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How to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

4-minute read

• 5th June 2019

Footnotes and endnotes both let you add extra information in an essay or college paper . But what should you include in these notes? And when should you use them? In this post, we run through everything you need to know about using footnotes and endnotes in academic writing.

What Are Footnotes and Endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom or “foot” of the page. You can therefore put extra information in a footnote, such as source details for a citation, without interrupting the flow of the main text.

To indicate a footnote, you can add a superscript number to the text, such as at the end of this sentence. 1 These numbers then correspond to numbered notes at the bottom of the page.

Endnotes are like footnotes, but they appear together at the end of the document rather than at the bottom of each page. Endnotes are thus less immediately accessible for the reader than footnotes, but they can help ensure that pages with multiple notes don’t become cluttered.

If you are not sure which to use, check your style guide for advice.

Footnotes and Endnotes in Microsoft Word

To insert a footnote or endnote in a Microsoft Word document, you need to:

• Go to References > Footnotes on the main ribbon
• Select either Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote as required
• Type your note in the newly created footnote/endnote

You can also customize the style of footnotes and endnotes by clicking on the arrow in the bottom right of the Footnotes section of the References tab (or by going to Insert > Footnotes in Word for Mac ). This will open a new window where you can select your preferred formatting options.

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When to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

The main uses of footnotes and endnotes are as follows:

• To add a footnote citation in referencing systems such as MHRA and Chicago , with full source information also given in a bibliography at the end of the document. Endnotes are also used for citations in some systems, such as in IEEE or Vancouver referencing, where numbers in the text point to an entry in a reference list at the end of the document.
• To add non-essential commentary on something in the main text of your document. For example, if your research has raised an interesting question that is not directly relevant to your current work, you could mention it in a footnote or endnote. This lets you acknowledge the question – showing the reader that you haven’t simply ignored or failed to notice it – but without interrupting the flow of prose in the main document.

Keep in mind, too, that some referencing systems use in-text parenthetical citations . As such, you should only reference a source in a footnote or endnote if your school has asked you to do it this way.

Do Notes Count Towards the Word Limit?

We’re often asked whether to include footnotes and endnotes in the word count for papers. Different schools have different rules about this, so you will have to check your style guide . However, you should never use these supplementary notes to cheat the word count.

The key here is that essential information should never go in a footnote or endnote. If you do move vital evidence or analysis to a note, the person marking your work may ignore it. And reducing the word count is never more important than putting forward a full, coherent argument.

If you do need to reduce the word count in an essay, you have other options, such as rewriting wordy sentences or cutting repetition. Having your work proofread is a great way to ensure that your writing is always clear and concise, too, so let us know if you’d like any help.

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What Are Footnotes and How Do You Use Them?

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Written by  Scribendi

While reading a book or article, have you ever noticed little numbers placed at the ends of some sentences?

These numbers usually appear as superscripts and correspond with numbers placed at the bottom of the page, next to which appears further information that is both necessary and supplementary. Sometimes this information will come in the form of citations, but sometimes it will simply present additional notes about the topic at hand.

These citations and explanations are called "footnotes" (because they appear in the footer of the page). Take a look at the example below to see where footnotes appear on a page:

We've outlined how to use footnotes below. Check it out!

1. What Are Footnotes?

2. footnotes vs. endnotes, 2.1 should i use footnotes or endnotes, 3. how to do footnote citations, 3.1 in-text citations, 3.2 footnotes, 4. how to use footnotes in essays, 4.1 style guides, 4.1.1 modern language association (mla), 4.1.2  american psychological association (apa), 4.1.3  chicago manual of style (cms), 5. technical guide to using footnotes, 5.1 how to add footnotes in microsoft word, 5.2 how to add footnotes in google docs, 6. final tips and tricks .

Footnotes are notes that are placed at the end of a page and used to reference parts of the text (generally using superscript numbers). Writers use footnotes for several purposes, including  citations , parenthetical information, outside sources, copyright permissions, background information, and more.

Now that you understand what footnotes are, you might be wondering: why use them? The truth is, long explanatory notes can be difficult for readers to trudge through (especially when they occur in the middle of a paper). Providing this information is necessary, but doing so in the main text can disrupt the flow of the writing.

Imagine if every time an author wanted to provide a citation, the entire citation had to be written out at the end of the sentence, like this (Anthony Grafton, The Footnote: A Curious History [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999] 221). Books would become much longer and reading would be much more tedious. That's why footnotes are so useful: they let authors provide the required information without disrupting the flow of ideas.

While footnotes are a great resource for sharing information without clogging up the writing, it's important to note that certain style guides restrict when footnotes can be used. We'll get into that soon!

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Authors can also use endnotes to avoid disrupting their writing with extraneous information. Both serve similar purposes; the main difference lies in their location in your text. Here's a closer look at how both footnotes and endnotes work.

• Identified in the main text with a small superscript number
• Used for citations, parenthetical information, outside sources, copyright permissions, background information, and more
• Provide the correlating notes at the bottom of the same page
• Identified in the main text with a small superscript number (like footnotes)
• Used for citations, parenthetical information, outside sources, copyright permissions, background information, and more (like footnotes)
• Found collectively at the end of an article, chapter, or document (unlike footnotes)

When deciding  whether to use footnotes or endnotes , authors must consider three main factors:

• The style guide being used (as some require either footnotes or endnotes)
• The number of notes being included (as having too many footnotes on each page can be distracting)
• Which option will be more convenient for the reader

To make a footnote citation, label the area of your text that you need to reference with a number (if it's your first footnote, start with "1."). At the bottom of the page, include this number with the citation. When readers see the number in the text, they know they can find the source by looking for the corresponding footnote.

Here's an example of a quoted piece of text using in-text citations vs. footnotes.

"Like the high whine of the dentist's drill, the low rumble of the footnote on the historian's page reassures" ( The Footnote: A Curious History [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press], 1999. pg. 1).

"Like the high whine of the dentist's drill, the low rumble of the footnote on the historian's page reassures." 1

[Text continues]

Bottom of the page:

1. The Footnote: A Curious History [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press], 1999. pg. 1

The exact format of your footnote depends on   the style guide  you're following. Here are some of the most common style guides for writing papers, as well as the footnote rules for each one.

Of the major style guides, The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) uses footnotes most often. However, footnotes are occasionally employed in other style guides as well. The main difference is that, while CMS uses footnotes for citation purposes, the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) generally rely on them for the provision of additional information.

While MLA style discourages the use of long footnotes or endnotes, the style guide does permit their use for directing readers to other pertinent information on a relevant subject.

The guide recommends that superscript numbers within the text are placed outside any punctuation that might be present (i.e., after a period if the note is at the end of a sentence and after a comma if the note is at the end of a clause). The exception to this is that the superscript numbers should be placed before dashes.

• When a footnote must be placed at the end of a clause, 1 add the number after the comma.
• When a footnote must be placed at the end of a sentence, add the number after the period. 2
• Numbers denoting footnotes should always appear after punctuation, with the exception of one piece of punctuation 3 —the dash.

4.1.2 American Psychological Association (APA)

Like MLA, APA discourages the use of footnotes unless absolutely necessary. Even then, the guide recommends that footnotes only be used to provide content notes (such as providing brief, supplemental information about the text or directing readers to additional information) and to denote copyright permissions. The rules regarding placement of the in-text numbers is the same in APA as in MLA.

