for rapid reviews of primary studies (Protocol). 2018. https://www.equator-network.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/PRISMA-RRprotocol.pdf . Accessed 6 Oct 2019.

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:n71.

PROSPERO: International prospective register of systematic reviews. https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/ . Accessed 10 June 2021.

Strech D, Synofzik M, Marckmann G. Systematic reviews of empirical bioethics. J Med Ethics. 2008;34:472–7.

The Endnote Team. Endnote X9.2. Philadelphia, PA: Clarivate Analysis; 2013.

Hsieh H-F, Shannon SE. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qual Health Res. 2005;15:1277–88.

Khalili M. Iranian nurses’ ethical challenges in controlling children’s fever. Int J Pharm Res. 2018;10:337–40.

Rezaee N. Ethical challenges in cancer care: a qualitative analysis of nurses’ perceptions. Res Theory Nurs Pract. 2019;33:169–82.

Bartnik E. Ethical challenges in genetics. J Med Liban. 2019;67:138–40.

Alahmad G, Aljohani S, Najjar MF. Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC Med Ethics. 2020;21:1–7.

Alahmad G, Al-Kamli H, Alzahrani H. Ethical challenges of pediatric cancer care: interviews with nurses in Saudi Arabia. Cancer Control. 2020;27:1073274820917210.

Alahmad G, Richi H, BaniMustafa A, Almutairi AF. Ethical challenges related to the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak: interviews with professionals from Saudi Arabia. Front Med. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.620444 .

Alahmad G, AlSaqabi M, Alkamli H, Aleidan M. Ethical challenges in consent procedures involving pediatric cancer patients in Saudi Arabia: an exploratory survey. Dev World Bioeth. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12308 .

Bijani M, Mohammadi F. Ethical challenges of caring for burn patients: a qualitative study. BMC Med Ethics. 2021;22:1–10.

Bladt T, Vorup-Jensen T, Sædder E, Ebbesen M. Empirical investigation of ethical challenges related to the use of biological therapies. J Law Med Ethics. 2020;48:567–78.

Boulanger RF, Komparic A, Dawson A, Upshur REG, Silva DS. Developing and implementing new TB technologies: key informants’ perspectives on the ethical challenges. J Bioeth Inq. 2020;17:65–73.

Bourbonnais A, Rousseau J, Lalonde M-H, Meunier J, Lapierre N, Gagnon M-P. Conditions and ethical challenges that could influence the implementation of technologies in nursing homes: a qualitative study. Int J Older People Nurs. 2019;14:e12266.

Brodtkorb K, Skisland AV-S, Slettebø Å, Skaar R. Preserving dignity in end-of-life nursing home care: some ethical challenges. Nord J Nurs Res. 2017;37:78–84.

Bruun H, Lystbaek SG, Stenager E, Huniche L, Pedersen R. Ethical challenges assessed in the clinical ethics Committee of Psychiatry in the region of Southern Denmark in 2010–2015: a qualitative content analyses. BMC Med Ethics. 2018;19:62.

Canario Guzmán JA, Espinal R, Báez J, Melgen RE, Rosario PAP, Mendoza ER. Ethical challenges for international collaborative research partnerships in the context of the Zika outbreak in the Dominican Republic: a qualitative case study. Health Res Policy Syst. 2017;15:82.

Carnevale F, Delogu B, Bagnasco A, Sasso L. Correctional nursing in Liguria, Italy: examining the ethical challenges. J Prev Med Hyg. 2018;59:E315.

Delpasand K, Nazari Tavakkoli S, Kiani M, Abbasi M, Afshar L. Ethical challenges in the relationship between the pharmacist and patient in Iran. Int J Hum Rights Healthc. 2020;13:317–23.

Donnelly S, Walker S. Enabling first and second year doctors to negotiate ethical challenges in end-of-life care: a qualitative study. BMJ Support Palliat Care. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjspcare-2020-002672 .

Draper H, Jenkins S. Ethical challenges experienced by UK military medical personnel deployed to Sierra Leone (operation GRITROCK) during the 2014–2015 Ebola outbreak: a qualitative study. BMC Med Ethics. 2017;18:77.

Ebrahimi A, Ebrahimi S. Pediatric residents’ and attending physicians’ perspectives on the ethical challenges of end of life care in children. J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2018;11:16.

Forbes S, Phillips C. Ethical challenges encountered by clinical trials nurses: a grounded theory study. Oncol Nurs Forum. 2020;47:428–35.

Gágyor I, Heßling A, Heim S, Frewer A, Nauck F, Himmel W. Ethical challenges in primary care: a focus group study with general practitioners, nurses and informal caregivers. Fam Pract. 2019;36:225–30.

Haugom W, Ruud E, Hynnekleiv T. Ethical challenges of seclusion in psychiatric inpatient wards: a qualitative study of the experiences of Norwegian mental health professionals. BMC Health Serv Res. 2019;19:879.

Hawking M, Kim J, Jih M, Hu C, Yoon JD. “Can virtue be taught?”: a content analysis of medical students’ opinions of the professional and ethical challenges to their professional identity formation. BMC Med Educ. 2020;20:380.

Hyder A, Krubiner C. Ethical challenges in designing and implementing health systems research: experiences from the field. AJOB Empir Bioeth. 2016;7:209–17.

Jackson C, Gardy JL, Shadiloo HC, Silva DS. Trust and the ethical challenges in the use of whole genome sequencing for tuberculosis surveillance: a qualitative study of stakeholder perspectives. BMC Med Ethics. 2019;20:43.

Jakobsen R, Sørlie V. Ethical challenges: trust and leadership in dementia care. Nurs Ethics. 2016;23:636–45.

Jia Y, Chen O, Xiao Z, Xiao J, Bian J, Jia H. Nurses’ ethical challenges caring for people with COVID-19: a qualitative study. Nurs Ethics. 2021;28:33–45.

Kalkman S, van Thiel GJMW, Grobbee DE, Meinecke A-K, Zuidgeest MGP, van Delden JJM, et al. Stakeholders’ views on the ethical challenges of pragmatic trials investigating pharmaceutical drugs. Trials. 2016;17:419.

Kasper J, Mulye A, Doobay-Persaud A, Seymour B, Nelson BD. Perspectives and solutions from clinical trainees and mentors regarding ethical challenges during global health experiences. Ann Glob Health. 2020;86:34.

Kelley MC, Brazg T, Wilfond BS, Lengua LJ, Rivin BE, Martin-Herz SP, et al. Ethical challenges in research with orphans and vulnerable children: a qualitative study of researcher experiences. Int Health. 2016;8:187–96.

Kemparaj VM, Panchmal GS, Kadalur UG. The top 10 ethical challenges in dental practice in indian scenario: dentist perspective. Contemp Clin Dent. 2018;9:97.

Klitzman R. Unconventional combinations of prospective parents: ethical challenges faced by IVF providers. BMC Med Ethics. 2017;18:18.

Komparic A, Dawson A, Boulanger RF, Upshur REG, Silva DS. A failure in solidarity: ethical challenges in the development and implementation of new tuberculosis technologies. Bioethics. 2019;33:557–67.

Laholt H, McLeod K, Guillemin M, Beddari E, Lorem G. Ethical challenges experienced by public health nurses related to adolescents’ use of visual technologies. Nurs Ethics. 2019;26:1822–33.

Laliberté M, Williams-Jones B, Feldman DE, Hunt M. Ethical challenges for patient access to physical therapy: views of staff members from three publicly-funded outpatient physical therapy departments. Narrat Inq Bioeth. 2017;7:157–69.

Larkin ME, Beardslee B, Cagliero E, Griffith CA, Milaszewski K, Mugford MT, et al. Ethical challenges experienced by clinical research nurses: a qualitative study. Nurs Ethics. 2019;26:172–84.

Mbalinda SN, Bakeera-Kitaka S, Amooti DL, Magongo EN, Musoke P, Kaye DK. Ethical challenges of the healthcare transition to adult antiretroviral therapy (ART) clinics for adolescents and young people with HIV in Uganda. BMC Med Ethics. 2021;22:1–14.

Mehdipour Rabori R, Dehghan M, Nematollahi M. Nursing students’ ethical challenges in the clinical settings: a mixed-methods study. Nurs Ethics. 2019;26:1983–91.

Mlughu TS, Anaeli A, Joseph R, Sirili N. Voluntary HIV counseling and testing among commercial motorcyclist youths: an exploration of ethical challenges and coping mechanisms in Dar es Salaam. HIVAIDS - Res Palliat Care. 2020;12:675–85.

Moeini S, Shahriari M, Shamali M. Ethical challenges of obtaining informed consent from surgical patients. Nurs Ethics. 2020;27:527–36.

Naseri-Salahshour V, Sajadi M. Ethical challenges of novice nurses in clinical practice: Iranian perspective. Int Nurs Rev. 2020;67:76–83.

Naseri-Salahshour V, Sajadi M. From suffering to indifference: reaction of novice nurses to ethical challenges in first year of clinical practice. Iran J Nurs Midwifery Res. 2019;24:251.

Nicholls SG, Carroll K, Zwarenstein M, Brehaut JC, Weijer C, Hey SP, et al. The ethical challenges raised in the design and conduct of pragmatic trials: an interview study with key stakeholders. Trials. 2019;20:765.

Pancras G, Shayo J, Anaeli A. Non-medical facilitators and barriers towards accessing haemodialysis services: an exploration of ethical challenges. BMC Nephrol. 2018;19:342.

Sabone M, Mazonde P, Cainelli F, Maitshoko M, Joseph R, Shayo J, et al. Everyday ethical challenges of nurse-physician collaboration. Nurs Ethics. 2020;27:206–20.

Seekles W, Widdershoven G, Robben P, van Dalfsen G, Molewijk B. Inspectors’ ethical challenges in health care regulation: a pilot study. Med Health Care Philos. 2017;20:311–20.

Segal AG, Frasso R, Sisti DA. County jail or psychiatric hospital? Ethical challenges in correctional mental health care. Qual Health Res. 2018;28:963–76.

Shayestefar S, Hamooleh MM, Kouhnavard M, Kadivar M. Ethical challenges in pediatrics from the viewpoints of Iranian pediatric residents. J Compr Pediatr. 2018. https://doi.org/10.5812/compreped.62747 .

Sinow C, Burgart A, Char DS. How anesthesiologists experience and negotiate ethical challenges from drug shortages. AJOB Empir Bioeth. 2020;12:84–91.

Slettebø Å, Skaar R, Brodtkorb K, Skisland A. Conflicting rationales: leader’s experienced ethical challenges in community health care for older people. Scand J Caring Sci. 2018;32:645–53.

Storaker A, Nåden D, Sæteren B. From painful busyness to emotional immunization: nurses’ experiences of ethical challenges. Nurs Ethics. 2017;24:556–68.

Taebi M, Bahrami R, Bagheri-Lankarani N, Shahriari M. Ethical challenges of embryo donation in embryo donors and recipients. Iran J Nurs Midwifery Res. 2018;23:36.

Tønnessen S, Solvoll B-A, Brinchmann BS. Ethical challenges related to next of kin - nursing staffs’ perspective. Nurs Ethics. 2016;23:804–14.

Ullrich A, Theochari M, Bergelt C, Marx G, Woellert K, Bokemeyer C, et al. Ethical challenges in family caregivers of patients with advanced cancer—a qualitative study. BMC Palliat Care. 2020;19:1–13.

Verma A, Smith AK, Harrison KL, Chodos AH. Ethical challenges in caring for unrepresented adults: a qualitative study of key stakeholders. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2019;67:1724–9.

Morley G, Ives J, Bradbury-Jones C. Moral distress and austerity: an avoidable ethical challenge in healthcare. Health Care Anal. 2019;27:185–201.

Ayala-Yáñez R, Ruíz-López R, McCullough LB, Chervenak FA. Violence against trainees: urgent ethical challenges for medical educators and academic leaders in perinatal medicine. J Perinat Med. 2020;48:728–32.

Binns C, Lee M, Kagawa M. Ethical challenges in infant feeding research. Nutrients. 2017;9:59.

Čartolovni A, Habek D. Guidelines for the management of the social and ethical challenges in brain death during pregnancy. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2019;146:149–56.

Hofmann B. Informing about mammographic screening: ethical challenges and suggested solutions. Bioethics. 2020;34:483–92.

Hunt M, Pal NE, Schwartz L, O’Mathúna D. Ethical challenges in the provision of mental health services for children and families during disasters. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2018;20:60.

Johnson S, Parker M. Ethical challenges in pathogen sequencing: a systematic scoping review. Wellcome Open Res. 2020;5:119.

MacDonald S, Shemie S. Ethical challenges and the donation physician specialist: a scoping review. Transplantation. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000001697 .

Saigle V, Racine E. Ethical challenges faced by healthcare professionals who care for suicidal patients: a scoping review. Monash Bioeth Rev. 2018;35:50–79.

Saigle V, Séguin M, Racine E. Identifying gaps in suicide research: a scoping review of ethical challenges and proposed recommendations. IRB Ethics Hum Res. 2017;39:1–9.

Wilson E, Kenny A, Dickson-Swift V. Ethical challenges in community-based participatory research: a scoping review. Qual Health Res. 2018;28:189–99.

Martins Pereira S, Hernández-Marrero P. Ethical challenges of outcome measurement in palliative care clinical practice: a systematic review of systematic reviews. Ann Palliat Med. 2018;7:S207–18.

Saghafi A, Bahramnezhad F, Poormollamirza A, Dadgari A, Navab E. Examining the ethical challenges in managing elder abuse: a systematic review. J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2019. https://doi.org/10.18502/jmehm.v12i7.1115 .

West E, Stuckelberger A, Pautex S, Staaks J, Gysels M. Operationalising ethical challenges in dementia research—a systematic review of current evidence. Age Ageing. 2017;46:678–87.

Ewuoso C, Hall S, Dierickx K. How do healthcare professionals respond to ethical challenges regarding information management? A review of empirical studies. Glob Bioeth. 2021;32:67–84.

Schofield G, Brangan E, Dittborn M, Huxtable R, Selman L. Real-world ethics in palliative care: protocol for a systematic review of the ethical challenges reported by specialist palliative care practitioners in their clinical practice. BMJ Open. 2019;9:e028480.

Sun W, Wilson MG, Schreiber D, Wang RH. Ethical challenges related to assistive product access for older adults and adults living with a disability: a scoping review protocol. Syst Rev. 2017;6:24.

Schwartz L, Sinding C, Hunt M, Elit L, Redwood-Campbell L, Adelson N, et al. Ethics in humanitarian aid work: learning from the narratives of humanitarian health workers. AJOB Prim Res. 2010;1:45–54.

McConnell T. Moral Dilemmas. In: Zalta EN, editor. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Fall 2018. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University; 2018. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/moral-dilemmas/ . Accessed 30 Oct 2019.

Tessman L. Moral failure: on the impossible demands of morality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2014. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=859724 . Accessed 5 Nov 2019.

Ejder Apay S, Gürol A, Gür EY, Church S. Midwifery students’ reactions to ethical dilemmas encountered in outpatient clinics. Nurs Ethics. 2020;27:1542–55.

Milliken A, Ludlow L, DeSanto-Madeya S, Grace P. The development and psychometric validation of the Ethical Awareness Scale. J Adv Nurs. 2018;74:2005–16.

Truog RD, Brown SD, Browning D, Hundert EM, Rider EA, Bell SK, et al. Microethics: the ethics of everyday clinical practice. Hastings Cent Rep. 2015;45:11–7.

Woods S, Beaver K, Luker K. User’s views of palliative care services: ethical implications. Nurs Ethics Int J Health Care Prof. 2000;7:314–26.

Morley G, Ives J, Bradbury-Jones C, Irvine F. What is ‘moral distress’? A narrative synthesis of the literature. Nurs Ethics. 2017;26:646–62.

Epstein EG, Hamric AB. Moral distress, moral residue, and the crescendo effect. J Clin Ethics. 2009;20:330–42.

Mason VM, Leslie G, Clark K, Lyons P, Walke E, Butler C, et al. Compassion fatigue, moral distress, and work engagement in surgical intensive care unit trauma nurses: a pilot study. Dimens Crit Care Nurs DCCN. 2014;33:215–25.

Jameton A. Nursing practice: the ethical issues. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall; 1984.

Tigard DW. The positive value of moral distress. Bioethics. 2019;33:601–8.

Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of biomedical ethics. New York: Oxford University Press; 1979.

Klingler C, Silva DS, Schuermann C, Reis AA, Saxena A, Strech D. Ethical issues in public health surveillance: a systematic qualitative review. BMC Public Health. 2017;17:295.

Solvoll B-A, Hall EO, Brinchmann BS. Ethical challenges in everyday work with adults with learning disabilities. Nurs Ethics. 2015;22:417–27.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

GS is supported by a Wellcome Trust Research Award for Health Professionals (208129/Z/17/Z). LES is funded by a Career Development Fellowship from the National Institute for Health Research. RH is part-funded by the Wellcome Trust (209841/Z/17/Z) and the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust and the University of Bristol. He serves on various local, regional, and national ethics committees and related groups. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NHS, the National Institute for Health Research, the Department of Health, or any of the other organisations with and for whom the authors work.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Centre for Ethics in Medicine, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK

Guy Schofield & Richard Huxtable

Paediatric Bioethics Centre, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, WC1N 3JH, UK

Mariana Dittborn

Palliative and End of Life Care Research Group, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 2PS, UK

Guy Schofield & Lucy Ellen Selman

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

GS, MD and RH conceived of the idea for the review; LES, GS, MD and RH designed the review protocol; GS and MD conducted the literature searching, screening, data extraction and led on data interpretation but all authors were involved; GS led on drafting the manuscript; all authors critically revised the manuscript for content and approved the version to be published. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Guy Schofield .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate, consent for publication, competing interests.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Schofield, G., Dittborn, M., Selman, L.E. et al. Defining ethical challenge(s) in healthcare research: a rapid review. BMC Med Ethics 22 , 135 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-021-00700-9

Download citation

Received : 10 June 2021

Accepted : 03 September 2021

Published : 29 September 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-021-00700-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Ethical challenges
• Rapid review
• Empirical bioethics
• Moral dilemmas

BMC Medical Ethics

ISSN: 1472-6939

• General enquiries: [email protected]

28 Ethical Dilemma Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

An ethical dilemma is a situation where two or more moral principles conflict, forcing the individual to choose between them.

The conflict between these principles often makes people struggle with deciding which one to follow and which one to compromise.

A common social dilemma example is when a physician has to choose between breaking a patient’s confidentiality or preventing harm to another person.

Ethical dilemmas go beyond being just ideas on paper (Barrett, 2018). They have a direct impact on the decisions people make in the real world.

Think about how business leaders have to balance making money and being responsible to society (Reynolds, 2014). Also, consider how journalists have to balance giving the public information and respecting people’s privacy (Plaisance, 2017).

Types of Ethical Dilemmas

Rushworth Kidder, an author and ethicist, introduced a framework outlining four types of ethical dilemmas—truth vs. loyalty, individual vs. community, short-term vs. long-term, and justice vs. mercy (Kidder, 2010).

Understanding these classifications aids in dissecting complex moral quandaries and enables effective decision-making .

Below is each type:

• Truth vs Loyalty: This type of ethical dilemma arises when one is caught between absolute honesty and allegiance to individuals or groups (Kidder, 2015). For instance, consider an employee who discovers fraudulent activities in their company. If they disclose this information, they remain truthful but might violate their loyalty to the company and colleagues (real-world example of whistleblowing).
• Individual vs. Community: Individual vs. community dilemmas involve discrepancies between personal interests and collective benefits (Kidder, 2010). A pandemic situation offers an apt example—individuals might resist wearing masks for personal comfort, but this stands contrary to the community’s need for public safety (this is a contemporary real-world example).
• Short-term vs. Long-term: This type of ethical dilemma compels one to choose between immediate benefits or long-term consequences (Kidder, 2015). For instance, a business might opt to cut corners and make profits now, despite the potential long-term detriment to its reputation and customer trust (real-world example of businesses taking shortcuts).
• Justice vs Mercy: Lastly, justice vs. mercy dilemmas highlight the tension between fair consequences and compassion (Kidder, 2010). In the courtroom, for example, a judge might struggle with issuing a strict sentence (justice) or leniency (mercy), particularly in extenuating circumstances such as the accused being a first-time offender (real-world example from the legal system).

Throughout these categories, Kidder advocated for thoughtful analysis and dialogue to navigate the complexities accompanying ethical dilemmas. His work illuminates the intricacies of moral decision-making, underscoring ethics as a dynamic and challenging field.

Examples of Ethical Dilemmas

Truth vs loyalty.

1. Conflict of Interest This occurs when your loyalty to one party undermines your ability to be truthful or impartial to another. For instance, an auditor reviewing the accounts of a company where a relative is an executive officer faces a truth versus loyalty dilemma.

2. Whistleblowing This situation evolves when an employee uncovers illegal or unethical practices within an organization. The employee must choose between loyalty to the organization and telling the truth by exposing the wrongdoing.

3. Professional Secrecy When professionals like doctors or lawyers have information about a client that could harm others––like a patient revealing they intend to harm someone, they face a truth versus loyalty debate about whether to break confidentiality.

4. Journalism Confidentiality Reporters often deal with the dilemma when protecting a source’s anonymity may protect wrongdoing or cause harm. They must weigh their loyalty to the source against their commitment to truth and public interest.

5. Employee Favoritism Managers might face dilemmas when choosing between treating all employees fairly (truth) and giving preferential treatment to friends or family in the workplace (loyalty).

6. Client Representation Lawyers often grapple with representing a client faithfully––even when the client is guilty of a crime and denying it in court. This dilemma pits their loyalty to the client against their commitment to the truth.

7. Academic Cheating A student who is aware of another student’s academic dishonesty faces the problem of loyalty to a friend versus the truthful reporting of misconduct.

Individual vs Community

Also known as: Social Dilemma

8. Vaccination Debates Individuals may resist getting vaccinated for personal health beliefs, conflicting with the community’s wellbeing, which benefits from herd immunity. 

9. Resource Allocation Communities may require certain resources for the common good , which may limit an individual’s access to these resources for personal use.

10. Zoning Disputes A city’s decision to allow commercial developments in residential areas could harm the quality of life for individual residents while promoting the economic growth of the community.

11. Public Health Measures During a pandemic, individuals may disagree with measures like lockdowns that limit their personal freedoms, even if these measures are beneficial to the community as a whole.

12. Education Policy Changes Policies like school consolidation can affect individual children who prefer smaller, neighborhood schools over larger institutions preferable for budgetary and educational reasons. 

13. Environmental Regulations Regulations that protect the environment often restrict individual liberties by limiting options for property development or resource use.

14. Freedom of Speech A person’s right to express potentially harmful or offensive ideas can conflict with a community’s desire for safety and respect.

Short-term vs Long-term

15. Financial Investments Deciding to spend money now (short-term) for immediate comforts or investing it for future gains (long-term) is a classic short-term vs long-term dilemma.

16. Career Advancement You may face the dilemma of taking an appealing job now versus pursuing education or training that may open better opportunities in the long run.

17. Environmental Considerations A company might face a choice between using cheap, environmentally damaging production methods (short-term) or investing in sustainable practices that may bring future reputation boost and savings (long-term). 

18. Health Choices An individual may need to decide between enjoying unhealthy habits, like junk food or smoking, now versus considering the long-term health implications.

19. Business Growth Entrepreneurs confront this dilemma when deciding whether to reinvest earnings into the company for long-term growth or take more profits in the short term.

20. Public Policy Politicians often have to choose between pursuing policies with immediate benefits that voters will notice or focusing on the long-term, slower solutions like infrastructure development.

21. Technology Upgrades A company might have to decide between sticking to older, cheaper technology now or investing in a costly, cutting-edge technology that promises improved efficiency and profitability in the future.

Justice vs Mercy

22. Leniency for First-Time Offenders A judge might choose to give a strict sentence to a first-time offender to uphold justice. Conversely, mercy would suggest a more lenient sentence or rehabilitation effort, given that it’s the offender’s first mistake.

23. Pardon of a Death Row Inmate A governor may face an ethical dilemma where they have to decide between granting a pardon to a remorseful death row inmate (mercy), and upholding the court’s decision to execute, based on the gravity of the crime committed (justice). 

24. Hate Crime Retribution A victim of a hate crime could be torn between wanting justice done – seeing the offenders punished to the full extent of the law – and showing mercy, hoping that education and awareness could change the offenders’ prejudices.

25. Academic Misconduct A professor who catches a student plagiarizing could provide a second chance, valuing mercy to allow for learning and growth, or they could issue immediate punishment (like failing the student) to uphold academic integrity and justice.

26. Role of Advisors in Financial Crisis Companies may seek to punish advisors implicated in a financial crisis to preserve justice, but showing mercy, reprimanding and educating them instead of outright firing, may be more constructive and prevent recurrence.

27. War Crimes Dilemma Post-war scenarios often involve a decision between seeking justice by prosecuting war criminals, or demonstrating mercy by forgiving and focusing on national healing and reconciliation.

28. Social Welfare Decisions Policymakers might struggle between enforcing strict eligibility criteria to ensure that only those truly deserving get social benefits (justice), versus being flexible in applying rules to avoid denying assistance to those in dire need (mercy).

Navigating an ethical or moral dilemma is no easy task, and often there is no clear right or wrong answer. Yet, understanding the principles and theories underlying ethical decision making can guide you in evaluating potential actions and their consequences (Ferrell, Fraedrich, & Ferrell, 2018). It should help in choosing the least harmful or most beneficial course of action.

Ferrell, O. C., Fraedrich, J., & Ferrell, L. (2018). Business ethics: Ethical decision making & cases (12th ed.). Boston: Cengage.

Barrett, C. (2018). Everyday ethics for practicing planners . London: Routledge.

Plaisance, P-L. (2017). Media Ethics: Key Principles for Responsible Practice (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

Reynolds, G. (2014). Ethics in Information Technology (4th ed.). New York: Cengage Learning.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

McCombs School of Business

• Español ( Spanish )

Videos Concepts Unwrapped View All 36 short illustrated videos explain behavioral ethics concepts and basic ethics principles. Concepts Unwrapped: Sports Edition View All 10 short videos introduce athletes to behavioral ethics concepts. Ethics Defined (Glossary) View All 58 animated videos - 1 to 2 minutes each - define key ethics terms and concepts. Ethics in Focus View All One-of-a-kind videos highlight the ethical aspects of current and historical subjects. Giving Voice To Values View All Eight short videos present the 7 principles of values-driven leadership from Gentile's Giving Voice to Values. In It To Win View All A documentary and six short videos reveal the behavioral ethics biases in super-lobbyist Jack Abramoff's story. Scandals Illustrated View All 30 videos - one minute each - introduce newsworthy scandals with ethical insights and case studies. Video Series

Case Studies UT Star Icon

Case Studies

More than 70 cases pair ethics concepts with real world situations. From journalism, performing arts, and scientific research to sports, law, and business, these case studies explore current and historic ethical dilemmas, their motivating biases, and their consequences. Each case includes discussion questions, related videos, and a bibliography.

A Million Little Pieces

James Frey’s popular memoir stirred controversy and media attention after it was revealed to contain numerous exaggerations and fabrications.

Abramoff: Lobbying Congress

Super-lobbyist Abramoff was caught in a scheme to lobby against his own clients. Was a corrupt individual or a corrupt system – or both – to blame?

Apple Suppliers & Labor Practices

Is tech company Apple, Inc. ethically obligated to oversee the questionable working conditions of other companies further down their supply chain?

Approaching the Presidency: Roosevelt & Taft

Some presidents view their responsibilities in strictly legal terms, others according to duty. Roosevelt and Taft took two extreme approaches.

Appropriating “Hope”

Fairey’s portrait of Barack Obama raised debate over the extent to which an artist can use and modify another’s artistic work, yet still call it one’s own.

Arctic Offshore Drilling

Competing groups frame the debate over oil drilling off Alaska’s coast in varying ways depending on their environmental and economic interests.

Banning Burkas: Freedom or Discrimination?

The French law banning women from wearing burkas in public sparked debate about discrimination and freedom of religion.

Birthing Vaccine Skepticism

Wakefield published an article riddled with inaccuracies and conflicts of interest that created significant vaccine hesitancy regarding the MMR vaccine.

Blurred Lines of Copyright

Marvin Gaye’s Estate won a lawsuit against Robin Thicke and Pharrell Williams for the hit song “Blurred Lines,” which had a similar feel to one of his songs.

Bullfighting: Art or Not?

Bullfighting has been a prominent cultural and artistic event for centuries, but in recent decades it has faced increasing criticism for animal rights’ abuse.

Buying Green: Consumer Behavior

Do purchasing green products, such as organic foods and electric cars, give consumers the moral license to indulge in unethical behavior?

Cadavers in Car Safety Research

Engineers at Heidelberg University insist that the use of human cadavers in car safety research is ethical because their research can save lives.

Cardinals’ Computer Hacking

St. Louis Cardinals scouting director Chris Correa hacked into the Houston Astros’ webmail system, leading to legal repercussions and a lifetime ban from MLB.

Cheating: Atlanta’s School Scandal

Teachers and administrators at Parks Middle School adjust struggling students’ test scores in an effort to save their school from closure.

Cheating: Sign-Stealing in MLB

The Houston Astros’ sign-stealing scheme rocked the baseball world, leading to a game-changing MLB investigation and fallout.

Cheating: UNC’s Academic Fraud

UNC’s academic fraud scandal uncovered an 18-year scheme of unchecked coursework and fraudulent classes that enabled student-athletes to play sports.

Cheney v. U.S. District Court

A controversial case focuses on Justice Scalia’s personal friendship with Vice President Cheney and the possible conflict of interest it poses to the case.

Christina Fallin: “Appropriate Culturation?”

After Fallin posted a picture of herself wearing a Plain’s headdress on social media, uproar emerged over cultural appropriation and Fallin’s intentions.

Climate Change & the Paris Deal

While climate change poses many abstract problems, the actions (or inactions) of today’s populations will have tangible effects on future generations.

Cover-Up on Campus

While the Baylor University football team was winning on the field, university officials failed to take action when allegations of sexual assault by student athletes emerged.

Covering Female Athletes

Sports Illustrated stirs controversy when their cover photo of an Olympic skier seems to focus more on her physical appearance than her athletic abilities.

Covering Yourself? Journalists and the Bowl Championship

Can news outlets covering the Bowl Championship Series fairly report sports news if their own polls were used to create the news?

Cyber Harassment

After a student defames a middle school teacher on social media, the teacher confronts the student in class and posts a video of the confrontation online.

Defending Freedom of Tweets?

Running back Rashard Mendenhall receives backlash from fans after criticizing the celebration of the assassination of Osama Bin Laden in a tweet.

Dennis Kozlowski: Living Large

Dennis Kozlowski was an effective leader for Tyco in his first few years as CEO, but eventually faced criminal charges over his use of company assets.

Digital Downloads

File-sharing program Napster sparked debate over the legal and ethical dimensions of downloading unauthorized copies of copyrighted music.

Dr. V’s Magical Putter

Journalist Caleb Hannan outed Dr. V as a trans woman, sparking debate over the ethics of Hannan’s reporting, as well its role in Dr. V’s suicide.

East Germany’s Doping Machine

From 1968 to the late 1980s, East Germany (GDR) doped some 9,000 athletes to gain success in international athletic competitions despite being aware of the unfortunate side effects.

Ebola & American Intervention

Did the dispatch of U.S. military units to Liberia to aid in humanitarian relief during the Ebola epidemic help or hinder the process?

Edward Snowden: Traitor or Hero?

Was Edward Snowden’s release of confidential government documents ethically justifiable?

Ethical Pitfalls in Action

Why do good people do bad things? Behavioral ethics is the science of moral decision-making, which explores why and how people make the ethical (and unethical) decisions that they do.

Ethical Use of Home DNA Testing

The rising popularity of at-home DNA testing kits raises questions about privacy and consumer rights.

Flying the Confederate Flag

A heated debate ensues over whether or not the Confederate flag should be removed from the South Carolina State House grounds.

Freedom of Speech on Campus

In the wake of racially motivated offenses, student protests sparked debate over the roles of free speech, deliberation, and tolerance on campus.

Freedom vs. Duty in Clinical Social Work

What should social workers do when their personal values come in conflict with the clients they are meant to serve?

Full Disclosure: Manipulating Donors

When an intern witnesses a donor making a large gift to a non-profit organization under misleading circumstances, she struggles with what to do.

Gaming the System: The VA Scandal

The Veterans Administration’s incentives were meant to spur more efficient and productive healthcare, but not all administrators complied as intended.

German Police Battalion 101

During the Holocaust, ordinary Germans became willing killers even though they could have opted out from murdering their Jewish neighbors.

Head Injuries & American Football

Many studies have linked traumatic brain injuries and related conditions to American football, creating controversy around the safety of the sport.

Head Injuries & the NFL

American football is a rough and dangerous game and its impact on the players’ brain health has sparked a hotly contested debate.

Healthcare Obligations: Personal vs. Institutional

A medical doctor must make a difficult decision when informing patients of the effectiveness of flu shots while upholding institutional recommendations.

High Stakes Testing

In the wake of the No Child Left Behind Act, parents, teachers, and school administrators take different positions on how to assess student achievement.

In-FUR-mercials: Advertising & Adoption

When the Lied Animal Shelter faces a spike in animal intake, an advertising agency uses its moral imagination to increase pet adoptions.

Krogh & the Watergate Scandal

Egil Krogh was a young lawyer working for the Nixon Administration whose ethics faded from view when asked to play a part in the Watergate break-in.

Limbaugh on Drug Addiction

Radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh argued that drug abuse was a choice, not a disease. He later became addicted to painkillers.

U.S. Olympic swimmer Ryan Lochte’s “over-exaggeration” of an incident at the 2016 Rio Olympics led to very real consequences.

Meet Me at Starbucks

Two black men were arrested after an employee called the police on them, prompting Starbucks to implement “racial-bias” training across all its stores.

Myanmar Amber

Buying amber could potentially fund an ethnic civil war, but refraining allows collectors to acquire important specimens that could be used for research.

Negotiating Bankruptcy

Bankruptcy lawyer Gellene successfully represented a mining company during a major reorganization, but failed to disclose potential conflicts of interest.

Pao & Gender Bias

Ellen Pao stirred debate in the venture capital and tech industries when she filed a lawsuit against her employer on grounds of gender discrimination.

Pardoning Nixon

One month after Richard Nixon resigned from the presidency, Gerald Ford made the controversial decision to issue Nixon a full pardon.

Patient Autonomy & Informed Consent

Nursing staff and family members struggle with informed consent when taking care of a patient who has been deemed legally incompetent.

Prenatal Diagnosis & Parental Choice

Debate has emerged over the ethics of prenatal diagnosis and reproductive freedom in instances where testing has revealed genetic abnormalities.

Reporting on Robin Williams

After Robin Williams took his own life, news media covered the story in great detail, leading many to argue that such reporting violated the family’s privacy.

Responding to Child Migration

An influx of children migrants posed logistical and ethical dilemmas for U.S. authorities while intensifying ongoing debate about immigration.

Retracting Research: The Case of Chandok v. Klessig

A researcher makes the difficult decision to retract a published, peer-reviewed article after the original research results cannot be reproduced.

Sacking Social Media in College Sports

In the wake of questionable social media use by college athletes, the head coach at University of South Carolina bans his players from using Twitter.

Selling Enron

Following the deregulation of electricity markets in California, private energy company Enron profited greatly, but at a dire cost.

Snyder v. Phelps

Freedom of speech was put on trial in a case involving the Westboro Baptist Church and their protesting at the funeral of U.S. Marine Matthew Snyder.

Something Fishy at the Paralympics

Rampant cheating has plagued the Paralympics over the years, compromising the credibility and sportsmanship of Paralympian athletes.

Sports Blogs: The Wild West of Sports Journalism?

Deadspin pays an anonymous source for information related to NFL star Brett Favre, sparking debate over the ethics of “checkbook journalism.”

Stangl & the Holocaust

Franz Stangl was the most effective Nazi administrator in Poland, killing nearly one million Jews at Treblinka, but he claimed he was simply following orders.

Teaching Blackface: A Lesson on Stereotypes

A teacher was put on leave for showing a blackface video during a lesson on racial segregation, sparking discussion over how to teach about stereotypes.

The Astros’ Sign-Stealing Scandal

The Houston Astros rode a wave of success, culminating in a World Series win, but it all came crashing down when their sign-stealing scheme was revealed.

The Central Park Five

Despite the indisputable and overwhelming evidence of the innocence of the Central Park Five, some involved in the case refuse to believe it.

The CIA Leak

Legal and political fallout follows from the leak of classified information that led to the identification of CIA agent Valerie Plame.

The Collapse of Barings Bank

When faced with growing losses, investment banker Nick Leeson took big risks in an attempt to get out from under the losses. He lost.

The Costco Model

How can companies promote positive treatment of employees and benefit from leading with the best practices? Costco offers a model.

The FBI & Apple Security vs. Privacy

How can tech companies and government organizations strike a balance between maintaining national security and protecting user privacy?

The Miss Saigon Controversy

When a white actor was cast for the half-French, half-Vietnamese character in the Broadway production of Miss Saigon , debate ensued.

The Sandusky Scandal

Following the conviction of assistant coach Jerry Sandusky for sexual abuse, debate continues on how much university officials and head coach Joe Paterno knew of the crimes.

The Varsity Blues Scandal

A college admissions prep advisor told wealthy parents that while there were front doors into universities and back doors, he had created a side door that was worth exploring.

Providing radiation therapy to cancer patients, Therac-25 had malfunctions that resulted in 6 deaths. Who is accountable when technology causes harm?

Welfare Reform

The Welfare Reform Act changed how welfare operated, intensifying debate over the government’s role in supporting the poor through direct aid.

Wells Fargo and Moral Emotions

In a settlement with regulators, Wells Fargo Bank admitted that it had created as many as two million accounts for customers without their permission.

Stay Informed

Support our work.

Ethical Action in Global Research

Case examples.

• Global Research
• Ethical Stories

In reviewing case studies and examples brought to our workshops by researchers, it is clear that:

Ethical issues in global research are extremely complex.

Solutions are rarely simple or perfect. They need to be contextually relevant if they are to work.

It may be that a ‘fully worked’ solution is not clear but that parts of the solution will give enough traction to begin a process of resolution.

Different individuals and different groups often come to different conclusions. Both may follow a principled stance but make different justifiable choices at a number of decision-making points. Some solutions might be a better fit for different research teams, depending on the skills and expertise of each member.

Ethical decision making is more than following a set of rules. It should be about being open to exploring a range of possibilities, each of which may be ethical but may have different implications and may have different pragmatic constraints. 

Ethical issues emerge across all stages of the research journey and may change over time. 

Helpful questions in finding a solution include:

                     - What might have pre-empted the issue (this is relevant to future proofing)?

                     - What were the early warning signs?

                     - How could key issues be assessed once they have arisen?

                     - What should be the immediate response?

                     - What should be the follow-up response at each subsequent stage of the research journey?

Case Analysis Template

We have developed a template to help your team analyse ethical conflicts and look for solutions. This template highlights the importance of considering all phases of the research journey. It also highlights the importance of considering Place, People, Principles and Precedent both in the analysis and in the search for solutions.

Please see the case examples below. We do not claim that these examples are applicable to different contexts. We know that ethical conflicts need to be analyzed according to their own context. What works in one place can be disastrous in another.

Case Study 1

• Read more about Case Study 1

Case Study 2 and 3 (Paper: COVID-19)

In this paper we offered two case analyses  to exemplify the utility of the toolkit as a flexible and dynamic tool to promote ethical research in the context of COVID-19.

The paper was published as: Clara Calia , Corinne Reid , Cristóbal Guerra , Abdul-Gafar Oshodi , Charles Marley , Action Amos , Paulina Barrera & Liz Grant (2020): Ethical challenges in the COVID-19 research context: a toolkit for supporting analysis and resolution, Ethics & Behavior, DOI: 10.1080/10508422.2020.1800469 

• Read more about Case Study 2 and 3 (Paper: COVID-19)

Case Study 4: Facing an ethical breach

• Read more about Case Study 4: Facing an ethical breach

Case Study 5: Protecting vulnerable groups (in English and Spanish)

Case 5 (en Español)    Case 5

• Read more about Case Study 5: Protecting vulnerable groups (in English and Spanish)

Case Study 6: Data interpretation and consent

• Read more about Case Study 6: Data interpretation and consent

Case Study 7: Consent

• Read more about Case Study 7: Consent

Case Study 8: Research project development and engaging communities

• Read more about Case Study 8: Research project development and engaging communities

Share this page

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

Your environment. your health., what is ethics in research & why is it important, by david b. resnik, j.d., ph.d..