4.1.3 The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)

Of the three main style guides described here, CMS relies on footnotes the most. While CMS does allow the author–date system of in-text referencing (i.e., providing the author's name and the date of publication in parentheses at the end of the phrase, clause, or sentence that references the work), it also offers a citation style in which footnotes or endnotes are employed. In both cases, bibliographies are also required. Whether an author should use the author–date system or footnotes is often decided by the author's professor, journal, or publisher.

As an example, if footnotes are used, the following format should be adhered to when referencing a book in CMS:

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To use footnotes in your own book, essay, or article, you must first decide on the most appropriate and logical placement of your footnotes in the text. Add numbers according to your chosen style guide, and be sure to add the numbers directly after the phrase, clause, or sentence to which the corresponding footnote refers.

Most online writing programs (such as Microsoft Word and Google Docs) come with easy-to-use tools for inserting footnotes. Here are step-by-step guides to using footnotes in both these programs.

5.2 How to Add Footnotes in Microsoft Word

Here's how to use footnotes in Microsoft Word 2021:

• Click on the place in the text where you want the first footnote to appear.
• Under the References tab, you'll see the following symbol: AB.1. Beneath this symbol is a button with the words, "Insert Footnote." Click it to create your first footnote.
• After you click that button, two numbers should appear: one number should appear in the main text, and the corresponding number should appear at the bottom of the page.
• Write your citation or additional information next to the number that appears in the footer. Format the information according to the rules of your style guide.
• You can easily return to your place in the text by clicking the number at the beginning of the footnote.

Congrats! You've created your first footnote. You can also adjust the footnote settings (like the numbering) by clicking the arrow beside the Footnotes group. It's really that easy!

Here's how to use footnotes on Google Docs:

• Under the Insert tab, click on "Footnotes."

All you really have to do to create footnotes is click a button—it couldn't be easier!

6. Final Tips and Tricks

To  improve your writing  and avoid cluttering the page, you should use footnotes sparingly and only to provide helpful additions or citations. As previously noted, this information may be considered supplementary, which is why it's best to place it away from the main portion of your writing.

When creating your footnotes, always keep reader convenience in mind, and remember that the footnotes are there to convey helpful information. If your footnotes are excessive or unnecessary, readers are likely to become annoyed—they may even be distracted from the main points of your writing.

Now that you're no longer asking "What are footnotes?" and you know how to use them according to various style guides, footnotes can become a great asset to you as a writer. Be sure to follow the recommendations above, as well as those of your preferred style guide, to ensure that you're using footnotes to their best effect. Don't forget—if you ever need help with writing, our academic articles are here for you!

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• Chicago Style Footnotes | Citation Format & Examples

Chicago Style Footnotes | Citation Format & Examples

Published on September 18, 2019 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 5, 2022.

The notes and bibliography style is one of two citation options provided by the Chicago Manual of Style . Each time a source is quoted or paraphrased , a superscript number is placed in the text, which corresponds to a footnote or endnote containing details of the source .

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page, while endnotes appear on a separate page at the end of the text.

Pay attention to the punctuation (e.g., commas , quotation marks ) in your footnotes.

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Table of contents

Full notes and short notes, placement of footnotes, content of chicago footnotes, footnote examples for different source types, footnotes vs endnotes, frequently asked questions about chicago style footnotes.

There are two types of footnote in Chicago style: full notes and short notes.

Full notes contain the full publication details of the source. The first citation of each source should be a full note.

Full note example

1. Virginia Woolf, “Modern Fiction,” in Selected Essays , ed. David Bradshaw (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 11.

Short notes contain only the author’s last name, the title (shortened if longer than four words), and the page number (if relevant). They are used for all subsequent citations of the same source. It’s also acceptable to use “ ibid. ” instead to refer to the immediately preceding source.

Short note example

2. Woolf, “Modern Fiction,” 11.

The guidelines for use of short and full notes can vary across different fields and institutions. Sometimes you might be required to use a full note for every citation, or to use a short note every time as long as all sources appear in the Chicago style bibliography . Check with your instructor if you’re unsure.

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Footnotes should be used whenever a source is quoted or paraphrased in the text. They appear at the bottom of the relevant page, corresponding to reference numbers in the text. You can easily insert footnotes in Microsoft Word .

The reference number appears in superscript at the end of the clause or sentence it refers to. It is placed after any punctuation except a dash :

Johnson argues that “the data is unconvincing.” 1

Johnson argues that “the data is unconvincing” 1 —but Smith contends that …

Notes should be numbered consecutively, starting from 1, across the whole text. Your first citation is marked with a 1, your second with a 2, and so on. The numbering does not restart with a new page or section (although in a book-length text it may restart with each new chapter).

The footnote contains the number of the citation followed by a period and then the citation itself. The citation always includes the author’s name and the title of the text, and it always ends with a period. Full notes also include all the relevant publication information in parentheses (which varies by source type ).

If you quote a source or refer to a specific passage, include a page number or range. However, if the source doesn’t have page numbers, or if you’re referring to the text as a whole, you can omit the page number.

In short notes, titles of more than four words are shortened. Shorten them in a way that retains the keyword(s) so that the text is still easily recognizable for the reader:

1. Mary Shelley, Frankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus , ed. M.K. Joseph (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 91. 2. Shelley, Frankenstein , 91.

Combining multiple citations

Do not place multiple footnotes at the same point in your text (e.g. 1, 2, 3 ). If you need to cite multiple sources in one sentence, you can combine the citations into one footnote, separated by semicolons :

1. Hulme, “Romanticism and Classicism”; Eliot, The Waste Land ; Woolf, “Modern Fiction,” 11.

Sources with multiple authors

Footnotes for sources with two or three authors should include all the authors’ names. When there are four or more authors, add “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”) after the first author’s name.

Missing information

You sometimes won’t have all the information required for your citation. You might be missing page numbers, the author’s name, or the publication date.

If one of your sources (e.g., a website ) has no page numbers, but you still think it’s important to cite a specific part of the text, other locators like headings , chapters or paragraphs can be used. Abbreviate words like “paragraph” to “par.” and “chapter” to “chap.”, and put headings in quotation marks :

1. Johnson, “Literature Review,” chap. 2.1 . 2. Smith, “Thematic Analysis,” under “Methodology.”

If the source lacks a stated publication date, the abbreviation “n.d.” (no date) should replace the year in a full note:

1. Smith, Data Analysis (New York: Norton, n.d. ), 293.

If a text doesn’t list its author’s name, the organization that published it can be treated as the author in your citation:

1. Scribbr , “Chicago Style Citation.”

If you use a website name as an author, you may end up repeating the same information twice in one citation. Omit the website name from its usual place if you’ve already listed it in place of the author.

Short notes usually look similar regardless of source type—author, title, page number. However, the information included in full notes varies according to the source you’re citing. Below are examples for several common source types, showing how the footnote should look in Chicago format .

Chicago book citation

Italicize the book title. If the book states an edition (other than the first), include this and abbreviate it (e.g., 2nd ed., rev. ed.). Add the URL if you consulted the book online instead of in a physical copy.

Chicago book chapter citation

Sometimes you’ll cite from one chapter in a book containing texts by multiple authors—for example, a compilation of essays. In this case, you’ll want to cite the relevant chapter rather than the whole book.

The chapter title should be enclosed in quotation marks , while the book title should be italicized. The short note only contains the chapter title.

The author is the one who wrote the specific chapter you’re citing. The editor of the whole book is listed toward the end of the footnote (with the abbreviation “ed.”), and left out of the short note.

Chicago journal article citation

The article title should be enclosed in quotation marks, while the journal name should be italicized. Volume and issue numbers identify which edition of the journal the source appears in.

A DOI is a digital object identifier. This is generally more reliable than the URL when linking to online journal content.

Chicago website citation

The page title should be enclosed in quotation marks. Italicization is not used for website names.

If the publication date is unknown, you can instead list the date when you accessed the page at the end of the citation (e.g., accessed on September 10, 2019).

All of the above information also applies to endnotes. Endnotes are less commonly used than footnotes, but they’re a perfectly valid option.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page they refer to.

• Footnotes allow the reader to immediately check your citations as they read …
• … but if you have a lot of footnotes, they can be distracting and take up space on the page.

Endnotes appear in their own section at the end of the text, before the bibliography.

• Endnotes take up less space in the body of your text and reduce distraction …
• … but they are less accessible, as the reader has to flip to the end to check each note.

Endnote citations look exactly the same as those in footnotes. Unless you’ve been told which one to use, choose whichever you prefer. Just use one or the other consistently.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page.  Endnotes appear in a list at the end of the text, just before the reference list or bibliography. Don’t mix footnotes and endnotes in the same document: choose one or the other and use them consistently.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , you can use either footnotes or endnotes, and citations follow the same format in either case.

In APA and MLA style , footnotes or endnotes are not used for citations, but they can be used to provide additional information.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , the usual standard is to use a full note for the first citation of each source, and short notes for any subsequent citations of the same source.

However, your institution’s guidelines may differ from the standard rule. In some fields, you’re required to use a full note every time, whereas in some other fields you can use short notes every time, as long as all sources are listed in your bibliography . If you’re not sure, check with your instructor.

In Chicago author-date style , your text must include a reference list . It appears at the end of your paper and gives full details of every source you cited.

In notes and bibliography style, you use Chicago style footnotes to cite sources; a bibliography is optional but recommended. If you don’t include one, be sure to use a full note for the first citation of each source.

Page numbers should be included in your Chicago in-text citations when:

• You’re quoting from the text.
• You’re paraphrasing a particular passage.
• You’re referring to information from a specific section.

When you’re referring to the overall argument or general content of a source, it’s unnecessary to include page numbers.

In a Chicago style footnote , list up to three authors. If there are more than three, name only the first author, followed by “ et al. “

In the bibliography , list up to 10 authors. If there are more than 10, list the first seven followed by “et al.”

The same rules apply in Chicago author-date style .

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, December 05). Chicago Style Footnotes | Citation Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 26, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/chicago-style/footnotes/

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Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper and arranged sequentially in relation to where the reference appears in the paper.

Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding to the item cited in the corresponding text above.

Fiske, Robert Hartwell. To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014.

Structure and Writing Style

Advantages of Using Endnotes

• Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allows the narrative to flow better.
• Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
• As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to read and contemplate all the notes at once.

Disadvantages of Using Endnotes

• If you want to look at the text of a particular endnote, you have to flip to the end of the research paper to find the information.
• Depending on how they are created [i.e., continuous numbering or numbers that start over for each chapter], you may have to remember the chapter number as well as the endnote number in order to find the correct one.
• Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or hidden disclaimers in advertising. A reader may believe you are trying to hide something by burying it in a hard-to-find endnote.

Advantages of Using Footnotes

• Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance down the page to find what they are looking for.
• It allows the reader to immediately link the footnote to the subject of the text without having to take the time to find the note at the back of the paper.
• Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.

Disadvantages of Using Footnotes

• Footnotes can clutter up the page and, thus, negatively impact the overall look of the page.
• If there are multiple columns, charts, or tables below only a small segment of text that includes a footnote, then you must decide where the footnotes should appear.
• If the footnotes are lengthy, there's a risk they could dominate the page, although this issue is considered acceptable in legal scholarship.
• Adding lengthy footnotes after the paper has been completed can alter the page where other sources are located [i.e., a long footnote can push text to the next page].
• It is more difficult learning how to insert footnotes using your word processing program than simply adding endnotes at the end of your paper.

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

1.    Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. 2.    Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor. 3.    In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE:   Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the narrative flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.

Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.

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MLA Endnotes and Footnotes

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MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This resource, updated to reflect the MLA Handbook (9 th ed.), offers examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.

Because long explanatory notes can be distracting to readers, most academic style guidelines (including MLA and APA, the American Psychological Association) recommend limited use of endnotes/footnotes. However, certain publishers encourage or require note references in lieu of parenthetical references.

Bibliographic Notes

MLA discourages extensive use of explanatory or digressive notes. MLA style does, however, allow you to use endnotes or footnotes for bibliographic notes , which refer to other publications your readers may consult. The following are some examples:

To cite a lengthy string of sources.

¹See Said, Culture and Imperialism and Orientalism ; Serres, The Natural Contract ; Foucault, The Foucault Reader , esp. Part II.

²For more material related to Postcolonial Studies and Technology, see McClintock, Imperial Leather ; De Landa, War in the Age of Intelligent Machines.

To explain an unusual documentation practice.

³Italicised words denote translations for which there are no clear equivalents in the original Chinese.

To flag editions and translations used. Editions and translations usually require a note only when more than one edition or translation is cited. This can be done by placing a note in the text where the work is first referenced. Alternatively, an initial and unnumbered note may be created.

⁴Citations of The Odyssey refer to Emily Wilson’s translated version unless otherwise noted.

⁵Translations are provided by Emily Wilson unless otherwise noted.

Content Notes

You can also use endnotes/footnotes for occasional explanatory notes (also known as content notes), which refer to brief additional information that might be too digressive for the main text:

To amplify.  Writers may feel that amplifying certain sections of their content will allow readers to better understand the context which affected/affects the following circumstances. 

¹Kujou and Yanagi are often confused by their misinterpretation of each other’s words, actions, and interactions with others.

²Beach considers Readicide to be a necessary read for all incoming Student Teachers, including it in recommended words for all his students.

³Culler makes it clear that “Literature” is “an institutional label that gives us reason to expect that the results of our reading efforts will be ‘worth it’” (28).

To explain word choice.

⁴She refers here to a branch of physiological research.

⁵He chose to translate the verb (first translated by Yang as “to feel”) as “to understand” to point to the character development.

To justify the scope of your study. Justifying the scope of your study can help readers better understand what to expect from reading your work by specifically pointing to what will or will not be explored, and why.

⁶Whether or not Beowulf as a character is justified in his actions is not relevant to my point.

⁷The efforts of decolonization are beyond the extent of my essay, but I point readers to Garvey’s work.

To provide more examples.

⁸Readers can think about Atwood’s inclusion of insects in her literary work

⁹This same idea applies to queer youth, as Chelsea Monheim’s “Percieved social norms and acceptance of transgender students in gendered restrooms” addresses.

To provide counterexamples.

¹⁰Bankfeld (99-102) calls for an alternative call to action.

To identity of comment on allusions.

¹¹The reference to ‘Westword’ in Iron Man 3 recalls the 1973 movie Westworld, starring Yul Brynner as a killing cyborg.

To point to an area of future research.

¹²More extensive research remains to be done on this subject. 

To identify authors whose names appear as et al. in documentation.

¹³The contributing authors of Teaching Literature to Adolescents are Deborah Appleman, Bob Fecho, and Rob Simon.

To acknowledge.

¹⁴Anna Turner, from a local veterinary clinic, brought distinctions between small and large animal care to my attention.