December 23, 2020

The ideas and opinions expressed in this essay are the author’s own and do not necessarily represent those of the NIH, NIEHS, or US government.

When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or a wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of defining "ethics": norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to regard them as simple commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our society?

Alternatives to Animal Testing

Alternative test methods are methods that replace, reduce, or refine animal use in research and testing

Learn more about Environmental science Basics

One plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize some common ethical norms but interpret, apply, and balance them in different ways in light of their own values and life experiences. For example, two people could agree that murder is wrong but disagree about the morality of abortion because they have different understandings of what it means to be a human being.

Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical norms tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules use similar concepts, ethics and law are not the same. An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical. We can also use ethical concepts and principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers have urged citizens to disobey laws they regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful civil disobedience is an ethical way of protesting laws or expressing political viewpoints.

Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues. For instance, in considering a complex issue like global warming , one may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at stake.

See ethics in practice at NIEHS

Read latest updates in our monthly  Global Environmental Health Newsletter

Many different disciplines, institutions , and professions have standards for behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These standards also help members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical standards govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms. See Glossary of Commonly Used Terms in Research Ethics and Research Ethics Timeline .

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms promote the aims of research , such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating , falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and minimize error.

Join an NIEHS Study

See how we put research Ethics to practice.

Visit Joinastudy.niehs.nih.gov to see the various studies NIEHS perform.

Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work , such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship , copyright and patenting policies , data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.

Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public . For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.

Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.

Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values , such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.

Codes and Policies for Research Ethics

Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Many government agencies have ethics rules for funded researchers.

• National Institutes of Health (NIH)
• National Science Foundation (NSF)
• Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
• US Department of Agriculture (USDA)
• Singapore Statement on Research Integrity
• American Chemical Society, The Chemist Professional’s Code of Conduct
• Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science)
• American Psychological Association, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
• Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors)
• Nuremberg Code
• World Medical Association's Declaration of Helsinki

Ethical Principles

The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that various codes address*:

Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public.

Objectivity

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.

Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

Transparency

Disclose methods, materials, assumptions, analyses, and other information needed to evaluate your research.

Accountability

Take responsibility for your part in research and be prepared to give an account (i.e. an explanation or justification) of what you did on a research project and why.

Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

Responsible Publication

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

Responsible Mentoring

Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.

Respect for Colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.

Non-Discrimination

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and integrity.

Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

Animal Care

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

Human Subjects protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.

* Adapted from Shamoo A and Resnik D. 2015. Responsible Conduct of Research, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press).

Ethical Decision Making in Research

Although codes, policies, and principles are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require interpretation. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and act ethically in various situations. The vast majority of decisions involve the straightforward application of ethical rules. For example, consider the following case:

The research protocol for a study of a drug on hypertension requires the administration of the drug at different doses to 50 laboratory mice, with chemical and behavioral tests to determine toxic effects. Tom has almost finished the experiment for Dr. Q. He has only 5 mice left to test. However, he really wants to finish his work in time to go to Florida on spring break with his friends, who are leaving tonight. He has injected the drug in all 50 mice but has not completed all of the tests. He therefore decides to extrapolate from the 45 completed results to produce the 5 additional results.

Many different research ethics policies would hold that Tom has acted unethically by fabricating data. If this study were sponsored by a federal agency, such as the NIH, his actions would constitute a form of research misconduct , which the government defines as "fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism" (or FFP). Actions that nearly all researchers classify as unethical are viewed as misconduct. It is important to remember, however, that misconduct occurs only when researchers intend to deceive : honest errors related to sloppiness, poor record keeping, miscalculations, bias, self-deception, and even negligence do not constitute misconduct. Also, reasonable disagreements about research methods, procedures, and interpretations do not constitute research misconduct. Consider the following case:

Dr. T has just discovered a mathematical error in his paper that has been accepted for publication in a journal. The error does not affect the overall results of his research, but it is potentially misleading. The journal has just gone to press, so it is too late to catch the error before it appears in print. In order to avoid embarrassment, Dr. T decides to ignore the error.

Dr. T's error is not misconduct nor is his decision to take no action to correct the error. Most researchers, as well as many different policies and codes would say that Dr. T should tell the journal (and any coauthors) about the error and consider publishing a correction or errata. Failing to publish a correction would be unethical because it would violate norms relating to honesty and objectivity in research.

There are many other activities that the government does not define as "misconduct" but which are still regarded by most researchers as unethical. These are sometimes referred to as " other deviations " from acceptable research practices and include:

• Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling the editors
• Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling the editors
• Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to make sure that you are the sole inventor
• Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor even though the colleague did not make a serious contribution to the paper
• Discussing with your colleagues confidential data from a paper that you are reviewing for a journal
• Using data, ideas, or methods you learn about while reviewing a grant or a papers without permission
• Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in paper
• Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance the significance of your research
• Bypassing the peer review process and announcing your results through a press conference without giving peers adequate information to review your work
• Conducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field or relevant prior work
• Stretching the truth on a grant application in order to convince reviewers that your project will make a significant contribution to the field
• Stretching the truth on a job application or curriculum vita
• Giving the same research project to two graduate students in order to see who can do it the fastest
• Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral students
• Failing to keep good research records
• Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of time
• Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author's submission
• Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors
• Using a racist epithet in the laboratory
• Making significant deviations from the research protocol approved by your institution's Animal Care and Use Committee or Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research without telling the committee or the board
• Not reporting an adverse event in a human research experiment
• Wasting animals in research
• Exposing students and staff to biological risks in violation of your institution's biosafety rules
• Sabotaging someone's work
• Stealing supplies, books, or data
• Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out
• Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer programs
• Owning over $10,000 in stock in a company that sponsors your research and not disclosing this financial interest
• Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a new drug in order to obtain economic benefits

These actions would be regarded as unethical by most scientists and some might even be illegal in some cases. Most of these would also violate different professional ethics codes or institutional policies. However, they do not fall into the narrow category of actions that the government classifies as research misconduct. Indeed, there has been considerable debate about the definition of "research misconduct" and many researchers and policy makers are not satisfied with the government's narrow definition that focuses on FFP. However, given the huge list of potential offenses that might fall into the category "other serious deviations," and the practical problems with defining and policing these other deviations, it is understandable why government officials have chosen to limit their focus.

Finally, situations frequently arise in research in which different people disagree about the proper course of action and there is no broad consensus about what should be done. In these situations, there may be good arguments on both sides of the issue and different ethical principles may conflict. These situations create difficult decisions for research known as ethical or moral dilemmas . Consider the following case:

Dr. Wexford is the principal investigator of a large, epidemiological study on the health of 10,000 agricultural workers. She has an impressive dataset that includes information on demographics, environmental exposures, diet, genetics, and various disease outcomes such as cancer, Parkinson’s disease (PD), and ALS. She has just published a paper on the relationship between pesticide exposure and PD in a prestigious journal. She is planning to publish many other papers from her dataset. She receives a request from another research team that wants access to her complete dataset. They are interested in examining the relationship between pesticide exposures and skin cancer. Dr. Wexford was planning to conduct a study on this topic.

Dr. Wexford faces a difficult choice. On the one hand, the ethical norm of openness obliges her to share data with the other research team. Her funding agency may also have rules that obligate her to share data. On the other hand, if she shares data with the other team, they may publish results that she was planning to publish, thus depriving her (and her team) of recognition and priority. It seems that there are good arguments on both sides of this issue and Dr. Wexford needs to take some time to think about what she should do. One possible option is to share data, provided that the investigators sign a data use agreement. The agreement could define allowable uses of the data, publication plans, authorship, etc. Another option would be to offer to collaborate with the researchers.

The following are some step that researchers, such as Dr. Wexford, can take to deal with ethical dilemmas in research:

What is the problem or issue?

It is always important to get a clear statement of the problem. In this case, the issue is whether to share information with the other research team.

What is the relevant information?

Many bad decisions are made as a result of poor information. To know what to do, Dr. Wexford needs to have more information concerning such matters as university or funding agency or journal policies that may apply to this situation, the team's intellectual property interests, the possibility of negotiating some kind of agreement with the other team, whether the other team also has some information it is willing to share, the impact of the potential publications, etc.

What are the different options?

People may fail to see different options due to a limited imagination, bias, ignorance, or fear. In this case, there may be other choices besides 'share' or 'don't share,' such as 'negotiate an agreement' or 'offer to collaborate with the researchers.'

How do ethical codes or policies as well as legal rules apply to these different options?

The university or funding agency may have policies on data management that apply to this case. Broader ethical rules, such as openness and respect for credit and intellectual property, may also apply to this case. Laws relating to intellectual property may be relevant.

Are there any people who can offer ethical advice?

It may be useful to seek advice from a colleague, a senior researcher, your department chair, an ethics or compliance officer, or anyone else you can trust. In the case, Dr. Wexford might want to talk to her supervisor and research team before making a decision.

After considering these questions, a person facing an ethical dilemma may decide to ask more questions, gather more information, explore different options, or consider other ethical rules. However, at some point he or she will have to make a decision and then take action. Ideally, a person who makes a decision in an ethical dilemma should be able to justify his or her decision to himself or herself, as well as colleagues, administrators, and other people who might be affected by the decision. He or she should be able to articulate reasons for his or her conduct and should consider the following questions in order to explain how he or she arrived at his or her decision:

• Which choice will probably have the best overall consequences for science and society?
• Which choice could stand up to further publicity and scrutiny?
• Which choice could you not live with?
• Think of the wisest person you know. What would he or she do in this situation?
• Which choice would be the most just, fair, or responsible?

After considering all of these questions, one still might find it difficult to decide what to do. If this is the case, then it may be appropriate to consider others ways of making the decision, such as going with a gut feeling or intuition, seeking guidance through prayer or meditation, or even flipping a coin. Endorsing these methods in this context need not imply that ethical decisions are irrational, however. The main point is that human reasoning plays a pivotal role in ethical decision-making but there are limits to its ability to solve all ethical dilemmas in a finite amount of time.

Promoting Ethical Conduct in Science

Do U.S. research institutions meet or exceed federal mandates for instruction in responsible conduct of research? A national survey

 Read about U.S. research instutuins follow federal manadates for ethics in research 

Learn more about NIEHS Research

Most academic institutions in the US require undergraduate, graduate, or postgraduate students to have some education in the responsible conduct of research (RCR) . The NIH and NSF have both mandated training in research ethics for students and trainees. Many academic institutions outside of the US have also developed educational curricula in research ethics

Those of you who are taking or have taken courses in research ethics may be wondering why you are required to have education in research ethics. You may believe that you are highly ethical and know the difference between right and wrong. You would never fabricate or falsify data or plagiarize. Indeed, you also may believe that most of your colleagues are highly ethical and that there is no ethics problem in research..

If you feel this way, relax. No one is accusing you of acting unethically. Indeed, the evidence produced so far shows that misconduct is a very rare occurrence in research, although there is considerable variation among various estimates. The rate of misconduct has been estimated to be as low as 0.01% of researchers per year (based on confirmed cases of misconduct in federally funded research) to as high as 1% of researchers per year (based on self-reports of misconduct on anonymous surveys). See Shamoo and Resnik (2015), cited above.

Clearly, it would be useful to have more data on this topic, but so far there is no evidence that science has become ethically corrupt, despite some highly publicized scandals. Even if misconduct is only a rare occurrence, it can still have a tremendous impact on science and society because it can compromise the integrity of research, erode the public’s trust in science, and waste time and resources. Will education in research ethics help reduce the rate of misconduct in science? It is too early to tell. The answer to this question depends, in part, on how one understands the causes of misconduct. There are two main theories about why researchers commit misconduct. According to the "bad apple" theory, most scientists are highly ethical. Only researchers who are morally corrupt, economically desperate, or psychologically disturbed commit misconduct. Moreover, only a fool would commit misconduct because science's peer review system and self-correcting mechanisms will eventually catch those who try to cheat the system. In any case, a course in research ethics will have little impact on "bad apples," one might argue.

According to the "stressful" or "imperfect" environment theory, misconduct occurs because various institutional pressures, incentives, and constraints encourage people to commit misconduct, such as pressures to publish or obtain grants or contracts, career ambitions, the pursuit of profit or fame, poor supervision of students and trainees, and poor oversight of researchers (see Shamoo and Resnik 2015). Moreover, defenders of the stressful environment theory point out that science's peer review system is far from perfect and that it is relatively easy to cheat the system. Erroneous or fraudulent research often enters the public record without being detected for years. Misconduct probably results from environmental and individual causes, i.e. when people who are morally weak, ignorant, or insensitive are placed in stressful or imperfect environments. In any case, a course in research ethics can be useful in helping to prevent deviations from norms even if it does not prevent misconduct. Education in research ethics is can help people get a better understanding of ethical standards, policies, and issues and improve ethical judgment and decision making. Many of the deviations that occur in research may occur because researchers simply do not know or have never thought seriously about some of the ethical norms of research. For example, some unethical authorship practices probably reflect traditions and practices that have not been questioned seriously until recently. If the director of a lab is named as an author on every paper that comes from his lab, even if he does not make a significant contribution, what could be wrong with that? That's just the way it's done, one might argue. Another example where there may be some ignorance or mistaken traditions is conflicts of interest in research. A researcher may think that a "normal" or "traditional" financial relationship, such as accepting stock or a consulting fee from a drug company that sponsors her research, raises no serious ethical issues. Or perhaps a university administrator sees no ethical problem in taking a large gift with strings attached from a pharmaceutical company. Maybe a physician thinks that it is perfectly appropriate to receive a $300 finder’s fee for referring patients into a clinical trial.

If "deviations" from ethical conduct occur in research as a result of ignorance or a failure to reflect critically on problematic traditions, then a course in research ethics may help reduce the rate of serious deviations by improving the researcher's understanding of ethics and by sensitizing him or her to the issues.

Finally, education in research ethics should be able to help researchers grapple with the ethical dilemmas they are likely to encounter by introducing them to important concepts, tools, principles, and methods that can be useful in resolving these dilemmas. Scientists must deal with a number of different controversial topics, such as human embryonic stem cell research, cloning, genetic engineering, and research involving animal or human subjects, which require ethical reflection and deliberation.

15 Ethical Dilemma Examples You See in the Real-World

There might be affiliate links on this page, which means we get a small commission of anything you buy. As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases. Please do your own research before making any online purchase.

In your everyday life, and especially at work, have you faced ethical dilemmas that challenge your personal morals? If so, considering common ethical dilemma examples can go a long way to resolving your own.

You'll learn you must analyze the risks, rely on your convictions, and trust your instincts. Stepping back and removing yourself from the situation can help you gain a perspective that will aid in making your best decisions.

It's also important to be sure you act after thinking the situation through and not before. To help with this, take a look at our article, “7 Ways to Live Consciously in an Unconscious World.”

Drawing on the experience of others may empower you to navigate your struggle and arrive at the best decision.

This process exercises your critical thinking skills and the decisions you make can help you become respected as a person and a professional. Therefore, looking at ways that others have navigated those difficult moral decisions may be an excellent way to help you should you ever face similar circumstances.

In this article, you’ll learn about specific ethical dilemma examples that will help you understand the difficulty of making decisions that go against moral principles… which may make it less troublesome to make a decision when facing your next ethical dilemma.

Table of Contents

What Are Ethical Dilemmas?

Ethical dilemmas are all about difficulty in choosing between two courses of action, in which either choice involves disobeying a moral principle.

For instance, if you’re facing an ethical dilemma, it can affect you emotionally as you may struggle between what you consider to be right against what you consider to be necessary for a certain situation.

An ethical dilemma occurs when your moral principles are challenged. Some instances of the moral tenets are honesty, abstaining from and not promoting violence, caring for others, respecting the privacy of others, aiding people in trouble, and not harming others, whether humans or animals.

You may have heard of ethical dilemma examples called moral dilemmas or ethical paradoxes. In some instances, any choice you make is wrong in some sense.

In each ethical dilemma, the options are at odds with each other; they conflict with each other, causing a contradiction or paradox.

There are situations where you might have two choices; if you choose one, it would be impossible to choose the other.

Real-World Ethical Dilemma Examples

Often, the best way to mitigate ethical dilemmas is to learn about and seek understanding with real-world examples. Here are 15 examples of real-world ethical dilemmas we trust you’ll find useful. 

1. Monitoring Teens on Social Media.

Should a teenager using Snapchat, Instagram, or TikTok have their social media use monitored? This is an ethical dilemma many parents of teens face as teenagers spend many hours engaging in online activities daily. For some parents, the question may be: Do I trust my child to use social media responsibly or not?

For others, they may be asking themselves: From a safety standpoint as a parent, should I monitor my teenager’s online activities, or are they old enough to use social media responsibly?

Whichever ethical dilemma they are facing, a parent’s fear of cyberbullying and safety for their children is not unfounded. According to 2018 Pew Research , 21% of 13-15-year-olds, 16% of 16-17-year-olds, and 12% of 18-20-year-olds experienced cyberbullying.

While anyone utilizing the Internet risks cyberbullying, teens are ill-equipped to deal with such treatment as their brains are not yet fully developed. Therefore, it is a parent’s duty to protect their child from online attacks.

However, since the close monitoring of a teenager’s activities, online or otherwise, may be construed as a lack of trust toward the teen, it can potentially damage or at least put a strain on the parent-child relationship. Therein lies the ethical dilemma and the choices each parent must make.

One father of two teenaged girls chose to monitor their activities, sharing that, above all, “The devices belong to me and my wife, and we are entitled to see anything and everything on them.”

A good way to build trust with your teens may be to spend time playing games or asking “would you rather” questions ; trust will help them know that whether you monitor their online activity, you care.  

2. Ghosting.

This is when you end a relationship by not responding to the other person at all, by just ignoring them, rather than telling them you would like to end the relationship. While ghosting someone is not the nicest of ways to end a relationship, is it morally wrong?

If you believe in kindness, you may struggle as to whether you can live with your decision to ghost someone. Ghosting seems like the easy way out for the one ghosting, but it's hard for the one being ghosted to find closure and move on.

Someone may choose to ghost their soon-to-be ex because they want to avoid conflict. Or maybe they are afraid the other person might lash out and become violent. For whatever reason, facing that person is uncomfortable that they consider ghosting.

If you consider ghosting someone, think about how that could make them feel. Is that really who you are? Getting a fresh and honest perspective may make you think differently if you're considering ghosting someone.

If you've been ghosted, you find some benefit in reading our “ 55 Survival Quotes to Make You Tough in 2023 .”

3. Intentionally Misinterpreting Data.

There are several instances you may find yourself in where you’re tempted to fudge the numbers. Maybe you’re in the corporate world and are tempted or encouraged to share the data in such a way that will cause stockholders to believe their investments are more secure than they are.

Your ethical dilemma may be whether you misinterpret the data and secure your career or share the true numbers and risk losing your job.

An ethical dilemma example of misinterpreting or outright lying about data is the FTX scandal where investors lost billions of dollars on the digital currency platform after being misled  by founder Sam Bankman-Fried. 

4. Selling a Car Without Disclosing All Known Negative Details.

Let's say you're selling your car to upgrade to a newer model. Nothing much is wrong with it, so you fail to disclose the fact that it has trouble starting from time to time; or, that it was involved in an accident.

Should you disclose whatever is wrong with it to potential buyers or do you consider purchasing a used car to be a ‘buyer beware' situation? Uphold your moral standards and make sure you aren’t the subject of someone’s used car sales gone bad story.

5. Cheat on Your Significant Other.

Your relationship has gone south but you're still considered a couple. You meet someone that, well, if you weren't married… But you are; and you stood before an entire congregation of people promising fidelity “til death do us part'.

A few years have passed and you just don't have the same romantic feelings anymore. Whether he's changed or you've changed or you've both changed, you can't quite put your finger on it. Now, you feel like you'd rather get out than stay in.

Since the relationship is rocky, can you justify starting a new relationship? Or, should you stay faithful and risk letting the potential new love of your life get away? Sometimes a person will cheat on their significant other as an act of revenge when they are mad at each other. And sometimes, the decision to cheat ends badly.

If you've made the decision not to cheat, try solidifying your relationship with our advice on relationships. 