Numbering endnotes and footnotes in the document body

MLA notes may be styled either as footnotes or endnotes. Endnotes and footnotes in MLA format are indicated in-text by superscript Arabic numbers after the punctuation of the phrase or clause to which the note refers:

Note that when a long dash appears in the text, the footnote/endnote number appears before the dash:

Do not use asterisks (*), angle brackets (>), or other symbols for note references. The list of endnotes and footnotes (either of which, for papers submitted for publication, should be listed on a separate page, as indicated below) should correspond to the note references in the text.   Do not use the abbreviation ibid. in a note to refer readers to the information provided in the note right above it.

Placement of Notes in the Text

Use parentheses around page numbers when page numbers interrupt a sentence or are given at the end of a sentence. Similar to parenthetical citations within text, citations in notes are usually placed at the end of a sentence. Alternatively, parenthetical citations may be placed mid-sentence.

¹As Danes (45) and Gilmore (151) argue, caffeinated beverages play a vital role in American business environments.

²Gilmore considers the relationship between caffeine, productivity, and success (151).

Do not place parentheses around page numbers if the note is utilized to direct readers to the location of information. For example:

³See Gilmore 151.

Notes in MLA format are typically indicated in-text by superscript Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, …) after the punctuation mark of the phrase or clause to which the note refers. Whenever possible, place the superscript numbers at the end of sentences. Keep in mind that word processing programs will likely style note numbers in the text and notes section as superscript by default .

Audience members generally responded positively to the racial representation in the musical.¹

Marquis de Lafayette uses a stereotypical White American accent to say the word “anarchy.”²

Aaron Burr advises a young Alexander Hamilton to “talk less, smile more” (16).³ 

Note that when a dash appears in the text, the note number appears before the dash.

After finding out about her daughter’s passion for music, Cho⁴—surprised, impressed, and a little confused—purchased a piano and allowed her daughter to take lessons.

If a note number must be placed somewhere other than at the end of a sentence or a sentence requires more than one note, the note number should be placed in the least distracting unambiguous spot. For instance: 

Placement of a note mid-sentence, for clarity of citations.

Despite the awareness from her past mistakes,⁵   Britney “did it again” and thus continued to face the consequences of her actions (203).

Placement of more than one note in a sentence.

Crystal’s love of farmers markets—especially those located in their hometown (which they support by “getting up at 7am every Saturday to go to” [Webb 21]⁶)—has become apparent even on social media platforms.⁷  

Formatting endnotes and footnotes

Endnotes Page

MLA recommends that all notes be listed on a separate page entitled Notes (centered). Title the page Note if there is only one note. The Notes page should appear before the Works Cited page. This is especially important for papers being submitted for publication.

The notes themselves should be double-spaced and listed by consecutive Arabic numbers that correspond to the notation in the text. The first line of each endnote is indented five spaces, and subsequent lines are flush with the left margin. Place a period and a space after each endnote number, and then provide the appropriate note after the space.

Footnotes (below the text body)

The ninth edition of the MLA Handbook states that notes may be styled either as footnotes or endnotes. See the  MLA Style Center   for additional guidance on this topic and follow your instructor's or editor's preferences.

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• Writing Tips

How to Use Footnotes and Endnotes in Essays

4-minute read

• 23rd February 2019

Footnotes and endnotes both offer a way to add extra information to an essay . But what should you include in footnotes and endnotes? And when should you use them? In this post, we run through everything you need to know about using footnotes and endnotes in essays.

What Are Footnotes and Endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom or ‘foot’ of the page. This lets you add information to an essay without interrupting the flow of the main text. Usually, this will be a citation or non-essential commentary.

To indicate a footnote, you will need to add a superscript number to the text, such as at the end of this sentence. 1 These numbers then correspond to numbered notes at the bottom of the page.

Endnotes are like footnotes, but they appear together at the end of the document rather than at the bottom of individual pages. This means endnotes are less immediately accessible for the reader than footnotes, but it helps ensure that pages with multiple notes don’t become cluttered. If you are not sure which to use, check your university style guide for advice.

Footnotes and Endnotes in Microsoft Word

To insert a footnote or endnote in a Microsoft Word document, you need to:

• Go to References > Footnotes on the main ribbon
• Select either Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote as required
• Type your note in the newly created footnote/endnote

You can also customise the style of footnotes and endnotes by clicking on the little arrow in the bottom right of the Footnotes section of the References tab (or by going to Insert > Footnotes in Word for Mac ). This will open a new window where you can select your preferred formatting options.

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When to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

The main uses of footnotes and endnotes are as follows:

• To add a footnote citation in referencing systems such as MHRA and Chicago , with full source information also given in a bibliography at the end of the document. Endnotes are also used for citations in some systems, such as in IEEE or Vancouver referencing, where numbers in the text point to an entry in a reference list at the end of the document.
• To add non-essential commentary on something in the main text of your document. For example, if your research has raised a question that is not directly relevant to your essay, you may want to mention it in a footnote or endnote instead. This lets you acknowledge it in your work – showing the reader that you haven’t simply ignored it or failed to notice something – but without interrupting the flow of the main document.

Keep in mind, too, that some referencing systems use in-text parenthetical citations . As such, you should only give references in footnotes or endnotes if your university has asked you to do this.

Do They Count Towards the Word Limit?

We’re often asked whether to include footnotes and endnotes in the word count for an essay. Different universities have different rules about this, so you will have to check your style guide . However, you should never use footnotes or endnotes to try and cheat the word count.

The key here is that only non-essential information should go in footnotes or endnotes. As such, if you move vital evidence or analysis to a footnote, the person marking your work may ignore it. And reducing the word count is never more important than putting forward a full, coherent argument.

If you do need to reduce the word count in an essay, you have other options, such as rewriting wordy sentences or cutting repetition. Having your work proofread is a great way to ensure that your writing is always clear and concise, too, so let us know if you’d like any help.

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• Peterborough

Footnotes and Endnotes

How to create footnotes or endnotes in chicago style.

• How do I create a footnote or endnote?
• How is a footnote different from an endnote?
• What do I include in the footnote or endnote?

How do I Create a Footnote or Endnote?

Using footnotes or endnotes involves placing a superscript number at the end of a sentence with information (paraphrase, quotation or data) that you wish to cite. The superscript numbers should generally be placed at the end of the sentence to which they refer. They should be placed after any punctuation marks except for the dash.

Footnotes/endnotes begin with 1 and are numbered consecutively throughout the entire essay. You can use MS Word or other software to create footnotes and endnotes.

How is a Footnote different from an Endnote?

 A superscript number refers to a footnote or endnote which contains all of the publishing information and the page number for the information referenced.

• Footnotes appear on the bottom of the page that contains the sentence to which it refers.
• Endnotes are listed at the end of the paper on separate pages. On the top of the first page, the title “Notes” is centered one inch from the top of the page. Endnote pages are placed before the bibliography.

Many professors prefer footnotes to endnotes. Check with your professors to see which style they prefer.

What do I Include in the Footnote or Endnote?

The format for a footnote or endnote varies depending on whether it refers to a book, article, or online source. There are some key characteristics common to all footnotes and endnotes:

• The footnote/endnote begins with the same superscript number as the one that appears in the paper and is followed by a period.
• Footnotes/endnotes always include a specific page number or numbers where the cited information can be found.
• The first footnote/endnote to a source provides the full publishing information.

For example:

1. Carolyn Kay,  Art and the German Bourgeoisie:  Alfred Lichtwark and Modern Painting in Hamburg, 1886-1914  (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 100.

Subsequent footnote/endnotes for the same source are shortened to provide only the author’s last name, short title, and page number. For example:

2. Kay,  Art and the German Bourgeoisie , 51.

3. Kay, Art and the German Bourgeoisie, 87.

Note that The Chicago Manual of Style (17th ed.) no longer recommends the use of "ibid." for footnote/endnotes that cite the same source as the note immediately preceding it. The shortened citation shown above (author surname, shortened title, page number) is preferred.