6. Should You Lie to a Sick Loved One?

Usually, if someone considers lying, whether they do it or not, it goes against their belief system and in their heart they know that it's wrong. However, whenever the truth would hurt someone you love, it often presents a gray area or a moral dilemma.

There have been instances where family members have either lied or withheld the truth in order to spare the feelings of a sick loved one, particularly in cases of Alzheimer's patients.

If an Alzheimer's patient asks about a loved one, and that loved one is deceased, finding out about their death all over again can cause them pain. Because of that, some family members will lie to spare their loved one's feelings. Is it ever compassionate to withhold information from your loved one with Alzheimer's?

This may be a dilemma you should discuss with your family members to help make your own personal decision. However, make sure you follow your own moral compass rather than doing what others wish you to do .

7. To Share or Not to Share Political Leanings.

Have you noticed how passionate people are about politics? If you choose to share your political leanings online or in person, you would lose followers, friends, and/or family members.

Some people weigh the options and decide it's not worth it to speak what's on your mind and lose the close contact of others.

Some say it's best to be real, to be authentic, and share any and all beliefs, loud and proud. Before choosing either option, weigh your options. Which choice can you live with? Which one could you not live with?

No matter what you decide, take time to consider the consequences of each choice before firmly making your decision. Then, be prepared to live with those consequences. 

8. Whether to Report an Accident.

If you're in a rush and you pass by and an accident, would you report it? Or would you not, knowing that the next person that passes by most likely would call the authorities?

The moral dilemma would be: risk getting to your meeting late, especially if you have to give an account of what happened to the police; or risk feeling guilty because you chose not to stop and help in a situation and caused the authorities to arrive sooner rather than later or even too late.

If you're struggling about whether you should report an accident as a witness, put yourself in the shoes of those affected by the accident to discover what you should do and how you can help. 

9. To Share or Not to Share Religious Beliefs.

It's been said to never discuss politics or religion. Yet there comes a time in close relationships where the question of whether to share what your beliefs are may come to mind, bringing you face to face with a moral dilemma.

If you know the person you'll be sharing with has beliefs that are different from yours, you may wonder if sharing your beliefs will push them away.

Withholding the information as you grow closer in a relationship may cause several problems: the other person in the relationship may feel you haven't been as open and honest as you should have been, or you may feel conflicted as you want to share but are hesitant to do so.

However, if you feel a kinship with a person on a spiritual level , you may consider sharing your religious views.

If the question of whether you should share your religious views at work arises, you may want to ask yourself why you would consider sharing.

While there are employment laws against discrimination of religion, you need to be careful not to proselytize, which is to try to convert someone, and would be frowned upon in the workplace. 

10. Should You Lie to Your Boss?

Being less than truthful with your boss can have repercussions, depending on the lie. The moral dilemma you may face may be whether you should lie about your experience and education, which could easily be verified. If the lie is less impactful, as in, you call in sick but aren't, you are less likely to get caught in the lie.

In employing your critical thinking skills you may find that you agree its fine to lie to your boss in certain situations. However, does lying to your boss on any level go against your personal moral beliefs? If so, that will create your moral dilemma. 

11. Recalling a Faulty Product.

Let's say you own a business, and it has come to your attention that the product you've shipped and sold has a faulty part.

What would you do? If the part's faultiness would cause harm to someone using the product, that's a serious consideration. If, however, the faultiness may not be noticed and would not cause harm, that may cause you to consider not recalling the product.

The moral dilemma is presented as you determine how you feel about not making the product right and looking out for the best interests of your customers. There is also the legal side of recalling a product.

12. Taking Credit for Your Coworker’s Work.

You've collaborated on a project at work. Your team members have given valuable input that has drawn attention from your management team. You know this recognition could move you closer to a promotion.

Although one of your teammates had the most eye-catching input, should you claim credit for it? After all, it was a team effort, and you'd really like that promotion.

The moral dilemma is doing what's right by giving your teammates the credit they deserve, which would preserve your working relationship or risk your working relationship by claiming the credit for yourself.

To help you make your decision ask yourself whether taking credit for someone else's work is ethical. It would be more beneficial to pursue your own path to promotion without detracting from someone else. 

13. Aborting a Child with Down Syndrome.

When you're expecting a baby, it's generally a joyous occasion. If you find out your baby will be living with life-changing challenges, such as Down syndrome, you may find you're facing a moral dilemma.

According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the life expectancy of babies with Down syndrome increased from 10-years-old in 1960 to 47-years-old in 2007.

While there are additional challenges associated with a child with Down syndrome, the dilemma basically comes down to the question: how does an abortion fit into your moral beliefs?

You may want to read this article showcasing three families struggling with the moral dilemma of aborting a Down syndrome child. 

14. Should You Tell Your Friend if Her Husband is Cheating?

It's a heavy burden to carry and keep a secret from a friend, especially if you feel that she will be hurt by finding out the truth. You may also be worried about how the information you're intending to share will be received.

If not received well, you could lose a friend. At best, it would likely be an emotional conversation.

Or your moral dilemma might be: should you speak to your friend about the situation or speak to her husband or just do nothing?

No matter what your choice is according to your moral beliefs, I think you can agree this is a sticky situation. If you do decide to tell your friend, do it with finesse.

15. Is It Okay to Take Supplies from Your Office?

Many people work in office settings and for their job functions to be fulfilled, their companies supply tools they need. These tools may be something as simple as paper clips to pens, notebooks, office chairs, and computers.

The moral dilemma becomes when you question whether you should take some of these office supplies home for your own personal use.

According to your belief system, would that be stealing from the company or would it be acceptable? Would it matter if the item you'd like to take is a small item or do you believe, right or wrong, any item would carry the same weight in your decision? 

Final Thoughts on Real-World Ethical Dilemmas

While ethical dilemma examples may go from two difficult choices, to almost impossible choices, I'm sure you and I can agree that it helps to arm yourself with the knowledge of how others have faced similar situations.

In reading through the ethical dilemma examples we've provided, you may have found a pathway to your own answers.

When making your choices, it's in your best interest to keep honesty, integrity, and morality paramount.  The ability to weigh each choice and try to objectively choose for the greater good is beneficial.

Your critical thinking skills will come into play and possibly be challenged when making difficult choices. As you can see from the examples we've provided in this article, some moral dilemmas are quite difficult and the answers are not always clear-cut choices. 

The bottom line is that the examples detailed in this article may help you in making decisions as they arise in your own life, especially when you find them challenging.

A good starting point is to get yourself in the right mindset , consider all the facts, then figure out whether you have the control to make the decision needed before moving forward. Having done that, once you've made your choice, you'll have the satisfaction that you've chosen wisely.

221 Ethical Dilemma Essay Topics & Examples

An ethical dilemma essay has become an essential part of education for many professions that involve working with people. Below, we’ve collected topics for writing a paper on this subject.

🏆 Best Ethical Dilemma Essay Examples & Topics

📌 simple & easy ethical dilemma essay topics, 💡 most interesting ethical dilemma topics to write about, 🎓 good research topics about ethical dilemma, ✍️ ethical dilemma essay topics for college, ❓ questions for ethical dilemmas.

The concepts of ethics and moral dilemmas have originated long ago. They heavily influence the process of decision-making in a variety of fields, from social work and healthcare to a simple office workplace. Thus, you have to approach the ethical dilemma topic carefully. Writing a paper on the phenomenon should rely on locating the available evidence and citing the latest sources.

In this article, our team has gathered titles for your academic essay. Besides, with our tips and ethical dilemma paper examples, you will understand how to research and write it.

Emotional intelligence essays are an essential part of education for many professions that involve working with people, such as managers and teachers.

The concept is somewhat new, having been first introduced half a century ago and popularized at the end of the last century.

As such, you have to approach the topic carefully and rely on the latest available evidence to avoid citing outdated ideas.

Furthermore, as with any psychology-related topic, you should exhibit general caution and avoid the numerous pitfalls associated with the study of the human mind.

This article will help you understand what you should or should not do to write an excellent paper.

Here are some further tips for your work:

• Psychology relies on scenarios where a person’s behavior can be as free of outside factors as possible. Toddler observation and scholarly experiments with carefully selected conditions are excellent examples of such situations, and you should use them to ground your descriptions in reality.
• Be sure to adhere to academic guidelines, avoiding the use of first person, calls to action, and other additions that do not match the format. This approach is useful in general, as it applies to most essays and will be beneficial for future reports and similar submissions.
• Write an emotional intelligence essay introduction and conclusion at the end of your paper. They make your work easier to read by giving it structure and direction. The introduction should contain a description of the topic and a thesis statement, and the conclusion should sum up the main points.
• Try to set a central theme and address it in your essay instead of providing a general overview of the topic. There are many emotional intelligence essay questions that can be answered in considerable detail. As such, you should concentrate on one of them without getting distracted and sidetracked.

Come to IvyPanda for ethical dilemma essay examples as well as various titles that will help you begin your writing process!

• An Ethical Dilemma Faced by Nestle: Case Analysis International staffing and development help Nestle to organize human resources in accordance with the needs of the company and its strategic goals.
• BP Oil Company Ethical Dilemma The damages caused by the spill originated from the effects of the oil on the environment and the damaging effects of the cleanup activities.
• Ethical Dilemmas in Criminal Justice If one is to discuss the issue with the senior management of the organization in which the crime occurred, there is a high chance that the issue will not be taken as seriously due to […]
• Ethical Dilemma of Child Abuse In the above example, a nurse has to apply rational judgment to analyze the extent and threats when making decisions in the best interest of the victim of child abuse.
• “Ethical Dilemmas and Decisions in Criminal Justice” by Pollock If hunting is the primary means of survival of a particular society, the euthanasia of the elderly and the sick can be deemed acceptable.
• The Ford Pinto Case and Ethical Dilemma Lee Iacocca, the Ford company’s president, was accused of disregarding the need to improve the safety of Pinto cars due to the increased cost.
• Public Administration Ethical Dilemma and Theories Smith should take the responsibility of ensuring that the needs of the majority are upheld since the welfare of the community, and the organization is of importance.
• Family Therapy: Ethical Dilemmas One of the ethical dilemmas in the case is that of deciding whether or not to disclose the information about Breen’s relationship with her boyfriend to her parents.
• Ethical Dilemma: Example, Problem, and Solution Secondly, I was supposed to show other employees that no one is above the policies of this company and if anyone commits a mistake the individual must be punished.
• Early Childhood Education Center’s Ethical Dilemma Therefore, it is necessary to involve different people in the discussion of this case because there are several ethical responsibilities applied to a new child, the children of the class, the staff, parents, and the […]
• Ethical Dilemmas in Counselling and Treatment Methods The case of Brett has become an ethical issue based on the following; questions are revolving around what information can be released to the parents and parents request to review the diagnosis since no procedure […]
• Ethical Dilemmas in Social Workers’ Practice In order to resolve the emerging dilemma, it is necessary to identify the involved stakeholders, model two possible courses of events, evaluate the implications of each and come to a conclusion regarding the preferential option […]
• Cultural Clash in the Board Room: An Ethical Dilemma Among Top Management in Almond China The first option he has is to resign from the company because he says that one of the reasons that motivated him to join the company is the values and standards the company up holds.
• Ethical Dilemma in Nursing Case Study Today, being a nurse is associated with a number of complexities due to the need to comply with diverse obligations in social, political, and healthcare segments.
• Richard Angelo: A Serial Killer and His Ethical Dilemma The convicted claimed he made the injections to cause crises to be able to revive patients and become a hero in front of his colleagues.
• Ethical Dilemma: Counselors Engaging in Relations with Clients They should keep a boundary in the way they relate to the clients to ensure that their relationship with the client does no harm or pose potential harm to the clients.
• Samsung’s Ethical Dilemma of Child Labor The paper will critically analyze the ethical dimensions of the dilemma from the perspective of the utilitarian ethical theory. It will be argued that according to the fundamental principles of the theory, the company’s behavior […]
• Ethical Dilemma: The Missing Needle Protector Health care professionals and patients have to develop a level of trust to support the recovery process for patients and the status of the hospital.
• Ethical Dilemmas Facing Teachers The proponents of this system claim that it is authentic and offers a first hand experience to the learners. The needs in this system include having a strong foundation in the areas that the knowledge […]
• Abortion: An Ethical Dilemma and Legal Position The core concerns in the controversy are whether women should have the right to decide to terminate a pregnancy or whether the unborn child has the right to life.
• Ethical Dilemmas in Healthcare Institutions The interviewee outlined the major strategies used to handle ethical dilemmas in the healthcare facility. The supervisor will be required to assess the impact of the ethical or legal dilemma.
• Ethical Dilemma With the Bank Teller On the other hand, the bank calls for honesty in service and client protection, and given that the teller took the money without permission from an inactive account belonging to a customer it is professionally […]
• The Acme Title Pawn Employee’s Ethical Dilemma While the situation is controversial, it can be stated that Joe should change the workplace and explain to his family the reasons for such a decision.
• Arranged Marriage and Its Ethical Dilemma His family would be happy to see him married to the person they chose, and his father would save his reputation.
• Ethical Dilemmas: An Analysis of Two Cases In the case of IVF, such a procedure is prohibited according to Joe and Mary’s religion which means that they must not engage in it.
• Ethical Dilemmas Surrounding Self-Driving Cars The video taken showed that the driver in the car was shocked and could not do anything to save the woman.
• Ethical Dilemma in Journalism A good example is the clause in the code of ethics that states that reporters are supposed to show reverence to the privacy and dignity of the public.
• Ethical Dilemma of Patient Care Delivery However, the administration of more pain depressants is likely to escalate the addiction problem while the denial of the medication will aggravate the patient’s suffering.
• An Ethical Dilemma – Religious Belief Versus Medical Practice In the first step, the ethical dilemma is between the principle of beneficence in the treatment of meningitis and the principle of autonomy with respect to the decision of the parents.
• Joe Smith and Bill Bateman: Ethical Dilemma Analysis Indeed, their cooperation is attributed with the features of gray zone business conduct where the boundaries between the personal and the business issues are blurred.
• Ethical Dilemma & Glyphosate: Post Foods Company In this case, some experts believe that it is a vivid instance of the unethical business practices, as Post Foods’s consumers do not expect to find any pesticides in the products that are overtly advertised […]
• The Ethical Dilemma: Siemens In relation to the above dilemmas, the bounded bribery applies to the psychological tendency of the conspirators to fulfill selfish interests of self enrichment at the expense of the shareholders’ goals and objectives.
• An Ethical Dilemma and Lapse in Business An ethical dilemma and lapse differ in the people’s motivation driving decisions. Meanwhile, an ethical lapse occurs due to an unethical conversation involving selective quoting and misleading audiences.
• The Unocal Firm’s Ethical Dilemma in Burma The oil corporation was eager to investigate oil potential in Burma, a place that the rest of the world had abandoned due to several problems.
• Truth vs. Loyalty: Tinkov’s Ethical Dilemma Moreover, his pacifist text and critique of the Russian aggression and dictatorship made Tinkov’s life unsafe. He chose truthfulness and freedom from greed over political loyalty and the well-being of his business.
• Global Poverty: The Ethical Dilemma Unfortunately, a significant obstacle to such global reforms is that many economic systems are based on the concept of inequality and exploitation.
• Ethical Dilemmas in Workplace Analysis Therefore, the main purpose of this project is to explore the types of dilemmas and the factors that affect the workers response to the dilemmas in a workplace.
• The Ethical Dilemma in Nursing One of the most common ethical dilemmas that advanced practice nurses face is the lack of consent on the part of the patient.
• Ethical Dilemmas in the Nursing Field As a human, I felt that the safety of the lady took precedence; hence I could not allow her to walk alone. As a nurse leader, I would encourage my staff to always put the […]
• Ethical Dilemma in “The Reader” Film by S. Daldry She is surprised and confused by the hypocrisy of the judges and her co-defendants, who act as if they do not remember that period and as if they were not part of that society.
• Hyundai Dispatch Workers and Ethical Dilemma According to the workers, the leadership of Hyundai was responsible for the safety of the employees at the workplace. The representatives of the temporary employees occupied the company requiring changes in the employment terms.
• Ethical Dilemma: Swimming Pool Building This is evident when the contractor conducts the private work of the mayor without any delay, as well as the birthday gift that the contractor advances to the mayor as a friend.
• Domestic Violence Ethical Dilemmas in Criminal Justice Various ethical issues such as the code of silence, the mental status of the offender, and limited evidence play a vital role in challenging the discretion of police officers in arresting the DV perpetrators.
• “Ethical Dilemmas in MNCs’ International Staffing Policies” by Banai and Sama The paper assumes that in the age of the rise of global international corporations international staffing policies acquire the top priority because of their impact on outcomes.
• Possible Solutions to the Ethical Dilemmas This varied, different group of the workforce is being required to work harmoniously jointly in the strength of teamwork and respect for the advantage of the company and the public they deal with.
• Ethical Dilemma in Law Enforcement: Confidentiality and Misuse of Information Additionally, Badpenny’s choice to reveal private information was affected by the organizational structure of the University City Police Department and the Grantham County Sheriff’s Office.
• Ethical Dilemma of Stopping City Authority In this scenario, the ethical dilemma is balancing the duty to enforce the law with the potential harm that could be caused by a public arrest of a fellow officer.
• Ethical Dilemma Analysis: Criminal Justice Case The publicity of the case added another layer of complexity to the decision, as either verdict would alienate a part of the population.
• The Ethical Dilemma of Navigating Disagreements in Nursing Care Disputes arise when nurses have different opinions on the type, frequency, and effectiveness of specific care options for a patient due to the differences in their scope of practice and focus.
• Ethical Dilemma in Healthcare: Privacy and the Right to Know Moreover, the staff cannot ignore the fact that Tina is likely to be wrong in her decision not to reveal the diagnosis to Victoria.
• Ethical Dilemmas Regarding Rape and Abortion Therefore, this paper discusses the module 8 case study and related cases regarding rape and abortion, applying dialectical thinking to the module 8 case and why Mary in the case study should not undergo abortion […]
• Hiring the Previously Convicted Cybercriminals: Ethical Dilemma The deontological theory focuses not on the consequences of an act but on the intentions and desire of a person to act for the benefit of others.
• Ethical Dilemmas Hindering Provision of Health Services in Tanzania The strikes have always been linked to two issues: 1) the working conditions of doctors, including infrastructure, the availability of medicines, equipment, and other medical supplies, and 2) the underpayment of wages and benefits.
• Analysis of Ethical Dilemma: Euthanasia One of these is the right to live, which includes much more than the ability to simply exist, and suggests an adherence to a minimum of quality and self-determination.
• Researching of IT Ethical Dilemmas In addition, there are Notified Data Breach Laws that oblige businesses and CSPs to report the incident to the government and all users of the service and customers in the event of a data breach.
• The Legal and Ethical Dilemma in Dental Health The objective side of the crime in the case of silencing the incompetence of a colleague in dentistry is expressed in the failure to fulfill the duties of the statement to the appropriate authorities.
• Ethical Dilemmas: Cases Analysis In the case of Joe and Marie, natural law theory also demonstrates that ethically the IVF procedure is morally justified for several reasons.
• Ethical Dilemma of Parental Refusal From Children’s Vaccination Kerry attempts to convince the Smiths of the relevance of vaccination in preventing infection by chronic diseases. Autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice are ethical principles applicable in resolving the moral issue of whether or not […]
• Ethical Dilemma of Saving Customers’ Personal Information The key point of the action was to be in line with the company’s code of ethics and, at the same time, show the wrongdoing of the colleague’s action to himself.
• Ethical Dilemma: Gun Violence Discussion The teaching of access or locked on the presence of weapons in people for a long time is a reason for discussion.
• Legal-Ethical Dilemma in Nursing An example of an urgent legal-ethical dilemma is the one reported and described by a practicing nurse and a patient, Marylyn.
• Ethical Dilemma of a 2016 TV Commercial for Milk by Juhayna At the end of the ad, the creators claim that Juhayna’s milk is the best in Egypt after Dondou. The message presented in the advertisement can influence the decision of mothers to stop breastfeeding, which […]
• Nurses’ Ethical Dilemmas in the Work Environment According to the scenario of Mr. According to the scenario of Mr.
• The Concept of Ethical Dilemmas To evaluate this, such professionals should be subject to constant psychological and physical monitoring, observing the degree of their suitability for work.
• Ethical Dilemma of Abortion Triumphalism In this issue and other matters, the affected person’s experience may not be a determining factor for the expression of opinion but is unique.
• Self-Determination and Ethical Dilemma of Assisted Suicide The reason for both euthanasia and assisted suicide, the difference between which is in who actively ends the life, the doctor or the patient, is ending unbearable pain.
• Ethical Dilemma Regarding Forced Vaccination It seems that people are already used to restrictive measures from the government and have accepted the need to use masks in public places, but the introduction of compulsory vaccination and the resulting bans proved […]
• Ethical Dilemma: The Case Study Thus, a difficult dilemma emerged for Ali, who by eating the meal would violate his religious obligations and by refusing it would show disrespect to the hosts, and especially the mother of the colleague.
• Ethical Dilemmas in Public Health Such an action could be unwelcomed by the health agencies, and their employees, but, at the same time, the research needs to depict an accurate analysis of the performance of the health programs.
• The Ethical Dilemma in Guantanamo Bay Prison in the USA In Guantanamo Bay, it is the role of soldiers to ensure justice and protection of human rights. However, the housing of these prisoners and the condition of the Guantanamo Bay detainee camp is ethical.
• Ethical Dilemma and Ethics and Honest Reporting And adhering to the principle of rights, professions have an ethical duty to evaluate the consequences of a particular decision they make in relation to the rights of other people.
• The Ethical Dilemma on Abortion From the perspective of the Christian philosophy, a person is a product and manifestation of the love of God, hence the sanctity of any human life.
• Ethical Dilemma at Abura Petrol Station He felt grateful to his friend for offering a job and wanted to meet the hopes of the petrol network’s owner.
• Civil-Military Tension as Ethical Dilemma The first is to accept the situation as it is without questions, strictly following the orders and observing the limitations of their inferior position as consultants to the government.
• Aspects of Media Ethical Dilemmas While all three sources have a goal of informing the audience of Burrous’s passing, the extent to which they unveil the details differs depending on the context, the source’s relation to the anchor, and the […]
• Ethical Dilemma: Benefiting from High-Conflicting Personality The primary reason for the potential ignorance of one’s wrongdoing is the positive consequences of their actions that outweigh the total harm they bring.
• Ethical Dilemma. Legal Protection for Employee On the other hand, the leaving colleague might have a change of heart and remain with the original company, so revealing the plans to the boss will affect his opportunities.
• Abortion as Moral and Ethical Dilemma Despite the conflicting approaches to solving the moral and ethical dilemma of abortion, experts agree that it is possible to reduce the severity of the problem with the help of more excellent sexual education of […]
• Ethical Dilemma Analysis: Easyriders v. Hannigan Hunnigan represents the case of California motorcyclists filing a suit against the Commissioner of California Highway Patrol for the purpose of permanent injunction against stopping motorcyclists on the ground of officer’s subjective opinion that helmets […]
• Contemporary Ethical Reflection: Ethical and Legal Dilemmas in Health Care The counties also blamed the state for being ignorant of the problem of adequate financing of the Medicaid program on supporting the poor and disables.
• Ethical Dilemmas in the Hiibel Legal Case in Nevada The search had a reasonable suspicion since, during the investigation of the assault, Hiibel was within the area of search, and when he was asked his name, he failed to answer the police officer.
• Baby and Mother: End of Life Ethical Dilemma To sum the above mentioned, it should be mentioned that patients, physicians, and caregivers face a lot of dilemmas in regards to life situations.
• Unethical Practices: Michael Jackson, Ethical Dilemma The case between the people and the king of pop, Michael Jackson, elicited two main ethical concerns: the passion of the prosecutor to convict the defendant and the possibility of the prosecutor to be an […]
• Noting the Error in Projections: Scott Bestor’s Ethical Dilemma The second ethical issue is balancing the expectations of the management and the consequences of reporting the error in projections. Scott is aware that reporting the error to the management might result in disciplinary action […]
• Behavior of a Police Officer Within an Ethical Dilemma First and foremost, one should note that one of the most typical ethical concerns in the relevant field is the cases of discrimination on the ground of the national origin.
• Ethical Dilemma in Nursing Practice The psychologist can help the patient deal with the emotional aspect of pain. These skills empower the patient to cope with the pain and the side effects of treatment.
• Accounting: Ethical Dilemmas Equally, I will consider the repercussions of agreeing to the command. I will also consider being a whistleblower and report the matter to the relevant authorities.
• Ethical Dilemma in Nursing Finding a solution to the ethical issues in Max’s case was important because failure to do so would have different consequences for the patient, the parents, and the caregivers.
• Moral, Ethical and Legal Dilemmas of Suicide Since it is a duty of medical practitioners to treat and care for patients, it would be immoral to allow a patient to commit suicide.
• Asthma and Medications: The Ethical Dilemma in Treating Children One of the major causes of dilemma, however, is the inability to manage and treat the condition in children under the age of 7 years due to ethical dilemma.
• Ethical and Moral Dilemmas in Accounting and Business Entities This may paint a wrong picture of the actual position of the company and may lead to collapsing if irregularities are not addressed as in the case of Enron.
• Ethical Dilemma for Sam Torres In this case, it is possible to distinguish several ethical issues: 1) the conflict between Sam’s professional principles and his private interest such as desire to retain his job; 2) the interests of Bull & […]
• Ethical Dilemmas That Practitioners Face in the Company According to the findings of the commission, it was discovered that ethical issues affecting the police body has to do with process corruption, issue of gratuities and improper associations, substance abuse, fraudulent practices, assaults and […]
• Ethical Dilemmas in Business Processes Henry on the other hand is a manager and we are not told whether his organization is prepared to allow all staff to make use of such offers as that which Claire has provided in […]
• Virtue Ethics: One Way to Resolve an Ethical Dilemma Other members of the usability team argue that although there was a clear loophole that the external members can choose to exploit so that they can be released from the work that they need to […]
• Ethical Dilemmas Within Organisations During the COVID-19 The moral analysis of the acts of the management of Britannia Hotel can also be analyzed based on the ethics of duties with an emphasis on the individual.
• Ethical Dilemma: Parental Notification The main issue that is to be addressed is that the boy asks the counselor not to notify his parents about the drug problem, but is it ethical to keep this information confidential?
• Abortion: Ethical Dilemma in Pope John Paul II’s View This paper tries to examine the abortion ethical dilemma from the lens of the Pope’s thoughts and proposals. Towards the end of the 20th century, new ideas and thoughts began to emerge in different parts […]
• LinkedIn Ethical Dilemma The candidates most likely to be recruited by the employers using the LinkedIn website are the premium account holders whose applications appear at the top of the applications pile.
• The Ethical Dilemma: Aborting Babies With Handicaps The standard for such a condition is the elimination of the fetus and the doctor prescribed it as the only solution that would save the other of the twins.
• NASW Code of Ethics: Social Workers and Ethical Dilemmas As part of my action, I accessed her files and changed the date that she was to leave the facility by adding a month to it. However, I had acted professionally because it was in […]
• Ethical Dilemmas Overview and Analysis This student should be advised to report the matter to a teacher so that the owner of the iPod can be traced.
• Resolving Ethical Dilemmas Considering that this may be an argument between younger and older generations, one can argue that there is a significant difference between the way that both house owners and the person that wants to buy […]
• Ethical Dilemmas in Mental Health Treatment Treatment of inmates with psychological problems is a delicate and sensitive process because such inmates are not in the normal state to reason.
• Empress Luxury Lines: Ethical Dilemma The dilemma infringes on Antonio’s principles and values because he thinks that the conduct of the company is not by the insurance company’s policies and principles and that, the management team should face the law.
• The Ethical Dilemma by Pureco Corporation As the Pureco manager, I have the obligation of maximizing the stakeholders’ welfare, and considering that the company had already invested quite a huge sum of money in the establishment and marketing of the Newpen […]
• Ethical Dilemma Concepts on Example Phoebe’s Case In order to protect her rights, the council should not interfere with her applications on the basis of what Phoebe did. In addition to punishment, she should be made to repeat the assignment and submit […]
• Ethical Dilemmas: Morgan Brown Real Estate Company In the case of the latter ethical dilemma, it would be more effective and honest for this particular company to accept the fact that favouring one client over the other could lead to a tarnished […]
• The Tobacco Marketing Ethical Dilemma The epidemiological evidence of the deadly tobacco effect in 1964 set the precedence for the mistrust between the tobacco production stakeholders and the public interest groups, that has led to long battle between the two […]
• Ethical Dilemma of Law Enforcement Code of Ethics Police officers are the example for citizens of the country which they serve, and they should correspond to the position which is occupied.
• Organ Donation: Ethical Dilemmas An example of an ethical dilemma surrounding the procedure is the case of rich man vs.poor man, or rather, the case of a person who can afford to buy an organ on the black market […]
• Ethical Dilemma in Teacher Career One was the departmental association vice president and the professor in the university; he was also the advisor of a student that had a hard relationship with one’s colleague the professor of physics.
• Dementia: Ethical Dilemmas Opting to withdraw the tube may lead to the physiological deprivation of the patient and as a result, the worst-case scenario is the death of the patient.
• Ethical Dilemma: Solving a Situation, Decision Theory Under business ethics, this is a form of art which is said to examine the ethical principles or even the moral problems which might tend to occur as a result of running the business and […]
• Ethical Dilemma in the Psychologists Career Therefore, the dilemma that I faced as a school psychologist dealing with the psychological issues of Ayesha has been the ethical choice needed to be taken between what is good and what is wrong that […]
• Ethical Dilemma in Mental Health Patient Care My ethical response to the situation was that Catherine should only be attended to by the female staff especially when she was naked and that only the female staff needed to have access to the […]
• Google Inc.’s Historical Ethical Dilemmas It is sad to say that various forms of unethical behavior are common in the workforce, and specific analysis is required to determine the impact of this phenomenon on the business industry.
• Performance-Enhancing Drugs Use as Ethical Dilemma According to Christian beliefs, Paul should refuse to partake in the team’s abuse of PEDs because it offers him and his teammates an unfair advantage over other athletes.
• Medical Ethical Dilemmas: Taking a Stand Morality is the idea of correctness and rightness that is constructed on people’s experiences and applied to the life of society.
• Ethical Advertising: Dilemmas and Resolutions One of the core aspects that should not be overlooked is that the number of competitors is going to increase significantly, and it is entirely possible that the company will suffer because of such policies.
• Post-Dated Cheque Ethical Dilemma in Accounting First, the recipients of the delayed check will lose interest corresponding to the duration of the delay. In this scenario, Tabitha will be held responsible for the unethical actions and the incurrence of losses by […]
• Wasta (Nepotism) Ethical Dilemma at the Workplace Moreover, with the present social costs in our society that have arisen through the use of wasta, it is impossible to justify the use of wasta in hiring and performing business transactions.
• Ethical Dilemma on the Company Valuation Mistake I could inform my team and the company boards of the said mistake; I could inform the team but keep the company in the dark, or I could ignore the mistake altogether.
• Flight 93 Incident and Ethical Dilemma This paper evaluates the ethical standing of this question from a utilitarian point of view to establish the rightness or wrongness of the decision to shoot down the plane before it crashed.
• Police Corruption and Citizen’s Ethical Dilemma There are three key stakeholders in the given situation, which are the policemen, who set the terms; the father, who is to take the pivoting decision; and the family, who depends on the decision which […]
• Poverty in America: An Ethical Dilemma In contrast, a considerable percentage of the populations believe the society has the moral obligation to eradicate poverty, and thus, they hold the view that the solution to poverty reduction lies in the socioeconomic policies.
• Ethical Dilemma Involving a Social Worker As a social worker, I have to decide whether to support the community group, which is unanimously opposed to the decision of the housing authorities to rent to the local mental health department to establish […]
• Environmental Protection Agency’s Ethical Dilemma It is trying to find ways of meeting the demands of the new administration but in a way that will not compromise the need to protect the environment.
• Physician-Assisted Dying: Legal and Ethical Dilemma The case study relates to the right of a patient to die in various ways. To begin with, terminally ill people have the right to choose whether to live, or be allowed to pass on.
• Ethical Dilemmas in the “21” Movie At the beginning of the movie, we mistakenly take his attitude for granted, but the development of the plot discloses the negative consequences of the Professor’s actions.
• Suicidal Ideation as Ethical Dilemma in Nursing According to the ethical guidelines that govern the profession of a nurse and other health care providers, their primary role is to protect life by enhancing the status of wellness of the patient.
• California Micro Devices Company: Ethical Dilemma In 1989, Price Waterhouse, the firm’s chief auditor, observed that the company was engaging in questionable accounting practices and business dealings.
• Ethical Dilemma and Environmental Surveillance Companies, for example, Planet Labs and Digital Globe have dispatched many miniaturized satellites in the most recent year with the objective of recording the status of the whole earth in real-time.
• ProTech Company’s Ethical Dilemma According to the analysis of the data performed by Staci, the company seems to be having a high potential for growth over the next half-decade.
• Ethical Dilemma in Business Communication Today This paper explores this dilemma in terms of the extent to which a firm may abide by the ethical provisions against the backdrop of the heightening competition.
• Patient’s Secret Revelation: Ethical Dilemma She had to choose whether to hide the information, which she had received from a cancer patient and which was relevant to the treatment, from other nurses and doctors or to reveal it despite the […]
• Ethical Dilemmas in Prison’s Research The present paper aims to discuss the applicability of confidentiality and privacy provisions to prison research by addressing both the general rules regarding confidentiality of information in research and the specific considerations that apply to […]
• The Right to Die: Legal and Ethical Dilemma Consequently, the primary goal of the paper is to discover the freedoms of a patient, specifically, the right to die with the help of a controversial and confusing case of Mrs.
• Teacher’s Ethical Dilemma and Legal Responsibilities However, she is legally obligated not to leak exams to her students in any way because that would defeat the very purpose of the exams.
• HBOS Plc Company’s Ethical Dilemma The ethical dilemma in the case is that the top management of the company used complex nature of the financial statements and the weaknesses in the accounting standards to manipulate the financial records with an […]
• Employee’s Role in Ethical Dilemma Jan is aware of the possible layoffs at JLT that could affect Steve, and she knows the expenses that Steve, unaware of the resolution by the leadership, is about to make in building a house […]
• Ethical Dilemma: Political Involvement in Abortion The development of medicine brought the issue to the fore in the late 19th century. Therefore, it is but natural that it is the right of a woman to make the choice.
• KLM Company Responsibilities Ethical Dilemma To ensure that the expansion plan remained alive, the director suggested that a small team of employees should be a commission to start surveying the new market to identify the location where the firm would […]
• Medical Error Disclosure: Ethical Dilemma The topic in question was chosen due to the obvious conflict between the interests of the patient and the population, in general, which medical ethics supposedly protects, and the interests of the provider, who is […]
• Ethical Dilemmas in Rural Communities The fact that the rural area is different from the urban one has resulted in the creation of rural criminology. The ethical dilemmas that can arise in the process of working in rural areas for […]
• Ethical Dilemma in the Workplace Her partner is adamant, which means she should overlook the guidelines and influence the audit to reflect an outcome that will be good for both her career and the company.
• SuperCom Company Ethical Dilemma This section of the paper shows that the lack of informed consent, failure to report the ethical issue to authorities, and integrity issues are the possible ethical pitfalls in the case study.
• Livestrong and Apple Companies Ethical Dilemmas The USADA probe against Lance Armstrong was not in any way related to the work of the Foundation and its mission for cancer patients and their families.
• Journalism Ethical Dilemma: Moral Discourse This situation resulted in an ethical dilemma for the journalist who has to decide whether to publish the article about the accident and potentially dangerous products or to take the money and remain silent.
• “Erin Brockovich” Movie Ethical Dilemma The response of the company when it became apparent that the chromium was causing cancer was to hide the evidence regarding their operations and its connection to the increased rates of cancer.
• Engineers and Ethical Dilemmas Recently in the Kenyan media there was a situation in which a road engineer had been approached by the government to aid in the design and construction of a road in the Langata area.
• Solving Ethical Dilemmas in Public Relations In the case study, the main problem arises from the client’s deceit concerning the independent nature of the scientist testing the products in a bid to ensure a favorable public image of the products to […]
• Government and Organisational Regulation: Ethical Dilemmas Costas will be sure of getting good business in the future considering the fact that Dionisis is the Mayor and he is usually in charge of most contracts.
• Topics in Ethical Dilemma: When the Choice Becomes too Complicated To solve the given issue, the principle of consequentialist theories can be used, i.e, the rightness of the employees’ actions can be evaluated only by its results.
• Kazuo Ishiguro’s “Never Let Me Go” and Major Ethical Dilemmas Raised Some claim that since clones are created in a laboratory with the help of specific tools and with the number of certain genes, they cannot be regarded as humans. In conclusion, it is necessary to […]
• International Satellite Images Ethical Dilemma Comprehensively, when the code of ethics is entrenched as part of ISI’s business culture, the company would have a seamless process for managing ethical dilemmas.
• Reporting Inflated Numbers: Ethical Dilemma From an ethical perspective, Barbara and the management team of the company conspired to inflate the asset values, overstate the reported income, and eliminate the liabilities from the financial reporting.
• Ethical Dilemmas in The Case of Wilma The case of Wilma, a counselor in a community agency, and Donna who is a client suffering from an anxiety disorder and panic attack is a real dilemma. The most appropriate course of action in […]
• Ethical Dilemma: Participation in Volunteer Activities Even though Carolyn Clark was forced by her boss to volunteer her services to the charity program, she ought to realize that there is a need to help the needy in society.
• Public Scrutiny and Accountability: An Ethical Dilemma The idea of loyalty according to the governor meant that all the employees would have to portray his administration in the best light.
• Huntington’s Disease and Ethics
• Ethical and Integrity Dilemma Within Employees in the Global Economy
• Discussing an Ethical Dilemma
• Ethical and Moral Dilemma: McDonald’s
• End of life: the medical ethical dilemma
• Ethics in Professional Psychology: Abortion Issue
• Drug-Testing: Utilitarian Theory Ethical Dilemma
• Role of Codes of Conduct in Child Labour Practice
• Ethical Dilemma in Medical Practice
• Ethical Dilemma of Psychologist
• Workplace Health & Safety: The Ethical Dilemmas
• Ethical Dilemma at the CornCo Company
• Animal Testing: Ethical Dilemmas in Business
• Ethical Dilemma- The Fate of Opel
• Ethical Dilemma: “A weak Dollar Versus A strong Yuan”
• Ethical Dilemma: Heroin Prescription
• Ethical Dilemma: the Husband’s Right to Confidential Treatment
• Decision Making Challenges Facing Ethical Dilemma
• Globalization and Its Impact on the Health Care System: Ethical Dilemmas of Medical Treatment
• Ethical Dilemma in Healthcare Administration
• Ethical Dilemma in Accepting or Rejecting of Offers
• The Ethical Dilemma – How to Make the Right Decision
• What Are the Examples of Ethical Dilemmas?
• What Are Some Examples of Ethical Dilemmas in the Workplace?
• What Are the Oil Industry and Climate Change Strategies and Ethical Dilemmas?
• Which Scenarios Are the Examples of True Ethics Dilemmas?
• What Are the Most Difficult Ethical Dilemmas People Can Face?
• How Do You Identify Ethical Dilemmas?
• What Are the Examples of Ethical Dilemmas in School?
• What Are Some Examples of Ethical Dilemmas in Healthcare?
• What Are the Seven Major Ethical Dilemmas in Nursing Practice?
• What Are Some Common Ethical Dilemmas?
• What Is the Difference between Ethical Issues and Ethical Dilemmas?
• How Does a Person Resolve Ethical Dilemmas?
• What Are the Ethical Dilemmas in Telephone Nursing?
• What Are the Four Core Ethical Dilemmas Social Work Is Concerned With?
• What Is Another Term for Ethical Dilemmas?
• What Are Nurses’ Contributions to the Resolution of Ethical Dilemmas?
• What Are the Four Steps for Solving Ethical Dilemmas?
• What Are the Ethical Dilemmas of War?
• What Are the Ethical Dilemmas in the Military?
• What Are Ethical Dilemmas in a Community?
• What Are the Ethical Dilemmas in Various Stages of Organizational Development?
• What Are Some Ethical Dilemmas for Students?
• What are the Ethical Dilemmas and Dominant Moral Strategies in Games?
• What Are the Ethical Dilemmas in a Classroom?
• What Are Ethical Dilemmas in University?
• Is the Marketization of Education the Ethical Dilemmas?
• What Is the Anatomy of the Ethical Dilemmas?
• What Ethical Dilemmas Arose Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic?
• What Are the Ethical Dilemmas in a Cross-Cultural Context?
• What Is the Frequency of Ethical Dilemmas in a Medical Inpatient Service?
• Social Development Essay Topics
• Social Justice Essay Ideas
• Ethics Ideas
• Social Norms Essay Ideas
• Social Responsibility Topics
• Capital Punishment Topics
• Human Rights Essay Ideas
• Euthanasia Titles
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 28). 221 Ethical Dilemma Essay Topics & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/ethical-dilemma-essay-examples/

"221 Ethical Dilemma Essay Topics & Examples." IvyPanda , 28 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/ethical-dilemma-essay-examples/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '221 Ethical Dilemma Essay Topics & Examples'. 28 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "221 Ethical Dilemma Essay Topics & Examples." February 28, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/ethical-dilemma-essay-examples/.