Citing different types of sources

The information you include in a footnote varies based on the type of source you cite; navigate to the following pages to learn more:

• Periodicals
• Sections of Books
• Digital Media
• Other Sources
• Primary Sources
• Citing a source (that you have not read) that is Cited in Another Source

Key Elements to Notice

• In footnotes, information is separated by commas, while in the bibliography, it is separated by periods.
• In footnotes, the author's first name is listed first, while in the bibliography, the author's last name is listed first.
• The titles of books and journals are put in italics.
• The titles of articles are put in quotation marks.
• All key words in titles are capitalized.

Chicago Manual of Style: Footnotes and In-Text Citations

• Chicago Manual of Style

Footnotes and In-Text Citations

• Bibliography
• Useful Links

When writing your Chicago-formatted paper, you will want to use evidence from the resources you have gathered to support your thesis statement. In Chicago, this can be done a couple of ways. But it ultimately depends on if you are using the notes and bibliography system or the author-date system. This should be determined by your professor. If it is not, ask them to verify. 

If you are using the notes and bibliography system, your direct quotes and paraphrased sentences will be cited with footnotes or endnotes. This means that your shortened citation will appear at the bottom of the page (footnote) or at the end of your paper (endnote) and will be noted in the body of your paper with superscript numbers. 

If you are using the author-date system, your direct quotes and paraphrased sentences will be cited in-text. This way of in-text citation will be very similar to that of APA in-text citations. 

This is where the two systems of Chicago vastly differ from each other and is extremely important that you are using the correct system for your citations. Be sure to click on the appropriate tab to see the examples. 

The Chicago Manual of Style

• Chicago Manual of Style Quick Guide The Chicago Manual of Style Quick Guide is a great resource to use when you need to see how to format a foot note and the citation quickly. This is good for basic examples. For more non-traditional resources, consult The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition or ask a librarian.
• Notes and Bibliography
• Author-Date

Book with One Author

For the first time that you use a footnote, write out the full note (see number 1). The next time you use the source, use the shortened note (see number 2).

1. First name Last name,  Title: Subtitle ( City of Publication: Publisher, Publication Date), page #.

2. Last name,  Shortened Title , page #.

1.  M ichael  Pollan ,   The Omnivore's Dream: A Natural History of Four Meals  (New York: Penguin, 2006),  88 .

2. Pollan,  The Omnivore's Dream , 92. 

Book with Multiple Authors

Two Authors

1. First name  Last name  and First name Last name,  Title: Subtitle  (City of Publication: Publisher, Date), page #.

2. Last name and Last name,  Shortened Title , page #.

1. Geoffrey C. Ward  and Ken Burns,  The War: An Intimate History, 1941-1945 ( New York: Knopf, 2007), 50.

2. Ward and Burns,  The War , 102. 

Three authors

1. First name La s t name , First name Last name, and First name Last name,  Title: Subtitle ( City of Publication: Publisher, Date) page #.

2. Last name, Last name, and Last name,  Shortened Title , page #. 

1. Joyce Heatherton, James Fitzgilroy, and Jackson Hsu,  Meteors and Mudslides: A Trip through...

2.  Heatherton, Fitzgilroy, and Hsu,  Meteors and Mudslides ,... 

If there are  4 or more authors , cite only the name of the first listed author followed by 'et al' in the note. 

1. Claire Hacek et al., Mediated Lives: Reflections on Wearable Technologies.. .

2. Hacek et al.,  Mediated Lives ...

Book with Author Plus Editor or Translator

1. First name Last name,   T itle: Subtitle, trans./ed.  First name, Last name (City of Publication: Publisher, Date) page #.

2. Last name, Shortened TItle , page #. 

1. Gabriel García   Márquez ,  Love in the Time of Cholera,  trans. Edith Grossman (London: Cape, 1998), 66. 

2. García   Márquez,  Cholera , 33.

Chapter in an Edited Book

1. Chapter author's First name Last name,  "Title of Chapter," in  Title,  ed. First name Last name of Editor ( City  of  Publication: Publisher,

Date), page #. 

2. Chapter author's Last name, "Chapter Title," page #. 

1. Glenn Gould,  "Streisand as Schwarzkopf," in  The Glenn Gould Reader , ed. Tim Page (New York: Vintage, 1984), 310.

2. Gould, "Streidand as Schwarzkopf," 309.

Electronic Books

For books downloaded from a library or bookseller, the note should reflect specifically where it is located and in which format. 

1. First name Last name, Title ( City of Publication: Publisher, Date) location, Format.

2. Last name,  Shortened Title , location.  

1. Mary Ann Noe,  Ivory Trenches: Adventures of an English Teacher  (self-pub., Amazon Digital Services, 2016), loc. 444 of 3023, Kindle. 

2. Noe,  Ivory Trenches , loc. 500 of 3023.

For books consulted online or through a database, include the DOI (if available) or the URL (if DOI is not available) as part of the note.

1. First name Last name,  Title ( City of Publication: Publisher, date) location, doi: .

2. Last name, Shortened  Title , location, doi. 

3. First name Last name,  Title  (City of Publication, Publisher, date), page #, stable URL.

4. Last name, Shortened TItle ,  page #. 

​1. Mark Evan Bonds,  Absolute Music: The History of an Idea  (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), chap. 3,

https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199343638.003.0004. 

2. Bonds,  Absolute Music , chap. 11,  https://doi.org/10.1093/ acprof :oso/9780199343638.003.0012.

3. Karen Lystra,  Dangerous Intimacy: The Untold Story of Mark Twain's Final Years  (Berkelley: University of California Press, 2004), 59,

http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/kt8779q6kr/.

4. Lystra,  Dangerous Intimacy , 60-61. 

(Last name Date, page #).

(Pollan 2008, 64)

(Pollan 2008, 79-83)

(Pollan 2008, 88, 95, 103)

For a book with two authors:

(Last name and Last name Date, page #)

(Ward and Burns 2007, 195)

For a book with three authors:

(Last name, Last name, and Last name Date, page #)

(Heatherton, Fitzgilroy, and Hsu 2008, 250)

For a book with  four or more authors , cite only the last name of the first- listed author, followed by  et al.

(Last name et al. Date, page #)

(Hacek et al. 2015, 384)

(Last name of author Date, page #)

(García  M árquez 1988, 230)

Chapter of an Edited Book

(Last name of chapter author Date, page #)

(Gould 1984, 310)

Organization as Author

If there is an abbreviation for the organization, like WHO or NASA, then list the abbreviation first followed by the spelling of the organization name.

(Organization name Date, page #)

(BSI 1985, 23)

Journal Articles

• Author- Date

Physical Journal

1. First name, Last name, "Article Title," Journal Title  vol. number, issue no. (Publication Date): page number.

1. Donald Maletz, "Tocqueville's Tangents to Democracy,"  American Political Thought  4, no. 4 (Fall 2015): 615.

Articles Consulted Online

If you accessed an article through a database, then you will need to include the DOI (digital object identifier) or if there is no DOI available, the stable URL.  If there is no DOI, use the shortened stable URL in the place of the DOI.

1. First name Last name,  "Article Title,"  Journal Title  vol. number, issue no. (Publication Date): page number, https://doi.org/xxxxxx. 

2.  First name Last name,  "Article Title,"  Journal Title  vol. number, issue no. (Publication Date): page number, shortened URL.