1. IvyPanda . "221 Ethical Dilemma Essay Topics & Examples." February 28, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/ethical-dilemma-essay-examples/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "221 Ethical Dilemma Essay Topics & Examples." February 28, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/ethical-dilemma-essay-examples/.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Ethical Issues in Research: Perceptions of Researchers, Research Ethics Board Members and Research Ethics Experts

Marie-josée drolet.

1 Department of Occupational Therapy (OT), Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières (UQTR), Trois-Rivières (Québec), Canada

Eugénie Rose-Derouin

2 Bachelor OT program, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières (UQTR), Trois-Rivières (Québec), Canada

Julie-Claude Leblanc

Mélanie ruest, bryn williams-jones.

3 Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Montréal (Québec), Canada

In the context of academic research, a diversity of ethical issues, conditioned by the different roles of members within these institutions, arise. Previous studies on this topic addressed mainly the perceptions of researchers. However, to our knowledge, no studies have explored the transversal ethical issues from a wider spectrum, including other members of academic institutions as the research ethics board (REB) members, and the research ethics experts. The present study used a descriptive phenomenological approach to document the ethical issues experienced by a heterogeneous group of Canadian researchers, REB members, and research ethics experts. Data collection involved socio-demographic questionnaires and individual semi-structured interviews. Following the triangulation of different perspectives (researchers, REB members and ethics experts), emerging ethical issues were synthesized in ten units of meaning: (1) research integrity, (2) conflicts of interest, (3) respect for research participants, (4) lack of supervision and power imbalances, (5) individualism and performance, (6) inadequate ethical guidance, (7) social injustices, (8) distributive injustices, (9) epistemic injustices, and (10) ethical distress. This study highlighted several problematic elements that can support the identification of future solutions to resolve transversal ethical issues in research that affect the heterogeneous members of the academic community.

Introduction

Research includes a set of activities in which researchers use various structured methods to contribute to the development of knowledge, whether this knowledge is theoretical, fundamental, or applied (Drolet & Ruest, accepted ). University research is carried out in a highly competitive environment that is characterized by ever-increasing demands (i.e., on time, productivity), insufficient access to research funds, and within a market economy that values productivity and speed often to the detriment of quality or rigour – this research context creates a perfect recipe for breaches in research ethics, like research misbehaviour or misconduct (i.e., conduct that is ethically questionable or unacceptable because it contravenes the accepted norms of responsible conduct of research or compromises the respect of core ethical values that are widely held by the research community) (Drolet & Girard, 2020 ; Sieber, 2004 ). Problematic ethics and integrity issues – e.g., conflicts of interest, falsification of data, non-respect of participants’ rights, and plagiarism, to name but a few – have the potential to both undermine the credibility of research and lead to negative consequences for many stakeholders, including researchers, research assistants and personnel, research participants, academic institutions, and society as a whole (Drolet & Girard, 2020 ). It is thus evident that the academic community should be able to identify these different ethical issues in order to evaluate the nature of the risks that they pose (and for whom), and then work towards their prevention or management (i.e., education, enhanced policies and procedures, risk mitigation strategies).

In this article, we define an “ethical issue” as any situation that may compromise, in whole or in part, the respect of at least one moral value (Swisher et al., 2005 ) that is considered socially legitimate and should thus be respected. In general, ethical issues occur at three key moments or stages of the research process: (1) research design (i.e., conception, project planning), (2) research conduct (i.e., data collection, data analysis) and (3) knowledge translation or communication (e.g., publications of results, conferences, press releases) (Drolet & Ruest, accepted ). According to Sieber ( 2004 ), ethical issues in research can be classified into five categories, related to: (a) communication with participants and the community, (b) acquisition and use of research data, (c) external influence on research, (d) risks and benefits of the research, and (e) selection and use of research theories and methods. Many of these issues are related to breaches of research ethics norms, misbehaviour or research misconduct. Bruhn et al., ( 2002 ) developed a typology of misbehaviour and misconduct in academia that can be used to judge the seriousness of different cases. This typology takes into consideration two axes of reflection: (a) the origin of the situation (i.e., is it the researcher’s own fault or due to the organizational context?), and (b) the scope and severity (i.e., is this the first instance or a recurrent behaviour? What is the nature of the situation? What are the consequences, for whom, for how many people, and for which organizations?).

A previous detailed review of the international literature on ethical issues in research revealed several interesting findings (Beauchemin et al., 2021 ). Indeed, the current literature is dominated by descriptive ethics, i.e., the sharing by researchers from various disciplines of the ethical issues they have personally experienced. While such anecdotal documentation is relevant, it is insufficient because it does not provide a global view of the situation. Among the reviewed literature, empirical studies were in the minority (Table  1 ) – only about one fifth of the sample (n = 19) presented empirical research findings on ethical issues in research. The first of these studies was conducted almost 50 years ago (Hunt et al., 1984 ), with the remainder conducted in the 1990s. Eight studies were conducted in the United States (n = 8), five in Canada (n = 5), three in England (n = 3), two in Sweden (n = 2) and one in Ghana (n = 1).

Summary of Empirical Studies on Ethical Issues in Research by the year of publication

Further, the majority of studies in our sample (n = 12) collected the perceptions of a homogeneous group of participants, usually researchers (n = 14) and sometimes health professionals (n = 6). A minority of studies (n = 7) triangulated the perceptions of diverse research stakeholders (i.e., researchers and research participants, or students). To our knowledge, only one study has examined perceptions of ethical issues in research by research ethics board members (REB; Institutional Review Boards [IRB] in the USA), and none to date have documented the perceptions of research ethics experts. Finally, nine studies (n = 9) adopted a qualitative design, seven studies (n = 7) a quantitative design, and three (n = 3) a mixed-methods design.

More studies using empirical research methods are needed to better identify broader trends, to enrich discussions on the values that should govern responsible conduct of research in the academic community, and to evaluate the means by which these values can be supported in practice (Bahn, 2012 ; Beauchemin et al., 2021 ; Bruhn et al., 2002 ; Henderson et al., 2013 ; Resnik & Elliot, 2016; Sieber 2004 ). To this end, we conducted an empirical qualitative study to document the perceptions and experiences of a heterogeneous group of Canadian researchers, REB members, and research ethics experts, to answer the following broad question: What are the ethical issues in research?

Research Methods

Research design.

A qualitative research approach involving individual semi-structured interviews was used to systematically document ethical issues (De Poy & Gitlin, 2010 ; Hammell et al., 2000 ). Specifically, a descriptive phenomenological approach inspired by the philosophy of Husserl was used (Husserl, 1970 , 1999 ), as it is recommended for documenting the perceptions of ethical issues raised by various practices (Hunt & Carnavale, 2011 ).

Ethical considerations

The principal investigator obtained ethics approval for this project from the Research Ethics Board of the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières (UQTR). All members of the research team signed a confidentiality agreement, and research participants signed the consent form after reading an information letter explaining the nature of the research project.

Sampling and recruitment

As indicated above, three types of participants were sought: (1) researchers from different academic disciplines conducting research (i.e., theoretical, fundamental or empirical) in Canadian universities; (2) REB members working in Canadian organizations responsible for the ethical review, oversight or regulation of research; and (3) research ethics experts, i.e., academics or ethicists who teach research ethics, conduct research in research ethics, or are scholars who have acquired a specialization in research ethics. To be included in the study, participants had to work in Canada, speak and understand English or French, and be willing to participate in the study. Following Thomas and Polio’s (2002) recommendation to recruit between six and twelve participants (for a homogeneous sample) to ensure data saturation, for our heterogeneous sample, we aimed to recruit approximately twelve participants in order to obtain data saturation. Having used this method several times in related projects in professional ethics, data saturation is usually achieved with 10 to 15 participants (Drolet & Goulet, 2018 ; Drolet & Girard, 2020 ; Drolet et al., 2020 ). From experience, larger samples only serve to increase the degree of data saturation, especially in heterogeneous samples (Drolet et al., 2017 , 2019 ; Drolet & Maclure, 2016 ).

Purposive sampling facilitated the identification of participants relevant to documenting the phenomenon in question (Fortin, 2010 ). To ensure a rich and most complete representation of perceptions, we sought participants with varied and complementary characteristics with regards to the social roles they occupy in research practice (Drolet & Girard, 2020 ). A triangulation of sources was used for the recruitment (Bogdan & Biklen, 2006 ). The websites of Canadian universities and Canadian health institution REBs, as well as those of major Canadian granting agencies (i.e., the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Fonds de recherche du Quebec), were searched to identify individuals who might be interested in participating in the study. Further, people known by the research team for their knowledge and sensitivity to ethical issues in research were asked to participate. Research participants were also asked to suggest other individuals who met the study criteria.

Data Collection

Two tools were used for data collecton: (a) a socio-demographic questionnaire, and (b) a semi-structured individual interview guide. English and French versions of these two documents were used and made available, depending on participant preferences. In addition, although the interview guide contained the same questions, they were adapted to participants’ specific roles (i.e., researcher, REB member, research ethics expert). When contacted by email by the research assistant, participants were asked to confirm under which role they wished to participate (because some participants might have multiple, overlapping responsibilities) and they were sent the appropriate interview guide.

The interview guides each had two parts: an introduction and a section on ethical issues. The introduction consisted of general questions to put the participant at ease (i.e., “Tell me what a typical day at work is like for you”). The section on ethical issues was designed to capture the participant’s perceptions through questions such as: “Tell me three stories you have experienced at work that involve an ethical issue?” and “Do you feel that your organization is doing enough to address, manage, and resolve ethical issues in your work?”. Although some interviews were conducted in person, the majority were conducted by videoconference to promote accessibility and because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Interviews were digitally recorded so that the verbatim could be transcribed in full, and varied between 40 and 120 min in duration, with an average of 90 min. Research assistants conducted the interviews and transcribed the verbatim.

Data Analysis

The socio-demographic questionnaires were subjected to simple descriptive statistical analyses (i.e., means and totals), and the semi-structured interviews were subjected to qualitative analysis. The steps proposed by Giorgi ( 1997 ) for a Husserlian phenomenological reduction of the data were used. After collecting, recording, and transcribing the interviews, all verbatim were analyzed by at least two analysts: a research assistant (2nd author of this article) and the principal investigator (1st author) or a postdoctoral fellow (3rd author). The repeated reading of the verbatim allowed the first analyst to write a synopsis, i.e., an initial extraction of units of meaning. The second analyst then read the synopses, which were commented and improved if necessary. Agreement between analysts allowed the final drafting of the interview synopses, which were then analyzed by three analysts to generate and organize the units of meaning that emerged from the qualitative data.

Participants

Sixteen individuals (n = 16) participated in the study, of whom nine (9) identified as female and seven (7) as male (Table  2 ). Participants ranged in age from 22 to 72 years, with a mean age of 47.5 years. Participants had between one (1) and 26 years of experience in the research setting, with an average of 14.3 years of experience. Participants held a variety of roles, including: REB members (n = 11), researchers (n = 10), research ethics experts (n = 4), and research assistant (n = 1). As mentioned previously, seven (7) participants held more than one role, i.e., REB member, research ethics expert, and researcher. The majority (87.5%) of participants were working in Quebec, with the remaining working in other Canadian provinces. Although all participants considered themselves to be francophone, one quarter (n = 4) identified themselves as belonging to a cultural minority group.

Description of Participants

With respect to their academic background, most participants (n = 9) had a PhD, three (3) had a post-doctorate, two (2) had a master’s degree, and two (2) had a bachelor’s degree. Participants came from a variety of disciplines: nine (9) had a specialty in the humanities or social sciences, four (4) in the health sciences and three (3) in the natural sciences. In terms of their knowledge of ethics, five (5) participants reported having taken one university course entirely dedicated to ethics, four (4) reported having taken several university courses entirely dedicated to ethics, three (3) had a university degree dedicated to ethics, while two (2) only had a few hours or days of training in ethics and two (2) reported having no knowledge of ethics.

Ethical issues

As Fig.  1 illustrates, ten units of meaning emerge from the data analysis, namely: (1) research integrity, (2) conflicts of interest, (3) respect for research participants, (4) lack of supervision and power imbalances, (5) individualism and performance, (6) inadequate ethical guidance, (7) social injustices, (8) distributive injustices, (9) epistemic injustices, and (10) ethical distress. To illustrate the results, excerpts from verbatim interviews are presented in the following sub-sections. Most of the excerpts have been translated into English as the majority of interviews were conducted with French-speaking participants.

Ethical issues in research according to the participants

Research Integrity

The research environment is highly competitive and performance-based. Several participants, in particular researchers and research ethics experts, felt that this environment can lead both researchers and research teams to engage in unethical behaviour that reflects a lack of research integrity. For example, as some participants indicated, competition for grants and scientific publications is sometimes so intense that researchers falsify research results or plagiarize from colleagues to achieve their goals.

Some people will lie or exaggerate their research findings in order to get funding. Then, you see it afterwards, you realize: “ah well, it didn’t work, but they exaggerated what they found and what they did” (participant 14). Another problem in research is the identification of authors when there is a publication. Very often, there are authors who don’t even know what the publication is about and that their name is on it. (…) The time that it surprised me the most was just a few months ago when I saw someone I knew who applied for a teaching position. He got it I was super happy for him. Then I looked at his publications and … there was one that caught my attention much more than the others, because I was in it and I didn’t know what that publication was. I was the second author of a publication that I had never read (participant 14). I saw a colleague who had plagiarized another colleague. [When the colleague] found out about it, he complained. So, plagiarism is a serious [ethical breach]. I would also say that there is a certain amount of competition in the university faculties, especially for grants (…). There are people who want to win at all costs or get as much as possible. They are not necessarily going to consider their colleagues. They don’t have much of a collegial spirit (participant 10).

These examples of research misbehaviour or misconduct are sometimes due to or associated with situations of conflicts of interest, which may be poorly managed by certain researchers or research teams, as noted by many participants.

Conflict of interest

The actors and institutions involved in research have diverse interests, like all humans and institutions. As noted in Chap. 7 of the Canadian Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS2, 2018),

“researchers and research students hold trust relationships, either directly or indirectly, with participants, research sponsors, institutions, their professional bodies and society. These trust relationships can be put at risk by conflicts of interest that may compromise independence, objectivity or ethical duties of loyalty. Although the potential for such conflicts has always existed, pressures on researchers (i.e., to delay or withhold dissemination of research outcomes or to use inappropriate recruitment strategies) heighten concerns that conflicts of interest may affect ethical behaviour” (p. 92).

The sources of these conflicts are varied and can include interpersonal conflicts, financial partnerships, third-party pressures, academic or economic interests, a researcher holding multiple roles within an institution, or any other incentive that may compromise a researcher’s independence, integrity, and neutrality (TCPS2, 2018). While it is not possible to eliminate all conflicts of interest, it is important to manage them properly and to avoid temptations to behave unethically.

Ethical temptations correspond to situations in which people are tempted to prioritize their own interests to the detriment of the ethical goods that should, in their own context, govern their actions (Swisher et al., 2005 ). In the case of researchers, this refers to situations that undermine independence, integrity, neutrality, or even the set of principles that govern research ethics (TCPS2, 2018) or the responsible conduct of research. According to study participants, these types of ethical issues frequently occur in research. Many participants, especially researchers and REB members, reported that conflicts of interest can arise when members of an organization make decisions to obtain large financial rewards or to increase their academic profile, often at the expense of the interests of members of their research team, research participants, or even the populations affected by their research.

A company that puts money into making its drug work wants its drug to work. So, homeopathy is a good example, because there are not really any consequences of homeopathy, there are not very many side effects, because there are no effects at all. So, it’s not dangerous, but it’s not a good treatment either. But some people will want to make it work. And that’s a big issue when you’re sitting at a table and there are eight researchers, and there are two or three who are like that, and then there are four others who are neutral, and I say to myself, this is not science. I think that this is a very big ethical issue (participant 14). There are also times in some research where there will be more links with pharmaceutical companies. Obviously, there are then large amounts of money that will be very interesting for the health-care institutions because they still receive money for clinical trials. They’re still getting some compensation because its time consuming for the people involved and all that. The pharmaceutical companies have money, so they will compensate, and that is sometimes interesting for the institutions, and since we are a bit caught up in this, in the sense that we have no choice but to accept it. (…) It may not be the best research in the world, there may be a lot of side effects due to the drugs, but it’s good to accept it, we’re going to be part of the clinical trial (participant 3). It is integrity, what we believe should be done or said. Often by the pressure of the environment, integrity is in tension with the pressures of the environment, so it takes resistance, it takes courage in research. (…) There were all the debates there about the problems of research that was funded and then the companies kept control over what was written. That was really troubling for a lot of researchers (participant 5).

Further, these situations sometimes have negative consequences for research participants as reported by some participants.

Respect for research participants

Many research projects, whether they are psychosocial or biomedical in nature, involve human participants. Relationships between the members of research teams and their research participants raise ethical issues that can be complex. Research projects must always be designed to respect the rights and interests of research participants, and not just those of researchers. However, participants in our study – i.e., REB members, researchers, and research ethics experts – noted that some research teams seem to put their own interests ahead of those of research participants. They also emphasized the importance of ensuring the respect, well-being, and safety of research participants. The ethical issues related to this unit of meaning are: respect for free, informed and ongoing consent of research participants; respect for and the well-being of participants; data protection and confidentiality; over-solicitation of participants; ownership of the data collected on participants; the sometimes high cost of scientific innovations and their accessibility; balance between the social benefits of research and the risks to participants (particularly in terms of safety); balance between collective well-being (development of knowledge) and the individual rights of participants; exploitation of participants; paternalism when working with populations in vulnerable situations; and the social acceptability of certain types of research. The following excerpts present some of these issues.

Where it disturbs me ethically is in the medical field – because it’s more in the medical field that we’re going to see this – when consent forms are presented to patients to solicit them as participants, and then [these forms] have an average of 40 pages. That annoys me. When they say that it has to be easy to understand and all that, adapted to the language, and then the hyper-technical language plus there are 40 pages to read, I don’t understand how you’re going to get informed consent after reading 40 pages. (…) For me, it doesn’t work. I read them to evaluate them and I have a certain level of education and experience in ethics, and there are times when I don’t understand anything (participant 2). There is a lot of pressure from researchers who want to recruit research participants (…). The idea that when you enter a health care institution, you become a potential research participant, when you say “yes to a research, you check yes to all research”, then everyone can ask you. I think that researchers really have this fantasy of saying to themselves: “as soon as people walk through the door of our institution, they become potential participants with whom we can communicate and get them involved in all projects”. There’s a kind of idea that, yes, it can be done, but it has to be somewhat supervised to avoid over-solicitation (…). Researchers are very interested in facilitating recruitment and making it more fluid, but perhaps to the detriment of confidentiality, privacy, and respect; sometimes that’s what it is, to think about what type of data you’re going to have in your bank of potential participants? Is it just name and phone number or are you getting into more sensitive information? (participant 9).

In addition, one participant reported that their university does not provide the resources required to respect the confidentiality of research participants.

The issue is as follows: researchers, of course, commit to protecting data with passwords and all that, but we realize that in practice, it is more difficult. It is not always as protected as one might think, because professor-researchers will run out of space. Will the universities make rooms available to researchers, places where they can store these things, especially when they have paper documentation, and is there indeed a guarantee of confidentiality? Some researchers have told me: “Listen; there are even filing cabinets in the corridors”. So, that certainly poses a concrete challenge. How do we go about challenging the administrative authorities? Tell them it’s all very well to have an ethics committee, but you have to help us, you also have to make sure that the necessary infrastructures are in place so that what we are proposing is really put into practice (participant 4).