1. Miriam Schoenfield, "Moral Vagueness Is Ontic Vagueness,"  Ethics  126, no. 2 (2016): 260-61, https://doi.org/10.1086/683541.

2. Frank P. Whitney, "The Six-Year High School in Cleveland,"  School Review  37, no. 4 (April 1929): 268,

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1078814.

If the URL is very long and not available, list the name of the commercial database in lieu of the the URL. 

1.  First name Last name,  "Article Title,"  Journal Title  vol. number, issue no. (Publication Date): page number, name of Database.

1. Zina Giannopoulou ,  "Prisoners of Plot in José Saramago's  The Cave "  Philosophy and Literature  38, no. 2 (2014): 335, Project Muse.

2. Giannopoulou, "Prisoners," 337.  

This will be the same, whether it is a physical journal article or an article from a database. 

(Last name  Date, page #)

(Maletz 2015, 615)

Magazines and Newspapers

Physical magazine articles.

1. First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Magazine Title , Month and year of publication, page.

1. Beth Saulnier, "From Vine to Wine,"  Cornell Alumni Magazine , September/October 2008, 48. 

2. Jill Lepore, "The Man Who Broke the Music Business," New Yorker , April 27, 2015, 59. 

Magazine Articles Consulted Online

Include the URL at the end of the citation. If the URL is not available, then include the name of the database where you got the article. 

1. First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Magazine Title , Month and year of publication, [page if given], URL/ Database name.

1. Karl Vick,  "Cuba on the Cusp,"  Time , March 26, 2015, http://time.com/3759629/ cuba-us-policy /.

2.  Henry William Hanemann ,  "French as She Is Now Spoken,"  Life,  August 26, 1926, 5,  ProQuest . 

Newspapers are formatted the same way as magazine articles. 

1.  First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Newspaper Title , Month and year of publication [, edition if given].

1. Mike Ryoko, "Next Time, Dan, Take Aim at Arnold,"  Chicago Tribune , September 23, 1992. 

2. Christopher Lehmann- Haupt, "Robert Giroux, Editor, Publisher and Nurturer of Literary Giant, Is Dead at 94,"  New York Times ,

September 6, 2008, New York edition.

If the newspaper article was accessed online, include the URL at the end. If there is no URL and it was accessed via a database, include the database name. 

1.  First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Newspaper Title , Month and year of publication, URL.

2.  First name Last name, "Article Name,"  Newspaper Title , Month and year of publication, Database name.

1. David G. Savage, "Stanford Student Goes to Supreme Court to Fight for Her Moms,"  Los Angeles Times , April 27, 2015, Nation,

http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-gay-marriage-children-201504024-story.html.

2. John Meyers, "Invasive Faucet Snails Confirmed in Twin Ports Harbor,"  Duluth (MN) News-Tribune , September 26, 2014, EBSCOhost.  ​

Magazine and Newspaper Articles

Magazine and newspaper article in-text citations will be very similar to that of journal articles, no matter where they were accessed. 

If the page number is listed, include the page number.

If the page number is not listed, still include the last name and date.

(Last name  Date)  

1. "Title of Webpage," Title of Website, Owner or Sponsor of website, [last modified or accessed date], URL. 

1. "Apps for Office Sample Pack," Office Dev Center, Microsoft Corporation, updated October 20, 2015,

https://code.msdn.microsoft.com/office/Apps-for-Office-code-d04762b7.

2. "Privacy Policy," Privacy & Terms, Google, last modified March 25, 2016, http://www.google.com/policies/privacy. 

3. "Balkan Romani," Endangered Languages, Alliance for Linguistic Diversity, accessed April 6, 2016, http://www.endangered

languages.com/lang/5342. 

University of Chicago.  The Chicago Manual of Style . 17th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017. 

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / APA Format / How to do APA footnotes

How to do APA footnotes

Footnotes are a way for the author to provide additional content to their papers without distracting the reader from the text. The information in footnotes is different from the information provided in APA annotated bibliographies . Footnotes can be content based, providing a little more insight on an idea you raise in the text, or they can be used to provide copyright attribution for long quotes and passages.

Properly formatted APA footnotes can be placed at the bottom of the page. Alternatively, you can put them on their own page after the references. This guide on footnotes, end notes, and parentheticals provides information about the differences between these different types of notes. Either way, it’s important to know how to use footnotes properly.

In this guide, students can learn about the different uses for footnotes as well as how to format footnotes according to APA Style. All of the information here comes straight from the 7th edition of the Publication Manual .

Why use footnotes? What information goes into them?

There are two primary reasons why an author would use footnotes:

1. Using a footnote for content

As mentioned above, there are a few different ways to use footnotes. The more common way is when an author wants to provide extra insight on an idea without disrupting the flow of the text. This is called a content footnote.

In this case, you would write a a couple sentences about the extra insight. For example:

______________________

1 This data refers to the situation in 2010, and it includes emissions from industrial processes. Emissions from the latter are released during the physical and chemical transformation of materials like clinker production. Since these industrial production processes are also consumers of energy, here we made the choice to combine them with CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion.

2. Using a footnote for copyright attribution

When you are reproducing a portion of a copyrighted work, like an extended passage from a book or journal, it is necessary to provide copyright attribution. This can be done inside a footnote. The footnote is used instead of a parenthetical in-text citation, and you will still need to add the source as an entry in the reference list.

If it is an image or graph you are reproducing, copyright attribution can go in the figure note or table note.

A copyright footnote should start with “ From ” or “ Adapted from ” and the format will change slightly depending on the source.

Here is a template for copyright attribution for a website followed by two examples:

1 From  Webpage title , by Group Author OR Author FirstMiddleName Initials. Author Surname. Year Published, Website Name (URL).

*Note: If the Group Author and Website Name are the same, omit the Website Name slot.

2 From  First images from the James Webb Space Telescope , by National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2022 (https://www.nasa.gov/webbfirstimages).

3 From  Question of what now for Syria remains as vexed as ever , by M. Chulov. 2022, The Guardian (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/19/question-of-what-now-for-syria-remains-as-vexed-as-ever).

Endnotes vs. footnotes: What’s the difference?

According to APA Style, the author may choose to place the footnotes on the bottom of the page on which the callout appears or at the end of the paper on their own page(s).

“Endnotes” is a function on many word processors that inserts callouts and place the notes at the end of the document. While this is the same idea as footnotes, APA calls for a specially-formatted footnotes page.

To place the footnotes at the end of your document, check the preferences of the footnote function. You should be able to select “End of Document” instead of “End of Page.”

How to format APA footnotes

Always use the footnotes function of your word processor to insert footnotes. This will make it much easier to keep track of everything even as page content changes.

How to format footnotes correctly:

• Always use the footnotes function.
• The callout should be in superscript, like this. 1
• The callout should come after the punctuation, like this. 2
• If there’s a dash 3 —the callout comes before the punctuation, not after.
• All callouts should appear in numerical order, like this. 4

APA footnotes example

Now let’s have a look at what properly formatted APA footnotes look like in action.

Here is an example of a concise, relevant, and properly formatted footnote from “The role of renewable energy in the global economy transformation,” published in Energy Strategy Reviews.

. . . A transition away from fossil fuels to low-carbon solutions will play an essential role, as energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions represent two-thirds of all greenhouse gases (GHG). 1

In this example, the footnotes function automatically created a dividing line at the bottom of the document. It has also reduced the font size by 1pt, which is neither required nor discouraged by APA.