If the relationships with research participants are likely to raise ethical issues, so too are the relationships with students, notably research assistants. On this topic, several participants discussed the lack of supervision or recognition offered to research assistants by researchers as well as the power imbalances between members of the research team.

Lack of Supervision and Power Imbalances

Many research teams are composed not only of researchers, but also of students who work as research assistants. The relationship between research assistants and other members of research teams can sometimes be problematic and raise ethical issues, particularly because of the inevitable power asymmetries. In the context of this study, several participants – including a research assistant, REB members, and researchers – discussed the lack of supervision or recognition of the work carried out by students, psychological pressure, and the more or less well-founded promises that are sometimes made to students. Participants also mentioned the exploitation of students by certain research teams, which manifest when students are inadequately paid, i.e., not reflective of the number of hours actually worked, not a fair wage, or even a wage at all.

[As a research assistant], it was more of a feeling of distress that I felt then because I didn’t know what to do. (…) I was supposed to get coaching or be supported, but I didn’t get anything in the end. It was like, “fix it by yourself”. (…) All research assistants were supposed to be supervised, but in practice they were not (participant 1). Very often, we have a master’s or doctoral student that we put on a subject and we consider that the project will be well done, while the student is learning. So, it happens that the student will do a lot of work and then we realize that the work is poorly done, and it is not necessarily the student’s fault. He wasn’t necessarily well supervised. There are directors who have 25 students, and they just don’t supervise them (participant 14). I think it’s really the power relationship. I thought to myself, how I saw my doctorate, the beginning of my research career, I really wanted to be in that laboratory, but they are the ones who are going to accept me or not, so what do I do to be accepted? I finally accept their conditions [which was to work for free]. If these are the conditions that are required to enter this lab, I want to go there. So, what do I do, well I accepted. It doesn’t make sense, but I tell myself that I’m still privileged, because I don’t have so many financial worries, one more reason to work for free, even though it doesn’t make sense (participant 1). In research, we have research assistants. (…). The fact of using people… so that’s it, you have to take into account where they are, respect them, but at the same time they have to show that they are there for the research. In English, we say “carry” or take care of people. With research assistants, this is often a problem that I have observed: for grant machines, the person is the last to be found there. Researchers, who will take, use student data, without giving them the recognition for it (participant 5). The problem at our university is that they reserve funding for Canadian students. The doctoral clientele in my field is mostly foreign students. So, our students are poorly funded. I saw one student end up in the shelter, in a situation of poverty. It ended very badly for him because he lacked financial resources. Once you get into that dynamic, it’s very hard to get out. I was made aware of it because the director at the time had taken him under her wing and wanted to try to find a way to get him out of it. So, most of my students didn’t get funded (participant 16). There I wrote “manipulation”, but it’s kind of all promises all the time. I, for example, was promised a lot of advancement, like when I got into the lab as a graduate student, it was said that I had an interest in [this particular area of research]. I think there are a lot of graduate students who must have gone through that, but it is like, “Well, your CV has to be really good, if you want to do a lot of things and big things. If you do this, if you do this research contract, the next year you could be the coordinator of this part of the lab and supervise this person, get more contracts, be paid more. Let’s say: you’ll be invited to go to this conference, this big event”. They were always dangling something, but you have to do that first to get there. But now, when you’ve done that, you have to do this business. It’s like a bit of manipulation, I think. That was very hard to know who is telling the truth and who is not (participant 1).

These ethical issues have significant negative consequences for students. Indeed, they sometimes find themselves at the mercy of researchers, for whom they work, struggling to be recognized and included as authors of an article, for example, or to receive the salary that they are due. For their part, researchers also sometimes find themselves trapped in research structures that can negatively affect their well-being. As many participants reported, researchers work in organizations that set very high productivity standards and in highly competitive contexts, all within a general culture characterized by individualism.

Individualism and performance

Participants, especially researchers, discussed the culture of individualism and performance that characterizes the academic environment. In glorifying excellence, some universities value performance and productivity, often at the expense of psychological well-being and work-life balance (i.e., work overload and burnout). Participants noted that there are ethical silences in their organizations on this issue, and that the culture of individualism and performance is not challenged for fear of retribution or simply to survive, i.e., to perform as expected. Participants felt that this culture can have a significant negative impact on the quality of the research conducted, as research teams try to maximize the quantity of their work (instead of quality) in a highly competitive context, which is then exacerbated by a lack of resources and support, and where everything must be done too quickly.

The work-life balance with the professional ethics related to work in a context where you have too much and you have to do a lot, it is difficult to balance all that and there is a lot of pressure to perform. If you don’t produce enough, that’s it; after that, you can’t get any more funds, so that puts pressure on you to do more and more and more (participant 3). There is a culture, I don’t know where it comes from, and that is extremely bureaucratic. If you dare to raise something, you’re going to have many, many problems. They’re going to make you understand it. So, I don’t talk. It is better: your life will be easier. I think there are times when you have to talk (…) because there are going to be irreparable consequences. (…) I’m not talking about a climate of terror, because that’s exaggerated, it’s not true, people are not afraid. But people close their office door and say nothing because it’s going to make their work impossible and they’re not going to lose their job, they’re not going to lose money, but researchers need time to be focused, so they close their office door and say nothing (participant 16).

Researchers must produce more and more, and they feel little support in terms of how to do such production, ethically, and how much exactly they are expected to produce. As this participant reports, the expectation is an unspoken rule: more is always better.

It’s sometimes the lack of a clear line on what the expectations are as a researcher, like, “ah, we don’t have any specific expectations, but produce, produce, produce, produce.” So, in that context, it’s hard to be able to put the line precisely: “have I done enough for my work?” (participant 3).

Inadequate ethical Guidance

While the productivity expectation is not clear, some participants – including researchers, research ethics experts, and REB members – also felt that the ethical expectations of some REBs were unclear. The issue of the inadequate ethical guidance of research includes the administrative mechanisms to ensure that research projects respect the principles of research ethics. According to those participants, the forms required for both researchers and REB members are increasingly long and numerous, and one participant noted that the standards to be met are sometimes outdated and disconnected from the reality of the field. Multicentre ethics review (by several REBs) was also critiqued by a participant as an inefficient method that encumbers the processes for reviewing research projects. Bureaucratization imposes an ever-increasing number of forms and ethics guidelines that actually hinder researchers’ ethical reflection on the issues at stake, leading the ethics review process to be perceived as purely bureaucratic in nature.

The ethical dimension and the ethical review of projects have become increasingly bureaucratized. (…) When I first started working (…) it was less bureaucratic, less strict then. I would say [there are now] tons of forms to fill out. Of course, we can’t do without it, it’s one of the ways of marking out ethics and ensuring that there are ethical considerations in research, but I wonder if it hasn’t become too bureaucratized, so that it’s become a kind of technical reflex to fill out these forms, and I don’t know if people really do ethical reflection as such anymore (participant 10). The fundamental structural issue, I would say, is the mismatch between the normative requirements and the real risks posed by the research, i.e., we have many, many requirements to meet; we have very long forms to fill out but the research projects we evaluate often pose few risks (participant 8). People [in vulnerable situations] were previously unable to participate because of overly strict research ethics rules that were to protect them, but in the end [these rules] did not protect them. There was a perverse effect, because in the end there was very little research done with these people and that’s why we have very few results, very little evidence [to support practices with these populations] so it didn’t improve the quality of services. (…) We all understand that we have to be careful with that, but when the research is not too risky, we say to ourselves that it would be good because for once a researcher who is interested in that population, because it is not a very popular population, it would be interesting to have results, but often we are blocked by the norms, and then we can’t accept [the project] (participant 2).

Moreover, as one participant noted, accessing ethics training can be a challenge.

There is no course on research ethics. […] Then, I find that it’s boring because you go through university and you come to do your research and you know how to do quantitative and qualitative research, but all the research ethics, where do you get this? I don’t really know (participant 13).

Yet, such training could provide relevant tools to resolve, to some extent, the ethical issues that commonly arise in research. That said, and as noted by many participants, many ethical issues in research are related to social injustices over which research actors have little influence.

Social Injustices

For many participants, notably researchers, the issues that concern social injustices are those related to power asymmetries, stigma, or issues of equity, diversity, and inclusion, i.e., social injustices related to people’s identities (Blais & Drolet, 2022 ). Participants reported experiencing or witnessing discrimination from peers, administration, or lab managers. Such oppression is sometimes cross-sectional and related to a person’s age, cultural background, gender or social status.

I have my African colleague who was quite successful when he arrived but had a backlash from colleagues in the department. I think it’s unconscious, nobody is overtly racist. But I have a young person right now who is the same, who has the same success, who got exactly the same early career award and I don’t see the same backlash. He’s just as happy with what he’s doing. It’s normal, they’re young and they have a lot of success starting out. So, I think there is discrimination. Is it because he is African? Is it because he is black? I think it’s on a subconscious level (participant 16).

Social injustices were experienced or reported by many participants, and included issues related to difficulties in obtaining grants or disseminating research results in one’s native language (i.e., even when there is official bilingualism) or being considered credible and fundable in research when one researcher is a woman.

If you do international research, there are things you can’t talk about (…). It is really a barrier to research to not be able to (…) address this question [i.e. the question of inequalities between men and women]. Women’s inequality is going to be addressed [but not within the country where the research takes place as if this inequality exists elsewhere but not here]. There are a lot of women working on inequality issues, doing work and it’s funny because I was talking to a young woman who works at Cairo University and she said to me: “Listen, I saw what you had written, you’re right. I’m willing to work on this but guarantee me a position at your university with a ticket to go”. So yes, there are still many barriers [for women in research] (participant 16).

Because of the varied contextual characteristics that intervene in their occurrence, these social injustices are also related to distributive injustices, as discussed by many participants.

Distributive Injustices

Although there are several views of distributive justice, a classical definition such as that of Aristotle ( 2012 ), describes distributive justice as consisting in distributing honours, wealth, and other social resources or benefits among the members of a community in proportion to their alleged merit. Justice, then, is about determining an equitable distribution of common goods. Contemporary theories of distributive justice are numerous and varied. Indeed, many authors (e.g., Fraser 2011 ; Mills, 2017 ; Sen, 2011 ; Young, 2011 ) have, since Rawls ( 1971 ), proposed different visions of how social burdens and benefits should be shared within a community to ensure equal respect, fairness, and distribution. In our study, what emerges from participants’ narratives is a definite concern for this type of justice. Women researchers, francophone researchers, early career researchers or researchers belonging to racialized groups all discussed inequities in the distribution of research grants and awards, and the extra work they need to do to somehow prove their worth. These inequities are related to how granting agencies determine which projects will be funded.

These situations make me work 2–3 times harder to prove myself and to show people in power that I have a place as a woman in research (participant 12). Number one: it’s conservative thinking. The older ones control what comes in. So, the younger people have to adapt or they don’t get funded (participant 14).

Whether it is discrimination against stigmatized or marginalized populations or interest in certain hot topics, granting agencies judge research projects according to criteria that are sometimes questionable, according to those participants. Faced with difficulties in obtaining funding for their projects, several strategies – some of which are unethical – are used by researchers in order to cope with these situations.

Sometimes there are subjects that everyone goes to, such as nanotechnology (…), artificial intelligence or (…) the therapeutic use of cannabis, which are very fashionable, and this is sometimes to the detriment of other research that is just as relevant, but which is (…), less sexy, less in the spirit of the time. (…) Sometimes this can lead to inequities in the funding of certain research sectors (participant 9). When we use our funds, we get them given to us, we pretty much say what we think we’re going to do with them, but things change… So, when these things change, sometimes it’s an ethical decision, but by force of circumstances I’m obliged to change the project a little bit (…). Is it ethical to make these changes or should I just let the money go because I couldn’t use it the way I said I would? (participant 3).

Moreover, these distributional injustices are not only linked to social injustices, but also epistemic injustices. Indeed, the way in which research honours and grants are distributed within the academic community depends on the epistemic authority of the researchers, which seems to vary notably according to their language of use, their age or their gender, but also to the research design used (inductive versus deductive), their decision to use (or not use) animals in research, or to conduct activist research.

Epistemic injustices

The philosopher Fricker ( 2007 ) conceptualized the notions of epistemic justice and injustice. Epistemic injustice refers to a form of social inequality that manifests itself in the access, recognition, and production of knowledge as well as the various forms of ignorance that arise (Godrie & Dos Santos, 2017 ). Addressing epistemic injustice necessitates acknowledging the iniquitous wrongs suffered by certain groups of socially stigmatized individuals who have been excluded from knowledge, thus limiting their abilities to interpret, understand, or be heard and account for their experiences. In this study, epistemic injustices were experienced or reported by some participants, notably those related to difficulties in obtaining grants or disseminating research results in one’s native language (i.e., even when there is official bilingualism) or being considered credible and fundable in research when a researcher is a woman or an early career researcher.

I have never sent a grant application to the federal government in English. I have always done it in French, even though I know that when you receive the review, you can see that reviewers didn’t understand anything because they are English-speaking. I didn’t want to get in the boat. It’s not my job to translate, because let’s be honest, I’m not as good in English as I am in French. So, I do them in my first language, which is the language I’m most used to. Then, technically at the administrative level, they are supposed to be able to do it, but they are not good in French. (…) Then, it’s a very big Canadian ethical issue, because basically there are technically two official languages, but Canada is not a bilingual country, it’s a country with two languages, either one or the other. (…) So I was not funded (participant 14).

Researchers who use inductive (or qualitative) methods observed that their projects are sometimes less well reviewed or understood, while research that adopts a hypothetical-deductive (or quantitative) or mixed methods design is better perceived, considered more credible and therefore more easily funded. Of course, regardless of whether a research project adopts an inductive, deductive or mixed-methods scientific design, or whether it deals with qualitative or quantitative data, it must respect a set of scientific criteria. A research project should achieve its objectives by using proven methods that, in the case of inductive research, are credible, reliable, and transferable or, in the case of deductive research, generalizable, objective, representative, and valid (Drolet & Ruest, accepted ). Participants discussing these issues noted that researchers who adopt a qualitative design or those who question the relevance of animal experimentation or are not militant have sometimes been unfairly devalued in their epistemic authority.

There is a mini war between quantitative versus qualitative methods, which I think is silly because science is a method. If you apply the method well, it doesn’t matter what the field is, it’s done well and it’s perfect ” (participant 14). There is also the issue of the place of animals in our lives, because for me, ethics is human ethics, but also animal ethics. Then, there is a great evolution in society on the role of the animal… with the new law that came out in Quebec on the fact that animals are sensitive beings. Then, with the rise of the vegan movement, [we must ask ourselves]: “Do animals still have a place in research?” That’s a big question and it also means that there are practices that need to evolve, but sometimes there’s a disconnection between what’s expected by research ethics boards versus what’s expected in the field (participant 15). In research today, we have more and more research that is militant from an ideological point of view. And so, we have researchers, because they defend values that seem important to them, we’ll talk for example about the fight for equality and social justice. They have pressure to defend a form of moral truth and have the impression that everyone thinks like them or should do so, because they are defending a moral truth. This is something that we see more and more, namely the lack of distance between ideology and science (participant 8).

The combination or intersectionality of these inequities, which seems to be characterized by a lack of ethical support and guidance, is experienced in the highly competitive and individualistic context of research; it provides therefore the perfect recipe for researchers to experience ethical distress.

Ethical distress

The concept of “ethical distress” refers to situations in which people know what they should do to act ethically, but encounter barriers, generally of an organizational or systemic nature, limiting their power to act according to their moral or ethical values (Drolet & Ruest, 2021 ; Jameton, 1984 ; Swisher et al., 2005 ). People then run the risk of finding themselves in a situation where they do not act as their ethical conscience dictates, which in the long term has the potential for exhaustion and distress. The examples reported by participants in this study point to the fact that researchers in particular may be experiencing significant ethical distress. This distress takes place in a context of extreme competition, constant injunctions to perform, and where administrative demands are increasingly numerous and complex to complete, while paradoxically, they lack the time to accomplish all their tasks and responsibilities. Added to these demands are a lack of resources (human, ethical, and financial), a lack of support and recognition, and interpersonal conflicts.

We are in an environment, an elite one, you are part of it, you know what it is: “publish or perish” is the motto. Grants, there is a high level of performance required, to do a lot, to publish, to supervise students, to supervise them well, so yes, it is clear that we are in an environment that is conducive to distress. (…). Overwork, definitely, can lead to distress and eventually to exhaustion. When you know that you should take the time to read the projects before sharing them, but you don’t have the time to do that because you have eight that came in the same day, and then you have others waiting… Then someone rings a bell and says: “ah but there, the protocol is a bit incomplete”. Oh yes, look at that, you’re right. You make up for it, but at the same time it’s a bit because we’re in a hurry, we don’t necessarily have the resources or are able to take the time to do things well from the start, we have to make up for it later. So yes, it can cause distress (participant 9). My organization wanted me to apply in English, and I said no, and everyone in the administration wanted me to apply in English, and I always said no. Some people said: “Listen, I give you the choice”, then some people said: “Listen, I agree with you, but if you’re not [submitting] in English, you won’t be funded”. Then the fact that I am young too, because very often they will look at the CV, they will not look at the project: “ah, his CV is not impressive, we will not finance him”. This is complete nonsense. The person is capable of doing the project, the project is fabulous: we fund the project. So, that happened, organizational barriers: that happened a lot. I was not eligible for Quebec research funds (…). I had big organizational barriers unfortunately (participant 14). At the time of my promotion, some colleagues were not happy with the type of research I was conducting. I learned – you learn this over time when you become friends with people after you enter the university – that someone was against me. He had another candidate in mind, and he was angry about the selection. I was under pressure for the first three years until my contract was renewed. I almost quit at one point, but another colleague told me, “No, stay, nothing will happen”. Nothing happened, but these issues kept me awake at night (participant 16).

This difficult context for many researchers affects not only the conduct of their own research, but also their participation in research. We faced this problem in our study, despite the use of multiple recruitment methods, including more than 200 emails – of which 191 were individual solicitations – sent to potential participants by the two research assistants. REB members and organizations overseeing or supporting research (n = 17) were also approached to see if some of their employees would consider participating. While it was relatively easy to recruit REB members and research ethics experts, our team received a high number of non-responses to emails (n = 175) and some refusals (n = 5), especially by researchers. The reasons given by those who replied were threefold: (a) fear of being easily identified should they take part in the research, (b) being overloaded and lacking time, and (c) the intrusive aspect of certain questions (i.e., “Have you experienced a burnout episode? If so, have you been followed up medically or psychologically?”). In light of these difficulties and concerns, some questions in the socio-demographic questionnaire were removed or modified. Talking about burnout in research remains a taboo for many researchers, which paradoxically can only contribute to the unresolved problem of unhealthy research environments.

Returning to the research question and objective

The question that prompted this research was: What are the ethical issues in research? The purpose of the study was to describe these issues from the perspective of researchers (from different disciplines), research ethics board (REB) members, and research ethics experts. The previous section provided a detailed portrait of the ethical issues experienced by different research stakeholders: these issues are numerous, diverse and were recounted by a range of stakeholders.

The results of the study are generally consistent with the literature. For example, as in our study, the literature discusses the lack of research integrity on the part of some researchers (Al-Hidabi et al., 2018 ; Swazey et al., 1993 ), the numerous conflicts of interest experienced in research (Williams-Jones et al., 2013 ), the issues of recruiting and obtaining the free and informed consent of research participants (Provencher et al., 2014 ; Keogh & Daly, 2009 ), the sometimes difficult relations between researchers and REBs (Drolet & Girard, 2020 ), the epistemological issues experienced in research (Drolet & Ruest, accepted; Sieber 2004 ), as well as the harmful academic context in which researchers evolve, insofar as this is linked to a culture of performance, an overload of work in a context of accountability (Berg & Seeber, 2016 ; FQPPU; 2019 ) that is conducive to ethical distress and even burnout.

If the results of the study are generally in line with those of previous publications on the subject, our findings also bring new elements to the discussion while complementing those already documented. In particular, our results highlight the role of systemic injustices – be they social, distributive or epistemic – within the environments in which research is carried out, at least in Canada. To summarize, the results of our study point to the fact that the relationships between researchers and research participants are likely still to raise worrying ethical issues, despite widely accepted research ethics norms and institutionalized review processes. Further, the context in which research is carried out is not only conducive to breaches of ethical norms and instances of misbehaviour or misconduct, but also likely to be significantly detrimental to the health and well-being of researchers, as well as research assistants. Another element that our research also highlighted is the instrumentalization and even exploitation of students and research assistants, which is another important and worrying social injustice given the inevitable power imbalances between students and researchers.