The reason this is a good example, however, is because the footnote provides supplemental information that is both relevant and substantive.  The information would have been too distracting to appear in the main text, but it provides helpful insight on the author’s research method.

Published October 28, 2020.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Multiple Authors
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Parenthetical Citations
• Reference Page
• Sample Paper
• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all APA Examples

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You can include more than one footnote on the same page in APA style. There is no restriction on the number of footnotes to be included on a page. Depending upon the number of footnotes on the page, the text area of the page will be automatically adjusted to fit the footnotes.

Footnotes in APA are used to provide the reader some additional information about the idea or the element being discussed. Footnotes are used in all types of publications such as journal articles, book chapters, and conference papers.

Two types of footnotes are used in APA style: content footnotes and copyright attribution footnotes. A content footnote provides additional explanation or information about something mentioned in the text, while a copyright attribution footnote provides copyright information for lengthy content that has been reprinted in the text. For both types, the in-text citation remains the same. Remember the following guidelines when you want to cite a footnote:

• Footnotes (whether content footnotes or copyright attribution footnotes) are numbered consecutively in the order in which they appear in the text.
• Use superscript Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) to designate a footnote callout.
• This is a footnote. 1
• In this footnote, 2 the author tries to clarify the idea.
• A footnote callout—unlike in-text reference citation 3 —is simple to add.
• You should not add space before the footnote callout.
• If you want to refer to the same footnote again in the text, do not add any superscript Arabic numeral. Instead, write “see Footnote 3.” In this case, the footnote description need not be given again.

Note that a footnote should have only one idea. If you want to add more information, it is advisable to add the content in the text or create an appendix.

APA Citation Examples

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How to Format Your Research Paper

• APA 7 Paper Format
• MLA Paper Format
• Chicago Paper Format

How to Create Footnotes

• Hanging Indents
• Ask a Librarian

What Are They

Footnotes are short numbered notes that are placed at the bottom of the page in an essay or article. They are used for a variety of reasons including, citing materials, providing notes on a source or topic, and to acknowledge copyright status. 

Although you will find footnotes in many journal articles, they are not typically required in APA or MLA formatted essays. They are most heavily used when applying the CMOS style. 

For information on footnotes in the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association  see section 2.13 "Footnotes.". For information on using footnotes with MLA see the " Using Notes in MLA Style " article from the MLA Style Center .  For information on footnotes in  The Chicago Manual of Style  see Chapter 14 "Notes and Bibliography."

Using Google Docs:

• Cómo incorporar notas al calce en Google Docs Vea éste video en español.

Using Microsoft Word:

• Cómo incorporar notas al calce en Microsoft Word Vea éste video en español.
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• URL: https://necc.mass.libguides.com/formatting

To cite this LibGuide use the following templates:

APA : Northern Essex Community College Library. (Date updated). Title of page . Title of LibGuide. URL

MLA : Northern Essex Community College Library. "Title of Page." Title of LibGuide, Date updated, URL.

How to Make an Essay Longer Without It Feeling Forced

Ever struggled to meet the word count requirement for your essay? You're not alone. Whether it's a minimum size or a certain number of pages, it can feel like a daunting task to stretch your writing without watering it down. But fear not! This article is here to help. We'll explore some practical tips and tricks to make your essay longer without sacrificing quality. From expanding on your main points to incorporating more evidence, we've got you covered. Say goodbye to staring at a blank screen and hello to meeting your paper length with confidence!

How to Make Your Essay Longer: Practical Tips

Students may aim to make their essays longer to fulfill the word count criteria their teachers or professors set. Meeting these requirements is crucial as it can affect their grades or evaluation. Moreover, longer papers offer more room for in-depth exploration of topics, allowing students to showcase their understanding comprehensively. By expanding their papers, students can provide more evidence and examples to strengthen their arguments, making their points more persuasive. Additionally, longer papers may be seen as a sign of dedication and effort, potentially earning students favorable recognition from their instructors.

Increase Font Size and Spacing

Adjusting the font size and spacing of your text can subtly but effectively increase the overall length of your paper. By slightly enlarging the font size and expanding spacing between lines and paragraphs, you can offer extra bulk to your document without significantly altering its content. Please consult our essay outline guide for more ideas on how to expand your paper's structure.

Replace Contractions with Full Words

Contractions, such as "can't" instead of "cannot" or "it's" instead of "it is," often take up less space. By replacing these contractions with their full-word equivalents, you can make your essay longer by adding additional characters.

Add Transitional Phrases

Transitional phrases help connect different parts of your essay, guiding the reader through your arguments and making your writing flow more smoothly. Adding more of these phrases between paragraphs or sections can improve your paper's coherence, and including extra words can increase its word count.

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Use Synonyms for Shorter Words

Look for opportunities to replace shorter words with longer synonyms without changing the meaning of your sentences. For example, "big" could become "substantial," or "important" could be replaced with "significant." This simple technique can help add size to your paper without sacrificing clarity.

Include Personal Anecdotes

Incorporating personal anecdotes or experiences related to your topic can make your essay more engaging and provide additional content to expand upon. You can augment the depth of your writing by sharing relevant stories or reflections and meaningfully increasing its word count.

Reference Pop Culture or Current Events

Bringing references to popular culture or recent events can enrich your essay and demonstrate your awareness of contemporary issues. By integrating relevant examples or discussions from the media, you can expand your analysis and provide fresh insights, thus extending the volume of your paper.

Provide Detailed Explanations

Take the time to thoroughly explain your ideas and arguments, providing additional context or background information where necessary. By offering detailed explanations, you enhance the clarity of your writing and tally substance and depth, ultimately increasing the word count of your paper.

Use Footnotes or Endnotes

If there are additional points or information that you want to include but don't necessarily fit within the main body of your essay, consider using footnotes or endnotes. These can be used to provide supplementary details, citations, or explanations without disrupting the flow of your primary argument, effectively expanding the content of your paper.

Address Counterarguments

Acknowledging and addressing potential counterarguments demonstrates a thorough understanding of your topic and strengthens your own arguments. By engaging with opposing viewpoints and presenting rebuttals, you not only bolster the persuasiveness of your essay but also bring complexity and word count to your analysis.

Incorporate Quotes from Primary Sources

Introducing quotes from primary sources, such as books, articles, or interviews, can incorporate credibility and depth to your arguments. By directly citing authoritative sources, you provide additional evidence to support your claims and expand the scope of your discussion, increasing your essay's extent.

Include Visuals like Graphs or Charts

Visual aids, such as graphs, charts, or tables, can be used to illustrate data or complex information clearly and concisely. Incorporating visuals enhances the visual appeal of your essay and provides supplementary content to expand upon, contributing to its overall word count.

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Explore Alternative Interpretations

Consider exploring alternative interpretations or perspectives related to your topic. Presenting different viewpoints or analyzing your subject from various angles adds richness and complexity to your essay, ultimately increasing its size and depth of analysis. While trying to manipulate the word count of your paper using these techniques, keep in mind the punctuation marks .

Offer Comparisons or Contrasts

Drawing comparisons or contrasts between different ideas, theories, or examples can enrich your essay and provide additional content to discuss. By highlighting similarities and differences, you add nuance to your arguments and expand the scope of your analysis, thereby increasing the volume of your composition.

Simplify Complex Concepts

Break down complex ideas or concepts into simpler terms that are easier to understand. By providing clear explanations and examples, you not only improve the accessibility of your writing but also encompass substance and depth, ultimately increasing the word count of your document.

Define Technical Terms

If your essay includes specialized terminology or jargon, take the time to define these terms for your readers. By providing clear definitions and explanations, you ensure that your audience understands the concepts you're discussing and integrate additional content to your manuscript, thus increasing its range.

Discuss Opposing Viewpoints

Engaging with opposing viewpoints and discussing their merits can enrich your essay and demonstrate your critical thinking skills. By acknowledging alternative perspectives and presenting counterarguments, you enclose complexity and depth to your analysis, ultimately increasing the reach of your writing.

Extend Implications of Findings

Consider the broader implications of your arguments or findings and explore their significance in greater detail. By discussing the potential consequences or applications of your research, you subsume depth and complexity to your analysis, ultimately increasing the magnitude of your essay.

Expand Examples and Evidence

Provide additional examples, evidence, or case studies to support your arguments and illustrate your points. By offering more detailed and varied examples, you strengthen your claims and make your essay longer, ultimately increasing its word count and persuasiveness. If you still can’t fit into the word limit and none of these tips help, simply say, ‘ write my essay for me ,’ and our writers will produce a cogent paper of the required length.

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Danny De Gracia: How Do We Get To Affordable Housing In Hawaii?

Controlling demand and formulating housing prices based on local wages is how some locals say Hawaii can move forward.

By Danny de Gracia

April 1, 2024 · 8 min read

About the Author

Danny de Gracia

Danny de Gracia is a resident of Waipahu, a political scientist and an ordained minister. Opinions are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect Civil Beat’s views. You can reach him by email at [email protected] or follow him on Twitter at @ddg2cb .

Last week, I wrote a somewhat tongue-in cheek article meant to stir discussion about the local status quo by bemoaning the plight of Hawaii’s middle class “normies.”

The normie, I argued, is a person who lives and dies in the background of Hawaii with no representation, has it bad because they live stuck on plain vanilla ice cream and never get a cherry on top of life in the form of something to be proud of or happy about.

Many people reached out to me immediately following that column’s publication, asserting they too were normies and didn’t want to die tired, lonely, barely making ends meet. I was shocked just how many normies came out to tell me their plight. 

But one person who also reached out to me was  Peter Savio , a local-born developer who wants to change the dynamic of affordable housing in the islands, which he believes is essential to changing everything from the social determinants of health to the economic viability of our future.

Savio  sent me a lecture  that he had given earlier in the year where he explained how he wanted to create a new affordable housing market in the islands which would be carved out just for locals, with special rules placing a ceiling on price tied to local wages and curtailing sales to only local residents. 

I’ve heard this concept brought up over the last decade in different iterations, mostly from Republican friends who were in Hawaii real estate, occasionally from Native Hawaiian friends, and now this session at the Legislature with the introduction of  Senate Bill 2617  by Sen. Brenton Awa and  House Bill 2542  by Rep. Diamond Garcia. The two Republicans, along with Savio, held joint press conferences earlier this year to pitch the bills as a way to assist locals seeking housing relief. 

The original draft of both bills as introduced proposed to amend the law so that “A foreign principal shall not directly or indirectly own, have a controlling interest in, or acquire by purchase, grant, devise, or descent real property or any interest, except a de minimus indirect interest, in real property in the State.” 

Both bills are no longer moving, and  the last version of SB 2617  is rewritten as a research study for the Legislative Reference Bureau.

Since Hawaii is a lucrative destination with warm weather, beautiful visuals and a generally laid-back way of life it’s no surprise that for decades wealthy individuals from other countries have gobbled up local real estate. 

The same applies for U.S. citizens from the mainland, either retirees or new wealth, who have either ample cash or access to financing that put them at an advantage in buying up homes in the islands. This distorts the local market, and stacks the deck against less affluent local residents, making it harder to buy a home. 

Savio believes it is possible to create a new, or expanded, affordable housing market which is fenced off from that larger distortion and is reserved just for locals. I reached out to Rep. Garcia not long after Savio contacted me, and told him I thought the proposal was interesting and I wanted to hear more about it, though I had some questions. 

From my personal perspective, as some of you may recall, I discussed this concept a couple of years ago in a controversial article entitled  “Why Hawaii Will Never Solve The Housing Crisis.”   That article ultimately got me denounced by some of my former libertarian and free market academics in their white paper footnotes, but I stand by my assessment of the situation.  If you think of the housing bubble and high prices as being akin to having type 2 diabetes — that is, excessive housing prices are like having too much blood sugar — just as consuming more sugar only makes the problem worse, pouring more cash into Hawaii only distorts the housing market even further. Just as one should fast — stop putting more sugar in — to allow the body’s organs to find glucose balance, you have to control money distorting Hawaii prices.

I personally blame the Federal Reserve’s loose money policy as being behind the malinvestment and distortion that got us here, but there’s not much we can do about that. (For a great explainer,  check out the movie  “Too Big to Fail” which dramatized the mortgage industry crisis.)  Nevertheless, is it possible to create an independent market just for Hawaii locals that foreign buyers and mainlanders can’t touch as a kind of end-run around that bigger problem?

The first thing that came to my mind is the Dormant Commerce Clause barring state protectionism, so I asked Savio if he’d be willing to talk about his idea further. (You can listen to  our full, unabridged phone call  here on YouTube.) 

Savio insists the Commerce Clause does not apply, and explained that his idea is nothing Hawaii or other states aren’t already doing. He just wants to expand it so that locals can have a fair shot at getting homes, ideally, priced around $400,000. The key to the success of his concept revolves around reserving who can participate in the program’s homes and using median wages to determine pricing, requiring one actively lives in the house, and so on. 

Savio believes that the high cost of housing and rent in Hawaii results in all sorts of social woes and individual health and family problems, and he is passionate about getting some kind of reform, though his ideas have not been well-understood by many lawmakers. I completely sympathize.

As it is, in order for most policy proposals to succeed, they have to be easy to explain (quickly!) and easy to understand. Housing is a complicated and circuitous web, and it’s not easy to explain or understand except for a few, which often deters anyone from touching it, lest they disrupt the status quo. Still, many are excited by the possibility of creating an expanded affordable market.

“Let’s not forget that over 2,000 people testified in support of our legislation,” Garcia told me. He also explained that 23 other states have implanted similar measures, and told me “Despite our efforts, it’s been challenging to advance this legislation, facing opposition from the attorney general citing constitutional concerns.”

I reached out to my long-time policy friends at the Tenth Amendment Center , as they specialize in fighting the federal government through nullification policy. They wanted to help, but didn’t entirely understand the idea. “Me too,” I told them.

So then I asked Zuri Aki, a Native Hawaiian and a long-time policy advocate about how doable this is. I was intrigued when Aki explained to me the Commerce Clause isn’t as water-tight as is commonly assumed, particularly where it can be demonstrated its application significantly harms a state. The rather obscure case of where Congress used the Wilson Act, followed by the Webb-Kenyon Act, to limit shipments of liquor for personal use implies state legislatures can be permitted to restrict foreign and out-of-state purchases.

“If you’re a foreign buyer, your market rate should be the highest, followed by out-of-state buyers,” Aki suggested to me. “In-state residency qualifiers should be no less than 10 years. There should also be safeguards in place to discourage flipping. The underlying policy here should be that Hawaii needs homes for individuals and families to live in, not to be used as investment properties for income generation.”

Other Native Hawaiians, like Robert Lopaka Kapanui, a local storyteller and author, tells me that the real focus should be on spiritual and physical healing of the land, in addition to prioritizing the housing of Native Hawaiians “in and on their own land.”

One thing is clear, though: Hawaii has a long way to go on reforming housing policy and options for its people, but many residents can’t wait that long for that kind of miracle.

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