Moreover, in a context in which ethical issues are often discussed from a micro perspective, our study helps shed light on both the micro- and macro-level ethical dimensions of research (Bronfenbrenner, 1979 ; Glaser 1994 ). However, given that ethical issues in research are not only diverse, but also and above all complex, a broader perspective that encompasses the interplay between the micro and macro dimensions can enable a better understanding of these issues and thereby support the identification of the multiple factors that may be at their origin. Triangulating the perspectives of researchers with those of REB members and research ethics experts enabled us to bring these elements to light, and thus to step back from and critique the way that research is currently conducted. To this end, attention to socio-political elements such as the performance culture in academia or how research funds are distributed, and according to what explicit and implicit criteria, can contribute to identifying the sources of the ethical issues described above.

Contemporary culture characterized by the social acceleration

The German sociologist and philosopher Rosa (2010) argues that late modernity – that is, the period between the 1980s and today – is characterized by a phenomenon of social acceleration that causes various forms of alienation in our relationship to time, space, actions, things, others and ourselves. Rosa distinguishes three types of acceleration: technical acceleration , the acceleration of social changes and the acceleration of the rhythm of life . According to Rosa, social acceleration is the main problem of late modernity, in that the invisible social norm of doing more and faster to supposedly save time operates unchallenged at all levels of individual and collective life, as well as organizational and social life. Although we all, researchers and non-researchers alike, perceive this unspoken pressure to be ever more productive, the process of social acceleration as a new invisible social norm is our blind spot, a kind of tyrant over which we have little control. This conceptualization of the contemporary culture can help us to understand the context in which research is conducted (like other professional practices). To this end, Berg & Seeber ( 2016 ) invite faculty researchers to slow down in order to better reflect and, in the process, take care of their health and their relationships with their colleagues and students. Many women professors encourage their fellow researchers, especially young women researchers, to learn to “say No” in order to protect their mental and physical health and to remain in their academic careers (Allaire & Descheneux, 2022 ). These authors also remind us of the relevance of Kahneman’s ( 2012 ) work which demonstrates that it takes time to think analytically, thoroughly, and logically. Conversely, thinking quickly exposes humans to cognitive and implicit biases that then lead to errors in thinking (e.g., in the analysis of one’s own research data or in the evaluation of grant applications or student curriculum vitae). The phenomenon of social acceleration, which pushes the researcher to think faster and faster, is likely to lead to unethical bad science that can potentially harm humankind. In sum, Rosa’s invitation to contemporary critical theorists to seriously consider the problem of social acceleration is particularly insightful to better understand the ethical issues of research. It provides a lens through which to view the toxic context in which research is conducted today, and one that was shared by the participants in our study.

Clark & Sousa ( 2022 ) note, it is important that other criteria than the volume of researchers’ contributions be valued in research, notably quality. Ultimately, it is the value of the knowledge produced and its influence on the concrete lives of humans and other living beings that matters, not the quantity of publications. An interesting articulation of this view in research governance is seen in a change in practice by Australia’s national health research funder: they now restrict researchers to listing on their curriculum vitae only the top ten publications from the past ten years (rather than all of their publications), in order to evaluate the quality of contributions rather than their quantity. To create environments conducive to the development of quality research, it is important to challenge the phenomenon of social acceleration, which insidiously imposes a quantitative normativity that is both alienating and detrimental to the quality and ethical conduct of research. Based on our experience, we observe that the social norm of acceleration actively disfavours the conduct of empirical research on ethics in research. The fact is that researchers are so busy that it is almost impossible for them to find time to participate in such studies. Further, operating in highly competitive environments, while trying to respect the values and ethical principles of research, creates ethical paradoxes for members of the research community. According to Malherbe ( 1999 ), an ethical paradox is a situation where an individual is confronted by contradictory injunctions (i.e., do more, faster, and better). And eventually, ethical paradoxes lead individuals to situations of distress and burnout, or even to ethical failures (i.e., misbehaviour or misconduct) in the face of the impossibility of responding to contradictory injunctions.

Strengths and Limitations of the study

The triangulation of perceptions and experiences of different actors involved in research is a strength of our study. While there are many studies on the experiences of researchers, rarely are members of REBs and experts in research ethics given the space to discuss their views of what are ethical issues. Giving each of these stakeholders a voice and comparing their different points of view helped shed a different and complementary light on the ethical issues that occur in research. That said, it would have been helpful to also give more space to issues experienced by students or research assistants, as the relationships between researchers and research assistants are at times very worrying, as noted by a participant, and much work still needs to be done to eliminate the exploitative situations that seem to prevail in certain research settings. In addition, no Indigenous or gender diverse researchers participated in the study. Given the ethical issues and systemic injustices that many people from these groups face in Canada (Drolet & Goulet, 2018 ; Nicole & Drolet, in press ), research that gives voice to these researchers would be relevant and contribute to knowledge development, and hopefully also to change in research culture.

Further, although most of the ethical issues discussed in this article may be transferable to the realities experienced by researchers in other countries, the epistemic injustice reported by Francophone researchers who persist in doing research in French in Canada – which is an officially bilingual country but in practice is predominantly English – is likely specific to the Canadian reality. In addition, and as mentioned above, recruitment proved exceedingly difficult, particularly amongst researchers. Despite this difficulty, we obtained data saturation for all but two themes – i.e., exploitation of students and ethical issues of research that uses animals. It follows that further empirical research is needed to improve our understanding of these specific issues, as they may diverge to some extent from those documented here and will likely vary across countries and academic research contexts.

Conclusions

This study, which gave voice to researchers, REB members, and ethics experts, reveals that the ethical issues in research are related to several problematic elements as power imbalances and authority relations. Researchers and research assistants are subject to external pressures that give rise to integrity issues, among others ethical issues. Moreover, the current context of social acceleration influences the definition of the performance indicators valued in academic institutions and has led their members to face several ethical issues, including social, distributive, and epistemic injustices, at different steps of the research process. In this study, ten categories of ethical issues were identified, described and illustrated: (1) research integrity, (2) conflicts of interest, (3) respect for research participants, (4) lack of supervision and power imbalances, (5) individualism and performance, (6) inadequate ethical guidance, (7) social injustices, (8) distributive injustices, (9) epistemic injustices, and (10) ethical distress. The triangulation of the perspectives of different members (i.e., researchers from different disciplines, REB members, research ethics experts, and one research assistant) involved in the research process made it possible to lift the veil on some of these ethical issues. Further, it enabled the identification of additional ethical issues, especially systemic injustices experienced in research. To our knowledge, this is the first time that these injustices (social, distributive, and epistemic injustices) have been clearly identified.

Finally, this study brought to the fore several problematic elements that are important to address if the research community is to develop and implement the solutions needed to resolve the diverse and transversal ethical issues that arise in research institutions. A good starting point is the rejection of the corollary norms of “publish or perish” and “do more, faster, and better” and their replacement with “publish quality instead of quantity”, which necessarily entails “do less, slower, and better”. It is also important to pay more attention to the systemic injustices within which researchers work, because these have the potential to significantly harm the academic careers of many researchers, including women researchers, early career researchers, and those belonging to racialized groups as well as the health, well-being, and respect of students and research participants.

Acknowledgements

The team warmly thanks the participants who took part in the research and who made this study possible. Marie-Josée Drolet thanks the five research assistants who participated in the data collection and analysis: Julie-Claude Leblanc, Élie Beauchemin, Pénéloppe Bernier, Louis-Pierre Côté, and Eugénie Rose-Derouin, all students at the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières (UQTR), two of whom were active in the writing of this article. MJ Drolet and Bryn Williams-Jones also acknowledge the financial contribution of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC), which supported this research through a grant. We would also like to thank the reviewers of this article who helped us improve it, especially by clarifying and refining our ideas.

Competing Interests and Funding

As noted in the Acknowledgements, this research was supported financially by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Al-Hidabi, Abdulmalek, M. D., & The, P. L. (2018). Multiple Publications: The Main Reason for the Retraction of Papers in Computer Science. In K. Arai, S. Kapoor, & R. Bhatia (eds), Future of Information and Communication Conference (FICC): Advances in Information and Communication, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing (AISC), Springer, vol. 886, pp. 511–526
• Allaire, S., & Deschenaux, F. (2022). Récits de professeurs d’université à mi-carrière. Si c’était à refaire… . Presses de l’Université du Québec
• Aristotle . Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bahn S. Keeping Academic Field Researchers Safe: Ethical Safeguards. Journal of Academic Ethics. 2012; 10 :83–91. doi: 10.1007/s10805-012-9159-2. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Balk DE. Bereavement Research Using Control Groups: Ethical Obligations and Questions. Death Studies. 1995; 19 :123–138. doi: 10.1080/07481189508252720. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Beauchemin, É., Côté, L. P., Drolet, M. J., & Williams-Jones, B. (2021). Conceptualizing Ethical Issues in the Conduct of Research: Results from a Critical and Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Academic Ethics , Early Online. 10.1007/s10805-021-09411-7
• Berg, M., & Seeber, B. K. (2016). The Slow Professor . University of Toronto Press
• Birchley G, Huxtable R, Murtagh M, Meulen RT, Flach P, Gooberman-Hill R. Smart homes, private homes? An empirical study of technology researchers’ perceptions of ethical issues in developing smart-home health technologies. BMC Medical Ethics. 2017; 18 (23):1–13. doi: 10.1186/s12910-017-0183-z. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Blais, J., & Drolet, M. J. (2022). Les injustices sociales vécues en camp de réfugiés: les comprendre pour mieux intervenir auprès de personnes ayant séjourné dans un camp de réfugiés. Recueil annuel belge d’ergothérapie , 14, 37–48
• Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2006). Qualitative research in education: An introduction to theory and methods . Allyn & Bacon
• Bouffard C. Le développement des pratiques de la génétique médicale et la construction des normes bioéthiques. Anthropologie et Sociétés. 2000; 24 (2):73–90. doi: 10.7202/015650ar. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human development. Experiments by nature and design . Harvard University Press
• Bruhn JG, Zajac G, Al-Kazemi AA, Prescott LD. Moral positions and academic conduct: Parameters of tolerance for ethics failure. Journal of Higher Education. 2002; 73 (4):461–493. doi: 10.1353/jhe.2002.0033. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Clark, A., & Sousa (2022). It’s time to end Canada’s obsession with research quantity. University Affairs/Affaires universitaires , February 14th. https://www.universityaffairs.ca/career-advice/effective-successfull-happy-academic/its-time-to-end-canadas-obsession-with-research-quantity/?utm_source=University+Affairs+e-newsletter&utm_campaign=276a847f 70-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2022_02_16&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_314bc2ee29-276a847f70-425259989
• Colnerud G. Ethical dilemmas in research in relation to ethical review: An empirical study. Research Ethics. 2015; 10 (4):238–253. doi: 10.1177/1747016114552339. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Davison J. Dilemmas in Research: Issues of Vulnerability and Disempowerment for the Social Workers/Researcher. Journal of Social Work Practice. 2004; 18 (3):379–393. doi: 10.1080/0265053042000314447. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• DePoy E, Gitlin LN. Introduction to Research. St. Louis: Elsevier Mosby; 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Drolet, M. J., & Goulet, M. (2018). Travailler avec des patients autochtones du Canada ? Perceptions d’ergothérapeutes du Québec des enjeux éthiques de cette pratique. Recueil annuel belge francophone d’ergothérapie , 10 , 25–56
• Drolet MJ, Girard K. Les enjeux éthiques de la recherche en ergothérapie: un portrait préoccupant. Revue canadienne de bioéthique. 2020; 3 (3):21–40. doi: 10.7202/1073779ar. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Drolet MJ, Girard K, Gaudet R. Les enjeux éthiques de l’enseignement en ergothérapie: des injustices au sein des départements universitaires. Revue canadienne de bioéthique. 2020; 3 (1):22–36. [ Google Scholar ]
• Drolet MJ, Maclure J. Les enjeux éthiques de la pratique de l’ergothérapie: perceptions d’ergothérapeutes. Revue Approches inductives. 2016; 3 (2):166–196. doi: 10.7202/1037918ar. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Drolet MJ, Pinard C, Gaudet R. Les enjeux éthiques de la pratique privée: des ergothérapeutes du Québec lancent un cri d’alarme. Ethica – Revue interdisciplinaire de recherche en éthique. 2017; 21 (2):173–209. [ Google Scholar ]
• Drolet MJ, Ruest M. De l’éthique à l’ergothérapie: un cadre théorique et une méthode pour soutenir la pratique professionnelle. Québec: Presses de l’Université du Québec; 2021. [ Google Scholar ]
• Drolet, M. J., & Ruest, M. (accepted). Quels sont les enjeux éthiques soulevés par la recherche scientifique? In M. Lalancette & J. Luckerhoff (dir). Initiation au travail intellectuel et à la recherche . Québec: Presses de l’Université du Québec, 18 p
• Drolet MJ, Sauvageau A, Baril N, Gaudet R. Les enjeux éthiques de la formation clinique en ergothérapie. Revue Approches inductives. 2019; 6 (1):148–179. doi: 10.7202/1060048ar. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fédération québécoise des professeures et des professeurs d’université (FQPPU) Enquête nationale sur la surcharge administrative du corps professoral universitaire québécois. Principaux résultats et pistes d’action. Montréal: FQPPU; 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fortin MH. Fondements et étapes du processus de recherche. Méthodes quantitatives et qualitatives. Montréal, QC: Chenelière éducation; 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fraser DM. Ethical dilemmas and practical problems for the practitioner researcher. Educational Action Research. 1997; 5 (1):161–171. doi: 10.1080/09650799700200014. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fraser, N. (2011). Qu’est-ce que la justice sociale? Reconnaissance et redistribution . La Découverte
• Fricker, M. (2007). Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing . Oxford University Press
• Giorgi A, et al. De la méthode phénoménologique utilisée comme mode de recherche qualitative en sciences humaines: théories, pratique et évaluation. In: Poupart J, Groulx LH, Deslauriers JP, et al., editors. La recherche qualitative: enjeux épistémologiques et méthodologiques. Boucherville, QC: Gaëtan Morin; 1997. pp. 341–364. [ Google Scholar ]
• Giorgini V, Mecca JT, Gibson C, Medeiros K, Mumford MD, Connelly S, Devenport LD. Researcher Perceptions of Ethical Guidelines and Codes of Conduct. Accountability in Research. 2016; 22 (3):123–138. doi: 10.1080/08989621.2014.955607. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Glaser, J. W. (1994). Three realms of ethics: Individual, institutional, societal. Theoretical model and case studies . Kansas Cuty, Sheed & Ward
• Godrie B, Dos Santos M. Présentation: inégalités sociales, production des savoirs et de l’ignorance. Sociologie et sociétés. 2017; 49 (1):7. doi: 10.7202/1042804ar. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hammell KW, Carpenter C, Dyck I. Using Qualitative Research: A Practical Introduction for Occupational and Physical Therapists. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2000. [ Google Scholar ]
• Henderson M, Johnson NF, Auld G. Silences of ethical practice: dilemmas for researchers using social media. Educational Research and Evaluation. 2013; 19 (6):546–560. doi: 10.1080/13803611.2013.805656. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Husserl E. The crisis of European sciences and transcendental phenomenology. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press; 1970. [ Google Scholar ]
• Husserl E. The train of thoughts in the lectures. In: Polifroni EC, Welch M, editors. Perspectives on Philosophy of Science in Nursing. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott; 1999. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hunt SD, Chonko LB, Wilcox JB. Ethical problems of marketing researchers. Journal of Marketing Research. 1984; 21 :309–324. doi: 10.1177/002224378402100308. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hunt MR, Carnevale FA. Moral experience: A framework for bioethics research. Journal of Medical Ethics. 2011; 37 (11):658–662. doi: 10.1136/jme.2010.039008. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jameton, A. (1984). Nursing practice: The ethical issues . Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall
• Jarvis K. Dilemmas in International Research and the Value of Practical Wisdom. Developing World Bioethics. 2017; 17 (1):50–58. doi: 10.1111/dewb.12121. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kahneman D. Système 1, système 2: les deux vitesses de la pensée. Paris: Flammarion; 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
• Keogh B, Daly L. The ethics of conducting research with mental health service users. British Journal of Nursing. 2009; 18 (5):277–281. doi: 10.12968/bjon.2009.18.5.40539. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lierville AL, Grou C, Pelletier JF. Enjeux éthiques potentiels liés aux partenariats patients en psychiatrie: État de situation à l’Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Montréal. Santé mentale au Québec. 2015; 40 (1):119–134. doi: 10.7202/1032386ar. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lynöe N, Sandlund M, Jacobsson L. Research ethics committees: A comparative study of assessment of ethical dilemmas. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. 1999; 27 (2):152–159. doi: 10.1177/14034948990270020401. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Malherbe JF. Compromis, dilemmes et paradoxes en éthique clinique. Anjou: Éditions Fides; 1999. [ Google Scholar ]
• McGinn R. Discernment and denial: Nanotechnology researchers’ recognition of ethical responsibilities related to their work. NanoEthics. 2013; 7 :93–105. doi: 10.1007/s11569-013-0174-6. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mills, C. W. (2017). Black Rights / White rongs. The Critique of Racial Liberalism . Oxford University Press
• Miyazaki AD, Taylor KA. Researcher interaction biases and business ethics research: Respondent reactions to researcher characteristics. Journal of Business Ethics. 2008; 81 (4):779–795. doi: 10.1007/s10551-007-9547-5. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mondain N, Bologo E. L’intentionnalité du chercheur dans ses pratiques de production des connaissances: les enjeux soulevés par la construction des données en démographie et santé en Afrique. Cahiers de recherche sociologique. 2009; 48 :175–204. doi: 10.7202/039772ar. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nicole, M., & Drolet, M. J. (in press). Fitting transphobia and cisgenderism in occupational therapy, Occupational Therapy Now
• Pope KS, Vetter VA. Ethical dilemmas encountered by members of the American Psychological Association: A national survey. The American Psychologist. 1992; 47 (3):397–411. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.47.3.397. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Provencher V, Mortenson WB, Tanguay-Garneau L, Bélanger K, Dagenais M. Challenges and strategies pertaining to recruitment and retention of frail elderly in research studies: A systematic review. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 2014; 59 (1):18–24. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2014.03.006. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice . Harvard University Press
• Resnik DB, Elliott KC. The Ethical Challenges of Socially Responsible Science. Accountability in Research. 2016; 23 (1):31–46. doi: 10.1080/08989621.2014.1002608. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rosa, H. (2010). Accélération et aliénation. Vers une théorie critique de la modernité tardive . Paris, Découverte
• Sen, A. K. (2011). The Idea of Justice . The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
• Sen, A. K. (1995). Inegality Reexaminated . Oxford University Press
• Sieber JE. Empirical Research on Research Ethics. Ethics & Behavior. 2004; 14 (4):397–412. doi: 10.1207/s15327019eb1404_9. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sigmon ST. Ethical practices and beliefs of psychopathology researchers. Ethics & Behavior. 1995; 5 (4):295–309. doi: 10.1207/s15327019eb0504_1. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Swazey JP, Anderson MS, Lewis KS. Ethical Problems in Academic Research. American Scientist. 1993; 81 (6):542–553. [ Google Scholar ]
• Swisher LL, Arsalanian LE, Davis CM. The realm-individual-process-situation (RIPS) model of ethical decision-making. HPA Resource. 2005; 5 (3):3–8. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS2) (2018). Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans . Government of Canada, Secretariat on Responsible Conduct of Research. https://ethics.gc.ca/eng/documents/tcps2-2018-en-interactive-final.pdf
• Thomas SP, Pollio HR. Listening to Patients: A Phenomenological Approach to Nursing Research and Practice. New York: Springer Publishing Company; 2002. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wiegand DL, Funk M. Consequences of clinical situations that cause critical care nurses to experience moral distress. Nursing Ethics. 2012; 19 (4):479–487. doi: 10.1177/0969733011429342. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Williams-Jones B, Potvin MJ, Mathieu G, Smith E. Barriers to research on research ethics review and conflicts of interest. IRB: Ethics & Human Research. 2013; 35 (5):14–20. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Young, I. M. (2011). Justice and the Politics of difference . Princeton University Press